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Bracero Oral History Project | Institute of Oral History | University of Texas at El Paso

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Bracero Oral History Project | Institute of Oral History | University of Texas at El Paso

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Submissions from 2011

Interview no. 1475, Lorenzo Cano

Interview No. 1506, Francisco Escalera

Interview no. 1476, Raymundo González

Interview No. 1545, Rosa Martha Zarate

Submissions from 2010

Interview no. 1472, Maria Arreola Galvan

Interview no. 1336, Jose Bujanda

Interview No. 1597, Leticia Carabajal

Interview no. 1459, Jesus T. Castilleda

Interview no. 1465, Asención Flores

Interview no. 1473, Octaviano Galvan

Interview no. 1466, Antonio Garcia Delgado

Interview no. 1460, Ramon García

Interview no. 1467, Ramón Gil

Interview no. 1461, Marcelino Gonzalez D.

Interview no. 1468, Rafael Gonzalez M.

Interview no. 1474, Jesus J. Ibarra Huerta

Interview no. 1462, Fabian Landaverde S.

Interview no. 1469, Jose Mata Alvarez

Interview no. 1463, Juventino Muñoz P.

Interview no. 1464, Silbano Robledo

Interview no. 1470, Cipriano Romero

Interview no. 1438, Sebastián Ruíz Ávila

Interview no. 1471, José Tello

Submissions from 2009

Interview no. 1233, Antonio Nuño

Submissions from 2008

Interview No. 1591, Jonathan Abbot

Interview no. 1327, Ramona Acosta

Interview no. 1403, Encarnación Alamillo

Interview no. 1329, Cándido Alarcón

Interview no. 1330, José Natividad Alva Medina

Interview no. 1331, Bernabé Álvarez Díaz

Interview no. 1332, Horacio Andrejol Nogales

Interview no. 1404, Manuel Aparicio

Interview no. 1426, Antonio Aragón

Interview no. 1405, Enrique Arellano

Interview no. 1333, Sara Arrieta Hernández

Interview No. 1579, Sam Ashworth

Interview No. 1599, Dolores Atkins

Interview no. 1427, Alonso Ayala

Interview no. 1399, Rodolfo Balderrama

Interview no. 1335, Lucas Edmundo Benítez Cárdenas

Interview No. 1429, Audelia Bentura Cortéz

Interview No. 1602, Fred Bourland

Interview No. 1580, James Bourland

Interview no. 1430, Vicente Campos Cruz

Interview no. 1337, Natividad Cano

Interview no. 1406, María Carrillo

Interview no. 1428, Luis Barozio Ceja

Interview no. 1343, Pablo C. Flores

Interview No. 1601, Esteban Chavez

Interview no. 1407, Roberto Martínez Cordero

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Bracero Oral History Project | Institute of Oral History | University of Texas at El Paso

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Submissions from 2011 Interview no. 1475, Lorenzo Cano Interview No. 1506, Francisco Escalera Interview no. 1476, Raymundo González Interview No. 1545, Rosa Martha Zarate Submissions from 2010 Interview no. 1472, Maria Arreola Galvan Interview no. 1336, Jose Bujanda Interview No. 1597, Leticia Carabajal Interview no. 1459, Jesus T. Castilleda Interview no.

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1980 marking a generational turning point in china

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1980 marking a generational turning point in china

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In China, 1980 marked a generational turning point

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The year 1980 in China is well known as the beginning of the country's one-child policy. But what may be overlooked is how that year also marked a turning point in China's generational experiences: Roughly half (47%) of China's current population were born under the policy (ages 0 to 34 today), and they lived through a very different China than the half who were born before.

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Mexican cultureis a hugely diverse domain that encompasses vast differences in identity. The variety of influences throughout Mexican history, from the ancient Mayan and Aztec civilizations to the domineering European presence, has come to shape and define the enthralling country it is today.

The culture in Mexico is a product of the process of blending of indigenous practices and traditions with the Spanish colonial presence that had such a profound impact on all aspects of life. There has been a constant struggle for Mexican people throughout history to define and promote Mexican identity. However, with so much political instability, wars with the United States and France, and colonial occupation, Mexican society has often struggled to form a cohesive identity.

As a result, Mexican art and literaturehave had somewhat of a tumultuous history, too. There is an extensive array of beautifully preserved Mayan and Aztecbuildings, and many of their traditions have been upheld. However, with the effects of colonization, much of Mexican literature borrowed techniques and ideas from Europe. It wasn't until the post-revolutionary period that the arts in Mexico started to develop their own unique characteristics, which soon producing some of the most celebrated figures in international art and literature.

Whether it's the inspirational Frida Kahlo or the charm of Mariachi music that you want to know more about, this section will provide you with fascinating information into the complex world of Mexican culture.

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Mexican cultureis a hugely diverse domain that encompasses vast differences in identity. The variety of influences throughout Mexican history, from the ancient Mayan and Aztec civilizations to the domineering European presence, has come to shape and define the enthralling country it is today.

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This article was most recently revised and updated by

Edo culture, Cultural period of Japanese history corresponding to the Tokugawa period of governance (1603-1867). Tokugawa Ieyasu, the first Tokugawa shogun, chose Edo (present-day Tokyo) as Japan's new capital, and it became one of the largest cities of its time and was the site of a thriving urban culture. In literature, Basho developed poetic forms later called haiku, and Ihara Saikaku composed virtuoso comic linked-verse and humorous novels; in theatre, both kabuki (with live actors) and bunraku (with puppets) entertained townspeople (samurai, for whom theatregoing was forbidden, often attended in disguise). The development of polychrome woodblock printing techniques made it possible for ordinary people to obtain prints of popular kabuki actors or trendsetting courtesans ( see ukiyo-e). Travelogues extolled the scenic beauty or historic interest of spots in distant provinces, and temple or shrine pilgrimages to distant places were popular. In scholarship, Kokugaku ("National Learning") called attention to Japan's most ancient poetry and oldest written histories. The study of Europe and its sciences, called rangaku, or "Dutch learning," became popular despite extremely limited contact with Europe. Neo-Confucianism was also popular. See also Genroku period.

Kenneth Pletcher, Senior Editor.

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Japan: The maturity of Edo culture

In the early 19th century the urban culture that had arisen in the 17th century reached full maturity. Supported originally by wealthy townspeople and warriors, this Edo urban culture spread widely among the urban dwellers of Japan's major cities and castle towns. In...

Tokugawa period, (1603-1867), the final period of traditional Japan, a time of internal peace, political stability, and economic growth under the shogunate (military dictatorship) founded by Tokugawa Ieyasu. As shogun, Ieyasu achieved hegemony over the...

Tokugawa Ieyasu, the founder of the last shogunate in Japan-the Tokugawa, or Edo, shogunate (1603-1867)....

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Edo culture, Cultural period of Japanese history corresponding to the Tokugawa period of governance (1603-1867). Tokugawa Ieyasu, the first Tokugawa shogun, chose Edo (present-day Tokyo) as Japan's new capital, and it became one of the largest cities of its time and was the site of a thriving urban

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Jean-Baptiste-Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau, (born July 1, 1725, Vendôme, Fr.-died May 10, 1807, Thoré), general who supported the American Revolution by commanding French forces that helped defeat the British at Yorktown, Va. (1781).

Rochambeau was originally trained for the church but then entered a cavalry regiment. He fought in the War of the Austrian Succession, attaining the rank of colonel. He became a brigadier general and inspector of cavalry in 1761 and in 1776 was appointed governor of Villefranche-en-Roussillon. Four years later he was put in command of a French army of about 6,000 troops destined for North America to join the Continentals in their struggle for independence from the British.

Rochambeau and his troops arrived in Newport, R.I., in July 1780 and waited nearly a year for the arrival of French naval support (which never came). Finally, in June 1781 he joined forces with General George Washington in White Plains, N.Y., and together they made a swift descent to Yorktown, where Franco-American forces under the Marquis de Lafayette were harassing the British. With the aid of French naval forces under Admiral de Grasse, the allies laid siege to Lord Cornwallis' forces, bottled them up on the peninsula, and forced Cornwallis to surrender on October 19, thus virtually ending the war.

Rochambeau remained in Virginia for another year and then embarked for Europe in January 1783. Acknowledging his distinctive contribution to the peace, King Louis XVI appointed him commander of Calais and later of the Alsace district. During the French Revolution he commanded the Army of the North (1790-91) and was created a marshal of France (1791). Arrested during the Reign of Terror, he narrowly escaped the guillotine; but Napoleon then pensioned him.

Jean-Baptiste-Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau

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Jean-Baptiste-Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau | French general

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Jean-Baptiste-Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau, general who supported the American Revolution by commanding French forces that helped defeat the British at Yorktown, Va. (1781). Rochambeau was originally trained for the church but then entered a cavalry regiment. He fought in the War of the

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François-Joseph-Paul, count de Grasse, (born September 13, 1722, Le Bar, France-died January 11, 1788, Paris), French naval commander who engaged British forces during the American Revolution (1775-83).

De Grasse took service in 1734 on the galleys of the Knights of Malta, and in 1740 he entered the French service. Shortly after France and America joined forces in the Revolutionary War, he was dispatched to America as commander of a squadron. In 1779-80 he fought the English off the West Indies. In 1781 he was promoted to the rank of admiral and was successful in defeating Admiral Samuel Hood and in taking Tobago. When American commander George Washington and the French general the comte de Rochambeau determined to march to Virginia to join forces with the marquis de Lafayette's army against the British commander Lord Cornwallis, Washington requested the cooperation of de Grasse's fleet. De Grasse therefore sailed from the West Indies to the Chesapeake River, where he was joined by a fleet under the comte de Barras. A British force under Admiral Thomas Graves attempted to prevent this juncture by engaging de Grasse's fleet when it arrived at the Chesapeake Bay but was unsuccessful. French naval supremacy in the waters off Yorktown was instrumental in the success of the siege of that city.

After Cornwallis's surrender, de Grasse returned to the West Indies, where he captured the island of St. Kitts in January 1782. In April, however, he was defeated by Admiral George Rodney and taken prisoner. On his return to France, de Grasse published Mémoire du comte de Grasse (1782; "Memoir of the Count of Grasse") and was acquitted by a court-martial in 1784.

Learn More in these related Britannica articles:

American colonies: Yorktown

...powerful French fleet under Admiral François-Joseph-Paul, comte de Grasse, came to the Chesapeake from the West Indies. This fleet was superior to that of the British at New York. Adm. George Rodney, commanding in the West Indies, failed to send enough ships after de Grasse to restore the balance, and...

American Revolution: Final campaigns in the South and the surrender of Cornwallis

Learning that the comte de Grasse had arrived in the Chesapeake with a large fleet and 3,000 French troops, Washington and Rochambeau moved south to Virginia. By mid-September the Franco-American forces had placed Yorktown under siege, and British rescue efforts proved fruitless. Cornwallis surrendered his army of more...

American Revolution, (1775-83), insurrection by which 13 of Great Britain's North American colonies won political independence and went on to form the United States of America. The war followed more than a decade of growing estrangement between the British...

François-Joseph-Paul, count de Grasse

born

September 13, 1722
Le Bar, France

died

January 11, 1788 (aged 65)
Paris, France

role in

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François-Joseph-Paul, count de Grasse | French naval commander

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François-Joseph-Paul, count de Grasse, French naval commander who engaged British forces during the American Revolution (1775-83). De Grasse took service in 1734 on the galleys of the Knights of Malta, and in 1740 he entered the French service. Shortly after France and America joined forces in the

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Benjamin Franklin, (born January 17 [January 6, Old Style], 1706, Boston, Massachusetts [U.S.]-died April 17, 1790, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.), American printer and publisher, author, inventor and scientist, and diplomat. One of the foremost of the Founding Fathers, Franklin helped draft the Declaration of Independence and was one of its signers, represented the United States in France during the American Revolution, and was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. He made important contributions to science, especially in the understanding of electricity, and is remembered for the wit, wisdom, and elegance of his writing.

Early life

Franklin was born the 10th son of the 17 children of a man who made soap and candles, one of the lowliest of the artisan crafts. In an age that privileged the firstborn son, Franklin was, as he tartly noted in his Autobiography, "the youngest Son of the youngest Son for five Generations back." He learned to read very early and had one year in grammar school and another under a private teacher, but his formal education ended at age 10. At 12 he was apprenticed to his brother James, a printer. His mastery of the printer's trade, of which he was proud to the end of his life, was achieved between 1718 and 1723. In the same period he read tirelessly and taught himself to write effectively.

His first enthusiasm was for poetry, but, discouraged with the quality of his own, he gave it up. Prose was another matter. Young Franklin discovered a volume of The Spectator-featuring Joseph Addison and Sir Richard Steele's famous periodical essays, which had appeared in England in 1711-12-and saw in it a means for improving his writing. He read these Spectator papers over and over, copied and recopied them, and then tried to recall them from memory. He even turned them into poetry and then back into prose. Franklin realized, as all the Founders did, that writing competently was such a rare talent in the 18th century that anyone who could do it well immediately attracted attention. "Prose writing" became, as he recalled in his Autobiography, "of great Use to me in the Course of my Life, and was a principal Means of my Advancement."

In 1721 James Franklin founded a weekly newspaper, the New-England Courant, to which readers were invited to contribute. Benjamin, now 16, read and perhaps set in type these contributions and decided that he could do as well himself. In 1722 he wrote a series of 14 essays signed "Silence Dogood" in which he lampooned everything from funeral eulogies to the students of Harvard College. For one so young to assume the persona of a middle-aged woman was a remarkable feat, and Franklin took "exquisite Pleasure" in the fact that his brother and others became convinced that only a learned and ingenious wit could have written these essays.

Late in 1722 James Franklin got into trouble with the provincial authorities and was forbidden to print or publish the Courant. To keep the paper going, he discharged his younger brother from his original apprenticeship and made him the paper's nominal publisher. New indentures were drawn up but not made public. Some months later, after a bitter quarrel, Benjamin secretly left home, sure that James would not "go to law" and reveal the subterfuge he had devised.

Youthful adventures

Failing to find work in New York City, Franklin at age 17 went on to Quaker-dominated Philadelphia, a much more open and religiously tolerant place than Puritan Boston. One of the most memorable scenes of the Autobiography is the description of his arrival on a Sunday morning, tired and hungry. Finding a bakery, he asked for three pennies' worth of bread and got "three great Puffy Rolls." Carrying one under each arm and munching on the third, he walked up Market Street past the door of the Read family, where stood Deborah, his future wife. She saw him and "thought I made, as I certainly did, a most awkward ridiculous Appearance."

A few weeks later he was rooming at the Reads' and employed as a printer. By the spring of 1724 he was enjoying the companionship of other young men with a taste for reading, and he was also being urged to set up in business for himself by the governor of Pennsylvania, Sir William Keith. At Keith's suggestion, Franklin returned to Boston to try to raise the necessary capital. His father thought him too young for such a venture, so Keith offered to foot the bill himself and arranged Franklin's passage to England so that he could choose his type and make connections with London stationers and booksellers. Franklin exchanged "some promises" about marriage with Deborah Read and, with a young friend, James Ralph, as his companion, sailed for London in November 1724, just over a year after arriving in Philadelphia. Not until his ship was well out at sea did he realize that Governor Keith had not delivered the letters of credit and introduction he had promised.

In London Franklin quickly found employment in his trade and was able to lend money to Ralph, who was trying to establish himself as a writer. The two young men enjoyed the theatre and the other pleasures of the city, including women. While in London, Franklin wrote A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain (1725), a Deistical pamphlet inspired by his having set type for William Wollaston's moral tract, The Religion of Nature Delineated. Franklin argued in his essay that since human beings have no real freedom of choice, they are not morally responsible for their actions. This was perhaps a nice justification for his self-indulgent behaviour in London and his ignoring of Deborah, to whom he had written only once. He later repudiated the pamphlet, burning all but one of the copies still in his possession.

By 1726 Franklin was tiring of London. He considered becoming an itinerant teacher of swimming, but, when Thomas Denham, a Quaker merchant, offered him a clerkship in his store in Philadelphia with a prospect of fat commissions in the West Indian trade, he decided to return home.

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Benjamin Franklin | Biography, Inventions, Books, American Revolution, & Facts

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Benjamin Franklin, American printer and publisher, author, inventor and scientist, and diplomat. One of the foremost of the American Founding Fathers, he helped draft the Declaration of Independence. He also made important contributions to science, especially in the understanding of technology.

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Executive Order 9066

On February 19, 1942, shortly after the bombing of Pearl Harbor by Japanese forces, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 with the stated intention of preventing espionage on American shores.

Military zones were created in California, Washington and Oregon-states with a large population of Japanese Americans. Then Roosevelt's executive order forcibly removed Americans of Japanese ancestry from their homes. Executive Order 9066 affected the lives about 120,000 people-the majority of whom were American citizens.

Canada soon followed suit, forcibly removing 21,000 of its residents of Japanese descent from its west coast. Mexico enacted its own version, and eventually 2,264 more people of Japanese descent were forcibly removed from Peru, Brazil, Chile and Argentina to the United States.

Anti-Japanese American Activity

Weeks before the order, the Navy removed citizens of Japanese descent from Terminal Island near the Port of Los Angeles.

On December 7, 1941, just hours after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, the FBI rounded-up 1,291 Japanese American community and religious leaders, arresting them without evidence and freezing their assets.

In January, the arrestees were transferred to prison camps in Montana, New Mexico and North Dakota, many unable to inform their families and most remaining for the duration of the war.

Concurrently, the FBI searched the private homes of thousands of Japanese American residents on the West Coast, seizing items considered contraband.

One-third of Hawaii's population was of Japanese descent. In a panic, some politicians called for their mass incarceration. Japanese-owned fishing boats were impounded.

Some Japanese American residents were arrested and 1,500 people-one percent of the Japanese population in Hawaii-were sent to prison camps on the U.S. mainland.

Photos of Japanese American Relocation and Incarceration

John DeWitt

Lt. General John L. DeWitt, leader of the Western Defense Command, believed that the civilian population needed to be taken control of to prevent a repeat of Pearl Harbor.

To argue his case, DeWitt prepared a report filled with known falsehoods, such as examples of sabotage that were later revealed to be the result of cattle damaging power lines.

DeWitt suggested the creation of the military zones and Japanese detainment to Secretary of War Henry Stimson and Attorney General Francis Biddle. His original plan included Italians and Germans, though the idea of rounding-up Americans of European descent was not as popular.

At Congressional hearings in February 1942, a majority of the testimonies, including those from California Governor Culbert L. Olson and State Attorney General Earl Warren, declared that all Japanese should be removed.

Biddle pleaded with the president that mass incarceration of citizens was not required, preferring smaller, more targeted security measures. Regardless, Roosevelt signed the order.

War Relocation Authority

After much organizational chaos, about 15,000 Japanese Americans willingly moved out of prohibited areas. Inland state citizens were not keen for new Japanese American residents, and they were met with racist resistance.

Ten state governors voiced opposition, fearing the Japanese Americans might never leave, and demanded they be locked up if the states were forced to accept them.

A civilian organization called the War Relocation Authority was set up in March 1942 to administer the plan, with Milton S. Eisenhower from the Department of Agriculture to lead it. Eisenhower only lasted until June 1942, resigning in protest over what he characterized as incarcerating innocent citizens.

Relocation to 'Assembly Centers'

Army-directed removals began on March 24. People had six days notice to dispose of their belongings other than what they could carry.

Anyone who was at least 1/16th Japanese was evacuated, including 17,000 children under age 10, as well as several thousand elderly and disabled residents.

Japanese Americans reported to "Assembly Centers" near their homes. From there they were transported to a "Relocation Center" where they might live for months before transfer to a permanent "Wartime Residence."

Assembly Centers were located in remote areas, often reconfigured fairgrounds and racetracks featuring buildings not meant for human habitation, like horse stalls or cow sheds, that had been converted for that purpose. In Portland, Oregon, 3,000 people stayed in the livestock pavilion of the Pacific International Livestock Exposition Facilities.

The Santa Anita Assembly Center, just several miles northeast of Los Angeles, was a de-facto city with 18,000 incarcerated, 8,500 of whom lived in stables. Food shortages and substandard sanitation were prevalent in these facilities.

Life in 'Assembly Centers'

Assembly Centers offered work to prisoners with the policy that they should not be paid more than an Army private. Jobs ranged from doctors to teachers to laborers and mechanics. A couple were the sites of camouflage net factories, which provided work.

Over 1,000 incarcerated Japanese Americans were sent to other states to do seasonal farm work. Over 4,000 of the incarcerated population were allowed to leave to attend college.

Conditions in 'Relocation Centers'

There were a total of 10 prison camps, called "Relocation Centers." Typically the camps included some form of barracks with communal eating areas. Several families were housed together. Residents who were labeled as dissidents were forced to a special prison camp in Tule Lake, California.

Two prison camps in Arizona were located on Native American reservations, despite the protests of tribal councils, who were overruled by the Bureau of Indian Affairs.

Each Relocation Center was its own "town," and included schools, post offices and work facilities, as well as farmland for growing food and keeping livestock. Each prison camp "town" was completely surrounded by barbed wire and guard towers.

Net factories offered work at several Relocation Centers. One housed a naval ship model factory. There were also factories in different Relocation Centers that manufactured items for use in other prison camps, including garments, mattresses and cabinets. Several housed agricultural processing plants.

Violence in Prison Camps

Violence occasionally occurred in the prison camps. In Lordsburg, New Mexico, prisoners were delivered by trains and forced to march two miles at night to the camp. On July 27, 1942, during a night march, two Japanese Americans, Toshio Kobata and Hirota Isomura, were shot and killed by a sentry who claimed they were attempting to escape. Japanese Americans testified later that the two elderly men were disabled and had been struggling during the march to Lordsburg. The sentry was found not guilty by the army court martial board.

On August 4, 1942, a riot broke out in the Santa Anita Assembly Center, the result of anger about insufficient rations and overcrowding. At California's Manzanar War Relocation Center, tensions resulted in the beating of Fred Tayama, a Japanese American Citizen's League (JACL) leader, by six men. JACL members were believed to be supporters of the prison camp's administration.

Fearing a riot, police tear-gassed crowds that had gathered at the police station to demand the release of Harry Ueno. Ueno had been arrested for allegedly assaulting Tayama. James Ito was killed instantly and several others were wounded. Among those injured was Jim Kanegawa, 21, who died of complications five days later.

At the Topaz Relocation Center, 63-year-old prisoner James Hatsuki Wakasa was shot and killed by military police after walking near the perimeter fence. Two months later, a couple was shot at for strolling near the fence.

In October 1943, the Army deployed tanks and soldiers to Tule Lake Segregation Center in northern California to crack down on protests. Japanese American prisoners at Tule Lake had been striking over food shortages and unsafe conditions that had led to an accidental death in October 1943. At the same camp, on May 24, 1943, James Okamoto, a 30-year-old prisoner who drove a construction truck, was shot and killed by a guard.

Fred Korematsu

In 1942, 23-year-old Japanese-American Fred Korematsu was arrested for refusing to relocate to a Japanese prison camp. His case made it all the way to the Supreme Court, where his attorneys argued in Korematsu v. United States that Executive Order 9066 violated the Fifth Amendment.

Korematsu lost the case, but he went on to become a civil rights activist and was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1998. With the creation of California's Fred Korematsu Day, the United States saw its first U.S. holiday named for an Asian American. But it took another Supreme Court decision to halt the incarceration of Japanese Americans.

Mitsuye Endo

The prison camps ended in 1945 following the Supreme Court decision, Ex parte Mitsuye Endo. In this case, justices ruled unanimously that the War Relocation Authority "has no authority to subject citizens who are concededly loyal to its leave procedure."

The case was brought on behalf of Mitsuye Endo, the daughter of Japanese immigrants from Sacramento, California. After filing a habeas corpus petition, the government offered to free her, but Endo refused, wanting her case to address the entire issue of Japanese incarceration.

One year later, the Supreme Court made the decision, but gave President Truman the chance to begin camp closures before the announcement. One day after Truman made his announcement, the Supreme Court revealed its decision.

Reparations

The last Japanese internment camp closed in March 1946. President Gerald Ford officially repealed Executive Order 9066 in 1976, and in 1988, Congress issued a formal apology and passed the Civil Liberties Act awarding $20,000 each to over 80,000 Japanese Americans as reparations for their treatment.

Sources

Japanese Relocation During World War II. National Archives.
Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites. J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord and R. Lord.
Lordsburg Internment POW Camp. Historical Society of New Mexico.
Smithsonian Institute.

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Japanese Internment Camps: WWII, Life & Conditions | HISTORY

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Japanese internment camps were established during World War II by President Franklin D. Roosevelt through his Executive Order 9066. From 1942 to 1945, it was the policy of the U.S. government that people of Japanese descent, including U.S. citizens, be incarcerated.

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30 Astonishing Facts About World War II That Will Change the Way You View It Forever — Best Life

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While you certainly learned the basics in high school, there’s a whole lot you probably don’t know about World War II. Here are the most fascinating facts.

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World War II is appropriately called "Hitler's war." Germany was so extraordinarily successful in the first two years that Hitler came close to realizing his aim of establishing hegemony in Europe. But his triumphs were not part of a strategic conception that secured victory in the long run. Nonetheless, the early successes were spectacular. After the defeat of Poland within a month, Hitler turned his attention westward. He believed that it was necessary to defeat Britain and France before he could again turn eastward to the territories that were to become the "living space" for his new empire. The attack on the Western Front began in the spring of 1940. Hitler took Denmark and Norway during the course of a few days in April, and on May 10 he attacked France, along with Luxembourg, Belgium, and The Netherlands. Once again his armies achieved lightning victories; Luxembourg, Belgium, and The Netherlands were overrun in a few days, and France capitulated on June 21. Only the British, now alone, obstructed Hitler's path to total victory in the west.

Hitler determined that he could take Britain out of the war with air power. German bombers began their attack in August 1940, but the British proved intractable. The vaunted German air force ( Luftwaffe) failed to bring Britain to its knees partly because of the strength of the British air force, partly because the German air force was ill-equipped for the task, and partly because the British were able to read German code ( see Ultra). Yet Hitler had been so confident of a quick victory that, even before the attack began, he had ordered his military planners to draw up plans for an invasion of the Soviet Union. The date he had set for that invasion was May 15, 1941.

Although the defeat of the Soviet Union was central to Hitler's strategic objective, during the early months of 1941 he allowed himself to be sidetracked twice into conflicts that delayed his invasion. In both instances he felt obliged to rescue his ally Mussolini from military difficulties. Mussolini had invaded Greece in October 1940, despite the fact that he was already in difficulty in North Africa, where he was unable to cut off Britain's Mediterranean lifeline in Egypt. In February 1941 Hitler decided to reinforce Mussolini in North Africa by sending an armoured division under the command of General Erwin Rommel. When Mussolini's invasion of Greece also bogged down, Hitler again decided to send reinforcements. To reach Greece, German troops had to be sent through the Balkan countries, all of them officially neutral. Hitler managed to bully these countries into accepting the passage of German troops, but on March 27 a coup in Yugoslavia overthrew the government, and the new rulers reneged on the agreement. In retaliation Hitler launched what he called Operation Punishment against the Yugoslavs. Yugoslav resistance collapsed quickly, but the effect was to delay for another month the planned invasion of the Soviet Union.

When the invasion of the Soviet Union finally came, on June 22, 1941, it did so with both campaigns against the British, across the English Channel and in the Mediterranean, still incomplete. Hitler was prepared to take the risk that fighting on multiple fronts entailed, because he was convinced that the war against the Soviet Union would be over by the onset of the Russian winter. The spectacular German advances during the first weeks of the invasion seemed proof of Hitler's calculation. On July 3 his army chief of staff wrote in his war diary that the war had been won. The German Army Group North was approaching Leningrad; Army Group Centre had broken through the Soviet defenses and was rushing toward Moscow; and Army Group South had already captured vast reaches of Ukraine. The prospect of capturing the summer harvest of Ukraine along with the oil fields of the Caucasus led Hitler to transfer troops driving toward Moscow to reinforce those operating in the south.

Hitler's generals later considered this decision a turning point in the war. The effect was to delay until October the drive toward Moscow. By then an early winter had set in, greatly impeding the German advance and finally bringing it to a halt at the outskirts of Moscow in early December. Then, on December 6, the Soviets, having had time to regroup, launched a massive counteroffensive to relieve their capital city. On the following day the Japanese, nominally Germany's ally, launched their attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. Although they had not bothered to inform Hitler of their intentions, he was jubilant when he heard the news. "Now it is impossible for us to lose the war," he told his aides. On December 11 he declared war on the United States.

Though his plans for a quick defeat of the Soviet Union had not been realized, Hitler's troops at the end of 1941 controlled much of the European territory of the Soviet Union. They stood at the outskirts of Leningrad and Moscow and were in control of all of Ukraine. To prepare for what would now have to be the campaign of 1942, Hitler dismissed a number of generals and assumed himself the strategic and operational command of the armies on the Eastern Front.

At the high point of Hitler's military successes in the Soviet Union, members of the Nazi leadership were, with Hitler's understanding, feverishly planning for the new order they intended to impose on the conquered territories. Its realization called both for the removal of obstacles to German settlements and for a solution to the "Jewish problem." Nazi planners were drafting an elaborate scheme, General Plan East, for the future reorganization of eastern Europe and the western Soviet Union, which called for the elimination of 30 million or more Slavs and the settlement of their territories by German overlords who would control and eventually repopulate the area with Germans. During the fall of 1941 Himmler's SS expanded and refurbished with gas chambers and crematoriums an old Austrian army barracks near the Polish rail junction at Auschwitz. Here was to continue, with greater efficiency, the Holocaust-the mass murder of Jews that had begun with the June invasion, when SS Einsatzgruppen ("deployment groups") began rounding up Jews and shooting them by the thousands. The assurance of victory in the east, the heartland of European Jewry, convinced the Nazis that they could implement a "final solution" to the "Jewish problem." Experts estimate that ultimately some six million Jews were murdered in the death factories of eastern Europe. At least an equal number of non-Jews died of murder and starvation in places like Auschwitz, including two and a half million Soviet prisoners of war and countless others from eastern European nationalities.

The success of Nazi armies until the end of 1941 had made it possible to spare German civilians on the home front from the misery and sacrifices demanded of them during World War I. Hitler's imagination, however, was haunted by the memory of the collapse of the home front in 1918, and, to avoid a repetition, the Nazis looted the occupied territories of food and raw materials as well as labour. Food shortages in Germany were not serious until late in the war. Women were allowed to stay at home, and the energies of the German workforce were not stretched to their limits, because eventually some seven million foreign slave labourers were used to keep the war effort going.

Through much of 1942 an ultimate German victory still seemed possible. The renewed offensive in the Soviet Union in the spring at first continued the successes of the previous year. Once again Hitler chose to concentrate on the capture of the Caucasus and its oil at the expense of the Moscow front. The decision entailed a major battle over the industrial centre at Stalingrad (now Volgograd). Elsewhere, by midsummer of 1942, Rommel's Afrika Korps advanced to within 65 miles (105 km) of Alexandria in Egypt. In the naval battle for control of the Atlantic sea lanes, German submarines maintained their ability to intercept Allied shipping into mid-1943.

By early 1943, however, the tide had clearly begun to turn. The great winter battle at Stalingrad brought Hitler his first major defeat. His entire Sixth Army was killed or captured. In North Africa Rommel's long success ended in late 1942 when the British broke through at El Alamein. At the same time, a joint British-American force landed in northwestern Africa, on the coast of Morocco and Algeria. By May 1943 the German and Italian forces in North Africa were ready to surrender. That same summer the Allies broke the back of the German submarine campaign in the Atlantic. On July 10 the Allies landed in Sicily. Two weeks later Mussolini was overthrown, and in early September the Italians withdrew from the war.

The addition of an Italian front made the rollback of German forces on all fronts that much more likely. In the Soviet Union, German forces were stretched across 2,500 miles (4,000 km). They had lost their air superiority when Allied bombing raids on German cities forced the withdrawal of large numbers of fighter planes. British and American bombings reached a high point in midsummer when a raid on Hamburg killed 40,000 of its inhabitants. Similar air raids killed hundreds of thousands of German civilians and leveled large areas of most German cities. Shortages of food, clothing, and housing began to afflict German cities as inevitably as did the Allied bombers.

The rollback of German forces continued inexorably during 1944. On June 6 the Allies in the west launched their invasion of France across the English Channel. In the east the Soviet army was advancing along the entire 2,500-mile front. By the end of the year, it stood poised on the eastern frontiers of prewar Germany. In the west, British and American troops stood ready to attack across the western borders.

On the German home front, 1944 became a year of acute suffering. On July 20, officers carried out a plot, part of a long-simmering opposition to Hitler from within German military and civilian circles, but Hitler managed to escape the dramatic attempt on his life practically unharmed. He attributed his survival of the July Plot to his selection by fate to succeed in his mission of restoring Germany to greatness.

Fate did not again intervene on Hitler's behalf. In mid-January of 1945 he withdrew underground into his bunker in Berlin where he remained until his suicide on April 30. By that time Soviet soldiers were streaming into Berlin. All that remained of the Reich was a narrow wedge of territory running southward from Berlin into Austria.

With the Soviet army in control of Berlin and the Western Allies within striking distance to the west and the south, there was no prospect of dividing them. Nonetheless, when Hitler's successor, Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz, sought to open negotiations for a surrender a few days after Hitler's death, he still hoped that a separate surrender to the British and Americans in the west might allow the Reich to rescue something from the Soviets in the east. The Western Allies, fearful of any move that might feed the suspicions of Stalin, refused to consider the German proposal, insisting that a German surrender be signed with all the Allies at the same time. Early in the morning of May 7, 1945, a German delegation came to U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower's headquarters in Rheims, France, and at 2:41 am signed the surrender documents. Despite the fact that a Soviet major general signed for the Soviet Union, Stalin insisted that a second surrender ceremony take place in Soviet-occupied Berlin. This second surrender was signed in a Berlin suburb the following afternoon.
Karl A. Schleunes

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Germany - WWII, Nazis, Holocaust: World War II is appropriately called "Hitler's war." Germany was so extraordinarily successful in the first two years that Hitler came close to realizing his aim of establishing hegemony in Europe. But his triumphs were not part of a strategic conception that secured victory in the long run.

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Remembering EDSA Revolution with Dr. Ricardo Jose

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Remembering EDSA Revolution with Dr. Ricardo Jose

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Dr. Ricardo Jose is a man who knows his history. He's also participated in it-from keeping watch over the 1986 Snap Elections as part of the National Movement for Free Elections (NAMFREL), to joining the crowds at the height of People Power.

Every Filipino has heard of People Power: the peaceful revolution along Epifanio delos Santos Avenue (EDSA) that restored our democracy and finally put an end to Ferdinand Marcos' one-man regime.

When I spoke to Dr. Jose, I got the full history lesson: On February 22, the Minister of Defense Juan Ponce Enrile and Constabulary of the Armed Forces Fidel V. Ramos broke away from Marcos' chain of command. They went on the only media outlets available at the time-the mosquito press and Radio Veritas-to appeal to the people. They called for the public to support them and a small group of mutineers at Camp Aguinaldo. Within hours, people were at EDSA, and that was just the beginning.

Four days later-on February 25, now known as EDSA Day-People Power ended, solidifying itself as one of the most powerful events in Philippine history.

Here's what those four days looked like from Dr. Jose's perspective, and what he sees when he passes through EDSA today.
*Scroll to the bottom for the timeline of events leading up to EDSA Revolution (or click here!)

February 22, 1986: The first night of protests at EDSA.

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Can you tell us about your experience during the People Power, and the events surrounding it?

DR. RICARDO JOSE: I was there on the first night; I lived very near the Camp. I was still quite young, so when we heard about the breakaway and that they were calling for people to come, we went. It was me, some of my brothers, and my sister. That first night was very tense. We didn't know what was going to happen. Even Marcos was caught off guard by this! But by the next day, more people came in after Cardinal Sin, the head of the Catholic Church, also appealed to all Filipinos to support Enrile and Ramos at EDSA. I think that was a Sunday.

I would go to EDSA, go home just to sleep, and go back to EDSA the next day. There were no phones or internet at the time, so this was all being done by word of mouth. We would hear more news [when we got there]: more people had joined up with Ramos and Enrile, there were a lot of civilians joining up, other military forces... International press was covering this, so Marcos' hands were kind of tied, but it was apparent that he was going to use force. [We heard that] he was going to send the Marines to disperse us, he tried to send tanks and armored vehicles. We saw helicopters-some were gunships preparing to strafe the crowds and we had no idea; we thought the helicopters were friendly.

If you did not do anything, then the corrupt regime and its abuses were going to continue unchecked. It was our time to do something.

A major turning point was on February 24, when a group of helicopter pilots flew from Villamor Airfield to Camp Crame to join Ramos and Enrile. I was at home when they landed, but when I got the news very early in the morning, I immediately went to EDSA and saw it. [It was huge] because it meant that now Ramos and Enrile had air power.

Marcos was getting desperate. He called the US to seek help, but the US [refused] and urged him to get out of the Malacañang. So he left Malacañang, was eventually airlifted to Clark Field [before] flying to Guam then Hawaii. When we heard the news that he finally left the Philippines on February 25th, there was a major celebration. It was really like a fiesta; everybody was jumping for joy!

There was a really strong feeling of bayanihan. We didn't know each other but everybody felt the same way. It was a very joyous popular feeling that we had ousted this dictator-and that we had ousted him without the use of force.

February 23, 1986: News of the protests travels by word of mouth, and more people join in come morning.

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Political activism can be a dangerous arena, and even more so during that time. Why did you feel like you needed to speak out and actively participate in the protests?

DR. JOSE: It was obvious that in a dictatorship, you didn't have checks and balances. We could see that the government was getting deeper and deeper into debt, and who was going to pay for it? Kami. The younger generations. My students were going to deal with [the consequences].

The initial years seemed okay. People believed that things were safe and [the Martial Law] was working, but that was largely because news was censored, and we didn't know what else was happening. As Martial Law developed, it became obvious that things weren't being solved. Basic socio-economic problems weren't being [addressed], and the benefits did not trickle down to the majority of the people.

I taught Philippine History at the time, and it was [apparent] that if Bonifacio stood up and if Rizal sacrificed his life in 1896, if you had people who fought in World War II and in the Phil-American war... it was patriotic to stand up and join in the struggle against one-man rule.

I was also teaching History of the Press, and I saw how sad it was that the press we were so proud of-the La Solidaridad during the reform, the Kalayaan during the revolution, the La Independencia during the first Republic-we had a very proud history of journalism; a fighting journalism tradition. And that was destroyed by Martial Law.

I had many friends who were veteran journalists; people I admired and worked with... [we knew that] if we didn't stand up, who else was going to? If you did not do anything, then the corrupt regime and its abuses were going to continue unchecked. It was our time to do something.

These days it is the main thoroughfare of Metro Manila, but that particular stretch of EDSA-from Ortigas Avenue to around Santolan or Boni Serrano-that was where a revolution took place.

As you've mentioned, People Power really was a culmination of many protests and events that came before it. At the height of the protests, were you optimistic that change was going to come?

DR. JOSE: It really was something we weren't sure about-anything could have happened. If Marcos decided to use the Air Force against the crowd, if the Marines really pushed on, if the artillery had fired on Camps Aguinaldo and Crame... There was very little news, and how long it would take, we didn't know, either. Was it going to take a week? A month?

The necessary support systems were being developed. Who was going to feed these people? It's interesting because while Marcos had lifted Martial Law on paper in '81, in practice, the military was still separate from the people. But on the first night, people who lived around the area brought food and gave some to the soldiers, so there was a sense of unity.

[The protesters] were preparing for a long haul. We were planning relief systems-"you go today, I'll go tomorrow so we can get enough rest"-because there was no idea what would happen and how long it would take, but we all hoped it would end soon. February 25 came and we received news that Marcos left, that was really-we were so relieved na natapos na.

A human barricade forms around military tanks sent to disperse the crowds.

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EDSA today takes on a lot of meaning. Some people see it as a symbol of protest and dissent, but to a lot of others, it's really just a street. How do you view EDSA now, as someone who's experienced the protests firsthand?

DR. JOSE: Of course, these days it is the main thoroughfare of Metro Manila, but that particular stretch of EDSA-from Ortigas Avenue to around Santolan or Boni Serrano-that was where a revolution took place. To me, every time I pass by, I still remember what happened.

The main action was in front of Camp Aguinaldo and Camp Crame. It spilled out to Santolan and Ortigas; that's why you have the statue of Mother Mary. At the time, it was just an open field, and that was where people stopped the tanks that came. I was there that day; I didn't see the tanks come in, but I saw them parked, surrounded by people. I [remember] seeing them leave-it was such a joyful moment for us.

It's quite different from what it was then. You didn't have Megamall or ADB-at the time, you had cows! Every time I pass by the area, I look back at what it was like before. It's hard to believe that all of that happened, but every time I go, I think that such a historic event [took place] here.

It's the people who wield power-not necessarily the people at the top.

We commemorate EDSA Day on February 25 each year, though you could say many people don't fully understand its significance. In that respect, do you think it's still relevant to commemorate People Power as a national holiday?

DR. JOSE: I think it's important to do that, but whether it's through a ceremony in EDSA or whatever-I'm not sure if that's the right way to do it. Similar to Araw ng Kagitingan-people ask why we celebrate it, [not knowing] it used to be Bataan Day, when Bataan surrendered in 1942.

When you teach history, you shouldn't force people to study the dates. February 25 isn't really important by itself, it's the whole process: How did we reach February 25? What led to that? That's what I see is lacking. There's a failure to educate people about what was really happening and why it's so important.

Why do you think it's important that the People Power and the events surrounding it are still taught to the younger generations?

DR. JOSE: Well, I think it should be taught because it's an important moment in Philippine history. It's a period that we should be proud of! We were the first country to overthrow an authoritarian government without violence, and a number of other countries followed that Philippine example. In fact, I think a year or so later, there was a conference on Newly Restored Democracies that we led. It was not only in the Philippines; it had worldwide impact.

It was very nice in the beginning because the whole world looked up to us... Later on, politics came in, and [many of] the gains that we had gotten were gradually lost. But [there are] a lot of lessons to be learned there, and it really is such a high point in Philippine history.

But it's something that should be seen in context; you can't just say "this happened on February 25." You have to explain Martial Law, the snap elections... We have to look at the whole Martial Law experience and why people were so upset that it reached a boiling point at EDSA.

The protests continue for four days before Ferdinand Marcos is ousted from the Malacañang.

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Over the last few years, there have been people who say it's time for us to collectively move on from that point of our history. What can you say about that way of thinking?

DR. JOSE: We can't really move on because there was no closure. In other countries, there were commissions created to try the people [in power] accused of atrocities and abuses. There were military officials who stood on trial and faced the people they tortured; many of them received a sentencing-there was closure.

In the Philippines' case, there was no such commission. There was the Presidential Commission on Good Government ( PCGG), which accumulated a lot of documentation... but had gotten rather stuck on red tape. Some would say it was similar to the Japanese occupation. There were supposed to be trials after the war, but many of them were simply forgiven. There is no closure, no [accountability].

We are so quick to forgive and forget that we repeat the same problems, and to me, that's really a tragedy. So if we don't close this particular period-if there are no apologies, if the whole truth doesn't come out-how can we say to move on?

Dr. Ricardo Jose

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What is something that you would like Filipinos to think about as we commemorate EDSA Day?

DR. JOSE: The one thing that we should focus on is how democracy works, and how the people have a strong voice in that democracy. There is a strong watchdog function that the people have, and that's one thing that should be emphasized: it's the people who wield power-not necessarily the people at the top.

This is a democracy; we're supposed to be a democracy where the power emanates from the people. That's what needs to be emphasized, and that the leaders at the top realize that they are there because the people put them there.

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This interview has been condensed and edited for clarity.
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Timeline of events under Martial Law

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Remembering EDSA Revolution with Dr. Ricardo Jose

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Dr. Ricardo Jose is a man who knows his history. He's also participated in it-from keeping watch over the 1986 Snap Elections as part of the National Movement for Free Elections (NAMFREL), to joining the crowds at the height of People Power.

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Ferdinand Emmanuel Edralín Marcos (September 11, 1917 - September 28, 1989) was President of the Philippines from 1965 to 1986. He was a lawyer, member of the Philippine House of Representatives (1949-1959) and a member of the Philippine Senate (1959-1965). As Philippine president and strongman, Marcos led his country in its post-war reconstruction. Initially, his intentions were laudable, to improve the economy and to increase agricultural productivity and to dismantle the oligarchy that had dominated the nation. His greatest achievements were in the areas of infrastructure development, safeguarding the country against communism, and international diplomacy. However, his administration was marred by massive government corruption, despotism, nepotism, political repression and human rights violations. In 1986 he was removed from power by massive popular demonstrations, which began as a reaction to the political assassination of his opponent Senator Benigno S. Aquino, Jr. the previous year.

Marcos initially had laudable intentions: to improve the economy, to increase agricultural productivity, and to dismantle the oligarchy that had dominated the nation. However, he became corrupted by power, and measures set in place to curb student protest and the challenge from communism became permanent. In the end, he replaced one privileged class with another and gained enormous personal wealth while his nation's economy, originally strong under his leadership, went into serious decline. His overthrow in 1986 is witness to the resilience and determination of a people to take control of the political process, despite years of oppression. Like Sukarno in Indonesia, Marcos set out to safeguard democracy -and in the first decade of his rule he arguably did just that-but in the end he quashed it. Yet he could not totally crush the spirit of the Filipino people, who in the end reclaimed democracy for themselves.

Ferdinand Marcos was born on September 11, 1917 in Sarrat, a small town in Ilocos Norte. Named by his parents, Mariano Marcos and Josefa Edralin, after Ferdinand VII of Spain, Ferdinand Edralin Marcos was a champion debater, boxer, swimmer and wrestler while in the University of the Philippines.

As a young law student of the University of the Philippines, Marcos was indicted and convicted of murder (of Julio Nalundasan, the man who twice defeated his father for a National Assembly seat). While in detention, he reviewed and topped the 1938 Bar examinations with one of the highest scores in history. He appealed his conviction and argued his case before the Supreme Court of the Philippines. Impressed by his brilliant legal defense, the Supreme Court unanimously acquitted him.

When the Second World War broke out, Marcos was called to arms in defense of the Philippines against the Japanese. He fought in Bataan and was one of the victims of the infamous Bataan Death March. He was released later. However, he was re-incarcerated in Fort Santiago. He escaped and joined the guerrilla movements against the Japanese, claiming to have been one of the finest guerrilla leaders in Luzon, though many question the veracity of his claims.

Early political career

After the end of the war and the establishment of the Republic, President Manuel A. Roxas appointed Marcos as special technical assistant. Later, Marcos ran as Representative (of the 2nd district of Ilocos Norte) under the Liberal Party - the administration party. During the campaign he told his constituents "Elect me a Congressman now and I pledge you an Ilocano President in 20 years." He was elected thrice as Congressman. In 1959 he was catapulted to the Senate with the highest number of votes. He immediately became its Minority Floor Leader. In 1963, after a tumultuous rigodon in the Senate, he was elected its President despite being in the minority party

President Diosdado Macapagal, who had promised not to run for reelection and to support Marcos' candidacy for the presidency in the 1965 elections, reneged on his promise. Marcos then resigned from the Liberal Party. With the support of his wife Imelda Romualdez Marcos, he joined the Nacionalista Party and became its standard-bearer with Senator Fernando Lopez as his running mate.

Presidency

First term (1965-1969)

Marcos defeated Macapagal and was sworn in as the sixth President of the Republic on December 30, 1965.

In his first State of the Nation Address (SONA), President Marcos revealed his plans for economic development and good government. President Marcos wanted the immediate construction of roads, bridges and public works which includes 16,000 kilometers of feeder roads, some 30,000 lineal meters of permanent bridges, a generator with an electric power capacity of on million kilowatts (1,000,000 kW), water services to eight regions and 38 localities.

He also urged the revitalization of the Judiciary, the national defense posture and the fight against smuggling, criminality, and graft and corruption in the government.

To accomplish his goals "President Marcos mobilized the manpower and resources of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) for action to complement civilian agencies in such activities as infrastructure construction; economic planning and program execution; regional and industrial site planning and development; community development and others." The President, likewise, hired technocrats and highly educated persons to form part of the Cabinet and staff.

It was during his first term that the North Diversion Road (now, North Luzon Expressway) (initially from Balintawak to Tabang, Guiguinto, Bulacan) was constructed with the help of the AFP engineering construction battalion.

Aside from infrastructure development, the following were some of the notable achievements of the first four years of the Marcos administration:

1. Successful drive against smuggling. In 1966, more than 100 important smugglers were arrested; in three years 1966-1968 the arrests totaled 5,000. Military men involved in smuggling were forced to retire.

2. Greater production of rice by promoting the cultivation of IR-8 hybrid rice. In 1968 the Philippines became self-sufficient in rice, the first time in history since the American period. In addition, the Philippines exported rice worth US$7 million.

3. Land reform was given an impetus during the first term of President Marcos. 3,739 hectares of lands in Central Luzon were distributed to the farmers.

4. In the field of foreign relations, the Philippines hosted the summit of seven heads of state (the United States, South [Vietnam]], South Korea, Thailand, Australia, New Zealand and the Philippines) to discuss the worsening problem in Vietnam and the containment of communism in the region.

Likewise, President Marcos initiated, together with the other four heads of state of Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Singapore), the formation of a regional organization to combat the communist threat in the region - the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).

5. Government finances were stabilized by higher revenue collections and loans from treasury bonds, foreign lending institutions and foreign governments.

6. Peace and order substantially improved in most provinces however situations in Manila and some provinces continued to deteriorate until the imposition of martial law in 1972.

Second term (1969-1972)

In 1969, President Marcos was reelected for an unprecedented second term because of his impressive performance or, as his critics claimed, because of massive vote-buying and electoral frauds.

The second term proved to be a daunting challenge to the President: an economic crisis brought by external and internal forces; a restive and radicalized studentry demanding reforms in the educational system; rising tide of criminality and subversion by the re-organized Communist movement; and secessionism in the South.

Economic situation - Overspending in the 1969 elections led to higher inflation and the devaluation of the Philippine peso. Further, the decision of the oil-producing Arab countries to cut back oil production, in response to Western military aid to Israel in the Arab-Israeli Conflict, resulted to higher fuel prices worldwide. In addition, the frequent visits of natural calamities brought havoc to infrastructures and agricultural crops and livestock. The combined external and internal economic forces led to uncontrolled increase in the prices of prime commodities.

A restive studentry- The last years of the 1960s and the first two years of the 1970s witnessed the radicalization of student population. Students in various colleges and universities held massive rallies and demonstrations to express their frustrations and resentments. "On January 30, 1970, demonstrators numbering about 50,000 students and laborers stormed the Malacañang Palace, burning part of the Medical building, crashing through Gate 4 with a fire truck that had been forcibly commandeered by some laborers and students...The Metropolitan Command (Metrocom) of the Philippine Constabulary (PC) repulsed them, pushing them towards Mendiola Bridge, where in an exchange of gunfire, hours later, four persons were killed and scores from both sides injured. Tear gas grenades finally dispersed the crowd. ". The event was known today as the First Quarter Storm.

Violent students protests however did not stop. In October 1970, a series of violence occurred in numerous campuses in the Greater Manila Area: "an explosion of pillboxes in at least two schools. The University of the Philippines was not spared when 18,000 students boycotted their classes to demand academic and non-academic reforms in the State University resulting in the 'occupation' of the office of the President of the University by student leaders. Other schools which were scenes of violent student demonstrations were San Sebastian College, University of the East, Letran College, Mapua Institute of Technology, University of Sto. Tomas and Feati University. Student demonstrators even succeeded in "occupying the office of the Secretary of Justice Vicente Abad Santos for at least seven hours." The President described the brief "communization" of the University of the Philippines and the violent demonstrations of the Left-leaning students as an "act of insurrection."

Martial law and the New Society

Proclamation of martial law

The spate of bombings and subversive activities led President Marcos to declare that 'there is throughout the land a state of anarchy and lawlessness, chaos and disorder, turmoil and destruction of a magnitude equivalent to an actual war between the forces of our duly constituted government and the New People's Army and their satellite organizations...and that public order and safety and security of the nation demand that immediate, swift, decisive and effective action be taken to protect and insure the peace, order and security of the country and its population and to maintain the authority of the government. On September 21, 1972 President Marcos issued Presidential Proclamation No. 1081 placing the entire country under martial law but it was announced only two days later. In proclaiming martial law, President Marcos assured the public that "the proclamation of martial law is not a military takeover"and that civilian government still functions.

Initial measures - In his first address to the nation after issuing Proclamation No. 1081, President Marcos said that martial law has two objectives: (1) to save the republic, and (2) to "reform the social, economic and political institutions in our country."

In accordance with the two objectives, President Marcos issued general orders and letters of instruction to that effect. A list of people were to be arrested, he would rule by Presidentail decree, the media would be controlled by his government, a curfew from midnight until 4:00 A.M. was to be observed, carrying of fire-arms except by military and secuirty personnel was banned, as were strikes and demonstrations.

The 1973 Constitution

The 1973 Constitution - On March 16, 1967, the Philippine Congress passed Resolution No. 2 calling for a Constitutional Convention to change the Constitution. Election of the delegates to the Convention were held on November 20, 1970 pursuant to Republic Act No. 6132, otherwise known as the "1970 Constitutional Convention Act."

The Constitutional Convention formally began on June 1, 1971. Former President Carlos P. Garcia, a delegate from Bohol, was elected President. Unfortunately he died on June 14, 1971 and was succeeded by another former President, Diosadado Macapagal of Pampanga.

Before the Convention could finish its work, martial law was proclaimed. Several delegates were placed under detention and others went into hiding or voluntary exile. The martial law declaration affected the final outcome of the convention. In fact, it was said, that the President dictated some provisions of the Constitution.. On November 29, 1972, the Convention approved its Proposed Constitution of the Philippines.

On November 30, 1972, the President issued Presidential Decree No.73 setting the date of the plebiscite on January 15, 1973 for the ratification or rejection of the proposed Constitution. On January 7, 1973, however, the President issued General Order No. 20 postponing indefinitely the plebiscite scheduled on January 15.

On January 10-15, 1973 Plebiscite, the Citizen Assemblies voted for (1) ratification of the 1973 Constitution, (2) the suspension of the convening of the Interim National Assembly, (3) the continuation of martial law, and (4) moratorium on elections for a period of at least seven years. On January 17, 1973 the President issued Proclamation No. 1102 announcing that the proposed Constitution had been ratified by an overwhelming vote of the members of the Citizen Assemblies, organized by Marcos himself through Presidential Decree No. 86

Various legal petitions were filed with the Supreme Court assailing the validity of the ratification of the 1973 Constitution. On March 30, 1973, a divided Supreme Court ruled in Javellana vs. Executive Secretary (6 SCRA 1048) that "there is no further obstacle to the new Constitution being considered in force and effect."

The 1973 Constitution would have established in the Philippines a parliamentary government, with the President as a ceremonial head of state and a Prime Minister as the head of government. This was not implemented as a result of the referendum-plebiscite held on January 10-15, 1972 through the Citizen Assemblies whereby an overwhelming majority rejected the convening of a National Assembly. From 1972 until the convening of the Interim Batasang Pambansa in 1978, the President exercised absolute legislative power.

1976 Amendments to the Constitution

On October 16-17, 1976 majority of barangay voters (Citizen Assemblies) approved that martial law should be continued and ratified the amendments to the Constitution proposed by President Marcos.

The 1976 Amendments were: an Interim Batasang Pambansa (IBP) substituting for the Interim National Assembly, the President would also become the Prime Minister and he would continue to exercise legislative powers until martial law should have been lifted. The Sixth Amendment authorized the President to legislate:

Whenever in the judgment of the President there exists a grave emergency or a threat or imminence thereof, or whenever the Interim Batasang Pambansa or the regular National Assembly fails or is unable to act adequately on any matter for any reason that in his judgment requires immediate action, he may, in order to meet the exigency, issue the necessary decrees, orders or letters of instructions, which shall form part of the law of the land.

The Batasang Bayan

The Interim Batasang Pambansa was not immediately convened. Instead, President Marcos created the Batasang Bayan through Presidential Decree No. 995 on September 21, 1976. The Batasang Bayan is a 128-member legislature that advised the President on important legislature measures it served as the transitory legislature until convening of the Interim Batasang Pambansa in 1978 The Batasang Bayan was one of two temporary legislative bodies before the convening of the Regular Batasang Pambansa in 1984.

First national election under martial law

On April 7, 1978, the first national election under martial law was held. The election for 165- members of the Interim Batasang Pambansa resulted to the massive victory of the administration coalition party, the "Kilusang Bagong Lipunan ng Nagkakaisang Nacionalista, Liberal, at iba pa" or KBL. First Lady Imelda Marcos, KBL Chairman for NCR, won the highest number of votes in Metro Manila. Only 15 opposition candidates in other parts of the country won. Among them were: Francisco Tatad (former Secretary of Public Information to Pres. Marcos), Reuben Canoy (Mindanao Alliance), Homobono Adaza (MA), and Aquilino Pimentel, Jr. None of the members of Laban ng Bayan of former Senator Benigno Aquino, Jr. were elected. The Opposition denounced the massive votebuying and cheating in that elections. The opposition Liberal Party boycotted the elections as a futile exercise.

On April 21, 1978, the election of 14 sectoral representatives (agricultural, labor, and youth) was held.

On June 12, 1978 the Interim Batasang Pambansa was convened with Ferdinand E. Marcos as President-Prime Minister and Querube Makalintal as Speaker.

1980 and 1981 amendments to the Constitution

The 1973 Constitution was further amended in 1980 and 1981. In the 1980 Amendment, the retirement age of the members of the Judiciary was extended to 70 years. In the 1981 Amendments, the parliamentary system was modified: executive power was restored to the President; direct election of the President was restored; an Executive Committee composed of the Prime Minister and not more than fourteen members was created to "assist the President in the exercise of his powers and functions and in the performance of his duties as he may prescribe;" and the Prime Minister was a mere head of the Cabinet. Further, the amendments instituted electoral reforms and provided that a natural born citizen of the Philippines who has lost his citizenship may be a transferee of private land for use by him as his residence.

Lifting of martial law

After putting in force amendments to the Constitution and legislations securing his sweeping powers and with the Batasan under his control, President Marcos lifted martial law on January 17, 1981. However, the suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus continued in the autonomous regions of Western Mindanao and Central Mindanao. The Opposition dubbed the lifting of martial law as a mere "face lifting" as a precondition to the visit of Pope John Paul II.

1981 presidential election and the Fourth Republic

On June 16, 1981, six months after the lifting of martial law, the first presidential election in twelve years was held. As to be expected, President Marcos run and won a massive victory over the other candidates - Alejo Santos of the Nacionalista Party (Roy Wing) and Cebu Assemblyman Bartolome Cabangbang of the Federal Party. The major opposition parties, Unido (United Democratic Opposition, a coalition of opposition parties, headed by Salvador Laurel) and Laban, boycotted the elections.

In an almost one-sided election, President Marcos won an overwhelming 88 percent of the votes, the highest in Philippine electoral history. The Nacionalista candidate Alejo Santos garnered only 8.6 percent of the votes and Cabangbang obtained less than 3 percent.

On June 30, 1981, President Marcos was inaugurated in grandiose ceremonies and proclaimed the "birth of a new Republic." The new Republic lasted only for less than five years. Economic and political crises led to its demise.

The Aquino assasination

After seven years of detention, President Marcos allowed former Senator Benigno S. Aquino, Jr. to leave the country for a coronary by-pass operation in the United States. Aquino agreed to the President's request that he would not make any statements criticizing the Marcos regime. Before he left, Aquino told the First Lady: "I would like to express my profoundest gratitude for your concern ...In the past, I've been most critical of the First Lady's project... I take back all my harsh words - hoping I do not choke."

However, Aquino broke his promise and called on President Marcos to return the Philippines to democracy and end martial rule. He urged reconciliation between the government and opposition.

After three years of exile in the United States, Aquino decided to return. The First Lady tried to dissuade him but in vain.

On August 21, 1983, former Senator Aquino returned to the Philippines. He was shot dead at the tarmac of the Manila International Airport while in the custody of the Aviation Security Command (AVSECOM). The assassination stunned the whole nation, if not, the whole world.

In a mass show of sympathy and awe, about two million people attended the funeral of the late senator from Sto. Domingo Church to Manila Memorial Park.

President Marcos immediately created a fact-finding commission, headed by Supreme Court Chief Justice Enrique Fernando, to investigate the Aquino assassination. However, the commission lasted only in two sittings due to intense public criticism. President Marcos issued on October 14, 1983, Presidential Decree No. 1886 creating an independent board of inquiry. The board was composed of former Court of Appeals Justice Ma. Corazon J. Agrava as chairman, Amando Dizon, Luciano Salazar, Dante Santos and Ernesto Herrera.

The Agrava Fact-Finding Board convened on November 3, 1983 but, before it could start its work, President Marcos charged the communists for the killing of Senator Aquino. The Agrava Board conducted public hearings, and invited several persons who might shed light on the crimes, including AFP Chief of Staff Fabian Ver and First Lady Imelda R. Marcos.

After a year of thorough investigation - with 20,000 pages of testimony given by 193 witnesses, the Agrava Board submitted two reports to President Marcos - the Majority and Minority Reports. The Minority Report, submitted by Chairman Agrava alone, was submitted on October 23, 1984. It confirmed that the Aquino assassination was a military conspiracy but it cleared Gen. Ver. Many believed that President Marcos intimidated and pressured the members of the Board to persuade them not to indict Ver, Marcos' first cousin and most trusted general. Excluding Chairman Agrava, the majority of the board submitted a separate report - the Majority Report - indicting several members of the Armed Forces including AFP Chief-of-Staff Gen. Fabian Ver, Gen. Luther Custodio and Gen. Prospero Olivas, head of AVSECOM.

Later, the 25 military personnel, including several generals and colonels, and one civilian were charged for the murder of Senator Aquino. President Marcos relieved Ver as AFP Chief and appointed his second-cousin, Gen. Fidel V. Ramos as acting AFP Chief. After a brief trial, the Sandiganbayan acquitted all the accused on December 2, 1985. Immediately after the decision, Marcos re-instated Ver. The Sandiganbayan ruling and the re-instatement of Ver were denounced by several sectors as a "mockery" of justice.

The failed impeachment attempt

On August 13, 1985, fifty-six Assemblymen signed a resolution calling for the impeachment of President Marcos for graft and corruption, culpable violation of the Constitution, gross violation of his oath of office and other high crimes.

They cited the San Jose Mercury News exposé of the Marcoses' multi-million dollar investment and property holdings in the United States. The properties allegedly amassed by the First Family were the Crown Building, Lindenmere Estate, and a number of residential apartments (in New Jersey and New York), a shopping center in New York, mansions (in London, Rome and Honolulu), the Helen Knudsen Estate in Hawaii and three condominiums in San Francisco, California.

The Assemblymen also included in the complaint the misuse and misapplication of funds "for the construction of the Film Center, where X-rated and pornographic films are exhibited, contrary to public morals and Filipino customs and traditions."

The following day, the Committee on Justice, Human Rights and Good Government dismissed the impeachment complain for being insufficient in form and substance:

The resolution is no more than a hodge-podge of unsupported conclusions, distortion of law, exacerbated by ultra partisan considerations. It does not allege ultimate facts constituting an impeachable offense under the Constitution. In sum, the Committee finds that the complaint is not sufficient in form and substance to warrant its further consideration. It is not sufficient in form because the verification made by the affiants that the allegations in the resolution "are true and correct of our own knowledge" is transparently false. It taxes the ken of men to believe that the affiants individually could swear to the truth of allegations, relative to the transactions that allegedly transpired in foreign countries given the barrier of geography and the restrictions of their laws. More important, the resolution cannot be sufficient in substance because its careful assay shows that it is a mere charade of conclusions.

Marcos had a vision of a " Bagong Lipunan (New Society)"-similar to the "New Order" that was imposed in Indonesia under dictator Suharto. He used the martial law years to implement this vision. According to Marcos' book, "Notes on the New Society," it was a movement urging the poor and the privileged to work as one for the common goals of society, and to achieve the liberation of the Filipino people through self-realization. Marcos confiscated businesses owned by the oligarchy. More often than not, they were taken over by Marcos' family members and close personal friends, who used them as fronts to launder proceeds from institutionalized graft and corruption in the different national governmental agencies. In the end, some of Marcos' cronies used them as 'cash cows'. "Crony capitalism" was the term used to describe this phenomenon. This phenomenon was intended to have genuinely nationalistic motives by redistributing monopolies that were traditionally owned by Chinese and Mestizo oligarchs to Filipino businessmen. In practice, it led to graft and corruption via bribery, racketeering, and embezzlement. By waging an ideological war against the oligarchy, Marcos gained the support of the masses. Marcos also silenced the free press, making the state press the only legal one. He also seized privately owned lands and distributed them to farmers. By doing this, Marcos abolished the old oligarchy, only to create a new one in its place. Marcos, now free from day-to-day governance (which was left mostly to Juan Ponce Enrile), also used his power to settle old scores against old rivals, such as the Lopezes, who were always opposed to the Marcos administration. Leading oppositionists such as Senators Benigno Aquino, Jr., Jose Diokno, Jovito Salonga and many others were imprisoned for months or years. This practice considerably alienated the support of the old social and economic elite and the media who criticized the Marcos administration endlessly.

The declaration of martial law was initially very well received, given the social turmoil the Philippines was experiencing. The rest of the world was surprised at how the Filipinos accepted his self-imposed dictatorship. Crime rates plunged dramatically after dusk curfews were implemented. The country would enjoy economic prosperity throughout the 1970s in the midst of growing dissent to his strong-willed rule towards the end of martial law. Political opponents were given the opportunity or forced to go into exile. As a result, thousands migrated to other countries. Marcos' repressive measures against any criticism or dissent soon turned opinion against him.

Economic performance during the Marcos era was strong at times, but when looked at over his whole regime, it was not characterized by strong economic growth. Penn World Tables report real growth in GDP per capita averaged 3.5% from 1951 to 1965, while under the Marcos regime (1966 to 1986), annual average growth was only 1.4%. To help finance a number of economic development projects, such as infrastructure, the Marcos government engaged in borrowing money. Foreign capital was invited to invest in certain industrial projects. They were offered incentives including tax exemption privileges and the privilege of bringing out their profits in foreign currencies. One of the most important economic programs in the 1980s was the Kilusang Kabuhayan at Kaunlaran (Movement for Livelihood and Progress). This program was started in September 1981. Its aim was to promote the economic development of the barangays by encouraging the barangay residents to engage in their own livelihood projects. The government's efforts resulted in the increase of the nation's economic growth rate to an average of six percent to seven percent from 1970 to 1980.

Economic growth was largely financed, however, by U.S. economic aid and several loans made by the Marcos government. The country's foreign debts were less than US$1billion when Marcos assumed the presidency in 1965, and more than US$28billion when he left office in 1986. A sizable amount of these moneys went to Marcos family and friends in the form of behest loans. These loans were assumed by the government and still being serviced by taxpayers. Today, more than half of the country's revenues are outlayed for the payments on the interests of loans alone.

Another major source of economic growth was the remittances of overseas Filipino workers. Thousands of Filipino workers, unable to find jobs locally, sought and found employment in the Middle East, Singapore and Hong Kong. These overseas Filipino workers not only helped ease the country's unemployment problem but also earned much-needed foreign exchange for the Philippines.

The Philippine economy suffered a great decline after the Aquino assassination by Fidel Ramos' assassination squad in August 1983. The wave of anti-Marcos demonstrations in the country that followed scared off tourists. The political troubles also hindered the entry of foreign investments, and foreign banks stopped granting loans to the Philippine government.

In an attempt to launch a national economic recovery program, Marcos negotiated with foreign creditors including the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), for a restructuring of the country's foreign debts - to give the Philippines more time to pay the loans. Marcos ordered a cut in government expenditures and used a portion of the savings to finance the Sariling Sikap (Self-Reliance), a livelihood program he established in 1984.

From 1984 the economy began to decline, and continued to do so despite the government's recovery efforts. This failure was caused by civil unrest, rampant graft and corruption within the government and by Marcos' lack of credibility. Marcos himself diverted large sums of government money to his party's campaign funds. The unemployment rate ballooned from 6.30% in 1972 to 12.55% in 1985.

During these years, his regime was marred by rampant corruption and political mismanagement by his relatives and cronies, which culminated with the assassination of Benigno Aquino, Jr. Critics considered Marcos as the quintessential kleptocrat, having looted billions of dollars from the Filipino treasury. Much of the lost sum has yet to be accounted for, but recent documents have revealed that it was actually Fidel Ramos who had diverted the money (source required to substantiate this). He was also a notorious nepotist, appointing family members and close friends to high positions in his cabinet. This practice led to even more widespread mishandling of government, especially during the 1980s when Marcos was mortally ill with lupus and was in and out of office. Perhaps the most prominent example is the Bataan Nuclear Power Plant, a multi-billion dollar project that turned out to be a white elephant which allegedly provided huge kickbacks to Marcos and his businessman-friend, Herminio Disini, who spearheaded the project. The reactor, which turned out to be based on old, costly designs and built on an earthquake fault, has still to produce a single watt of electricity. The Philippine government today is still paying interests on more than US$28 billion public debts incurred during his administration. It was reported that when Marcos fled, U.S. Customs agents discovered 24 suitcases of gold bricks and diamond jewelry hidden in diaper bags; in addition, certificates for gold bullion valued in the billions of dollars are allegedly among the personal properties he, his family, his cronies and business partners had surreptitiously taken with them when the Reagan administration provided them safe passage to Hawaii.

During his third term, Marcos's health deteriorated rapidly due to kidney ailments. He was absent for weeks at a time for treatment, with no one to assume command. Many people questioned whether he still had capacity to govern, due to his grave illness and the ballooning political unrest. With Marcos ailing, his equally powerful wife, Imelda, emerged as the government's main public figure. Marcos dismissed speculations of his ailing health - he used to be an avid golfer and fitness buff who liked showing off his physique. In light of these growing problems, the assassination of Aquino in 1983 would later prove to be the catalyst that led to his overthrow. Many Filipinos came to believe that Marcos, a shrewd political tactician, had no hand in the murder of Aquino but that he was involved in cover-up measures. However, the opposition blamed Marcos directly for the assassination while others blamed the military and his wife, Imelda. The 1985 acquittals of Gen. Fabian Ver as well as other high-ranking military officers for the crime were widely seen as a miscarriage of justice.

By 1984, his close personal ally, U.S. President Ronald Reagan, started distancing himself from the Marcos regime that he and previous American presidents had strongly supported even after Marcos declared martial law. The United States, which had provided hundreds of millions of dollars in aid, was crucial in buttressing Marcos' rule over the years. During the Carter administration the relation with the U.S. soured somewhat when President Jimmy Carter targeted the Philippines in his human rights campaign. In 1981 Vice President George Bush seemed to signal a different approach when in his visit to Manila he told Marcos, "We love your adherence to democratic principles and to democratic processes."

In the face of escalating public discontent and under pressure from foreign allies, Marcos called a snap presidential election for 1986, with more than a year left in his term. He selected Arturo Tolentino as his running mate. The opposition united behind Aquino's widow, Corazon Aquino and her running mate, Salvador Laurel.

The final tally of the National Movement for Free Elections, an accredited poll watcher, showed Aquino winning by almost 800,000 votes. However, the government tally showed Marcos winning by almost 1.6 million votes. This appearance of blatant fraud by Marcos led the Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines and the United States Senate to condemn the elections. Both Marcos and Aquino traded accusations of vote-rigging. Popular sentiment in Metro Manila sided with Aquino, leading to a massive, multisectoral congregation of protesters, and the gradual defection of the military to Aquino led by Marcos' cronies, Enrile and Ramos. It must be noted that prior to his defection, Enrile's arrest warrant, having been charged for graft and corruption, was about to be served. The "People Power movement" drove Marcos into exile, and installed Corazon Aquino as the new president. At the height of the revolution, Enrile revealed that his ambush was faked in order for Marcos to have a pretext for imposing martial law. However, Marcos maintained that he was the duly-elected and proclaimed President of the Philippines for a fourth term. Marcos' wife was found to have over 2500 pairs of shoes in her closet.

Exile and Death

The Marcos family and their associates went into exile in Hawaii and were later indicted for embezzlement in the United States. Marcos died in Honolulu on September 28,1989 of kidney, heart and lung ailments. He was interred in a private mausoleum at Byodo-In Temple on the island of Oahu, visited daily by the Marcos family, political allies and friends. The late strongman's remains are currently interred inside a refrigerated crypt in Ilocos Norte, where his son, Ferdinand Marcos, Jr., and eldest daughter, Maria Imelda Marcos, have since become the local governor and representative, Imelda Marcos was acquitted of embezzlement by a U.S. court in 1990, but is still facing a few hundred additional graft charges in Philippine courts in 2006.

In 1995 some 10,000 Filipinos won a U.S. class-action lawsuit filed against the Marcos estate. The charges were filed by victims or their surviving relatives for torture, execution and disappearances. Human rights groups place the number of victims of extrajudicial killings under martial law at 1,500 and Karapatan (a local human rights group's) records show 759 involuntarily disappeared (their bodies never found).

President Marcos's official Malacañang Palace portrait since 1986; the portrait he had selected for himself was lost during the People Power Revolution Prior to Marcos, Philippine presidents had followed the path of "traditional politics" by using their position to help along friends and allies before stepping down for the next "player." Marcos essentially destroyed this setup through military rule, which allowed him to rewrite the rules of the game so they favored the Marcoses and their allies.

His practice of using the politics of patronage in his desire to be the " amo" or godfather of not just the people, but the judiciary, legislature and administrative branches of the government ensured his downfall, no matter how Marcos justified it according to his own philosophy of the "politics of achievement." This practice entailed bribery, racketeering, and embezzlement to gain the support of the aforementioned sectors. The 14 years of his dictatorship, according to critics, have warped the legislative, judiciary and the military.

Another allegation was that his family and cronies looted so much wealth from the country that to this day investigators have difficulty determining precisely how many billions of dollars have been salted away. The Swiss government has also returned US$684 million in allegedly ill-gotten Marcos wealth.

His apologists claim Marcos was "a good president gone bad," that he was a man of rare gifts - a brilliant lawyer, a shrewd politician and keen legal analyst with a ruthless streak and a flair for leadership. In power for more than 20 years, Marcos also had the very rare opportunity to lead the Philippines toward prosperity, with massive infrastructure he put in place as well as an economy on the rise.

However, he put these talents to work by building a regime that he apparently intended to perpetuate as a dynasty. Among the many documents he left behind in the Palace, after he fled in 1986, was one appointing his wife as his successor.

Opponents state that the evidence suggests that he used the communist threat as a pretext for seizing power. However, the communist insurgency was at its peak during the late 1960s to early 1970s when it was found out that the People's Republic of China was shipping arms to support the communist cause in the Philippines after the interception of a vessel containing loads of firearms. After he was overthrown, former Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile stated that certain incidents had been contrived to justify the imposition of Martial Law,such as Enrile's ambush.

The Martial Law dictatorship may have helped boost the communist insurgency's strength and numbers, but not to the point that could have led to the overthrow of the elected government. Marcos' regime was crucial in the United States' fight against communism and its influences, with Marcos himself being a staunch anti-communist. Marcos however had an ironically mild streak to his "strongman" image, and as much as possible avoided bloodshed and confrontation.

His most ardent supporters claim Marcos was serious about Martial Law and had genuine concern for reforming the society as evidenced by his actions during the period, up until his cronies, whom he entirely trusted, had firmly entrenched themselves in the government. By then, they say he was too ill and too dependent on them to do something about it. The same has been said about his relationship with his wife Imelda, who became the government's main public figure in light of his illness, by then wielding perhaps more power than Marcos himself.

It is important to note that many laws written by Marcos are still in force and in effect. Out of thousands of proclamations, decrees and executive orders, only a few were repealed, revoked, modified or amended. Few credit Marcos for promoting Filipino culture and nationalism. His 21 years in power with the help of U.S. massive economic aid and foreign loans enabled Marcos to build more schools, hospitals and infrastructure than any of his predecessors combined. Due to his iron rule, he was able to impose order and reduce crime by strict implementation of the law. The relative economic success that the Philippines enjoyed during the initial part of his presidency is hard to dispel. Many of Marcos' accomplishments were overlooked after the so-called "People Power" EDSA Revolution, but the Marcos era definitely had accomplishments in its own right.

A journalist said that "The Marcoses were the best of us, and they were the worst of us. That's why we say we hate them so much.".

On the other hand, many despise his regime, his silencing the free press, his curtailing of civil liberties such as the right to peaceably assemble, his dictatorial control, the imprisonment, torture, murder and disappearance of thousands of his oppositionists, and his supposed shameless plunder of the nation's treasury. It is quite evident that the EDSA Revolution left the Philippine society polarized. Nostalgia remains high in parts of the populace for the Marcos era due to the downward spiral the Philippines fell into after his departure. It can be said that his public image has been significantly rehabilitated after worsening political and economic problems that have hounded his successors. The irony is that these economic troubles are largely due to the country's massive debts incurred during his administration. The Marcos Era's legacy, polarizing as it is, remains deeply embedded in the Philippines today.

Today's Revolution: Democracy (1971)

Marcos' Notes for the Cancun Summit, 1981 (1981)

Progress and Martial Law (1981)

The New Philippine Republic: A Third World Approach to Democracy (1982)

An Ideology for Filipinos (1983)

Toward a New Partnership: The Filipino Ideology (1983)

1. Manuel A. Caoili, "The Philippine Congress and the Political Order," Philippine Journal of Public Administration Vol. XXX (1) (January, 1986): 21.

2. Hartzell Spence. For Every Tear a Victory: The Story of Ferdinand E. Marcos. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969), 359.

3. "Proclamation No. 1081, Proclaiming a State of Martial Law in the Philippines" Proclamation No. 1081 retrieved 18 June 2007.

References

Abaya, Hernando. The Making of a Subversive: a Memoir. Quezon City: New Day, 1984. ISBN 9711001543

Aquino, Belinda (ed.). Cronies and Enemies: the Current Philippine Scene. University of Hawaii, 1982.

Bonner, Raymond. Waltzing with a Dictator: The Marcoses and the Making of American Policy. New York: Times Books, 1987. ISBN 0812913264

Celoza, Albert F. Ferdinand Marcos and the Philippines: The Political Economy of Authoritarianism. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997. ISBN 027594137X

Espiritu, Augusto. How Democracy was Lost: A Political diary of the 1971-72 Constitutional Convention. Quezon City: New Day, 1993. ISBN 9711005336

Gleek, Davis, Jr. President Marcos and the Philippine Political Culture. 1988.

Hamilton-Paterson, James. America's Boy: A Century of Colonialism in the Philippines. New York: Henry Holt, 1999. ISBN 0805061185

Lacsamana, Anne E. Philippine History and Government. Quezon City, Philippines: Phoenix Pub. House, 1990. ISBN 9789710618941

Lacsamana, Leodivico Cruz. Philippine History and Government, Second Ed. Phoenix Publishing House, Inc., 1990.

Library of Congress: Country Studies: Philippines. "The Inheritance from Marcos."

Marcos, Ferdinand. Notes on the New Society of the Philippines. 1973.

Mijares, Primitivo. The Conjugal Dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos and Imelda Marcos. Union Square Publishing, 1976. ISBN 1141121476

McCoy, Alfred. Closer than Brothers: Manhood at the Philippine Military Academy. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999. ISBN 0300077653

McCoy, Alfred. Dark Legacy: Human Rights Under the Marcos Regime. speech at the Ateneo University, Sept. 20, 1999.

Romulo, Beth Day. Inside the Palace: The Rise and Fall of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos. New York: Putnam, 1987. ISBN 0399132538

Salonga, Jovito. Presidential Plunder: The Quest for Marcos Ill-gotten Wealth. Manila: Regina Pub. Co., 2001.

Spence, Hartzell. For Every Tear a Victory: The Story of Ferdinand E. Marcos. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.

Seagrave, S. The Marcos Dynasty. New York: Harper & Row, 1988. ISBN 0060158158

Vizmanos, Danilo. Through the Eye of the Storm. Manila: Ken Inc., 2000. ISBN 9718558411

External links

All links retrieved April 6, 2017.

Hunt for tyrant's millions leads to former model's home The Sun-Herald, July 4, 2004.

Philippines loses out on Marcos millions bbc.co.uk, February 1, 2002.

Philippine cult idolises Marcos bbc.co.uk, December 8, 1999.

Philandering dictator added Hollywood star to conquests The Sun-Herald, July 4, 2004.

Philippines blast wrecks Marcos bust bbc.co.uk, December 29, 2002.

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Ferdinand Emmanuel Edralín Marcos (September 11, 1917 - September 28, 1989) was President of the Philippines from 1965 to 1986. He was a lawyer, member of the Philippine House of Representatives (1949-1959) and a member of the Philippine Senate (1959-1965). As Philippine president and strongman, Marcos led his country in its post-war reconstruction.

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"I thought of flags in a new light. I discovered the depth of their power, their transcendent, transformational quality. I thought of the emotional connection they hold."

- Gilbert Baker

In April 2021, the GLBT Historical Society received an archival donation of an extraordinary, unique piece of history that we are unveiling during the Pride season: a fragment of one of the two monumental rainbow flags first raised on June 25, 1978 in San Francisco's United Nations Plaza at the San Francisco Gay Freedom Day Parade.

Displaying the original design's eight colored stripes, it was created by Gilbert Baker and hand-stitched and dyed with the help of volunteers and friends, including Lynn Segerblom (Faerie Argyle Rainbow), James McNamara, Glenne McElhinney, Joe Duran and Paul Langlotz. Thought to have been lost for over 40 years, the fragment, shown in the banner above, was recently rediscovered and is the only known surviving remnant of the two inaugural rainbow flags.

Gilbert Baker arrived in San Francisco in 1972 during the early years of the Gay Liberation movement. He quickly became well known for his sewing skills and flamboyant creations, such as drag costumes and political banners for street demonstrations. In 1978, while preparing for that year's Gay Freedom Day celebration, City Supervisor Harvey Milk (1930-1978) and other local activists appealed to Baker, the co-chair of the Decorations Committee, to create a new symbol for the LGBTQ community to be unveiled at the event in June.

Using color to establish meaning, Baker conceived a flag that would empower his "tribe" and a "rainbow of humanity" motif to represent the community's diversity. He assigned symbolic meaning to each of the flag's eight colored stripes:

"This was our new revolution: a tribal, individualistic and collective vision. It deserved a new symbol."

- Gilbert Baker

The first 30-feet-high by 60-feet-wide design subsequently underwent several revisions due to cost and display considerations. In 1979 the hot pink stripe was dropped due to the unavailability of flag fabric in this color. Baker also removed the turquoise stripe to create an even number of stripes for display on each side of the streetlamps on Market Street for the 1979 Gay Freedom Day parade. This resulted in the popularly known and still most common six-stripe variant of the flag.

This iconic symbol and its evolution have become an intrinsic part of LGBTQ identity, culture, politics and society. Gilbert Baker worked tirelessly to ensure that the rainbow flag would become a universally recognized, global emblem of the LGBTQ community and its proud legacy.

The flag segment is on display at the GLBT Historical Society Museum from June 4. Please click here for museum information and ticketing.

"For LGBTQ people, there are few artifacts that carry the historic, political and cultural significance of this seminal work of art, the original rainbow flag. We trust that its message of diversity, liberation and hope will continue to inspire queer people for generations to come."

- Charley Beal, president of the Gilbert Baker Foundation, and Terry Beswick, executive director of the GLBT Historical Society

Additional Resources

Exhibitions

The flag is on display at the GLBT Historical Society Museum in San Francisco as part of the ongoing exhibition "Performance, Protest and Politics: The Art of Gilbert Baker." For museum information and tickets, click here. For an online version of this exhibition, click here.

The 1978 Rainbow Flag History Project

This archival project will document the origin, creation, public display and legacy of the two original, eight-stripe rainbow flags first flown in 1978 in San Francisco. It will serve as a critical complement to the segment of the eight-stripe flag on display.

The mission of the project is to provide researchers a diverse array of primary sources related to the 1978 flags. The project will collect resources for new scholarship, community histories, artistic projects, and other research. Donors are invited to contribute photographs, documents, audiovisual recordings, artifacts and other historical materials that illustrate the history of the 1978 flags. Written or recorded personal narratives will also be accepted.

All contributors will be asked to complete our standard Deed of Gift. Items will be preserved in the archives and made publicly available to researchers in the reading room and potentially online and in exhibitions.

Background Documentation

Additional background documentation about the flag, including a press kit and authentification document, can be requested from communications manager Mark Sawchuk.

Media Resources

For media inquiries, contact communications manager Mark Sawchuk.

2021 Pride Partners

The GLBT Historical Society thanks the Gilbert Baker Foundation, ABSOLUT® Vodka, Rythm, Big Run Studios and all of our members and supporters for helping to make this acquisition possible.

Banner photo: This segment from one of the two original rainbow flags created for San Francisco Gay Freedom Day 1978 was donated to the GLBT Historical Society in April 2021; photograph by Matthew Leifheit, courtesy of the Gilbert Baker Foundation.

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In April 2021, the GLBT Historical Society received an archival donation of an extraordinary, unique piece of history that we are unveiling during the Pride season: a fragment of one of the two monumental rainbow flags first raised on June 25, 1978 in San Francisco's United Nations Plaza at the San Francisco Gay Freedom Day Parade.

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Geographically, Sweden is one of the Scandinavian countries, so its national costumes have a lot of features in common with neighboring Norway, Denmark, etc. But there is a number of differences that make Swedish folk outfits unique. We'll tell you about some of them in this material. Discover the beauty of folk dress in Sweden with us. Let's look at these top-5 curious facts about Swedish traditional clothing.

840 different costumes

Swedish folk costumes are so diverse - there are 840 different variations (550 female folk outfits and 290 male ones). Some of them have a rather long history, dating back from the 17th-19th century, others are more modern - from the early to mid 20th century.

Swedish female folk attire, 1900-1905. From The American Swedish Institute
The costumes vary by the region of origin, gender, occasion, marital and social status, etc. Of course, each region had its own everyday and festive outfits, wedding attire, ceremonial clothing, and so on.

Swedish women's national attire in blue & yellow color palette and with daisy pattern, 1919-1929. From The American Swedish Institute
Blue & yellow color palette and daisies

Despite a great variation in cut, design, and decorations of clothes, there are some features that are common for most of the Swedish regions. For example, very often, you'd see a Swedish folk costume in a blue & yellow color palette - these are colors of the Swedish national flag, so they're traditional for this country. This is the official Swedish folk dress worn by the royals and a lot of ordinary people.

Swedish authentic male traditional costume. From The American Swedish Institute
Another typically Swedish feature is a daisy symbol. Daisy patterns occur in Swedish embroidery, prints, jewelry, etc. This flower is symbolic for Sweden.

In general, Swedish folk costumes were made from wool in the past. This fabric is warm and durable, perfect for the local cold climate. As wool is rather complicated in dyeing, most of the costumes were dark because it's hard to dye the fabric in bright colors evenly. The underwear and shirts were not dyed at all for obvious reasons, so they're white.

Women's headwear is outstanding

Swedish female headdress is the accessory that catches the eye the most. There is a wide variety of headpieces for different occasions and regions. From bonnets to kerchiefs to wimples to crowns to headpieces of a really odd shape. It's always fun to look through the local folk headdresses, compare them, and try to guess their origin and purpose.

The comeback of Swedish folk dress happened in the 1970s

In the early 20th century, Swedish people still continued to use their traditional clothing in daily life and for special occasions, despite the appearance of manufactured clothes. But around World War II, they gave up wearing these beautiful costumes. By the way, a similar situation we find in many other European countries, including Poland, Ukraine, Romania, and others. That war influenced the life of many countries severely. Only in the 1970s, Swedish people started to make and wear authentic costumes again and recover the knowledge about them. Luckily, they haven't lost their heritage clothing.

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National costume in Sweden. Top-5 interesting facts about Swedish folk dress - Nationalclothing.org

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Geographically, Sweden is one of the Scandinavian countries, so its national costumes have a lot of features in common with neighboring Norway, Denmark, etc. But there is a number of differences that make Swedish folk outfits unique. We'll tell you about some of them in this material.

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Anne Frank was a German-Jewish teenager who was forced to go into hiding in Nazi-occupied Amsterdam, Holland during the Holocaust. Shortly after receiving a diary for her 13th birthday, the girl started recording entries on June 14, 1942, and she continued writing down her impressions while confined with her family and four other fugitives as they hid behind a bookcase in a concealed attic space in her father's office building.

The young girl's entries were made in the form of letters to several imaginary friends and she also employed pseudonyms to conceal the identities of her fellow fugitives and accomplices. Like many other normal teenagers, Anne agonized over her conflicted feelings about her family and a possible romantic interest, as well as her evolving thoughts about life. But her extraordinary depth and fine literary ability, combined with her optimism in the face of such adversity made her account a literary and historical treasure.

"It's a wonder I haven't abandoned all my ideals," she wrote shortly before her arrest,

they seem so absurd and impractical. Yet I cling to them because I still believe, in spite of everything, that people are truly good at heart... I see the world being slowly transformed into a wilderness, I hear the approaching thunder that, one day, will destroy us too, I feel the suffering of millions. And yet, when I look up at the sky, I somehow feel that everything will change for the better that this cruelty too shall end, that peace and tranquility will return once more.

Anne would end up spending two years and one month closeted in the hideaway, before the group was betrayed and sent off to concentration camps. Of the eight persons in hiding in the attic, only her father would survive. Anne succumbed to typhus in Belsen-Belsen in March 1945. She was just fifteen.

A family friend later retrieved the diary from the attic and presented it to Anne's father after the war. Upon reading it, Otto Frank persevered to get it published.

The diary first appeared in Amsterdam in 1947 and was subsequently published in the U.S. and the United Kingdom as Anne Frank: The Diary of a Young Girl in 1952. Its immense popularity inspired award-winning stage and movie versions.

To date the book has sold more than 30 million copies in 67 languages. The original manuscript was bequeathed to the Netherlands Institute for War Documentation.
This article is excerpted from Scott Christianson's "100 Documents That Changed The World," available November 10.

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How Anne Frank's Diary Changed the World

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Anne Frank was a German-Jewish teenager who was forced to go into hiding in Nazi-occupied Amsterdam, Holland during the Holocaust. Shortly after receiving a diary for her 13th birthday, the girl started recording entries on June 14, 1942, and she continued writing down her impressions while confined with her family and four other fugitives as they hid behind a bookcase in a concealed attic space in her father's office building.

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If you're inspired to build a costume that's historically accurate to our period, but that varies from these basic minimum standards, please do! You'll be within our guidelines as long as you look to nineteenth-century Scandinavian examples for guidance as you make decisions about your costume.

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Irish immigration to America after 1846 was predominantly Catholic. The vast majority of those that had arrived previously had been Protestants or Presbyterians and had quickly assimilated, not least because English was their first language, and most (but certainly not all) had skills and perhaps some small savings on which to start to build a new life. Very soon they had become independent and prosperous. More about pre-1846 immigration here .

Irish immigration to America: The Famine years

The arrival of destitute and desperate Catholics, many of whom spoke only Irish or a smattering of English, played out very differently. Suspicious of the majority Anglo-American-Protestants (a historically-based trait that was reciprocated), and limited by a language barrier, illiteracy and lack of skills, this wave of Irish immigrants sought refuge among their own kind.

The arrival of destitute and desperate Catholics, many of whom spoke only Irish or a smattering of English, played out very differently.

Suspicious of the majority Anglo-American-Protestants (a historically-based trait that was reciprocated), and limited by a language barrier, illiteracy and lack of skills, this wave of Irish immigrants sought refuge among their own kind.

At this time, when famine was raging in Ireland, Irish immigration to America came from two directions: by transatlantic voyage to the East Coast Ports (primarily Boston and New York) or by land or sea from Canada, then called British North America.

Ireland was also part of Britain, and fares to Canada were cheaper than fares to the USA, especially after 1847. Those that survived the journey often had just one thought on their minds: to be free of British oppression. While many chose to settle in Canada, substantially more managed to find the physical and financial resources to reach America.

The arrival of destitute and desperate Catholics, many of whom spoke only Irish or a smattering of English, played out very differently.

Suspicious of the majority Anglo-American-Protestants (a historically-based trait that was reciprocated), and limited by a language barrier, illiteracy and lack of skills, this wave of Irish immigrants sought refuge among their own kind.

At this time, when famine was raging in Ireland, Irish immigration to America came from two directions: by transatlantic voyage to the East Coast Ports (primarily Boston and New York) or by land or sea from Canada, then called British North America.

Ireland was also part of Britain, and fares to Canada were cheaper than fares to the USA, especially after 1847.

Those that survived the journey often had just one thought on their minds: to be free of British oppression. While many chose to settle in Canada, substantially more managed to find the physical and financial resources to reach America.

Irish immigration to America - Discrimination

Notwithstanding the lack of trust between the predominantly Protestant America-born middle class and the impoverished Catholic immigrants who arrived in the mid-19th century, the main problem for the Irish immigrant was a lack of skill.

Of course, there were some who were blacksmiths, stonemasons, bootmakers and the like, but the majority had had no formal training in anything.

On passenger manifests the men claimed to be labourers; women said they were domestic servants. In most cases, they had little or no previous experience in these roles; these positions were the limit of their aspirations.

The Boston Pilot

A job - a wage - was what they were seeking, and they didn't really care too much about the detail. Being unskilled, uneducated and typically illiterate, they accepted the most menial jobs that other immigrant groups did not want. So-called 'Elegant Society' looked down on them, and so did nearly everyone else!

They were forced to work long hours for minimal pay. Their cheap labour was needed by America's expanding cities for the construction of canals, roads, bridges, railroads and other infrastructure projects, and also found employment in the mining and quarrying industries.

When the economy was strong, Irish immigrants to America were welcomed. But when boom times turned down, as they did in the mid-1850s, social unrest followed and it could be especially difficult for immigrants who were considered to be taking jobs from Americans. Being already low in the pecking order, the Irish suffered great discrimination. 'No Irish Need Apply' was a familiar comment in job advertisements.

The Boston Pilot

Irish immigration to America: Steamship competition

After 1855, the tide of Irish immigration to America levelled off. However, the continuing steady numbers encouraged ship builders to construct bigger vessels. Most of them still made the voyage east with commodities to feed England's industrial revolution, but shipowners began to realise the economic advantages of specialising in steerage passengers.

Conditions onboard began to improve -not to a standard that could even remotely be called comfortable today, but improved, all the same.

By 1855 iron steamships of over 1500 tons were becoming increasingly common, and competition was growing. So much so that steerage fares on steamships were often lower than on sailing ships, and voyage time was considerably quicker at less than two weeks.

The reduction of voyage time was a two-fold blessing. Not only did this mean the emigrant had to suffer the discomfort of steerage for a shorter period, it also made the concept of Irish immigration to America -– the leaving of family and homeland -– seem less permanent.

As the size of emigrant ships grew, so it became increasingly common for Irish emigrants to travel to Liverpool, across the Irish Sea in Northwest England, to catch their boat to a new life in America. This huge port could accommodate the larger ships more easily than the small Irish harbours.

Immigration in New York: Castle Garden

New York was the principal entry point to the United States throughout the 19th century and on 3rd August 1855, a Board of Commissioners of Immigration opened the city's first immigrant reception station.

Based at Castle Garden, near the Battery at the southern end of Manhatten, it had earlier been a fort, a cultural centre and a theatre. Now it was pressed into service as a place to receive immigrants.

More than 8 million immigrants of all nationalities passed through Castle Garden before it closed on April 18, 1890. It is now a museum, and also the ticket office for the ferry to the Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island.

Surviving Castle Gardens' records are available on a free online database that also includes a sizeable collection of records dating from 1830 for other ports in America.

The records are mixed together, however, so if you find an entry for one of your ancestors, you will need to verify the port of entry. This can be done either through searching a microfilm of the ship's manifest at NARA or through Ancestry's online collection (fee charged). See below for links for more information.

Irish immigration to America: the turn of the century

Of course, this was not the lot of the majority. In the 1900 census there were still hundreds of thousands of Irish immigrants living in poverty, mostly in urban slums. But economic circumstances were improving for a significant proportion, and the Irish, as a group, were gaining footholds in the workplace, especially in the labour or trade union movement, the police and the fire service.

Their numbers helped. The large Irish populations of cities such as Boston, Chicago and New York were able to get their candidates elected to power, so launching the Irish American political class.

At the turn of the century, Irish born immigrants made up 2.12% of the US population. More importantly, Irish Americans - those Americans born to Irish parents - made up 6.53%. A sizeable group, indeed.

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An overview of Irish immigration to America from 1846 to the 1900s

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Irish immigration to America after 1846 was predominantly Catholic. The vast majority of those that had arrived previously had been Protestants or Presbyterians and had quickly assimilated, not least because English was their first language, and most (but certainly not all) had skills and perhaps some small savings on which to start to build a new life.

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Food Many of the restaurants on the island are considered to be "Fondas" or small cafeteria like places that offer generous portions for reasonable prices. Both tourists and locals enjoy these types of restaurants. "Arroz con gandules" or rice with pigeon peas is a typical dish as well as Pasteles are tamales, which are made from plantains that are stuffed with meat. Their breakfasts are very light. An example of a typical breakfast would be "café con leche" or coffee with milk. Dinner is the biggest meal and if there is a visitor the family will insists that they stay. It is considered to be very rude to reject this offer. Dessert is also a big part of a meal. Many of these ingredients are grown on the island. A popular dessert is called "Polvo de Amor" or love powder. To make this simple recipe, one would mix together coconut and sugar and put it over high heat for about five minutes. Puerto Rico is also known for its rum. The Bacardi family moved their company from Cuba to Puerto Rico in the 1930's (Puerto Ricans, 2009).
However, a lot of the food has become very Americanized. While they still prepare traditional meals, many of its ingredients are imported. In large cities, fast food chains have become very popular (Puerto Ricans, 2009).

Traditions One tradition in Puerto Rico is how they name their children. They go by their first, fathers last name, and then mothers last name. Usually, they are both used when addressing people. However, to avoid confusion, they typically drop their mothers' family when they are in America (Puerto Rican Americans, 2009).

Another tradition is for people who practice Catholicism. The first traditional celebration is baptism. Soon after the child is born, they become baptized and there is a lot of emphasis put on the "padrinos" or grandparents. The second large catholic tradition is the First Holy Communion. Funerals are grieved in a similar way as the United States (Puerto Ricans, 2009).

When parents die, the land and property are still usually transferred to the eldest son. However, the eldest daughter also has many rights in this area. Most American traditions have been passed to Puerto Rican culture. An example of this would be how they celebrate holidays like Christmas and Independence Day (Vigil, 1996).

Holidays Each town has it own holidays to celebrate its patron saint by hosting carnivals, masses, dances, and concerts. However, the main Puerto Rican celebration is on San Juan Bautista Day on June 24. At midnight, the participants go into water fully clothed to bring them good luck (Puerto Ricans, 2009).

Other traditional Puerto Rican holidays include Three Kings Day (January 6), Constitution Day (July 25), and Discovery Day (Novemeber 19). They do celebrate all American holidays. For example, Independence Day (July 4), Veterans Day (November 11), Thanksgiving (Last Thursday in November), and Christmas (December 25). On these holidays, they celebrate by hosting parades. (Santiago-Irizarry, V. 2001). On Christmas day a tradition is to do "asalto" or "assault." This is when people go door to door and sing carols called "aquinaldos." After being sung to, the family will join the group and move on to the next house (Puerto Ricans, 2009).

Music and Dance The most popular kind of music in Puerto Rico is Salsa. Two very popular Puerto Rican musicians are José Feliciano and Tony Orlando and Julian. They do listen to a lot of American music (Puerto Rican Americans, 2009). The young enjoy going to bars to listen to music and dance in their free time.

Sports and Entertainment Baseball is the most popular sport. Many famous baseball players have left Puerto Rico to play in the American major leagues, the most well known being Roberto Clemente. There are also six professional winter league teams that many Americans play in. Other popular sports include horse racing, boxing, and basketball (Puerto Rico, 2004).

Another popular form of entertainment is The Tapia Theater in Old San Juan. This has hosted the Taller de Histriones group and "zarzuela"or comic opera troupes from Spain (Puerto Rico, 2004).

Folk art, Crafts, and Hobbies A well known type of craft is called "santos." These are carved religious figures that have been made for over 400 years on this island. Another popular craft is "Mundillos " or tattered fabrics which is a lace craft that too has been made for a very long time. Some of the musicians make " cuatros" or four-string guitars and other crafts people make "caretas " or paper- mâché masks for various festivals (Puerto Rico, 2009).
References →

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Food Many of the restaurants on the island are considered to be "Fondas" or small cafeteria like places that offer generous portions for reasonable prices. Both tourists and locals enjoy these types of restaurants. "Arroz con gandules" or rice with pigeon peas is a typical dish as well as Pasteles are tamales, which are made from plantains that are stuffed with meat.

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Also Known As: Joseph Isaac "Ike" Clanton

Born in: Callaway County, Missouri

Notorious As: Member of Brigand Group - The Cowboys

father: Newman Haynes Clanton

mother: Maria Sexton Clanton

siblings: Billy Clanton, Phineas Clanton

Who was Ike Clanton?

Joseph Isaac "Ike" Clanton was an American outlaw and a member of the notorious group of brigands who called themselves 'The Cowboys'. One of the near-mythical figures of the American Old Wild West, he was present at the infamous 30-second shootout known as the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral. Clanton grew up in the frontier areas of Missouri and later moved with his family to Tombstone, Arizona before it was a town or even a mining community. There, the family set up the Clanton ranch, which in time became hugely profitable. The Clantons gained notoriety for their reckless behaviour, cattle rustling, and their long-standing rivalry with the Earp brothers. Ike particularly harboured deep animosity against Wyatt Earp and Doc Holliday. After the event at the O.K. Corral, where he lost one of his brothers, he filed murder charges against the Earps and Holliday. But they were later acquitted due to the inconsistencies in Clanton's statements. He was killed six years later while trying to flee from a lawman who was trying to arrest him for cattle rustling charges. Clanton's life has been the subject of numerous literary works, and he has been portrayed on both films and TV shows by the likes of Grant Withers, William Tannen, Stephen Lang, and Jeff Fahey.

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Who was Ike Clanton? Everything You Need to Know

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Also Known As: Joseph Isaac "Ike" Clanton Born in: Callaway County, Missouri Notorious As: Member of Brigand Group - The Cowboys father: Newman Haynes Clanton mother: Maria Sexton Clanton siblings: Billy Clanton, Phineas Clanton Who was Ike Clanton? Joseph Isaac "Ike" Clanton was an American outlaw and a member of the notorious group of brigands who called themselves 'The Cowboys'.

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English Only? For Mainland Puerto Ricans, The Answer Is Often 'Yes'

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English Only? For Mainland Puerto Ricans, The Answer Is Often 'Yes'

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Javier Fossas asked me, "Do you speak Spanish?"

It's complicated. I do, but I'm really insecure about my Spanish.

I grew up in California in a Puerto Rican family where English was the dominant language. Adults used Spanish mostly to share secrets or express frustration. So I hate the Spanish question.

But it turns out my penchant for English isn't unique for a mainland Puerto Rican, according to a survey of American Latinos by NPR, the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation and the Harvard School of Public Health. Given a choice between answering a gamut of questions about their lives in Spanish or in English, 78 percent of the Puerto Rican respondents chose English, significantly more than any other Latino group. According to the poll, only 20 percent of Puerto Ricans speak Spanish at home, less than half the percentage for respondents overall. (The poll didn't include respondents in Puerto Rico, only Puerto Rican respondents living on the U.S. mainland.)

I have to admit, the finding helped me exhale. So I'm not the only one. But it also made me wonder why it was so. So I went to New York City, which is still home to the largest Puerto Rican population in the U.S., and asked around.
Puerto Ricans Are Americans
Javier Fossas was the first person I turned to for answers. We met at his favorite Puerto Rican restaurant, Sofritos in Manhattan. He ordered the pernil (roast pork) and I ordered bistec encebollado (steak with onions) and we talked about Spanish, in English.

Fossas, who was raised in Puerto Rico, is in his 20s and works for a private equity firm in Manhattan. He told me that in Puerto Rico, his family spoke Spanish at home, period. But he says he watched American TV shows, was taught English in school, and his father had a subscription to an English-language newspaper. So English was a big part of his life, too.

Both English and Spanish are the official languages in Puerto Rico because it's a U.S. territory. Puerto Ricans living on the island have a complicated relationship with the United States. They're proud to be Puerto Rican but also proud to be American citizens. They want to be acknowledged as Puerto Rican and American, equally, and language plays its role. Everyone is taught English in school there, but Spanish still reigns supreme, something Fossas is proud of.

"Spanish is a great language and a beautiful language and something that should be taught," he said. And that's when he asked the dreaded question: "Do you speak Spanish?"
Do You Speak Spanish?
This time, I'll let Marissa Irizarry answer the question. "OK, I don't speak Spanish, but I understand it fully," she says.

I met Irizarry in a Puerto Rican music and folklore class at Brooklyn College - a long train ride away from that restaurant in Manhattan. She's a Puerto Rican and Latino Studies major. She sat in the front row of the class, raising her hand often with the right answers to questions about Puerto Rican music and history. Irizarry grew up in Brooklyn.

"I was raised in a home with a father who was back and forth between Puerto Rico and New York City, so he was able to find ways to hold on to the culture and I kind of did too," she says.

With one big exception - Spanish.

Irizarry's professor, Antonio Nadal, serenades her class with an old Puerto Rican bolero called "La Despedida." "La Despedida," he says, writing the title up on the blackboard. "Translation?" he asks the class.

A shaky voice from the back nervously offers up the answer: "Farewell?"
The Farewell
Many Puerto Ricans said farewell to the island in the late '40s and early '50s, escaping poverty. Nadal, who teaches in Brooklyn College's Puerto Rican and Latino Studies department, says that's also why so many Puerto Ricans living in the U.S. speak English at home.

"We've been here a long time," he says. "Length of residence does count."

He adds that the New York public schools were unprepared for the wave of Puerto Rican youth - like him - who came in the late '40s and early '50s. He says kids were dumped in remedial classes, "in the dingiest places in the building. And they picked up that they were inferior to English-speaking kids, right? And many Puerto Rican kids went through that."

That feeling of inferiority was a slap in the face to Puerto Ricans, who, after all, are American citizens, says Nadal. So to be treated like any other American, he theorizes, Puerto Ricans focused on English - often at the expense of Spanish.

Twenty-seven-year-old Gisely Colon Lopez is another one of Nadal's students. She came to the Bronx from Puerto Rico when she was 4. That's when her family stopped speaking Spanish at home. "My mother was trying to learn English on her own," Colon Lopez says. "She just wanted to hear English. 'Just speak to me in English, so I can learn it while you're learning it.' The mentality is, if you're speaking English, you're better."
Times Have Changed
As the Latino population continues to grow here in the U.S., being bilingual is now seen as an asset, especially when it comes to job options. And Puerto Ricans in New York like Colon Lopez and Irizarry are struggling to catch up. Colon Lopez says she told her parents: That's it, my turn, Spanish from now on.

"The other day we were driving in the car with my dad and I was talking to them in Spanish. I was like, 'Please correct me as often as possible,' and every other second they were correcting things for me," she says, laughing.

But classmate Irizarry isn't as upbeat. "I'm 20 years into it and I have low self-esteem about it, that I'm ever going to learn it," she says. Irizarry is disappointed her parents didn't enforce Spanish when she was young and could soak up the language with ease. She says her mother reminds her that it's never too late to learn. "She'll joke and go, 'Let's start now! I'll only talk with you in Spanish!' And I'll go, 'Too late!' "

Now, there's another record wave of Puerto Ricans coming to the U.S. mainland escaping economic distress on the island. They're coming here at a time when politicians and business leaders are waking up to the economic and political power of Latinos and the power of Spanish. Maybe retaining and teaching their native tongue will become more of a priority for Puerto Ricans living on the mainland and their kids won't dread answering the question, "Do you speak Spanish?"

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English Only? For Mainland Puerto Ricans, The Answer Is Often 'Yes'

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Puerto Ricans are less likely to speak Spanish at home, compared with other Latinos living in the U.S. According to an NPR poll, only 20 percent of Puerto Ricans speak Spanish at home - less than half the percentage for respondents overall.

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Very little fabric survives 1,000 years, but surprisingly, some has. What we know of Viking clothing comes from archeological finds, although we also glean some clothing descriptions from the sagas.

Vikings all wore the same basic clothing styles: for men, a thick shirt known as a tunic was worn over trousers. Women wore one long dress, floor or ankle length, with an apron-style dress over it. The apron dress hung from straps over the shoulders fastened by two brooches in the front. Underneath these woolen garments, both men and women wore linen undershirts or shifts, which they might have slept in. Children wore the same styles as the adults, but cut to their much smaller sizes.

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Vikings' over garments were made from wool, a warm, durable fabric that kept out cold and wind. Scandinavians needed the warmth, and clothes were so time-consuming to make that one set of clothing had to last. Viking sheep provided the wool for clothes and Viking farms grew the flax, from which linen is made. Viking women spent most of their time spinning and carding wool, weaving fabric and making her family's clothes.

Viking warriors, farmers and artisans required tunics that fit well. A Viking's krytill or over tunic was cut from a complex pattern and the many pieces were then stitched together to create a fitted garment where the arms and shoulders could move easily and freely. The tunic came down into a broad skirt that reached to the thighs or knees. A keyhole neckline made it easy to fit the kyrtill over the head. Most Viking men wore a simple braid trim on the neckline and around the cuffs of the sleeves. Women wove the braid for trim from brightly colored yarns.

A Viking's trousers could be worn tight or loose and were held up by a belt or by a string passed through a loop. Made from wool, trousers were also warm and could be tucked into boots or left loose. Shoes for both sexes were simple, but crafted from durable goat skin.

A woman's overdress also had a keyhole neckline with long sleeves and fell to the ankle or floor. Over this, a Viking wife wore an apron-dress with panels of fabric in front and back, held on the shoulders by straps which were fastened by two brooches, known as turtle brooches because of their shape. These brooches could be made of bone, ivory, bronze, silver or even gold for wealthier Viking women. A string of colorful glass, amber and jet beads decorated the front of the apron dress, hanging between the two brooches.

Vikings wore long, warm, wool cloaks over their clothes for warmth outside. Hats were made of wool, leather or fur. Woolen socks kept the feet warm under the shoes or boots, and leather belts pulled the outfits together. Pouches, knives and other tools hung off the belt so were close to hand.

Cloth was dyed bright colors using vegetable-based dyes, creating a variety of colors from light browns to russets to red, yellow, gold and blue. Wealthier Vikings could afford silk, but this imported fabric was rare in Viking culture.
This article is part of our larger selection of posts about Vikings history. To learn more, click here for our comprehensive guide to Vikings history
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Cite This Article

"Viking Clothing: Warm and Durable" History on the Net
© 2000-2019, Salem Media.
November 26, 2019 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/viking-clothing-warm-and-durable>
More Citation Information.

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Viking Clothing: Warm and Durable - History

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Loading... Very little fabric survives 1,000 years, but surprisingly, some has. What we know of Viking clothing comes from archeological finds, although we also glean some clothing descriptions from the sagas. Vikings all wore the same basic clothing styles: for men, a thick shirt known as a tunic was worn over trousers.

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Ebonics IQI. What have we learned ? – use of Ebonics language to teach African American children – Cover Story

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Ebonics IQI. What have we learned ? – use of Ebonics language to teach African American children – Cover Story

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Ebonics IQI. What have we learned ? – use of Ebonics language to teach African American children – Cover Story

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The Ebonics controversy in Oakland, California, took many people by surprise. Most had never heard of Ebonics before December 18, 1996, and once they did, few understood what the school district meant when it expressed its intent to use this new “language” to teach the district’s African American ch…

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Ebonics: A Case Study in Language, Power, and Pedagogy on JSTOR

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Ebonics: A Case Study in Language, Power, and Pedagogy on JSTOR

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Journal Information

TESOL Quarterly (TQ) is one of the most respected publications in second and foreign language teaching, with an annual acceptance rate of 8% of all article submissions. This scholarly journal serves as forum for researchers, linguists, and teachers. As a peer-reviewed journal, TQ's primary focus is to link theory with practice and to address the practical concerns of English language educators. The contributors influence the development of the profession by bridging research, scholarly discourse, and practice. Approximately 3,600 TESOL members and 1,700 academic institutions subscribe to TQ. Each September TQ produces a special issue on current hot topic. In September 2007, TQ will focus on Language Policies and TESOL: Perspectives From Practice.

Publisher Information

TESOL-Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages-is the acronym that refers to the professional association, the profession, and the field itself. Headquartered in Alexandria, Virginia USA, TESOL has more than 13,500 members from 140 countries. Its membership is a diverse mix of teachers, researchers, administrators, material writers, and curriculum developers whose primary focus is on enhancing English language learning, whether it is English as a second language (ESL) or English as a foreign language (EFL). TESOL's mission is to ensure excellence in English language teaching to speakers of other languages.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ebonics: A Case Study in Language, Power, and Pedagogy on JSTOR

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Journal Information TESOL Quarterly (TQ) is one of the most respected publications in second and foreign language teaching, with an annual acceptance rate of 8% of all article submissions. This scholarly journal serves as forum for researchers, linguists, and teachers.

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Puerto Rican Food: 24 of the Best Puerto Rican Dishes

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Puerto Rican Food: 24 of the Best Puerto Rican Dishes

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Puerto Rican Food: 24 of the Best Puerto Rican Dishes

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Puerto Rico is a beautiful territory of the United States, which is a hugely popular travel destination. It is often referred to as “La Isla del Encanto”, which translates to The Island of Enchantment, and

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Although Puerto Rican cooking is often compared to Spanish, Cuban and Mexican cuisine, it is a unique tasty blend of Spanish, African, Taíno, and American influences, using such indigenous seasonings and ingredients as coriander, papaya, cacao, nispero, apio, plantains, and yampee. Locals call their cuisine "cocina criolla".

Cocina criolla (Créole cooking) can be traced back to the Arawaks and Tainos, the original inhabitants of the island, who thrived on a diet of corn, tropical fruit, and seafood. When Ponce de León arrived with Columbus in 1493, the Spanish added beef, pork, rice, wheat, and olive oil to the island's foodstuffs. Soon after, the Spanish began planting sugarcane and importing slaves from Africa, who brought with them okra and taro (known in Puerto Rico as yautia). The mingling of flavors and ingredients passed from generation to generation among the different ethnic groups that settled on the island, resulting in the exotic blend of today's Puerto Rican cuisine.

Appetizers & Soups

Lunch and dinner generally begin with sizzling-hot appetizers such as bacalaitos, crunchy cod fritters; surullitos, sweet plump cornmeal fingers; and empanadillas, crescent-shaped turnovers filled with lobster, crab, conch, or beef.

Soups are a popular beginning for meals on Puerto Rico. There is a debate about whether one of the best-known soups, frijoles negros (black-bean soup), is Cuban or Puerto Rican in origin. Nevertheless, it is still a savory, if filling, opening to a meal.

Another classic soup is sopón de pollo con arroz -chicken soup with rice- which manages to taste somewhat different in every restaurant. One traditional method of preparing this soup calls for large pieces of pumpkin and diced potatoes or yautias (the starchy root of a large-leaved tropical plant whose flesh is usually yellow or creamy white).

The third classic soup is sopón de pescado (fish soup), prepared with the head and tail intact. Again, this soup varies from restaurant to restaurant and may depend on the catch of the day. Traditionally, it is made with garlic and spices plus onions and tomatoes, the flavor enhanced by a tiny dash of vinegar and a half cup of sherry. Galician broth (caldo gallego) is a dish imported from Spain's northwestern province of Galicia. It is prepared with salt pork, white beans, ham, and berzas (collard greens) or grelos (turnip greens), and the whole kettle is flavored with spicy chorizos (Spanish sausages).

Garbanzos (chickpeas), are often added to give flavor, body, and texture to Puerto Rican soups. One of the most authentic versions of this is sopón de garbanzos con patas de cerdo (chickpea soup with pig's feet). Into this kettle is added a variety of ingredients, including pumpkin, chorizos, salt pork, chile peppers, cabbage, potatoes, tomatoes, and fresh cilantro leaves.

Not really a soup, the most traditional Puerto Rican dish is asopao, a hearty gumbo made with either chicken or shellfish. One well-known version, consumed when the food budget runs low, isasopao de gandules (pigeon peas). Every Puerto Rican chef has his or her own recipe for asopao. Asopao de pollo (chicken asopao) takes a whole chicken, which is then flavored with spices such as oregano, garlic, and paprika, along with salt pork, cured ham, green peppers, chile peppers, onions, cilantro, olives, tomatoes, chorizos, and pimientos. For a final touch, green peas or asparagus might be added.

Main Dishes

The aroma that wafts from kitchens throughout Puerto Rico comes from adobo and sofrito -blends of herbs and spices that give many of the native foods their distinctive taste and color. Adobo, made by crushing together peppercorns, oregano, garlic, salt, olive oil, and lime juice or vinegar, is rubbed into meats before they are roasted. Sofrito, a potpourri of onions, garlic, coriander, and peppers browned in either olive oil or land and colored with achiote (annatoo seeds), imparts the bright-yellow color to the island's rice, soups, and stews.

Stews loom large in the Puerto Rican diet. They are usually cooked in a caldero or heavy kettle. A popular one is carne guisada puertorrique&ntildea; (Puerto Rican beef stew). The ingredients that flavor the chunks of beef vary according to the cook's whims or whatever happens to be in the larder. These might include green peppers, sweet chile peppers, onions, garlic, cilantro, potatoes, olives stuffed with pimientos, or capers. Seeded raisins may be added on occasion. Meat pies ( pastelón de carne) are the staple of many Puerto Rican dinners. Salt pork and ham are often used for the filling and are cooked in a caldero. This medley of meats and spices is covered with a pastry top and baked.

Other typical main dishes include fried beefsteak with onions ( carne frita con cebolla), veal ( ternera) a la parmesana, and roast leg of pork, fresh ham, lamb, or veal, a la criolla. These roasted meats are cooked in the Créole style, flavored with adobo.

Puerto Ricans also like such dishes as breaded calfs brains ( sesos empanados), calfs kidney (riñones guisados), and stuffed beef tongue ( lengua rellena).

A festive island dish is lechón asado, or barbecued pig, which is usually cooked for a party of 12 or 15. It is traditional for picnics and al fresco parties; one can sometimes catch the aroma of this dish wafting through the palm trees, a smell that must have been familiar to the Taino peoples. The pig is basted with jugo de naranjas agría (sour orange juice) and achiote coloring. Green plantains are peeled and roasted over hot stones, then served with the barbecued pig as a side dish. The traditional dressing served with the pig is ali-li-monjili, a sour garlic sauce. The sauce combines garlic, whole black peppercorns, and sweet seeded chile peppers, flavored further with vinegar, lime juice, and olive oil.

Puerto Ricans adore chicken, which they flower various spices and seasoning. Arroz con pollo (chicken with rice) is the most popular chicken dish on the island, and it was brought long ago to the U.S mainland. Other favorite preparations include chicken in sherry ( pollo al jerez), pollo agridulce (sweet and sour chicken), and pollitos asados a la parrilla (broiled chickens).

Most visitors to the island seem to like the fish and shellfish. A popular fried fish with Puerto Rican sauce ( mojo isleño). The sauce is made with olives and olive oil, onions, pimientos, capers, tomato sauce, vinegar, and a flavoring of garlic and bay leaves. Fresh fish is often grilled, and perhaps flavored with garlic and an overlay of freshly squeezed lime juice -a very tasty dinner indeed. Caribbean lobster is usually the most expensive item on any menu, followed by shrimp. Puerto Ricans often cook shrimp in beer ( camarones en cerveza). Another delectable shellfish dish is boiled crab ( jueyes hervidos).

Many tasty egg dishes are served, especially tortilla española (Spanish omelet), cooked with finely chopped onions, cubed potatoes, and olive oil.

The rich and fertile fields of Puerto Rico produce a wide variety of vegetables. A favorite is the chayote, a pear-shaped vegetable called christophone throughout most of the English-speaking Caribbean. Its delicately flavored flesh is often compared to that of summer squash. Breadfruit, prepared in a number of ways, frequently accompanies main dishes. This large, round fruit from a tropical tree has a thick green rind covering its starchy, sweet flesh. The flavor is evocative of a sweet potato. Tostones -fried green breadfruit slices- accompany most meat, fish, or poultry dishes served on the island.

Tostones may also be made with plantains. In fact, the plantains seems to be the single most popular side dish served on the island. Plantains are a variety of banana that cannot be eaten raw. They are much coarser in texture that ordinary bananas and are harvested while green, then baked, fried, or boiled. When made into tostones, they are usually served as a appetizer with before-dinner drinks. Fried to a deep golden-yellow, plantains may accompany fish, meat, or poultry dishes.

Interesting Fact
Plantains are an important crop in many agricultural sectors of the island. However, demand is so high that many plantains are also imported, usually from the Dominican Republic and Costa Rica.

Desserts

Desserts usually include some form of flan (custard) or perhaps nisperos de batata (sweet-potato balls with coconut, cloves and cinnamon). Equally traditional would be a portion of guava jelly with queso blanco (white cheese). Chefs take the bountiful harvest of Puerto Rican fruits and create any number of desserts, including orange layer cake, banana cupcakes, and guava cake. The most delicious dessert may be a freshly prepared fruit cocktail. the pumpkin, which grows in abundance on Puerto Rico, is used not only to flavor soups and as a side vegetable, but also to make the succulent base of a traditional Puerto Rican cake. Similarly, the sweet potato is used both as a side vegetable and in making a regional sweet-potato cake.

Coconut is probably the most common dessert ingredient. Many delectable desserts are made with its milk ( leche de coco), including coconut flan, coconut cream desserts, crunchy coconut squares, coconut with meringue, and candied coconut rice. Another classic preparation is coconut bread pudding ( boudin de pasas con coco).Polvo de amor ("love powder") is prepared with grated coconut meat after the milk has been extracted. The coconut is mixed with a lot of sugar and placed in a kettle to cook rapidly, then served crisp and golden brown.

Puerto Ricans make a number of preserves and jellies. Both sweet and sour guavas are used for various concoctions -not only guava jelly, but guava shells in syrup, guava paste, and guava pudding. Papayas are made into preserved or desserts with sugar, cinnamon, and vanilla extract. A mango dessert is made with virtually the same ingredients. Mangoes may be used for mamey preserve ( dulce de mamey) or may be consumed raw.

Drinks

Finish your meal with strong, black, aromatic Puerto Rican coffee, which has been produced in the island's high-altitude interior for more than 300 years. Originally imported from the nearby Dominican Republic, coffee is still among the island's exports and is a suitable ending for any well-presented meal.

Because the island does not produce wine, it is entirely proper to order a cold beer before even looking at the menu. Beer, of course, is called cerveza throughout the Spanish-speaking world, the most popular brand on Puerto Rico is Medalla.

Rum is the national drink, and you can buy it in almost any shade. Puerto Rico is the world's leading rum producer; 80% of the rum consumed in the United States hails from the island.

Today's rum bears little resemblance to the raw and grainy beverage consumed by the renegades and pirates of the Spanish Main. Christopher Columbus brought sugarcane, from which rum is distilled, to the Caribbean on his second voyage to the New World, and in virtually no time it became the regional drink.

It is believed that Ponce de León introduced rum to Puerto Rico during his governorship, which began in 1508. In time, there emerged large sugarcane plantations. From Puerto Rico and other West Indian islands, rum was shipped to colonial America, where it lent itself to such popular and hair-raising 18th-century drinks as Kill-Divil and Whistle-Belly Bengance. After America became a nation, rum was largely displaced as the drink of choice by whiskey, distilled from grain grown on the American plains.

It took almost a century before the rum industry regained its former vigor. This occurred during a severe whiskey shortage at the end of the World War II. By the 1950s, sales of rum had fallen off again, as more and different kinds of liquor became available on the U.S. market. Rum had been a questionable drink because of inferior distillation methods and quality. Recognizing this problem, the Puerto Rican government drew up rigid standards for producing, blending, and aging rum. Rum factories were outfitted with the most modern and sanitary equipments, and sales figures (encouraged by aggressive marketing campaign) began to climb.

The color of rum is usually gold, amber, or white. The lightest, driest rum is white. It can easily replace gin or vodka in dozens of mixed drinks that are eminently suited for consumption in the tropics. Many Puerto Ricans make Bloody Marys with rum instead of gin or vodka. The robust flavors of the gold or amber rums make them an effective substitute for whiskey. Whit white (clear) rum, orange juice and tonic water are the most popular mixers; amber rum is often served on the rocks. Puerto Ricans are fond of mixing it with various cola drinks. Gold rums, aged between four and six years (sometimes longer) in wooden casks are called ánejos. They are considered the most flavorful and distinctive on the island rums. They are smooth; drink them straight or on the rocks.

Bacardi is the Puerto Rican rum most widely consumed in the United States. It is followed by other popular brands, including, Ronrico, Castillo, and Don Q. The ánejos rums carry such labels as Bacardi Gold Reserve, Ron del Barrilito, and Seralles' El Dorado.

Your best introduction to Puerto Rican rum making is to visit the Bacardi distillery in Cataño, just a short ferry-boat ride across the San Juan harbor.

Each bartender worthy of the profession in Puerto Rico likes to concoct his or her own favorite rum libation. Every resort offers the piña colada, which is made with cream of coconut, white Puerto Rican rum, and canned pineapple juice. the ingredients are thoroughly blended and served frappé-style in a tall cool glass, usually garnished with a maraschino cherry and a small paper parasol. But you may want to be more adventurous and sample some of the island's other cocktails, many of which are made with fresh fruit juices. Planter's punch, served over cracked ice, is the second most popular mixed rum drink for tourists. Often, it combines dark Puerto Rican rum, dark-brown Jamaican rum, citrus juice, and Angostura bitters. Of course, you can substitute rum in many mixed drinks such as rum collins, rum sour, rum screwdriver, and rum and tonic. The classic sangría, which is prepared in Spain with dry red wine, sugar, orange juice, and other ingredients, may be given a thoroughly Puerto Rican twist with a hefty dose of the island's rum.

Spotlight

Piraguas: A shaved ice cone covered with syrup of fruity flavors such as: rasberry, pineapple, coconut, guava or tamarind, among others. Those who sells "piraguas" are known as piragüeros. You can find them near plazas in small carts creatively painted with bright colors.

Want to indulge and try more Puerton Rican Recipes?

Cocina criolla is my favorite Puerto Rican recipe book. My mother gifted me a copy on my 18th birthday, since then, it has been my staple recipe book ever since. You can find few other great Puerto Rican recipe books online.

Other Resources

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Although Puerto Rican cooking is often compared to Spanish, Cuban and Mexican cuisine, it is a unique tasty blend of Spanish, African, Taíno, and American influences, using such indigenous seasonings and ingredients as coriander, papaya, cacao, nispero, apio, plantains, and yampee. Locals call their cuisine "cocina criolla".

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The Great Wave by Hokusai | The Art Institute of Chicago

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Kids learn about the history of the Holocaust during World War II. Jewish people were killed by the German Nazi Party.

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Kristallnacht, the night of November 9-10, 1938, when German Nazis attacked Jewish persons and property. The name Kristallnacht refers ironically to the litter of broken glass left in the streets after these pogroms. The violence continued during the day of November 10, and in some places acts of violence continued for several more days.

The pretext for the pogroms was the shooting in Paris on November 7 of the German diplomat Ernst vom Rath by a Polish-Jewish student, Herschel Grynszpan. News of Rath's death on November 9 reached Adolf Hitler in Munich, Germany, where he was celebrating the anniversary of the abortive 1923 Beer Hall Putsch. There, Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels, after conferring with Hitler, harangued a gathering of old storm troopers, urging violent reprisals staged to appear as "spontaneous demonstrations." Telephone orders from Munich triggered pogroms throughout Germany, which then included Austria.

Just before midnight on November 9, Gestapo chief Heinrich Müller sent a telegram to all police units informing them that "in shortest order, actions against Jews and especially their synagogues will take place in all of Germany. These are not to be interfered with." Rather, the police were to arrest the victims. Fire companies stood by synagogues in flames with explicit instructions to let the buildings burn. They were to intervene only if a fire threatened adjacent "Aryan" properties.

In two days and nights, more than 1,000 synagogues were burned or otherwise damaged. Rioters ransacked and looted about 7,500 Jewish businesses, killed at least 91 Jews, and vandalized Jewish hospitals, homes, schools, and cemeteries. The attackers were often neighbours. Some 30,000 Jewish males aged 16 to 60 were arrested. To accommodate so many new prisoners, the concentration camps at Dachau, Buchenwald, and Sachsenhausen were expanded.

After the pogrom ended, it was given an oddly poetic name: Kristallnacht-meaning "crystal night" or "night of broken glass." This name symbolized the final shattering of Jewish existence in Germany. After Kristallnacht, the Nazi regime made Jewish survival in Germany impossible.

The cost of the broken window glass alone came to millions of Reichsmarks. The Reich confiscated any compensation claims that insurance companies paid to Jews. The rubble of ruined synagogues had to be cleared by the Jewish community. The Nazi government imposed a collective fine of one billion Reichsmarks (about $400 million in 1938) on the Jewish community. After assessing the fine, Hermann Göring remarked: "The swine won't commit another murder. Incidentally...I would not like to be a Jew in Germany."

The Nazi government barred Jews from schools on November 15 and authorized local authorities to impose curfews in late November. By December 1938, Jews were banned from most public places in Germany.

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Kristallnacht | Definition, Date, Facts, & Significance

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kristallnacht, the night of November 9-10, 1938, when German Nazis attacked Jewish persons and property. The name refers ironically to the litter of broken glass left in the streets after these pogroms. After Kristallnacht, the Nazi regime made Jewish survival in Germany impossible.

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On the night of November 9-10, 1938, the Nazi regime coordinated a wave of antisemitic violence in Nazi Germany. This nationwide riot became known as Kristallnacht or the "Night of Broken Glass." The name "Kristallnacht" is a reference to the shattered glass from store windows that littered the streets during and after the riot. Kristallnachtis also sometimes referred to as the November pogrom.

The violence was supposed to look like an unplanned outburst of popular anger against Jews. In reality, Kristallnacht was state-sponsored vandalism and arson. Nazi leaders actively coordinated it with Adolf Hitler's support. On the night of November 9, Nazi leaders ordered members of the Nazi Party's paramilitaries (the SS, the SA, and the Hitler Youth) to attack Jewish communities.

In the hours and days that followed, organized groups of Nazis wreaked havoc on Jewish life in Nazi Germany. During the riot, local Nazis set hundreds of synagogues on fire. They vandalized thousands of Jewish-owned businesses. They desecrated Jewish cemeteries. They broke into homes, smashed furniture, and terrorized Jewish families. Following orders given by Nazi leaders, police forces and fire brigades did not intervene to stop the destruction. Policemen did not protect Jews or their property. Firemen did not put out fires in synagogues.

The rioters also attacked and beat individual Jewish people. As a result, hundreds of Jews died during Kristallnacht and its aftermath. Some died of injuries inflicted during the riots. Others were deliberately killed.

During Kristallnacht, the Nazi regime ordered the police to arrest about 30,000 German Jewish men. These men had not committed any crime. The police arrested them simply for being Jewish. They were sent to concentration camps such as Dachau and Buchenwald. In the concentration camps, the men were humiliated and violently attacked. Some even died. The arrests shocked and terrified Jewish families and communities. In the following months, the Nazi authorities released many of these men if families could prove they had plans to leave Germany.

Kristallnacht was an important turning point for Germany's Jews. Afterwards, many Jews concluded that there was no future for them in Nazi Germany.

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The "Night of Broken Glass" | Holocaust Encyclopedia

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On November 9-10, 1938, the Nazi regime coordinated a wave of antisemitic violence in Nazi Germany. This became known as Kristallnacht or the "Night of Broken Glass."

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Group of Immigrants Cabinet of American Illustration

In the late 1800s, people in many parts of the world decided to leave their homes and immigrate to the United States. Fleeing crop failure, land and job shortages, rising taxes, and famine, many came to the U. S. because it was perceived as the land of economic opportunity. Others came seeking personal freedom or relief from political and religious persecution, and nearly 12 million immigrants arrived in the United States between 1870 and 1900. During the 1870s and 1880s, the vast majority of these people were from Germany, Ireland, and England - the principal sources of immigration before the Civil War. Even so, a relatively large group of Chinese immigrated to the United States between the start of the California gold rush in 1849 and 1882, when federal law stopped their immigration.

With the onset of hard economic times in the 1870s, European immigrants and Americans began to compete for the jobs traditionally reserved for the Chinese. With economic competition came dislike and even racial suspicion and hatred. Such feelings were accompanied by anti-Chinese riots and pressure, especially in California, for the exclusion of Chinese immigrants from the United States. The result of this pressure was the Chinese Exclusion Act, passed by Congress in 1882. This Act virtually ended Chinese immigration for nearly a century.

Immigrants entered the United States through several ports. Those from Europe generally came through East Coast facilities, while those from Asia generally entered through West Coast centers. More than 70 percent of all immigrants, however, entered through New York City, which came to be known as the "Golden Door." Throughout the late 1800s, most immigrants arriving in New York entered at the Castle Garden depot near the tip of Manhattan. In 1892, the federal government opened a new immigration processing center on Ellis Island in New York harbor.

Although immigrants often settled near ports of entry, a large number did find their way inland. Many states, especially those with sparse populations, actively sought to attract immigrants by offering jobs or land for farming. Many immigrants wanted to move to communities established by previous settlers from their homelands.

Once settled, immigrants looked for work. There were never enough jobs, and employers often took advantage of the immigrants. Men were generally paid less than other workers, and women less than men. Social tensions were also part of the immigrant experience. Often stereotyped and discriminated against, many immigrants suffered verbal and physical abuse because they were "different." While large-scale immigration created many social tensions, it also produced a new vitality in the cities and states in which the immigrants settled. The newcomers helped transform American society and culture, demonstrating that diversity, as well as unity, is a source of national strength.

To find other documents in Loc.gov relating to this topic, use such key words as immigration or immigrants, or include the names of specific immigrant or ethnic groups, such as German, Irish, Scandinavian, Swedish, Norwegian, or Chinese.

Documents

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Immigration to the United States, 1851-1900 | Rise of Industrial America, 1876-1900 | U.S. History Primary Source Timeline | Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In the late 1800s, people in many parts of the world decided to leave their homes and immigrate to the United States.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kids learn about the history of the Holocaust during World War II. Jewish people were killed by the German Nazi Party.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
On the night of November 9-10, 1938, the Nazi regime coordinated a wave of antisemitic violence in Nazi Germany. This nationwide riot became known as Kristallnacht or the "Night of Broken Glass." The name "Kristallnacht" is a reference to the shattered glass from store windows that littered the streets during and after the riot. Kristallnachtis also sometimes referred to as the November pogrom.

The violence was supposed to look like an unplanned outburst of popular anger against Jews. In reality, Kristallnacht was state-sponsored vandalism and arson. Nazi leaders actively coordinated it with Adolf Hitler's support. On the night of November 9, Nazi leaders ordered members of the Nazi Party's paramilitaries (the SS, the SA, and the Hitler Youth) to attack Jewish communities.

In the hours and days that followed, organized groups of Nazis wreaked havoc on Jewish life in Nazi Germany. During the riot, local Nazis set hundreds of synagogues on fire. They vandalized thousands of Jewish-owned businesses. They desecrated Jewish cemeteries. They broke into homes, smashed furniture, and terrorized Jewish families. Following orders given by Nazi leaders, police forces and fire brigades did not intervene to stop the destruction. Policemen did not protect Jews or their property. Firemen did not put out fires in synagogues.

The rioters also attacked and beat individual Jewish people. As a result, hundreds of Jews died during Kristallnacht and its aftermath. Some died of injuries inflicted during the riots. Others were deliberately killed.

During Kristallnacht, the Nazi regime ordered the police to arrest about 30,000 German Jewish men. These men had not committed any crime. The police arrested them simply for being Jewish. They were sent to concentration camps such as Dachau and Buchenwald. In the concentration camps, the men were humiliated and violently attacked. Some even died. The arrests shocked and terrified Jewish families and communities. In the following months, the Nazi authorities released many of these men if families could prove they had plans to leave Germany.

Kristallnacht was an important turning point for Germany's Jews. Afterwards, many Jews concluded that there was no future for them in Nazi Germany.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The "Night of Broken Glass" | Holocaust Encyclopedia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
On November 9-10, 1938, the Nazi regime coordinated a wave of antisemitic violence in Nazi Germany. This became known as Kristallnacht or the "Night of Broken Glass."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Kristallnacht, the night of November 9-10, 1938, when German Nazis attacked Jewish persons and property. The name Kristallnacht refers ironically to the litter of broken glass left in the streets after these pogroms. The violence continued during the day of November 10, and in some places acts of violence continued for several more days.

The pretext for the pogroms was the shooting in Paris on November 7 of the German diplomat Ernst vom Rath by a Polish-Jewish student, Herschel Grynszpan. News of Rath's death on November 9 reached Adolf Hitler in Munich, Germany, where he was celebrating the anniversary of the abortive 1923 Beer Hall Putsch. There, Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels, after conferring with Hitler, harangued a gathering of old storm troopers, urging violent reprisals staged to appear as "spontaneous demonstrations." Telephone orders from Munich triggered pogroms throughout Germany, which then included Austria.

Just before midnight on November 9, Gestapo chief Heinrich Müller sent a telegram to all police units informing them that "in shortest order, actions against Jews and especially their synagogues will take place in all of Germany. These are not to be interfered with." Rather, the police were to arrest the victims. Fire companies stood by synagogues in flames with explicit instructions to let the buildings burn. They were to intervene only if a fire threatened adjacent "Aryan" properties.

In two days and nights, more than 1,000 synagogues were burned or otherwise damaged. Rioters ransacked and looted about 7,500 Jewish businesses, killed at least 91 Jews, and vandalized Jewish hospitals, homes, schools, and cemeteries. The attackers were often neighbours. Some 30,000 Jewish males aged 16 to 60 were arrested. To accommodate so many new prisoners, the concentration camps at Dachau, Buchenwald, and Sachsenhausen were expanded.

After the pogrom ended, it was given an oddly poetic name: Kristallnacht-meaning "crystal night" or "night of broken glass." This name symbolized the final shattering of Jewish existence in Germany. After Kristallnacht, the Nazi regime made Jewish survival in Germany impossible.

The cost of the broken window glass alone came to millions of Reichsmarks. The Reich confiscated any compensation claims that insurance companies paid to Jews. The rubble of ruined synagogues had to be cleared by the Jewish community. The Nazi government imposed a collective fine of one billion Reichsmarks (about $400 million in 1938) on the Jewish community. After assessing the fine, Hermann Göring remarked: "The swine won't commit another murder. Incidentally...I would not like to be a Jew in Germany."

The Nazi government barred Jews from schools on November 15 and authorized local authorities to impose curfews in late November. By December 1938, Jews were banned from most public places in Germany.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Kristallnacht | Definition, Date, Facts, & Significance

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Kristallnacht, the night of November 9-10, 1938, when German Nazis attacked Jewish persons and property. The name refers ironically to the litter of broken glass left in the streets after these pogroms. After Kristallnacht, the Nazi regime made Jewish survival in Germany impossible.

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LibGuides: RHCS412: Rhetoric and the Revolutions of 1989.: Romania

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LibGuides: RHCS412: Rhetoric and the Revolutions of 1989.: Romania

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LibGuides: RHCS412: Rhetoric and the Revolutions of 1989.: Romania

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Skip to Main Content It looks like you're using Internet Explorer 11 or older. This website works best with modern browsers such as the latest versions of Chrome, Firefox, Safari, and Edge. If you continue with this browser, you may see unexpected results.

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Letter of the Six, March 1989 | Making the History of 1989

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Letter of the Six, March 1989 | Making the History of 1989

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Primary Source-Excerpt

To President Ceausescu:
At a time when the very idea of socialism, for which we have fought, is discredited by your policy, and when our country is being isolated in Europe, we have decided to speak up. We are perfectly aware that by doing so we are risking our liberty and even our lives; but we feel duty-bound to appeal to you to reverse the present course before it is too late.

1) The international community is reproaching you for nonobservance of the Helsinki final act, which you have signed yourself. Romanian citizens are reproaching you for nonobservance of the constitution, which you have sworn to observe. Here are the facts:
A) The whole plan for systematization of villages [i.e., their "modernization" by destroying existing buildings] and the forced removal of peasants to three-story apartment blocks runs against Article 36 of the constitution, which protects the right to personal property of a household, with its annexes and the land on which it is situated.
B) The decree forbidding Romanian citizens to have contact with foreigners has never been voted on by the legislative body and never been published; thus it lacks legal power. And yet our citizens are threatened with being fired, harassed, arrested, and sentenced for doing so.
C) The Civic Center [in Bucharest], the biggest multibillion lei investment made in Romania, has no public budget and is being built in violation of all existing laws regulating constructions and their financing. The cost of the immense building has tripled because of changes you order every month in the interior and exterior of the building.
D) Securitatea [i.e., the State Security Service], which we created to defend the socialist order against the exploiting classes, is now directed against workers demanding their rights, against old members of the Party, and against honest intellectuals exercising their rights to petition (Article 34) and freedom of speech (Article 28) guaranteed by the constitution.
E) Factories and institutions have been ordered to force their employees to work on Sunday against Article 19 of the constitution and the labor code.
F) Mail is systematically violated and our telephone conversations are cut off in violation of Article 34, guaranteeing their privacy. To sum up, the constitution has been virtually suspended and there is no legal system in force. You must admit, Mr. President, that a society cannot function if the authorities, starting from the top, show disrespect for the law.
2) Planning no longer works in the Romanian economy. The meetings of the Executive Political Committee are all oriented toward the past, [and taken up with] exhorting the workers to make up for the unfulfilled plan of the previous year, previous semester, or previous month. An increasing number of factories lack raw materials, energy, or markets.
3) Agricultural policy is also in disarray. Harsh administrative measures are directed against the peasants, who, according to your own data, provide 40 percent of the country's vegetables, 56 percent of the fruit, 60 percent of the milk, and 44 percent of the meat, though they have only 12 percent of the arable land. But, of course, what is now predominant in the villages is the fear of being "systematized," with seven or eight thousand villages threatened with being razed. Above all the economic, cultural, and humanitarian objections of the civilized world to that program, a legitimate question arises: Why urbanize villages when you cannot ensure decent conditions of urban life in the cities, namely adequate heating, lighting, transportation, not to mention food? A government that for five winters in a row has been unable to solve such vital problems for its population proves itself incompetent and incapable of governing. Therefore, we are not pressing on you any demand in this respect.
4) The very fact that Germans, Hungarians, and Jews are emigrating en masse shows that the policy of forced assimilation should be renounced.

5) Finally, we are deeply worried that Romania's international position and prestige are rapidly deteriorating. As you know, this is concretely shown by the decision of quite a few countries to close their embassies in Bucharest. Most alarming, embassies of such European nations as Denmark and Portugal have already been closed and others may follow. Our growing isolation affects not only diplomatic relations. We have lost the most-favored-nation status for trade with the United States and as a result some of our textile factories have no orders. The EEC is unwilling to extend its trade agreement with Romania, which will negatively affect other sectors of our economy. You have always maintained that summit meetings are decisive in improving relations between states. But how are you going to improve Romania's external relations when all the leaders of the non-Communist nations of Europe refuse to meet with you? Romania is and remains a European country and as such must advance along with the Helsinki process and not turn against it. You started changing the geography of the countryside, but you cannot remove Romania to Africa.

To stop the negative processes, both domestic and international, besetting our nation we appeal to you, as a first step, to take the following measures:
1. To state categorically in unequivocal terms that you have renounced the plan of systematization of villages.
2. To restore the constitutional guarantees regarding the rights of citizens. This will enable you to observe the decisions of the Vienna Conference on Human Rights.
3. To put an end to the food exports that are threatening the biological existence of our nation.
Once such measures are taken, we are prepared to participate in a constructive spirit in a dialogue with the government on the ways and means of overcoming the present impasse.

Gheorghe Apostol, former member of the Politburo and chairman of trade unions; Alexandru Birladeanu, former member of the Politburo and chairman of the planning committee; Corneliu Manescu, former minister of foreign affairs and president of the UN General Assembly; Constantin Pirvulescu, founding member of the Communist party; Grigore Raceanu, veteran of the Communist party; Silviu Brucan, former acting editor of Scinteia

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Letter of the Six, March 1989 | Making the History of 1989

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Primary Source-Excerpt To President Ceausescu: At a time when the very idea of socialism, for which we have fought, is discredited by your policy, and when our country is being isolated in Europe, we have decided to speak up.

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Arhivele Nationale ale Romaniei si Insitutul de Investigare a Crimelor Comunismului in Romania

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Fototeca online a comunismului - Arhivele Nationale ale Romaniei si Institutul de Investigare a Crimelor Comunismului.

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Kristallnacht, the night of November 9-10, 1938, when German Nazis attacked Jewish persons and property. The name Kristallnacht refers ironically to the litter of broken glass left in the streets after these pogroms. The violence continued during the day of November 10, and in some places acts of violence continued for several more days.

The pretext for the pogroms was the shooting in Paris on November 7 of the German diplomat Ernst vom Rath by a Polish-Jewish student, Herschel Grynszpan. News of Rath's death on November 9 reached Adolf Hitler in Munich, Germany, where he was celebrating the anniversary of the abortive 1923 Beer Hall Putsch. There, Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels, after conferring with Hitler, harangued a gathering of old storm troopers, urging violent reprisals staged to appear as "spontaneous demonstrations." Telephone orders from Munich triggered pogroms throughout Germany, which then included Austria.

Just before midnight on November 9, Gestapo chief Heinrich Müller sent a telegram to all police units informing them that "in shortest order, actions against Jews and especially their synagogues will take place in all of Germany. These are not to be interfered with." Rather, the police were to arrest the victims. Fire companies stood by synagogues in flames with explicit instructions to let the buildings burn. They were to intervene only if a fire threatened adjacent "Aryan" properties.

In two days and nights, more than 1,000 synagogues were burned or otherwise damaged. Rioters ransacked and looted about 7,500 Jewish businesses, killed at least 91 Jews, and vandalized Jewish hospitals, homes, schools, and cemeteries. The attackers were often neighbours. Some 30,000 Jewish males aged 16 to 60 were arrested. To accommodate so many new prisoners, the concentration camps at Dachau, Buchenwald, and Sachsenhausen were expanded.

After the pogrom ended, it was given an oddly poetic name: Kristallnacht-meaning "crystal night" or "night of broken glass." This name symbolized the final shattering of Jewish existence in Germany. After Kristallnacht, the Nazi regime made Jewish survival in Germany impossible.

The cost of the broken window glass alone came to millions of Reichsmarks. The Reich confiscated any compensation claims that insurance companies paid to Jews. The rubble of ruined synagogues had to be cleared by the Jewish community. The Nazi government imposed a collective fine of one billion Reichsmarks (about $400 million in 1938) on the Jewish community. After assessing the fine, Hermann Göring remarked: "The swine won't commit another murder. Incidentally...I would not like to be a Jew in Germany."

The Nazi government barred Jews from schools on November 15 and authorized local authorities to impose curfews in late November. By December 1938, Jews were banned from most public places in Germany.

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Kristallnacht | Definition, Date, Facts, & Significance

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Kristallnacht, the night of November 9-10, 1938, when German Nazis attacked Jewish persons and property. The name refers ironically to the litter of broken glass left in the streets after these pogroms. After Kristallnacht, the Nazi regime made Jewish survival in Germany impossible.

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On the night of November 9-10, 1938, the Nazi regime coordinated a wave of antisemitic violence in Nazi Germany. This nationwide riot became known as Kristallnacht or the "Night of Broken Glass." The name "Kristallnacht" is a reference to the shattered glass from store windows that littered the streets during and after the riot. Kristallnachtis also sometimes referred to as the November pogrom.

The violence was supposed to look like an unplanned outburst of popular anger against Jews. In reality, Kristallnacht was state-sponsored vandalism and arson. Nazi leaders actively coordinated it with Adolf Hitler's support. On the night of November 9, Nazi leaders ordered members of the Nazi Party's paramilitaries (the SS, the SA, and the Hitler Youth) to attack Jewish communities.

In the hours and days that followed, organized groups of Nazis wreaked havoc on Jewish life in Nazi Germany. During the riot, local Nazis set hundreds of synagogues on fire. They vandalized thousands of Jewish-owned businesses. They desecrated Jewish cemeteries. They broke into homes, smashed furniture, and terrorized Jewish families. Following orders given by Nazi leaders, police forces and fire brigades did not intervene to stop the destruction. Policemen did not protect Jews or their property. Firemen did not put out fires in synagogues.

The rioters also attacked and beat individual Jewish people. As a result, hundreds of Jews died during Kristallnacht and its aftermath. Some died of injuries inflicted during the riots. Others were deliberately killed.

During Kristallnacht, the Nazi regime ordered the police to arrest about 30,000 German Jewish men. These men had not committed any crime. The police arrested them simply for being Jewish. They were sent to concentration camps such as Dachau and Buchenwald. In the concentration camps, the men were humiliated and violently attacked. Some even died. The arrests shocked and terrified Jewish families and communities. In the following months, the Nazi authorities released many of these men if families could prove they had plans to leave Germany.

Kristallnacht was an important turning point for Germany's Jews. Afterwards, many Jews concluded that there was no future for them in Nazi Germany.

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The "Night of Broken Glass" | Holocaust Encyclopedia

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On November 9-10, 1938, the Nazi regime coordinated a wave of antisemitic violence in Nazi Germany. This became known as Kristallnacht or the "Night of Broken Glass."

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Kids learn about the history of the Holocaust during World War II. Jewish people were killed by the German Nazi Party.

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On June 28, 1969, in the late hours of the night, a routine police raid of a gay bar called Stonewall Inn sparked the fire that fueled the first wave of the Gay Pride Movement in NYC. On the evening of the raid, approximately 200 people occupied the bar. Located at 53 Christopher Street, in Greenwich Village, the bar became home to many types of society outcasts: gay men, drag queens, the transgendered, members of the mafia, hustlers and homeless youths. At approximately 2 AM, the New York Police Department (NYPD) arrived to clear out the bar. Initially, most patrons were cooperative, left the bar as instructed and waited patiently as the police arrested several mafia members inside. Within a few minutes, police began asking for identification. Female officers escorted cross-dressing individuals to the restrooms to verify their sex, which led to several arrests. After seeing several gay men and women being arrested, the crowd gathered outside of the bar became increasingly agitated. As more patrol vehicles arrived, they began shouting at the officers: "Gay Power!" "We shall overcome!" People started throwing pennies and empty beer bottles at police vehicles. Inside the bar some people were being beaten by the cops. One women arrested was hit over the head by a police officer with a billy club. She encited the crowd into action by asking them to "Do Something!" And within minutes the raiding of Stonewall escalated into a full-blown riot.

Before the infamous riot at Stonewall, police raids targeting gay bars were a commonplace occurrence. However, the Stonewall uprising was the first one to create such a powerful reaction. The N.Y. State Liquor Authority would often refuse to give liquor licenses to bars catering to gay customers. This was one of the reasons why gay bars were such an easy target for police. Often times, unlicensed bars like Stonewall attracted mafia bosses who would pay off cops in exchange for accord. It was said that Stonewall was raided because the mafia bosses had failed to take this precaution. However, Stonewall was unlike most NYC gay bars and the fact that it was a preferred destination made it harder for patrons to give up. For example, the large numbers of drag queens that frequented Stonewall were usually unwelcomed most other places. Stonewall also attracted those who could not afford to go to other more expensive bars; the entry fee for the night was only three dollars. Many youths that visited Stonewall were runaways and many even homeless. They hung around Christopher Street, hustling or panhandling for money. During evening hours, they lived at Stonewall as if it was their home.

During the 1960's, people had become more aware of the culture of discrimination and intolerance that surrounded gays. The African-American civil rights movement was at its height and the Vietnam War dragged on even as it became increasingly unpopular. Civil resistance exhibited by African-Americans and those who protested the Vietnam War, encouraged many to become more outspoken. This rich political climate gave power to people whose marginalized voices needed to be heard, and was one of many reasons the Stonewall raid eventually turned into a riot. Within a year of the event, two gay rights organizations were formed, and in 1970 several gay pride parades took place in major cities around the country.

Now, every year, on the last Sunday of June, NYC celebrates the Gay Pride Parade. It is one of the most heavily participated and attended parades in New York, exceeded only by the St. Patrick's Day parade. The Stonewall event marked the beginning of the nationwide Gay Pride movement.

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weissman center for international business

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NYCdata provides all the information about New York City you need. A division of the Weissman Center for International Business (WCIB) at Baruch College

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Wicca is a modern-day, nature-based pagan religion. Though rituals and practices vary among people who identify as Wiccan, most observations include the festival celebrations of solstices and equinoxes, the honoring of a male god and a female goddess, and the incorporation of herbalism and other natural objects into rituals. Wiccans practice their religion according to an ethical code, and many believe in reincarnation.

WHAT IS WICCA?

Wicca is considered a modern interpretation of pre-Christian traditions, though some involved claim a direct line to ancient practices. It may be practiced by individuals or members of groups (sometimes known as covens).

Wicca also has some commonalities with Druidism in its environmental component, and is considered the inspiration of the goddess movement in spirituality.

There is great diversity among individuals and groups that practice a Wiccan religion, but many are duotheistic, worshiping both a female goddess and a male god (sometimes referred to as a Mother Goddess and a Horned God).

Other Wiccan practices are atheist, pantheist, polytheist or respectful of gods and goddesses as archetypal symbols rather than as actual or supernatural beings. Rituals in Wicca often include holidays centered around phases of the moon; solar equinoxes and solstices; elements such as fire, water, earth and air; and initiation ceremonies.

MARGARET MURRAY

The rituals of modern Wiccan practice can be traced to famed first-wave feminist, Egyptologist, anthropologist and folklorist Margaret Murray.

She wrote several books on medieval religion centered around witch cults in medieval Europe that inspired British seekers to create their own covens and structure worship around her descriptions, starting with 1921's The Witch-Cult in Western Europe.

Later scholarship disputed Murray's claims about witch cults, but her influence could not be erased within Wicca.

GERALD GARDNER

Wicca was first given a name in Gerald Gardner's 1954 book Witchcraft Today, in which he announced it as "wica," the extra "c" being added in the 1960s. According to Gardner, the word was derived from Scots-English and meant "wise people."

Gardner, considered the founder of Wicca, was born in 1884, north of Liverpool in England. A world traveler with an interest in the occult, Gardner first heard the word "Wica" used in the 1930s when he became involved with a coven in Highcliffe, England. He was initiated into the group in 1939.

In 1946 Gardner bought land in the village of Brickett Wood to establish a center for folkloric study, that would serve as headquarters for a coven of his own.

Gardner died of a heart attack in 1964 while onboard a ship off the North African coast. He was buried in Tunis. Only the ship's captain attended. In 1973, his extensive personal collection of artifacts was sold to Ripley's Believe It Or Not.

ALEISTER CROWLEY

Gardner met famed occultist Aleister Crowley in 1947. When Gardner formally wrote out his Wiccan rituals, he drew strongly from Crowley's own, dating back to 1912.

The two men had similar ideas. Crowley had, in 1914, proposed the idea of forming a new religion that would pull from old pagan traditions worshipping the earth, celebrating equinoxes and solstices and other hallmarks of nature-based worship.

BOOK OF SHADOWS

Gardner's fantasy novel High Magic's Aid, published in 1949, is considered one of the first standards of Wicca, but his Book of Shadows, a collection of spells and rituals, is central to Wiccan practice.

Written in the 1940s and 1950s, initiates were required to make their own copy by hand. The origin of the title is unknown, but some believe he borrowed it from the work of Scottish children's author Helen Douglas Adams.

DOREEN VALIENTE

Future Wiccan leader Doreen Valiente met Gardner in 1952 when she contacted him following an article in Illustrated magazine that presented to their readers the reality of covens and their practices in a context of normal, educated people.

Under Gardner's direction, Valiente would revise the Book of Shadows for more popular consumption, exorcising Crowley's influence. In 1957, Valiente split from Gardner's coven with other members and rivals to Gardner sprang up, each with a coven of their own. Valiente would become a prominent Wiccan advocate and scholar.

RAYMOND BUCKLAND

In 1963, Gardner initiated British expatriate and Long Island resident Raymond Buckland, who founded the Gardnerian Brentwood Coven, considered the first Wiccan coven in the United States.

Buckland became a vigorous promoter of Wicca in the United States and in the 1970s, moved to New Hampshire and developed Seax-Wica, which invoked Anglo-Saxon mythology into Wiccan practice.

SYBIL LEEK

Sybil Leek was a popularizer of Wicca in America. Claiming to be a hereditary witch, Leek became involved with the New Forest coven in the late 1940s, continuing her practice through several covens in England before moving to the United States and settling in Los Angeles.

Leek transformed her Wiccan practice into celebrity status centered around astrology, writing numerous books and a regular column in Ladies Home Journal.

ALEX SANDERS

Alex Sanders founded a strain known as Alexandrian Wicca in the 1960s.

Known as a publicity seeker, he catapulted to fame following an autobiography and a film in 1970, Legend of the Witches. Called "the King of the Witches," Sanders typically pushed myths about his own lineage, claiming royal ancestry and alleging that his grandmother was not only a Wiccan, but had learned a strain of witchcraft that supposedly originated in Atlantis, and involved King Arthur and Merlin.

Sanders attracted a younger generation of followers, and the lurid stories about him are considered to have had the effect of popularizing Wicca as an alternate lifestyle in the 1970s.

LAURIE CABOT

Laurie Cabot, "the Witch of Salem," began to gain attention in the United States in the late 1960s teaching classes at Salem State College and helping police solve cases.

Her occult store in Salem is one of the first in America, and she established the popular Witches' Ball. Governor Michael Dukakis declared her the "Official Witch of Salem" in 1977 and in 1986 founded the Witches League of Public Awareness.

WICCA AND FEMINISM

The 1970s saw the American version of Wicca transform from the magic-based pagan discipline claiming British heritage to a natured-based spiritual movement, with heavy tones of environmentalism and feminism. In turn, this influenced the religion in England.

The feminist influence in Wicca strengthened in the 1970s and 1980s, brought about by women who had entered the religion attracted by the female deity, but were faced with a misogynist reality in the religion's ranks.

In 1971 Wiccan activist Z. Budapest started the Susan B. Anthony coven, which practiced Dianic Wicca, a form of matriarchal lunar worship. Budapest wrote the Feminist Book of Shadows. A number of feminist covens were outgrowths from Budapest's coven.

WICCA AND THE LAW

In 1986, Wicca was recognized as an official religion in the United States through the court case Dettmer v. Landon.

In the case, incarcerated Wiccan Herbert Daniel Dettmer was refused ritual objects used for worship. The Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that Wicca was entitled to First Amendment protection like any other religion.

In 1998, a Wiccan student in Texas enlisted the aid of the ACLU after the school board tried to prevent her from wearing Wiccan jewelry and black clothes. The board reversed its view.

In 2004, the Indiana Civil Liberties Union fought to reverse a judge's decision that divorcing Wiccans were not allowed to teach their faith to their sons.

In 2005, U.S. Army Sgt. Patrick D. Stewart became the first Wiccan serving in the U.S. military to die in combat. His family was refused a Wiccan pentacle on his gravestone. As a result of a court case initiated by the Americans United for the Separation of Church and State, Wiccan symbols are now accepted by the Veterans Administration.

The number of practicing Wiccans in the United States has proven difficult to estimate, with sources reporting anywhere from 300,000 to three million practitioners.

SOURCES

Modern Wicca: A History From Gerald Gardner to the Present. Michael Howard.
The Triumph of the Moon. Ronald Hutton.
Wicca. BBC.

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Wicca is a modern-day, nature-based pagan religion. Though rituals and practices vary among people who identify as Wiccan, most observations include the festival celebrations of solstices and equinoxes, the honoring of a male god and a female goddess, and the incorporation of herbalism and other natural objects into rituals.

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Sketch of Emilio Aguinaldo (Left). Sketch of General Frederick Funston (Right). Sketch of the "Vicksburg" (Bottom). March 29, 1901. New York Tribune (New York, NY), Image 1. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers.

"The United States and the Filipinos are openly at war. The pretense of alliance has been cast aside..." read the February 6, 1899 St. Paul Globe. Off the back of the Spanish-American War that wrestled control from the Spanish, the Philippines engaged in a two and a half year war with the United States in an attempt to take control of their own destiny. After years of bloody battles and unrest, the war finally ended in 1902 with the creation of a Filipino civilian government. Read more about it!

The information in this guide focuses on primary source materials found in the digitized historic newspapers from the digital collection Chronicling America.

The timeline below highlights important dates related to this topic and a section of this guide provides some suggested search strategies for further research in the collection.

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Research Guides: Philippine-American War: Topics in Chronicling America: Introduction

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"The United States and the Filipinos are openly at war. The pretense of alliance has been cast aside..." read the February 6, 1899 St. Paul Globe. Off the back of the Spanish-American War that wrestled control from the Spanish, the Philippines engaged in a two and a half year war with the United States in an attempt to take control of their own destiny.

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A tragic figure in Mexican folklore, La Llorona wears white and wanders the waterside in profound grief.

Patricio Lujan was a young boy in New Mexico in the 1930s when a normal day with his family in Santa Fe was interrupted by the sight of a strange woman near their property. The family watched in curious silence as the tall, thin woman dressed in all white crossed the road near their house without a word and headed for a nearby creek. It wasn't until she got to the water that the family realized something was really wrong.

As Lujan tells it "she just seemed to glide as if having no legs" before disappearing. After reappearing at a distance far too quickly for any normal woman to have traversed, she disappeared again for good without leaving a single footprint behind. Lujan was disturbed but knew exactly who the woman had been: La Llorona.

Where The Myth Of La Llorona Begins

The legend of La Llorona translates to "The Weeping Woman," and is popular throughout the southwestern United States and Mexico. The tale has various retellings and origins, but La Llorona is always described as a willowy white figure who appears near the water wailing for her children.

Mentions of La Llorona can be traced back over four centuries, although the origins of the tale have been lost to time.

She has been connected to the Aztecs as one of ten omens predicting the conquest of Mexico or as a fearsome goddess. One such goddess is known as Cihuacōātl or "Snake Woman," who has been described as "a savage beast and an evil omen" who wears white, walks about at night, and constantly cries.

Another goddess is that of Chalchiuhtlicue or "the Jade-skirted one" who oversaw the waters and was greatly feared because she allegedly would drown people. In order to honor her, the Aztecs sacrificed children.

An entirely different origin story coincides with the arrival of the Spanish in America back in the 16th century. According to this version of the tale, La Llorona was actually La Malinche, a native woman who served as an interpreter, guide, and later mistress to Hernán Cortés during his conquest of Mexico. The conquistador left her after she gave birth and instead married a Spanish woman. Despised now by her own people, it is said that La Malinche murdered Cortés' spawn in vengeance.

There is no evidence that the historic La Malinche - who did in fact exist - killed her children or was exiled by her people. However, it is possible that the Europeans did bring the seeds of the legend of La Llorona from their homeland.

The legend of a vengeful mother who slays her own offspring can be traced all the way back to Medea of Greek mythology, who killed her sons after being betrayed by her husband Jason. The ghostly wails of a woman warning of impending death also share similarities with the Irish banshees. English parents have long used the tail of "Jenny Greenteeth," who drags children down into a watery grave to keep adventurous children away from water where they might stumble in.

Different Versions Of La Llorona

The most popular version of the tale features a stunning young peasant woman named Maria who married a wealthy man. The couple lived happily for a time and had two children together before Maria's husband lost interest in her. One day while walking by the river with her two children, Maria caught sight of her husband ride by in his carriage accompanied by a pretty young woman.

In a fit of rage, Maria flung her two children into the river and drowned them both. When her anger subsided and she realized what she had done, she succumbed to such profound grief that she spent the rest of her days wailing by the river in search of her children.

In another version of the story, Maria cast herself into the river immediately after her children. In yet others, Maria was a vain woman who spent her nights reveling in town instead of tending to her children. After one drunken evening, she returned home to find them both drowned. She was cursed for her neglectfulness to search for them in her afterlife.

The constants of the legend are always the dead children and a wailing woman, either as a human or ghost. La Llorona is often spotted in white crying for her children or "mis hijos" near running water.

By some traditions, the ghost of La Llorona is feared. She is said to be vengeful and seize other's children to drown in place of her own. By other traditions, she is a warning and those who hear her wails will soon face death themselves. Sometimes she is seen as a disciplinary figure and appears to children who are unkind to their parents.

In October 2018, the people who made The Conjuring released a horror film riddled with jump-scares, The Curse of La Llorona. The movie is reportedly pretty spooky, though perhaps with this background on the wailing figure, it'll be even creepier.
After learning about La Llorona, read about some of the most haunted places in the world. Then, learn about Robert the Doll, what might be the most haunted toy in history.

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The Legend Of La Llorona: The Wailing Woman Who Murdered Her Children

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Patricio Lujan was a young boy in New Mexico in the 1930s when a normal day with his family in Santa Fe was interrupted by the sight of a strange woman near their property. The family watched in curious silence as the tall, thin woman dressed in all white crossed the road near their house without a word and headed for a nearby creek.

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The Republic of Ireland shares much of its culture with their northern neighbors in Northern Ireland (UK). Learn more about cuisine, sports, arts, and life in Ireland.

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Online Photo Archive Brings Romania's History Back to Life | Balkan Insight

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Online Photo Archive Brings Romania's History Back to Life | Balkan Insight

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Life in the digital era is profusely documented on the internet. It doesn't take more than a simple google search to have access to millions of documents from our immediate past. They come from innumerable sources and give testimony of almost all aspects of our existence -both as individuals and as a society at the personal, regional, national and global levels.

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Online Photo Archive Brings Romania's History Back to Life | Balkan Insight

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Life in the digital era is profusely documented on the internet. It doesn't take more than a simple google search to have access to millions of documents from our immediate past. They come from innumerable sources and give testimony of almost all aspects of our existence -both as individuals and as a society at the personal, regional, national and global levels.

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Nürnberg Laws, two race-based measures depriving Jews of rights, designed by Adolf Hitler and approved by the Nazi Party at a convention in Nürnberg on September 15, 1935. One, the Reichsbürgergesetz (German: "Law of the Reich Citizen"), deprived Jews of German citizenship, designating them "subjects of the state." The other, the Gesetz zum Schutze des Deutschen Blutes und der Deutschen Ehre ("Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour"), usually called simply the Blutschutzgesetz ("Blood Protection Law"), forbade marriage or sexual relations between Jews and "citizens of German or kindred blood." These measures were among the first of the racist Nazi laws that culminated in the Holocaust.

Under these laws, Jews could not fly the German flag and were forbidden "to employ in domestic service female subjects of German or kindred blood who are under the age of 45 years." The first supplementary decree of November 14, 1935-one of 13 ordinances elaborating these laws-defined Jews as persons with at least one Jewish grandparent and declared explicitly that "a Jew cannot be a citizen of the Reich. He cannot exercise the right to vote; he cannot occupy public office." The other enactments completed the process of Jewish segregation. Before long Jewish passports were stamped with a red "J" (for Jude; "Jew"), and Jews were compelled to adopt "Jewish" names. Jewish communities were deprived of their legal status by the decree of March 28, 1938, and steps were taken to exclude Jews completely from the practice of medicine.

This racial definition meant that Jews were persecuted not for their religious beliefs and practices but for a so-called racial identity transmitted irrevocably through the blood of their ancestors. These laws resolved the question of definition and set a legal precedent. The Nazis later imposed the Nürnberg Laws on territories they occupied. The laws also provided a model for the treatment and eventual genocide of the Roma (Gypsies).

Although the Nürnberg Laws divided the German nation into Germans and Jews, neither the term Jew nor the phrase German or kindred blood was defined. Because the laws contained criminal provisions for noncompliance, the bureaucrats had the urgent task of spelling out what the words meant. Two basic Jewish categories were established. A full Jew was anyone with three Jewish grandparents. That definition was fairly simple. Defining part-Jews- Mischlinge ("mongrels")-was more difficult, but they were eventually divided into two classes. First-degree Mischlinge were people who had two Jewish grandparents but did not practice Judaism and did not have a Jewish spouse. Second-degree Mischlinge were those who had only one Jewish grandparent.

The efforts to prove one's non-Jewish ancestry generated a new cottage industry employing hordes of "licensed family researchers," offering their services to anxious Germans afraid of a skeleton in the family closet. These efforts also involved the Health Ministry and church offices, which had to provide birth and baptismal certificates.

Michael Berenbaum

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Nurnberg Laws | Definition, Date, & Facts

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Nurnberg Laws, two race-based measures depriving Jews of rights, designed by Adolf Hitler and approved by the Nazi Party at a convention in Nurnberg on September 15, 1935. These measures were among the first of the racist Nazi laws that culminated in the Holocaust.

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Facts about the great famine emigration 

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Facts about the great famine emigration 

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Facts about The Great Famine emigration out of Ireland

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Dr. Ciarán Ó Murchadha discusses Irish emigration triggered by desperation in his book "The Great Famine: Ireland's Agony 1845 - 52."

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Cookbooks for Making History: As Sources for Historians and as Records of the Past | M/C Journal

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Cookbooks for Making History: As Sources for Historians and as Records of the Past | M/C Journal

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Historians have often been compared with detectives; searching for clues as evidence of a mystery they are seeking to solve. I would prefer an association with food, making history like a trained cook who blends particular ingredients, some fresh, some traditional, using specific methods to create an object that is consumed. There are primary sources, fresh and raw ingredients that you often have to go to great lengths to procure, and secondary sources, prepared initially by someone else. The same recipe may yield different meals, the same meal may provoke different responses. On a continuum of approaches to history and food, there are those who approach both as a scientific endeavour and, at the other end of the spectrum, those who make history and food as art. Brought together, it is possible to see cookbooks as history in at least two important ways; they give meaning to the past by representing culinary heritage and they are in themselves sources of history as documents and blueprints for experiences that can be interpreted to represent the past.

Many people read cookbooks and histories with no intention of preparing the meal or becoming a historian. I do a little of both. I enjoy reading history and cookbooks for pleasure but, as a historian, I also read them interchangeably; histories to understand cookbooks and cookbooks to find out more about the past. History and the past are different of course, despite their use in the English language. It is not possible to relive the past, we can only interpret it through the traces that remain. Even if a reader had an exact recipe and an antique stove, vegetables grown from heritage seeds in similar conditions, eggs and grains from the same region and employed the techniques his or her grandparents used, they could not replicate their experience of a meal. Undertaking those activities though would give a reader a sense of that experience. Active examination of the past is possible through the processes of research and writing, but it will always be an interpretation and not a reproduction of the past itself. Nevertheless, like other histories, cookbooks can convey a sense of what was important in a culture, and what contemporaries might draw on that can resonate a cultural past and make the food palatable. The way people eat relates to how they apply ideas and influences to the material resources and knowledge they have. Used in this way, cookbooks provide a rich and valuable way to look at the past.

Histories, like cookbooks, are written in the present, inspired and conditioned by contemporary issues and attitudes and values. Major shifts in interpretation or new directions in historical studies have more often arisen from changes in political or theoretical preoccupations, generated by contemporary social events, rather than the recovery of new information. Likewise, the introduction of new ingredients or methods rely on contemporary acceptance, as well as familiarity. How particular versions of history and new recipes promote both the past and present is the concern of this paper. My focus below will be on the nineteenth century, although a much larger study would reveal the circumstances that separated that period from the changes that followed.

Until the late nineteenth century Australians largely relied on cookbooks that were brought with them from England and on their own private recipe collection, and that influenced to a large extent the sort of food that they ate, although of course they had to improvise by supplementing with local ingredients. In the first book of recipes that was published in Australia, The English and Australian Cookery Book that appeared in 1864, Edward Abbott evoked the 'roast beef of old England Oh' (Bannerman, Dictionary). The use of such a potent symbol of English identity in the nineteenth century may seem inevitable, and colonists who could afford them tended to use their English cookbooks and the ingredients for many years, even after Abbott's publication.

New ingredients, however, were often adapted to fit in with familiar culinary expectations in the new setting. Abbott often drew on native and exotic ingredients to produce very familiar dishes that used English methods and principles: things like kangaroo stuffed with beef suet, breadcrumbs, parsley, shallots, marjoram, thyme, nutmeg, pepper, salt, cayenne, and egg. It was not until the 1890s that a much larger body of Australian cookbooks became available, but by this time the food supply was widely held to be secure and abundant and the cultivation of exotic foods in Australia like wheat and sheep and cattle had established a long and familiar food supply for English colonists. Abbott's cookbook provides a record of the culinary heritage settlers brought with them to Australia and the contemporary circumstances they had to adapt to.

Mrs Beeton's Cookery Book and Household Guide is an example of the popularity of British cookbooks in Australia. Beeton's Kangaroo Tail Curry was included in the Australian cooking section of her household management (2860). In terms of structure it is important for historians as one of the first times, because Beeton started writing in the 1860s, that ingredients were clearly distinguished from the method. This actually still presents considerable problems for publishers. There is debate about whether that should necessarily be the case, because it takes up so much space on the page.

Kangaroo Tail Curry

Ingredients:

1 tail

2 oz. Butter

1 tablespoon of flour

1 tablespoon of curry

2 onions sliced

1 sour apple cut into dice

1 desert spoon of lemon juice

3/4 pint of stock

salt

Method:

Wash, blanch and dry the tail thoroughly and divide it at the joints. Fry the tail in hot butter, take it up, put it in the sliced onions, and fry them for 3 or 4 minutes without browning.

Sprinkle in the flour and curry powder, and cook gently for at least 20 minutes, stirring frequently. Add the stock, apple, salt to taste, bring to the boil, stirring meanwhile, and replace the tail in the stew pan. Cover closely, and cook gently until tender, then add the lemon juice and more seasoning if necessary.

Arrange the pieces of tail on a hot dish, strain the sauce over, and serve with boiled rice.

Time: 2-3 hours

Sufficient for 1 large dish.

Although the steps are not clearly distinguished from each other the method is more systematic than earlier recipes. Within the one sentence, however, there are still two or three different sorts of tasks. The recipe also requires to some extent a degree of discretion, knowledge and experience of cooking. Beeton suggests adding things to taste, cooking something until it is tender, so experience or knowledge is necessary to fulfil the recipe. The meal also takes between two and three hours, which would be quite prohibitive for a lot of contemporary cooks. New recipes, like those produced in Delicious have recipes that you can do in ten minutes or half an hour. Historically, that is a new development that reveals a lot about contemporary conditions.

By 1900, Australian interest in native food had pretty much dissolved from the record of cookbooks, although this would remain a feature of books for the English public who did not need to distinguish themselves from Indigenous people. Mrs Beeton's Cookery Book and Household Guide gave a selection of Australian recipes but they were primarily for the British public rather than the assumption that they were being cooked in Australia: kangaroo tail soup was cooked in the same way as ox tail soup; roast wallaby was compared to hare. The ingredients were wallaby, veal, milk and butter; and parrot pie was said to be not unlike one made of pigeons. The novelty value of such ingredients may have been of interest, rather than their practical use. However, they are all prepared in ways that would make them fairly familiar to European tastes. Introducing something new with the same sorts of ingredients could therefore proliferate the spread of other foods.

The means by which ingredients were introduced to different regions reflects cultural exchanges, historical processes and the local environment. The adaptation of recipes to incorporate local ingredients likewise provides information about local traditions and contemporary conditions. Starting to see those ingredients as a two-way movement between looking at what might have been familiar to people and what might have been something that they had to do make do with because of what was necessarily available to them at that time tells us about their past as well as the times they are living in.

Differences in the level of practical cooking knowledge also have a vital role to play in cookbook literature. Colin Bannerman has suggested that the shortage of domestic labour in Australia an important factor in supporting the growth of the cookbook industry in the late nineteenth century. The poor quality of Australian cooking was also an occasional theme in the press during the same time. The message was generally the same: bad food affected Australians' physical, domestic, social and moral well-being and impeded progress towards civilisation and higher culture. The idea was really that Australians had to learn how to cook. Colin Bannerman ( Acquired Tastes 19) explains the rise of domestic science in Australia as a product of growing interest in Australian cultural development and the curse of bad cookery, which encouraged support for teaching girls and women how to cook. Domestic Economy was integrated into the Victorian and New South Wales curriculum by the end of the nineteenth century. Australian women have faced constant criticism of their cooking skills but the decision to teach cooking shouldn't necessarily be used to support that judgement. Placed in a broader framework is possible to see the support for a modern, scientific approach to food preparation as part of both the elevation of science and systematic knowledge in society more generally, and a transnational movement to raise the status of women's role in society. It would also be misleading not to consider the transnational context. Australia's first cookery teachers were from Britain. The domestic-science movement there can be traced to the congress on domestic economy held in Manchester in 1878, at roughly the same time as the movement was gaining strength in Australia. By the 1890s domestic economy was widely taught in both British and Australian schools, without British women facing the same denigration of their cooking skills.

Other comparisons with Britain also resulted from Australia's colonial heritage. People often commented on the quality of the ingredients in Australia and said they were more widely available than they were in England but much poorer in quality. Cookbooks emerged as a way of teaching people. Among the first to teach cookery skills was Mina Rawson, author of The Antipodean Cookery Book and the Kitchen Companion first published in 1885. The book was a compilation of her own recipes and remedies, and it organised and simplified food preparation for the ordinary housewife. But the book also included directions and guidance on things like household tasks and how to cure diseases. Cookbooks therefore were not completely distinct from other aspects of everyday life. They offered much more than culinary advice on how to cook a particular meal and can similarly be used by historians to comment on more than food. Mrs Rawson also knew that people had to make do. She included a lot of bush foods that you still do not get in a lot of Australian meals, ingredients that people could substitute for the English ones they were used to like pig weed.

By the end of the nineteenth century cooking had become a recognised classroom subject, providing early training in domestic service, and textbooks teaching Australians how to cook also flourished. Measurements became much more uniform, the layout of cookbooks became more standardised and the procedure was clearly spelled out. This allowed companies to be able to sell their foods because it also meant that you could duplicate the recipes and they could potentially taste the same. It made cookbooks easier to use.

The audience for these cookbooks were mostly young women directed to cooking as a way of encouraging social harmony. Cooking was elevated in lots of ways at this stage as a social responsibility. Cookbooks can also be seen as a representation of domestic life, and historically this prescribed the activities of men and women as being distinct The dominance of women in cookbooks in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries attested to the strength of that idea of separate spheres. The consequences of this though has been debated by historians: whether having that particular kind of market and the identification that women were making with each other also provided a forum for women's voices and so became quite significant in women's politics at a later date.

Cookbooks have been a strategic marketing device for products and appliances. By the beginning of the twentieth century food companies began to print recipes on their packets and to release their own cookbooks to promote their products. Davis Gelatine produced its first free booklet in 1904 and other companies followed suit (1937). The largest gelatine factory was in New South Wales and according to Davis: 'It bathed in sunshine and freshened with the light breezes of Botany all year round.' These were the first lavishly illustrated Australian cookbooks. Such books were an attempt to promote new foods and also to sell local foods, many of which were overproduced - such as milk, and dried fruits - which provides insights into the supply chain. Cookbooks in some ways reflected the changing tastes of the public, their ideas, what they were doing and their own lifestyle. But they also helped to promote some of those sorts of changes too.

Explaining the reason for cooking, Isabella Beeton put forward an historical account of the shift towards increasing enjoyment of it. She wrote: "In the past, only to live has been the greatest object of mankind, but by and by comforts are multiplied and accumulating riches create new wants. The object then is to not only live but to live economically, agreeably, tastefully and well. Accordingly the art of cookery commences and although the fruits of the earth, the fowls of the air, the beasts of the field and the fish of the sea are still the only food of mankind, yet these are so prepared, improved and dressed by skill and ingenuity that they are the means of immeasurably extending the boundaries of human enjoyment. Everything that is edible and passes under the hands of cooks is more or less changed and assumes new forms, hence the influence of that functionary is immense upon the happiness of the household" (1249).

Beeton anticipates a growing trend not just towards cooking and eating but an interest in what sustains cooking as a form of recreation. The history of cookbook publishing provides a glimpse into some of those things. The points that I have raised provide a means for historians to use cookbooks. Cookbooks can be considered in terms of what was eaten, by whom and how: who prepared the food, so to whom the books were actually directed? Clever books like Isabella Beeton's were directed at both domestic servants and at wives, which gave them quite a big market. There are also changes in the inclusion of themes. Economy and frugality becomes quite significant, as do organisation and management at different times. Changes in the extent of detail, changes in authorship, whether it is women, men, doctors, health professionals, home economists and so on all reflect contemporary concerns. Many books had particular purposes as well, used to fund raise or promote a particular perspective, relate food reform and civic life which gives them a political agenda. Promotional literature produced by food and kitchen equipment companies were a form of advertising and quite significant to the history of cookbook publishing in Australia. Other themes include the influence of cookery school and home economics movements; advice on etiquette and entertaining; the influence of immigration and travel; the creation of culinary stars and authors of which we are all fairly familiar. Further themes include changes in ingredients, changes in advice about health and domestic medicine, and the impact of changes in social consciousness. It is necessary to place those changes in a more general historical context, but for a long time cookbooks have been ignored as a source of information in their own right about the period in which they were published and the kinds of social and political changes that we can see coming through. More than this active process of cooking with the books as well becomes a way of imagining the past in quite different ways than historians are often used to.

Cookbooks are not just sources for historians, they are histories in themselves. The privileging of written and visual texts in postcolonial studies has meant other senses, taste and smell, are frequently neglected; and yet the cooking from historical cookbooks can provide an embodied, sensorial image of the past. From nineteenth century cookbooks it is possible to see that British foods were central to the colonial identity project in Australia, but the fact that "British" culinary culture was locally produced, challenges the idea of an "authentic" British cuisine which the colonies tried to replicate. By the time Abbot was advocating rabbit curry as an Australian family meal, back "at home" in England, it was not authentic Indian food but the British invention of curry power that was being incorporated into English cuisine culture. More than cooks, cookbook authors told a narrative that forged connections and disconnections with the past. They reflected the contemporary period and resonated with the culinary heritage of their readers. Cookbooks make history in multiple ways; by producing change, as the raw materials for making history and as historical narratives.

Abbott, Edward. The English and Australian Cookery Book: Cookery for the Many, as well as the Upper Ten Thousand. London: Sampson Low, Son & Marston, 1864.

Bannerman, Colin. Acquired Tastes: Celebrating Australia's Culinary History. Canberra: National Library of Australia, 1998.

Bannerman, Colin. "Abbott, Edward (1801-1869)." Australian Dictionary of Biography. National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. 21 May 2013. .

Beeton, Isabella. Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management. New Ed. London and Melbourne: Ward, Lock and Co. Ltd., n.d. (c. 1909).

Davis Gelatine. Davis Dainty Dishes. Rev ed. Sydney: Davis Gelatine Organization, 1937.

Rawson, Lance Mrs. The Antipodean Cookery Book and Kitchen Companion. Melbourne: George Robertson & Co., 1897.

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Cookbooks for Making History: As Sources for Historians and as Records of the Past | M/C Journal

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Historians have often been compared with detectives; searching for clues as evidence of a mystery they are seeking to solve. I would prefer an association with food, making history like a trained cook who blends particular ingredients, some fresh, some traditional, using specific methods to create an object that is consumed.

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Milestones 1921-1936 (Need to do and 18)

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Milestones 1921-1936 (Need to do and 18)

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Introduction

The Immigration Act of 1924 limited the number of immigrants allowed entry into the United States through a national origins quota. The quota provided immigration visas to two percent of the total number of people of each nationality in the United States as of the 1890 national census. It completely excluded immigrants from Asia.

Literacy Tests and "Asiatic Barred Zone"

In 1917, the U.S. Congress enacted the first widely restrictive immigration law. The uncertainty generated over national security during World War I made it possible for Congress to pass this legislation, and it included several important provisions that paved the way for the 1924 Act. The 1917 Act implemented a literacy test that required immigrants over 16 years old to demonstrate basic reading comprehension in any language. It also increased the tax paid by new immigrants upon arrival and allowed immigration officials to exercise more discretion in making decisions over whom to exclude. Finally, the Act excluded from entry anyone born in a geographically defined "Asiatic Barred Zone" except for Japanese and Filipinos. In 1907, the Japanese Government had voluntarily limited Japanese immigration to the United States in the Gentlemen's Agreement. The Philippines was a U.S. colony, so its citizens were U.S. nationals and could travel freely to the United States. China was not included in the Barred Zone, but the Chinese were already denied immigration visas under the Chinese Exclusion Act.

Immigration Quotas

The literacy test alone was not enough to prevent most potential immigrants from entering, so members of Congress sought a new way to restrict immigration in the 1920s. Immigration expert and Republican Senator from Vermont William P. Dillingham introduced a measure to create immigration quotas, which he set at three percent of the total population of the foreign-born of each nationality in the United States as recorded in the 1910 census. This put the total number of visas available each year to new immigrants at 350,000. It did not, however, establish quotas of any kind for residents of the Western Hemisphere. President Wilson opposed the restrictive act, preferring a more liberal immigration policy, so he used the pocket veto to prevent its passage. In early 1921, the newly inaugurated President Warren Harding called Congress back to a special session to pass the law. In 1922, the act was renewed for another two years.

Senator William P. Dillingham

When the congressional debate over immigration began in 1924, the quota system was so well-established that no one questioned whether to maintain it, but rather discussed how to adjust it. Though there were advocates for raising quotas and allowing more people to enter, the champions of restriction triumphed. They created a plan that lowered the existing quota from three to two percent of the foreign-born population. They also pushed back the year on which quota calculations were based from 1910 to 1890.

Another change to the quota altered the basis of the quota calculations. The quota had been based on the number of people born outside of the United States, or the number of immigrants in the United States. The new law traced the origins of the whole of the U.S. population, including natural-born citizens. The new quota calculations included large numbers of people of British descent whose families had long resided in the United States. As a result, the percentage of visas available to individuals from the British Isles and Western Europe increased, but newer immigration from other areas like Southern and Eastern Europe was limited.

The 1924 Immigration Act also included a provision excluding from entry any alien who by virtue of race or nationality was ineligible for citizenship. Existing nationality laws dating from 1790 and 1870 excluded people of Asian lineage from naturalizing. As a result, the 1924 Act meant that even Asians not previously prevented from immigrating - the Japanese in particular - would no longer be admitted to the United States. Many in Japan were very offended by the new law, which was a violation of the Gentlemen's Agreement. The Japanese government protested, but the law remained, resulting in an increase in existing tensions between the two nations. Despite the increased tensions, it appeared that the U.S. Congress had decided that preserving the racial composition of the country was more important than promoting good ties with Japan.

The restrictive principles of the Act could have resulted in strained relations with some European countries as well, but these potential problems did not appear for several reasons. The global depression of the 1930s, World War II, and stricter enforcement of U.S. immigration policy served to curtail European emigration. When these crises had passed, emergency provisions for the resettlement of displaced persons in 1948 and 1950 helped the United States avoid conflict over its new immigration laws.

In all of its parts, the most basic purpose of the 1924 Immigration Act was to preserve the ideal of U.S. homogeneity. Congress revised the Act in 1952.

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Milestones: 1921-1936 - Office of the Historian

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A Beginner's Guide to Russian food - Young Pioneer Tours

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The beautiful country of Russia isn't exactly known for its cuisine aside from borscht, caviar or dumplings with a side of vodka. However, in our many years of travelling and running adventure tours through this vast , varied and fascinating country , YPT guides have encountered some amazing Russian food!

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"The horror of the Holocaust is not that it deviated from human norms; the horror is that it didn't. What happened may happen again, to others not necessarily Jews, perpetrated by others, not necessarily Germans. We are all possible victims, possible perpetrators, possible bystanders."
-Yehuda Bauer

An Introduction

Between 1933 and 1945, the Nazi regime and their collaborators murdered six million European Jews and five million non-Jews. The terms "Shoah" and "Holocaust" are used to label the persecution and extermination of European Jews at the hands of Nazis. The Shoah, meaning "calamity" in Hebrew or "destruction" since the middle ages, has been widely adopted since the 1940s to describe the genocide and persecution of European Jews specifically. However, the definition of the term "Holocaust" has been contested, in particular as to whether or not it should include the persecution of the other victims of Nazi Germany. The Holocaust often refers to the non-Jewish victims of Nazi Germany and is sometimes even extended to describe other genocides (for example, "Rwandan Holocaust"). Organizations such as Yad Vashem strictly limit the definition to include only the Jewish victims considering the intentionally specific targeting and elimination of European Jews.

The Holocaust was not limited to Germany, nor was it inevitable. Historians and social scientists have asked why the Holocaust happened-what were the structural and social conditions that made it possible? Historical and contemporary antisemitism was one of many factors that lead to the murder of the Jews during World War II. As is the case with all historical events, there were many complex factors, such as the rise of nationalism, world economic depression, the aftermath of World War I, the failure of democracy in Germany, and the lack of will by world governments to take in Jewish refugees.

Adolph Hitler and Nazi Ideology

Adolph Hitler was born to an Austrian family in 1889 and moved to Germany in 1913. He served in the German army during WWI and soon after became heavily involved in German politics. He was attracted to ideas of German-Nationalism, antisemitism, anti-capitalism, and anti-marxism.

Adolph Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany on from 1933-1945, and Fuhrer from 1934-1945.

Nazi ideology was based on a set of racial ideals which were founded on the "scientific" principles of "Social Darwinism." This Nazi ideology ranked society through purity of blood, establishing a hierarchy wherein the top were the "purest," and all others were increasingly polluted through years of race mixing. Utilizing this hierarchical structure, Jews were least ideal and were placed on the bottom, labeled the enemy of the "State." The Nazis put forth ideas based on centuries-old concepts of antisemitism, including religious and economic forms of discrimination. They connected these historical ideas with contemporary concerns, blaming the Jewish people for German and European societal problems, including Germany's defeat in WWI.

The Holocaust

After Hitler became Chancellor of Germany, the Nazi party immediately began passing anti-Jewish laws with the goal of removing Jews from Germany. Originally, the idea was simply to get Jews to leave, but emigration was not an easy task, as Jews were asked to give up their homes, livelihoods, and businesses, charged exorbitant fees, and had few places of escape open to them.

Nazi policy shifted to direct violence against Jews and their property. A pivotal moment for this change took place on the nights of November 9 and 10, 1938, when Nazis and their supporters took to the streets of Germany and Austria, burning and looting Jewish shops, homes, and synagogues, and arresting an estimated 30,000 men who were sent to the German concentration camps Dachau and Sachsenhausen. Known as Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass), the state-sponsored pogroms signaled to the world that Jewish life in Germany would never be the same.

By 1942, the German army occupied most of Eastern and Western Europe. Anti-Jewish laws were passed in all occupied countries. Jews were removed from the general populations and placed in ghettos, or were murdered by the Einsatzgruppen (Himmler-lead death squads that made their way East towards the Russian front). At this time, the number of Jews inherited with each occupation became overwhelming, and the murder of innocent civilians, including women and children, upon the SS killing squads was taking its toll and a new solution had to be put in place.

On January 20, 1942, the Wannsee conference was convened by SS General Reinhard Heydrich, chief of the Reich Security Main Office, and attended by 15 high-ranking Nazi and German officials at a villa in Wannsee-a city on the outskirts of Berlin. They gathered to discuss and coordinate the "Final Solution of the Jewish Question," which is code for the use of death camps to exterminate all 11,000,000 Jews of Europe.

Poland

Auschwitz-Birkenau (Auschwitz II) began gassing operations in January 1942. The Auschwitz camps (I, II, and III), which have now become the ultimate symbol of the Holocaust, were responsible for the death of 960,000 Jews between 1940-1945. The more devastating number of deaths were sustained at the hands of the Einsatzgruppen and collaborative efforts of citizens in the occupied countries, as well as deaths in the ghettos and other concentration camps throughout Europe. Auschwitz was liberated on January 27, 1945, by the Soviet Red Army. On May 8, 1945, the war was over but the aftermath of the events that took place continues to affect the present. This is especially the case as scholars and people continue to struggle with how this could have taken place and how the atrocities perpetrated by the Nazis and their collaborators have been repeated through acts of mass violence and other genocides throughout the world.

The Jewish population of Germany prior to WWII (as of 1930) was 505,000 people out of a total population of 67 million, making them less than 0.75% of the total population. By the end of the Holocaust, six million European Jews were murdered.

Other Victims

In addition to the murder of European Jews, the Nazi government was responsible for the persecution of several other groups of people. Poles, Sinti, and Roma were viewed as racially inferior to the Aryans and were subjected to death and labor camps. They persecuted church leaders and Jehovah's Witnesses who refused to salute Hitler, served in the German army, or opposed Nazism in general. Homosexuals, specifically men, were viewed as a hindrance to the preservation of the German nation and were therefore subjected to concentration camps. People with mental and physical disabilities were also killed as part of a "euthanasia program." In addition, Nazis also persecuted political opponents, revolutionary authors and artists, Red Army political officers, and Soviet prisoners of war, amongst many other people. In total, five million non-Jews were killed.

Holocaust Denial

The first Holocaust deniers were the Nazis, who utilized veiled language, secret operations, and covered up their mass murders by burning bodies and destroying evidence. Their main purpose was to keep victims in the dark for fear of revolt and other factors that would hinder their goals for annihilation. Himmler, in his speech to his troops at Posen in October 1943, said, "I shall speak to you here with all frankness of a very serious subject. We shall now discuss it absolutely openly among ourselves, nevertheless we shall never speak of it in public. I mean the evacuation of the Jews, the extermination of the Jewish race... This is a glorious page in our history that has never been written and shall never be written."

Holocaust deniers maintain that events did not take place as they were written, and that Jews have propagated the myth in order to advance Jewish interests. In other words, Holocaust denial is a form of antisemitism as much as it is a part of the genocidal process-to deny the deaths of those murdered acts as a double-dying, as it seeks to erase the victims from history.

Deniers will try to establish that there is no evidence to support the gas chambers or the numbers of dead. They will also cite the lack of orders in writing from Hitler. However, the Nazis left behind enough documentation to confirm their acts. Deborah Lipstadt, noted Holocaust scholar, wrote about her trial against British Holocaust denier David Irving in her book The Eichmann Trial: "Though they [the Holocaust survivors] inundated us with offers to testify, we eschewed their testimony for strategic reasons. Survivors would have constituted 'witnesses of fact,' attesting to the facts of what had happened. Because the Holocaust has the dubious distinction of being the best-documented genocide in history, we considered such testimony unnecessary. We did not want to suggest to the court that we needed witnesses of fact in order to 'prove' the event."

More information on Holocaust art

More information on the Holocaust

More information on testimonies

For more information on the trials

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In the 1800s, millions of Irish men, women and children left their homes and immigrated for a better quality of life. Although the newcomers were disliked, discriminated and overlooked, the Irish are commonly referred to as the "hands who made America." Keep reading to know more about the Irish immigration to America.

Let us take a look at 10 Interesting Facts About The Irish Immigration To America

1. The Potato Famine - The cause of the Irish immigration to America

In the 1840s, almost two million Irish people migrated to the United States from Ireland. Several of them crossed the seas to run away from the potato famine. Most of the farmers in Ireland mainly involved in potato cultivation. However, in 1845, the country's agricultural sector crumbled down due to a nationwide fungus infestation. Even after selling all that they had, several farmers and their families couldn't beat hunger.

2. When 3.5 million Irish immigrated to the States

In America, the Irish immigrants received a steady cash flow that allowed them to take care of their expenses. From there on, there was a continuous overflow of Irish immigration to America from friends to family. According to records, between 1820 to 1880, around 3.5 million Irish from Ireland immigrated to the United States. You'd be surprised to know that between the years 1820 to 1860, the Irish alone made one-third of America's immigrants. Several more Irish from Britain emigrated the country. However, most immigration records counted them as British and not Irish, as their departure point was Britain.

3. New York had more Irish than some cities in Ireland

Although these Irish immigrants were not the poorest per se in their former country, they were incredibly poor in the United States. In the eyes of the American standards, they fell on or below the poverty line. Though not the poorest in Irish society, those who came to the United States were incredibly poor by American standards. Several of them were forced to settle near the ports where they arrived as they could not afford the ship fare. One of the main ports was Ellis Island, close to New York City. Eventually, New York had more Irish than Dublin in Ireland!

4. They were one of the 1870's largest immigrant community

A census (a period evaluation of the country's population) held in 1870 revealed that the 14.5% population of large American cities comprised the Irish. They accounted for 22 per cent of the people in New York that year and dominated New England. Along with the Germans, they were the largest immigrant community in 1870.

5. Companies made use of the cheap labour provided by Irishmen

Several Irish immigrants took up dangerous jobs as labourers that most others rejected. You could find several Irishmen in coal mines and they built on railroads and canals too. On the other hand, the women took up jobs as domestic help in others' homes. American businesspeople were quick to take advantage of the cheap labour provided by the Irish. Most companies threatened their inefficient employees to replace them with cheap Irish workers. Soon, this led to tension between the rest of the population and the Irish.

6. The rest of the society didn't hold much regard for them

As the rest of the population began developing hard feelings against the Irish, finding jobs became extremely difficult for the Irish. It was common for store windows to have huge placards saying "NINA" (No Irish Need Apply).

7. The next generations, however, were luckier

The kids and grandkids of those who immigrated to America made up the second and third generation of Irish immigrants. Most of them took up jobs as school teachers, firefighters and joined the police force. However, their generations got a better quality of education, thus enabling them to earn more money.

8. The Irish immigration to America brought religious turmoil to the country

Almost all native-born Americans and other ethnic communities hated the Irish because of their religion, willingness to work for low wages, and looked down upon the Irish's living conditions. Since times immemorial, the Protestants (Non-Catholic Christians) and Catholics never agreed on beliefs and would not tolerate one another. The same conflict played a role here too. The Irish were Catholic. Most of America's Catholic members belonged to the upper class and did not accept those under them. Hence, the tension between classes proved challenging to overcome.

Soon, there was an increase in the number of Catholic churches. It looked as though the Catholics were taking over the Protestants. The Americans were not accomodating of the Irish customs and rituals. The Irish were targets around the Northeast and several riots broke out, burning Catholic churches.

9. They quickly adjusted to their new home

The Irish, unlike the Americans, never knew what freedom felt like. They felt controlled even in their homeland- religiously, economically and politically. They would form secret societies along with their village priest to take care of their financial and educational requirements. This gave them a strong identity. Having an experience of such in their homeland helped them in America.

10. The Irish are one of the greatest additions to American politics

There is no doubt that the Irish made great organisers. They worked very well in teams and that quality helped them get to the political system in America. As most of them lived in the big cities, they proved themselves in politics like no other ethnic group. The Irish gave power to the working class and established loyalty amongst the crowds. Due to this, they received a large voting group. They created political machines (political groups that retained voters' loyalty by giving them favours such as jobs, money, or gifts). Although disliked, the Irish lead several major American cities between the mid-eighteenth and twentieth century.

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10 Interesting Facts About The Irish Immigration To America -

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In the 1800s, millions of Irish men, women and children left their homes and immigrated for a better quality of life. Although the newcomers were disliked, discriminated and overlooked, the Irish are commonly referred to as the "hands who made America." Keep reading to know more about the Irish immigration to America.

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A New Surge of Growth | German | Immigration and Relocation in U.S. History | Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress

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German immigrants boarding a ship for America European Reading Room
German immigration boomed in the 19th century. Wars in Europe and America had slowed the arrival of immigrants for several decades starting in the 1770s, but by 1830 German immigration had increased more than tenfold. From that…

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In the 1800s, millions of Irish men, women and children left their homes and immigrated for a better quality of life. Although the newcomers were disliked, discriminated and overlooked, the Irish are commonly referred to as the "hands who made America." Keep reading to know more about the Irish immigration to America.

Let us take a look at 10 Interesting Facts About The Irish Immigration To America

1. The Potato Famine - The cause of the Irish immigration to America

In the 1840s, almost two million Irish people migrated to the United States from Ireland. Several of them crossed the seas to run away from the potato famine. Most of the farmers in Ireland mainly involved in potato cultivation. However, in 1845, the country's agricultural sector crumbled down due to a nationwide fungus infestation. Even after selling all that they had, several farmers and their families couldn't beat hunger.

2. When 3.5 million Irish immigrated to the States

In America, the Irish immigrants received a steady cash flow that allowed them to take care of their expenses. From there on, there was a continuous overflow of Irish immigration to America from friends to family. According to records, between 1820 to 1880, around 3.5 million Irish from Ireland immigrated to the United States. You'd be surprised to know that between the years 1820 to 1860, the Irish alone made one-third of America's immigrants. Several more Irish from Britain emigrated the country. However, most immigration records counted them as British and not Irish, as their departure point was Britain.

3. New York had more Irish than some cities in Ireland

Although these Irish immigrants were not the poorest per se in their former country, they were incredibly poor in the United States. In the eyes of the American standards, they fell on or below the poverty line. Though not the poorest in Irish society, those who came to the United States were incredibly poor by American standards. Several of them were forced to settle near the ports where they arrived as they could not afford the ship fare. One of the main ports was Ellis Island, close to New York City. Eventually, New York had more Irish than Dublin in Ireland!

4. They were one of the 1870's largest immigrant community

A census (a period evaluation of the country's population) held in 1870 revealed that the 14.5% population of large American cities comprised the Irish. They accounted for 22 per cent of the people in New York that year and dominated New England. Along with the Germans, they were the largest immigrant community in 1870.

5. Companies made use of the cheap labour provided by Irishmen

Several Irish immigrants took up dangerous jobs as labourers that most others rejected. You could find several Irishmen in coal mines and they built on railroads and canals too. On the other hand, the women took up jobs as domestic help in others' homes. American businesspeople were quick to take advantage of the cheap labour provided by the Irish. Most companies threatened their inefficient employees to replace them with cheap Irish workers. Soon, this led to tension between the rest of the population and the Irish.

6. The rest of the society didn't hold much regard for them

As the rest of the population began developing hard feelings against the Irish, finding jobs became extremely difficult for the Irish. It was common for store windows to have huge placards saying "NINA" (No Irish Need Apply).

7. The next generations, however, were luckier

The kids and grandkids of those who immigrated to America made up the second and third generation of Irish immigrants. Most of them took up jobs as school teachers, firefighters and joined the police force. However, their generations got a better quality of education, thus enabling them to earn more money.

8. The Irish immigration to America brought religious turmoil to the country

Almost all native-born Americans and other ethnic communities hated the Irish because of their religion, willingness to work for low wages, and looked down upon the Irish's living conditions. Since times immemorial, the Protestants (Non-Catholic Christians) and Catholics never agreed on beliefs and would not tolerate one another. The same conflict played a role here too. The Irish were Catholic. Most of America's Catholic members belonged to the upper class and did not accept those under them. Hence, the tension between classes proved challenging to overcome.

Soon, there was an increase in the number of Catholic churches. It looked as though the Catholics were taking over the Protestants. The Americans were not accomodating of the Irish customs and rituals. The Irish were targets around the Northeast and several riots broke out, burning Catholic churches.

9. They quickly adjusted to their new home

The Irish, unlike the Americans, never knew what freedom felt like. They felt controlled even in their homeland- religiously, economically and politically. They would form secret societies along with their village priest to take care of their financial and educational requirements. This gave them a strong identity. Having an experience of such in their homeland helped them in America.

10. The Irish are one of the greatest additions to American politics

There is no doubt that the Irish made great organisers. They worked very well in teams and that quality helped them get to the political system in America. As most of them lived in the big cities, they proved themselves in politics like no other ethnic group. The Irish gave power to the working class and established loyalty amongst the crowds. Due to this, they received a large voting group. They created political machines (political groups that retained voters' loyalty by giving them favours such as jobs, money, or gifts). Although disliked, the Irish lead several major American cities between the mid-eighteenth and twentieth century.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
10 Interesting Facts About The Irish Immigration To America -

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In the 1800s, millions of Irish men, women and children left their homes and immigrated for a better quality of life. Although the newcomers were disliked, discriminated and overlooked, the Irish are commonly referred to as the "hands who made America." Keep reading to know more about the Irish immigration to America.

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Wicca is a modern-day, nature-based pagan religion. Though rituals and practices vary among people who identify as Wiccan, most observations include the festival celebrations of solstices and equinoxes, the honoring of a male god and a female goddess, and the incorporation of herbalism and other natural objects into rituals. Wiccans practice their religion according to an ethical code, and many believe in reincarnation.

WHAT IS WICCA?

Wicca is considered a modern interpretation of pre-Christian traditions, though some involved claim a direct line to ancient practices. It may be practiced by individuals or members of groups (sometimes known as covens).

Wicca also has some commonalities with Druidism in its environmental component, and is considered the inspiration of the goddess movement in spirituality.

There is great diversity among individuals and groups that practice a Wiccan religion, but many are duotheistic, worshiping both a female goddess and a male god (sometimes referred to as a Mother Goddess and a Horned God).

Other Wiccan practices are atheist, pantheist, polytheist or respectful of gods and goddesses as archetypal symbols rather than as actual or supernatural beings. Rituals in Wicca often include holidays centered around phases of the moon; solar equinoxes and solstices; elements such as fire, water, earth and air; and initiation ceremonies.

MARGARET MURRAY

The rituals of modern Wiccan practice can be traced to famed first-wave feminist, Egyptologist, anthropologist and folklorist Margaret Murray.

She wrote several books on medieval religion centered around witch cults in medieval Europe that inspired British seekers to create their own covens and structure worship around her descriptions, starting with 1921's The Witch-Cult in Western Europe.

Later scholarship disputed Murray's claims about witch cults, but her influence could not be erased within Wicca.

GERALD GARDNER

Wicca was first given a name in Gerald Gardner's 1954 book Witchcraft Today, in which he announced it as "wica," the extra "c" being added in the 1960s. According to Gardner, the word was derived from Scots-English and meant "wise people."

Gardner, considered the founder of Wicca, was born in 1884, north of Liverpool in England. A world traveler with an interest in the occult, Gardner first heard the word "Wica" used in the 1930s when he became involved with a coven in Highcliffe, England. He was initiated into the group in 1939.

In 1946 Gardner bought land in the village of Brickett Wood to establish a center for folkloric study, that would serve as headquarters for a coven of his own.

Gardner died of a heart attack in 1964 while onboard a ship off the North African coast. He was buried in Tunis. Only the ship's captain attended. In 1973, his extensive personal collection of artifacts was sold to Ripley's Believe It Or Not.

ALEISTER CROWLEY

Gardner met famed occultist Aleister Crowley in 1947. When Gardner formally wrote out his Wiccan rituals, he drew strongly from Crowley's own, dating back to 1912.

The two men had similar ideas. Crowley had, in 1914, proposed the idea of forming a new religion that would pull from old pagan traditions worshipping the earth, celebrating equinoxes and solstices and other hallmarks of nature-based worship.

BOOK OF SHADOWS

Gardner's fantasy novel High Magic's Aid, published in 1949, is considered one of the first standards of Wicca, but his Book of Shadows, a collection of spells and rituals, is central to Wiccan practice.

Written in the 1940s and 1950s, initiates were required to make their own copy by hand. The origin of the title is unknown, but some believe he borrowed it from the work of Scottish children's author Helen Douglas Adams.

DOREEN VALIENTE

Future Wiccan leader Doreen Valiente met Gardner in 1952 when she contacted him following an article in Illustrated magazine that presented to their readers the reality of covens and their practices in a context of normal, educated people.

Under Gardner's direction, Valiente would revise the Book of Shadows for more popular consumption, exorcising Crowley's influence. In 1957, Valiente split from Gardner's coven with other members and rivals to Gardner sprang up, each with a coven of their own. Valiente would become a prominent Wiccan advocate and scholar.

RAYMOND BUCKLAND

In 1963, Gardner initiated British expatriate and Long Island resident Raymond Buckland, who founded the Gardnerian Brentwood Coven, considered the first Wiccan coven in the United States.

Buckland became a vigorous promoter of Wicca in the United States and in the 1970s, moved to New Hampshire and developed Seax-Wica, which invoked Anglo-Saxon mythology into Wiccan practice.

SYBIL LEEK

Sybil Leek was a popularizer of Wicca in America. Claiming to be a hereditary witch, Leek became involved with the New Forest coven in the late 1940s, continuing her practice through several covens in England before moving to the United States and settling in Los Angeles.

Leek transformed her Wiccan practice into celebrity status centered around astrology, writing numerous books and a regular column in Ladies Home Journal.

ALEX SANDERS

Alex Sanders founded a strain known as Alexandrian Wicca in the 1960s.

Known as a publicity seeker, he catapulted to fame following an autobiography and a film in 1970, Legend of the Witches. Called "the King of the Witches," Sanders typically pushed myths about his own lineage, claiming royal ancestry and alleging that his grandmother was not only a Wiccan, but had learned a strain of witchcraft that supposedly originated in Atlantis, and involved King Arthur and Merlin.

Sanders attracted a younger generation of followers, and the lurid stories about him are considered to have had the effect of popularizing Wicca as an alternate lifestyle in the 1970s.

LAURIE CABOT

Laurie Cabot, "the Witch of Salem," began to gain attention in the United States in the late 1960s teaching classes at Salem State College and helping police solve cases.

Her occult store in Salem is one of the first in America, and she established the popular Witches' Ball. Governor Michael Dukakis declared her the "Official Witch of Salem" in 1977 and in 1986 founded the Witches League of Public Awareness.

WICCA AND FEMINISM

The 1970s saw the American version of Wicca transform from the magic-based pagan discipline claiming British heritage to a natured-based spiritual movement, with heavy tones of environmentalism and feminism. In turn, this influenced the religion in England.

The feminist influence in Wicca strengthened in the 1970s and 1980s, brought about by women who had entered the religion attracted by the female deity, but were faced with a misogynist reality in the religion's ranks.

In 1971 Wiccan activist Z. Budapest started the Susan B. Anthony coven, which practiced Dianic Wicca, a form of matriarchal lunar worship. Budapest wrote the Feminist Book of Shadows. A number of feminist covens were outgrowths from Budapest's coven.

WICCA AND THE LAW

In 1986, Wicca was recognized as an official religion in the United States through the court case Dettmer v. Landon.

In the case, incarcerated Wiccan Herbert Daniel Dettmer was refused ritual objects used for worship. The Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that Wicca was entitled to First Amendment protection like any other religion.

In 1998, a Wiccan student in Texas enlisted the aid of the ACLU after the school board tried to prevent her from wearing Wiccan jewelry and black clothes. The board reversed its view.

In 2004, the Indiana Civil Liberties Union fought to reverse a judge's decision that divorcing Wiccans were not allowed to teach their faith to their sons.

In 2005, U.S. Army Sgt. Patrick D. Stewart became the first Wiccan serving in the U.S. military to die in combat. His family was refused a Wiccan pentacle on his gravestone. As a result of a court case initiated by the Americans United for the Separation of Church and State, Wiccan symbols are now accepted by the Veterans Administration.

The number of practicing Wiccans in the United States has proven difficult to estimate, with sources reporting anywhere from 300,000 to three million practitioners.

SOURCES

Modern Wicca: A History From Gerald Gardner to the Present. Michael Howard.
The Triumph of the Moon. Ronald Hutton.
Wicca. BBC.

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Wicca is a modern-day, nature-based pagan religion. Though rituals and practices vary among people who identify as Wiccan, most observations include the festival celebrations of solstices and equinoxes, the honoring of a male god and a female goddess, and the incorporation of herbalism and other natural objects into rituals.

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Why was the Dunkirk evacuation necessary?

How was the Dunkirk evacuation executed?

What was the significance of the Dunkirk evacuation?

Dunkirk evacuation, (1940) in World War II, the evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) and other Allied troops from the French seaport of Dunkirk (Dunkerque) to England. Naval vessels and hundreds of civilian boats were used in the evacuation, which began on May 26. When it ended on June 4, about 198,000 British and 140,000 French and Belgian troops had been saved.

Blitzkrieg and the Allied collapse

The immediate context of the Dunkirk evacuation was Germany's invasion of the Low Countries and northern France in May 1940. On May 10 the German blitzkrieg attack on the Netherlands began with the capture by parachutists of key bridges deep within the country, with the aim of opening the way for mobile ground forces. The Dutch defenders fell back westward, and by noon on May 12 German tanks were on the outskirts of Rotterdam. Queen Wilhelmina and her government left the country for England on May 13, and the next day the Dutch army surrendered to the Germans.

Learn about the German invasion of France and the neutral nations of Belgium and Holland and the Dunkirk evacuation

Contunico © ZDF Enterprises GmbH, Mainz See all videos for this article

The invasion of Belgium also began on May 10, when German airborne troops landed on the fortress of Eben Emael, immediately opposite Maastricht, and on bridges over the Albert Canal. On May 11 the Belgian front was broken, and German tanks ran on westward while Belgian, French, and British divisions fell back to a line between Antwerp and Namur.

The German invasion of France hinged on Gen. Paul Ludwig von Kleist's surprise advance through the hilly and dense Ardennes Forest. On May 10 German tanks crossed Luxembourg to the southeastern border of Belgium, and by the evening of May 12 the Germans were across the Franco-Belgian frontier and overlooking the Meuse River. The next day they crossed the Meuse, and on May 15 they broke through the French defenses into open country, turning westward in the direction of the English Channel. That same day, Gen. Henri Giraud assumed command of the French Ninth Army and drew up a plan for a counteroffensive on a line 25 miles (40 km) west of the Meuse. On May 16 Giraud found that the forces for such an undertaking were not available, while the Germans had advanced in strength far beyond that line. He now decided to withdraw to the line of the Oise, 30 miles (48 km) farther back, and to block the Germans there. Once again he was too late, for the German panzer divisions outran his retreating troops and were across that barrier on May 17.

Even if the French had been able to mount a counteroffensive, they would not have found it easy to crush the invader. Kleist's southern flank was progressively lined by his motorized divisions, which in turn were relieved by the infantry corps that were marching on as fast as possible. This lining of the Aisne had an important indirect effect of playing on the most instinctive fear of the French. When, on May 15, French commander-in-chief Maurice Gamelin received an alarming report that the Germans were crossing the Aisne between Rethel and Laon, he told the government that he had no reserves between that sector and Paris and could not guarantee the security of the capital for more than a day. After Gamelin's startling message, French Premier Paul Reynaud hastily decided to move the seat of government from Paris to Tours. By evening more reassuring reports had come from the Aisne, and Reynaud broadcast a denial of "the most absurd rumours that the government is preparing to leave Paris." At the same time, he seized the opportunity to replace Gamelin and for that purpose summoned Gen. Maxime Weygand from Syria. Weygand did not arrive until May 19, and thus for three critical days the Supreme Command was without direction.

While Allied leaders were still hoping for an attack that would cut off the expanding "bulge," German armoured forces raced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium. The remaining obstacles that could have blocked the advance were not manned in time. After crossing the Oise on May 17, German Gen. Heinz Guderian's advance troops reached Amiens two days later. On May 20 they swept on and reached Abbeville, thus blocking all communications between north and south. By the next day motorized divisions had taken over the line of the Somme from Péronne to Abbeville, forming a strong defensive flank. Guderian's corps then turned north up the coast in a drive for Calais and Dunkirk on May 22. Gen. Georg-Hans Reinhardt swung south of the British rear position at Arras, headed for the same objective-the last escape port that remained open for the British.

Allied planners had hoped to check the Germans at the Dyle Line-a defensive line that ran from Antwerp south to the French frontier, north of Sedan-but by May 16 Gamelin had determined that such a stand was impracticable. The Allied armies in Belgium wheeled back to the line of the Scheldt. By the time they arrived there, the position had been undermined by the cutting of their communications. On May 19 Gen. John Gort, commander in chief of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), began to consider the necessity of evacuating his forces by sea and the preparatory steps that such an endeavour would require. The next day, however, orders came from the British Cabinet that the BEF was to march south on Amiens. Gort argued that such a long-range drive in reverse was not practicable, either tactically or administratively. All he could manage was an attack by two divisions, which had just been rushed south to Arras, led by a brigade of infantry tanks, the only armoured troops he had. When this riposte was launched on May 21, it comprised no more than two tank battalions backed by two infantry battalions, while elements of one French light mechanized division covered its flanks. The British light tanks proved to be surprisingly effective against German antitank weapons, and this small drive into the corridor momentarily shook the nerve of the German High Command. German planners realized that if two or three armoured divisions had been available for a concentrated counterstroke, the German advance might have been dislocated.

After this flash in the pan the Allied armies in the north made no further effort to break out of the trap, while the belated relieving push from the south was so feeble as to be almost farcical. The prevailing confusion was increased by Weygand's arrival to take over supreme command. The 73-year-old veteran of World War I was better at expounding outdated theory than grasping the realities of a rapidly changing, increasingly motorized battlefield. His grandiloquent orders had no more chance of being translated into practical terms than those of Reynaud or new British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. While the governments and commanders got into a tangle of divergent views and orders, the cut-off armies in the north fell back on a slant closer to the coast under increasing pressure from Gen. Walther von Reichenau's advance through Belgium. More dangerous still was the backdoor approach of Guderian, whose armoured forces were sweeping north past Boulogne and Calais.

Consequently, three of Gort's divisions were withdrawn from the front and sent south to strengthen the line of canals that covered Dunkirk and the Allies' rear. Two more divisions were allotted for Weygand's renewed project of a Franco-British drive down into the German corridor. When the Belgians' extended right flank, adjoining the British, gave way under pressure from Reichenau, these two divisions were rushed north again. By the time they arrived on May 27, the Belgian centre had cracked, and there were no reserves to fill this fresh gap. With their country overrun and their backs to the sea, in a small strip crowded with refugees, the Belgians were driven to sue for an armistice that evening. The cease-fire was sounded early the next morning.

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Dunkirk evacuation | Facts, Map, Photos, Numbers, Timeline, & Summary

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Dunkirk evacuation (May 26-June 4, 1940), in World War II, the evacuation of about 198,000 soldiers of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) and 140,000 French and Belgian troops from the French seaport of Dunkirk to England. Naval vessels and hundreds of civilian boats were used in the operation.

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Audio File: National anthem of Argentina

population:

(2023 est.) 46,655,000

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currency exchange rate:

1 USD equals 349.988 Argentine peso

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form of government:

federal republic with two legislative houses (Senate [72]; Chamber of Deputies [257])

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Argentina, country of South America, covering most of the southern portion of the continent. The world's eighth largest country, Argentina occupies an area more extensive than Mexico and the U.S. state of Texas combined. It encompasses immense plains, deserts, tundra, and forests, as well as tall mountains, rivers, and thousands of miles of ocean shoreline. Argentina also claims a portion of Antarctica, as well as several islands in the South Atlantic, including the British-ruled Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas).

Argentina has long played an important role in the continent's history. Following three centuries of Spanish colonization, Argentina declared independence in 1816, and Argentine nationalists were instrumental in revolutionary movements elsewhere, a fact that prompted 20th-century writer Jorge Luis Borges to observe, "South America's independence was, to a great extent, an Argentine enterprise." Torn by strife and occasional war between political factions demanding either central authority (based in Buenos Aires) or provincial autonomy, Argentina tended toward periods of caudillo, or strongman, leadership, most famously under the presidency of Juan Perón. The 1970s ushered in a period of military dictatorship and repression during which thousands of presumed dissidents were "disappeared," or murdered; this ended in the disastrous Falklands Islands War of 1982, when Argentina invaded the South Atlantic islands it claimed as its own and was defeated by British forces in a short but bloody campaign. Defeat led to the fall of the military regime and the reestablishment of democratic rule, which has since endured despite various economic crises.

The country's name comes from the Latin word for silver, argentum, and Argentina is indeed a great source of valuable minerals. More important, however, has been Argentina's production of livestock and cereals, for which it once ranked among the world's wealthiest nations. Much of this agricultural activity is set in the Pampas, rich grasslands that were once the domain of nomadic Native Americans, followed by rough-riding gauchos, who were in turn forever enshrined in the nation's romantic literature. As Borges describes them in his story The South, the Pampas stretch endlessly to the horizon, dwarfing the humans within them; traveling from the capital toward Patagonia, the story's protagonist, Señor Dahlmann, "saw horsemen along dirt roads; he saw gullies and lagoons and ranches; he saw long luminous clouds that resembled marble; and all these things were casual, like dreams of the plain....The elemental earth was not perturbed either by settlements or other signs of humanity. The country was vast, but at the same time it was intimate and, in some measure, secret. The limitless country sometimes contained only a solitary bull. The solitude was perfect and perhaps hostile, and it might have occurred to Dahlmann that he was traveling into the past and not merely south."

Despite the romantic lure of the Pampas and of vast, arid Patagonian landscapes, Argentina is a largely urban country. Buenos Aires, the national capital, has sprawled across the eastern Pampas with its ring of modern, bustling suburbs. It is among South America's most cosmopolitan and crowded cities and is often likened to Paris or Rome for its architectural styles and lively nightlife. Its industries have drawn colonists from Italy, Spain, and numerous other countries, millions of whom immigrated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Greater Buenos Aires is home to about one-third of the Argentine people. Among the country's other major cities are Mar del Plata, La Plata, and Bahía Blanca on the Atlantic coast and Rosario, San Miguel de Tucumán, Córdoba, and Neuquén in the interior.

Which Country Is Larger By Area? Quiz

Land

Argentina is shaped like an inverted triangle with its base at the top; it is some 880 miles (1,420 km) across at its widest from east to west and stretches 2,360 miles (3,800 km) from the subtropical north to the subantarctic south. The country is bounded by Chile to the south and west, Bolivia and Paraguay to the north, and Brazil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Its undulating Atlantic coastline stretches some 2,900 miles (4,700 km).

Argentina's varied geography can be grouped into four major regions: the Andes, the North, the Pampas, and Patagonia. The Andean region extends some 2,300 miles (3,700 km) along the western edge of the country from Bolivia to southern Patagonia, forming most of the natural boundary with Chile. It is commonly subdivided into two parts: the Northwest and the Patagonian Andes, the latter of which is discussed below under Patagonia. The North is commonly described in terms of its two main divisions: the Gran Chaco, or Chaco, comprising the dry lowlands between the Andes and the Paraná River; and Mesopotamia, an area between the Paraná and Uruguay rivers. The centrally located plains, or Pampas, are grasslands subdivided into arid western and more humid eastern parts called, respectively, the Dry Pampa and the Humid Pampa. Patagonia is the cold, parched, windy region that extends some 1,200 miles (1,900 km) south of the Pampas, from the Colorado River to Tierra del Fuego.

Relief

The Northwest

This part of the Andes region includes the northern half of the main mountain mass in Argentina and the transitional terrain, or piedmont, merging with the eastern lowlands. The region's southern border is the upper Colorado River. Within the region the Andean system of north-south-trending mountain ranges varies in elevation from 16,000 to 22,000 feet (4,900 to 6,700 metres) and is interrupted by high plateaus (punas) and basins ranging in elevation from about 10,000 to 13,400 feet (3,000 to 4,080 metres). The mountains gradually decrease in size and elevation southward from Bolivia. South America's highest mountain, Aconcagua (22,831 feet [6,959 metres]), lies in the Northwest, together with a number of other peaks that reach over 21,000 feet (6,400 metres). Some of these mountains are volcanic in origin.

To the southeast, where the parallel to subparallel ranges become lower and form isolated, compact units trending north-south, the flat valleys between are called bolsones (basins). This southeastern section of the Northwest is often called the Pampean Sierras, a complex that has been compared to the Basin and Range region of the western United States. It is characterized by west-facing escarpments and gentler east-facing backslopes, particularly those of the spectacular Sierra de Córdoba. The Pampean Sierras have variable elevations, beginning at 2,300 feet (700 metres) in the Sierra de Mogotes in the east and rising to 20,500 feet (6,250 metres) in the Sierra de Famatina in the west.

The western sector of the North region, the Gran Chaco, extends beyond the international border at the Pilcomayo River into Paraguay, where it is called the Chaco Boreal ("Northern Chaco") by Argentines. The Argentine sector between the Pilcomayo River and the Bermejo River is known as the Chaco Central. Argentines have named the area southward to latitude 30° S, where the Pampas begin, the Chaco Austral ("Southern Chaco"). The Gran Chaco in Argentina descends in flat steps from west to east, but it is poorly drained and has such a challenging combination of physical conditions that it remains one of the least-inhabited parts of the country. It has a subtropical climate characterized by some of Latin America's hottest weather, is largely covered by thorny vegetation, and is subject to summer flooding.

East of the Gran Chaco, in a narrow depression 60 to 180 miles (100 to 300 km) wide, lies Mesopotamia, which is bordered to the north by the highlands of southern Brazil. The narrow lowland stretches for 1,000 miles (1,600 km) southward, finally merging with the Pampas south of the Río de la Plata. Its designation as Mesopotamia (Greek: "Between the Rivers") reflects the fact that its western and eastern borders are two of the region's major rivers, the Paraná and the Uruguay. The northeastern part, Misiones province, between the Alto ("Upper") Paraná and Uruguay rivers, is higher in elevation than the rest of Mesopotamia, but there are several small hills in the southern part.

Pampa is a Quechua Indian term meaning "flat plain." As such, it is widely used in southeastern South America from Uruguay, where grass-covered plains commence south of the Brazilian Highlands, to Argentina. In Argentina the Pampas broaden out west of the Río de la Plata to meet the Andean forelands, blending imperceptibly to the north with the Chaco Austral and southern Mesopotamia and extending southward to the Colorado River. The eastern boundary is the Atlantic coast.

The largely flat surface of the Pampas is composed of thick deposits of loess interrupted only by occasional caps of alluvium and volcanic ash. In the southern Pampas the landscape rises gradually to meet the foothills of sierras formed from old sediments and crystalline rocks.

This region consists of an Andean zone (also called Western Patagonia) and the main Patagonian plateau south of the Pampas, which extends to the tip of South America. The surface of Patagonia descends east of the Andes in a series of broad, flat steps extending to the Atlantic coast. Evidently, the region's gigantic landforms and coastal terraces were created by the same tectonic forces that formed the Andes, and the coastline is cuffed along its entire length as a result. The cliffs are rather low in the north but rise in the south, where they reach heights of more than 150 feet (45 metres). The landscape is cut by eastward-flowing rivers-some of them of glacial origin in the Andes-that have created both broad valleys and steep-walled canyons.

Patagonia includes a region called the Lake District, which is nestled within a series of basins between the Patagonian Andes and the plateau. There are volcanic hills in the central plateau west of the city of Río Gallegos. These hills and the accompanying lava fields have dark soils spotted with lighter-coloured bunchgrass, which creates a leopard-skin effect that intensifies the desolate, windswept appearance of the Patagonian landscape. A peculiar type of rounded gravel called grava patagónica lies on level landforms, including isolated mesas. Glacial ice in the past extended beyond the Andes only in the extreme south, where there are now large moraines.

Drainage

The largest river basin in the area is that of the Paraguay-Paraná- Río de la Plata system. It drains an area of some 1.2 million square miles (3.2 million square km), which includes northern Argentina, the whole of Paraguay, eastern Bolivia, most of Uruguay, and a large part of Brazil. In Argentina the principal river of this system is the Paraná, formed by the confluence of the Paraguay and Alto Paraná rivers. The Río de la Plata (often called the River Plate) is actually the estuary outlet of the system formed by the confluence of the Paraná and Uruguay rivers; its name, meaning "River of Silver," was coined in colonial times before explorers found that there was neither a single river nor silver upstream from its mouth. Other tributaries of this system are the Iguazú ( Iguaçu), Pilcomayo, Bermejo, Salado, and Carcarañá. Just above its confluence with the Alto Paraná, the Iguazú River plunges over the escarpment of the Brazilian massif, creating Iguazú Falls -one of the world's most spectacular natural attractions.

Aside from the Paraná's main tributaries, there are few major rivers in Argentina. Wide rivers flow across the Gran Chaco flatlands, but their shallow nature rarely permits navigation, and never with regularity. Moreover, long-lasting summer floods cover vast areas and leave behind ephemeral swamplands. During winter most rivers and wetlands of the Gran Chaco dry up, the air chills, and the land seems visibly to shrink. Only three of the region's numerous rivers-the Pilcomayo, Bermejo, and Salado-manage to flow from the Andes to the Paraguay-Paraná system in the east without evaporating en route and forming salt pans ( salinas). The region's largest rivers follow a veritable maze of courses during flood season, however.

In the Northwest the Desaguadero River and its tributaries in the Andes Mountains water the sandy deserts of Mendoza province. The principal tributaries are the Jáchal, Zanjón, San Juan, Mendoza, Tunuyán, and Diamante. In the northern Pampas, Lake Mar Chiquita, the largest lake in Argentina, receives the waters of the Dulce, Primero, and Segundo rivers but has no outlet. Its name, meaning "Little Sea," refers to the high salt content of its waters.

Rivers that cross Patagonia from west to east diminish in volume as they travel through the arid land. The Colorado and Negro rivers, the largest in the south-central part of the country, produce major floods after seasonal snow and ice melt in the Andes. Farther south the Santa Cruz River flows eastward out of the glacial Lake Argentino in the Andean foothills before reaching the Atlantic.

Soils

Soil types in Argentina range from the light-coloured saline formations of the high puna in the Northwest to the dark, humus-rich type found in the Pampas. Golden-brown loess soils of the Gran Chaco are sometimes lighter where salinity is excessive but turn darker toward the east in the Mesopotamian border zone. These give way to soils ranging from rust to deep red colorations in Misiones. Thick, dark soils predominate in the fertile loess grasslands of the Pampas, but lighter brown soils are common in the drier parts of northern Patagonia. Light tan arid soils of varying texture cover the rest of this region. Grayish podzolic types and dark brown forest soils characterize the Andean slopes.

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Argentina | History, Map, Flag, Population, Language, Currency, & Facts

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Argentina, country of South America that covers most of the southern portion of the continent and has Buenos Aires as its capital.

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Other articles where history of Russia is discussed: Russia: Prehistory and the rise of the Rus: ...is now the territory of Russia since the 2nd millennium bce, but little is known about their ethnic identity, institutions, and activities. In ancient times, Greek and Iranian settlements appeared in the southernmost portions of what is now Ukraine.

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EDSA People Power Revolution: The Photos

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EDSA People Power Revolution: The Photos

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EDSA People Power Revolution: The Photos

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Here are photos from the EDSA People Power Revolution.

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Prosecutors charge 196 more people with murder over the Maguindanao massacre in November, including Andal Ampatuan Snr, a former provincial governor and ally of President Arroyo.

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Summary: A chronology of key events in the history of the Philippines

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The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History

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In the harshly controlled feudal society governed for over 250 years by the descendants of Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542-1616), creativity came not from its leaders, a conservative military class, but from the two lower classes in the Confucian social hierarchy, the artisans and merchants. Although officially denigrated, they were free to reap the economic and social benefits of this prosperous age. The tea ceremony, which had been adopted by every class during the Momoyama period, provided the medium in which literary and artistic traditions of the past were assimilated and transformed by highly cultivated men of both the bourgeoisie and the court. By the late 1630s, contact with the outside world was cut off through official prohibition of foreigners. In Japan's self-imposed isolation, traditions of the past were revived and refined, and ultimately parodied and transformed in the flourishing urban societies of Kyoto and Edo. Restricted trade with Chinese and Dutch merchants was permitted in Nagasaki, and it spurred development of Japanese porcelain and provided an opening for Ming literati culture to filter into artistic circles of Kyoto and, later, Edo.

By the end of the seventeenth century, three distinct modes of creative expression flourished. The renaissance of Heian culture accomplished by aristocrats and cultivated Kyoto townsmen was perpetuated in the painting and crafts of the school that later came to be called Rinpa. In urban Edo, which assumed a distinctive character with its revival after a devastating fire in 1657, a witty, irreverent expression surfaced in the literary and visual arts, giving rise to the Kabuki theater and the well-known woodblock prints of the " floating world," or . In the eighteenth century, a Japanese response to the few threads of Chinese literati culture, introduced by Ming Chinese monks at Manpukuji south of Kyoto, resulted in a new style known as bunjinga ("literati painting"), or nanga ("painting of the Southern School") after the Ming term for literati painting. Throughout the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, these various styles were embraced by Japanese artists and artisans as distinct but nonexclusive and complementary modes of expression.

Department of Asian Art. "Art of the Edo Period (1615-1868)." In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000-. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/edop/hd_edop.htm (October 2003)

Guth, Christine. Japanese Art of the Edo Period. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1995.

Mason, Penelope. History of Japanese Art. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2004.

Singer, Robert T., ed. Edo: Art in Japan, 1615-1868. Washington: D.C.: National Gallery of Art, 1998.

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Art of the Edo Period (1615-1868) | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History

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In Japan's self-imposed isolation, traditions of the past were revived and refined, and ultimately parodied and transformed in the flourishing urban societies of Kyoto and Edo.

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The area that is Iran today is home to one of the oldest human civilizations and was the center of the Persian Empire, officially the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Dating back to the 6th century BC, they ruled a huge area that covers modern day north Africa, Turkey, parts of the Middle East, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, all the way to west India. This was an important time for fostering the cultural, technological and religious growth and even today, visitors can see remnants of this incredible period in Iran's past.

History

Human civilization in Iran dates back to the Lower Paleolithic era (over 800,000 years ago), which is proven by archaeological finds made in the Kashafrud Basin. Some of these can be seen at the Zagros Paleolithic Museum in Kermanshah in western Iran. The Persian Empire was founded by Cyrus the Great and ruled a vast area that stretched from southern Europe to India.

The central location of Persia means that it was subject to many invasions and much turmoil. During the 7th century, the Arabs arrived, followed by the Turks in the 11th century, the Mongols in the 13th century, and finally the Ottomans. This upheaval added to Iran's colorful past and remnants of the various conquerors can still be seen today. The most impressive examples are Persepolis, Bam and Bisotun. If unable to travel to these regions, the National Museum in Tehran is a good place to learn about the history of the country.

During the 18th century, Iran became closely connected to Europe with Russia and Great Britain exerting pressure on the Iranian government. Oil was discovered in the 20th century, sparking a battle over natural resources - the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company was established with the British, which was subsequently nationalized by the Iranian government. This sparked a major break in political relations with Britain, which remains fragile today. Oil, even with sanctions, still remains the major revenue generator for the country's economy.

In 1921, Reza Khan appointed himself Shah and the military dictatorship of Iran began, ruling with an iron fist. Although he is credited with modernizing the country, such as its infrastructure and establishing the first university, he was autocratic, crushing opposition and became known for his excesses. A good place to see how the Shah lived is Tehran's Sa'dabad Palace, one of his residences. With the populous and religious zealots unhappy, riots ensued, leading to the Revolution. In 1979, the Shah was overthrown and exiled to Egypt and then the US.

From the Shah's excesses and western influences, Iran's pendulum swung completely the other way, with the conservative and extremely religious Ayatollah Khomeini taking over and establishing the Islamic Republic of Iran. Calling himself the Supreme Leader, the Ayatollah became both the highest ranking government official as well as the highest religious authority. He introduced Sharia Law (Islamic Law).

The Ayatollah died in 1989 and is buried in the Mausoleum of Khomeini in Tehran. He was succeeded by a hand-picked successor, who continues his ideals based on fundamentalism. Iran has since held open presidential elections―some transparent, others not. However, the country continues to be ruled by Islamic extremists and still follows Sharia Law. The political leaders continue to butt heads with the west and the country's economy continues to suffer under international sanctions.

Culture

Iran's culture is deeply intertwined with its long and rich history, especially from the Persian Empire. Art, literature, architecture, and music have deep roots which are still visible today. In fact, Persian artifacts can be seen in many leading museums around the world, such as the British Museum and the Louvre. Iran's society has also been strongly influenced by its neighboring countries, such as Turkey, Afghanistan, Iraq, Pakistan, and Turkmenistan.

Much of Iran's culture is reflective in its handicrafts. The art of carpet-knotting dates back centuries and is an important industry. Another key art form is intricate metal and wood work, known as khatamakari or minakari. These handicrafts are still alive and well, and antique versions can be seen in museums while modern substitutes can be purchased at the bazaars.

Art and literature thrived during the Persian Empire and although they have been curtailed by rulers and religious restrictions since, Iranian contemporary art is a proud tradition. There are many talented artists whose works can be seen at the Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art. The Tehran International Short Film Festival showcases leading movie makers in Iran every October.

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The area that is Iran today is home to one of the oldest human civilizations and was the center of the Persian Empire, officially the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Dating back to the 6th century BC, they ruled a huge area that covers modern day north Africa, Turkey, parts of the Middle East, Afghani...

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Iran (Islamic Republic of Iran) is a country in southwest Asian, neighboring Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan and Armenia on the north, Afghanistan and Pakistan on the east, and Turkey and Iraq on the west. Iran holds an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas. This blog will give you a snapshot into Iranian culture and tradition.

Culture

Farsi, the official language of Iran, is historically one of the most prominent languages of the Middle East and extended regions. Iranian culture is one of the oldest in the region, and it has influenced cultures like Italy, Macedonia, Greece, Russia, the Arabian Peninsula, and parts of Asia. Islam is practiced by the majority of Iranians and governs their personal, political, economic and legal lives.

The Persian calendar is a solar calendar, however, some of the official religious Islamic and Shia holidays are based on a lunar calendar. Government official working days are from Saturday to Wednesday.

Family

In Iran, family matters are very important, as they take their responsibilities to their family very seriously. Women are to be protected and taken care of and it is inappropriate to ask questions about an Iranian's wife or other female relatives. Their loyalty to the family comes before everything.

Typical wedding rituals occur in two stages. The first stage, Aghd, represents the legal aspect of marriage in Iran, where the bride and groom sign a marriage contract, usually in the bride's home. The second phase, Jashn-e Aroosi, is the wedding reception, where feasts and celebrations are held.

Arts and Literature

Iran has a great art heritage visible in architecture, paintings, calligraphy and poetry. This heritage was translated to several languages and influenced many cultures. Contemporary literature was influenced by classical Persian poetry although it reflects the particularities of modern day Iran. Houshang Moradi-Kermani, is one of the most famous modern Iranian writers and is considered the most translated modern Iranian author.

Iranian films are celebrated and internationally acclaimed. The films have won 300 international awards in the past 10 years. The best known Persian directors are Abbas Kiarostami, Majid Majidi, and Asghar Farhadi.

Iran has a long history of fine silk and wool rug weaving, that is why Persian rugs are internationally known as the most beautiful across the world. Iran produces more rugs and carpets than all other countries put together.

Iranian Culture and Traditions

If you are planning to conduct business with Iranian people, below are some important rules for etiquette and customs that should be observed.

The most common greeting is "salaam alaykum" or more simply "salaam" which means "peace".

Introductions are generally restricted to members of the same sex since men and women socialize separately.

When Iranians greet each other they take their time and converse about general things.

Try to never be late, punctuality is appreciated.

Show respect for elders by greeting them first.

Iranians prefer to do business with those they know and respect, therefore they expect to spend time cultivating a personal relationship before business is conducted.

Iranians are deliberate negotiators and can drive a hard bargain.

Companies are hierarchical. Decisions are made at the top of the company, either by one person or a small council.

Business attire is formal and conservative.

When presenting business cards, it is recommended to have one side of your card translated into Farsi, and to present your card so the Farsi side faces the recipient.

Summary

Iranian culture and traditions are complex and have a deep history. If your global business currently operates in Iran or plans to do so, becoming familiar with Iran's customs is necessary for success.

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Iranian Culture and Traditions | Farsi Translation Services

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Iran (Islamic Republic of Iran) is a country in southwest Asian, neighboring Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan and Armenia on the north, Afghanistan and Pakistan on the east, and Turkey and Iraq on the west. Iran holds an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas.

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Sitar To Bollywood: Sounds Of The Subcontinent

W hat many people casually refer to as Indian music is actually the classical music of the north of the Indian subcontinent, embracing the expansive cultural and religious diversity of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and even Bhutan. Karnatic (south) Indian music is older and represents the Hindu tradition before the Afghan and Mughal invasions of the north created one of the great hybrid musical styles of the world.

In the 1960s and 1970s Bollywood composers adventurously adopted the trippy guitars, spiralling synthesizers and ethereal vocals of psychedelia and mixed it with lusciously over-the-top Indian orchestrations. Jewels included feature songs by Asha Bhosle, Lata Mangeshkar, Usha Iyer and yodeller Kishore Kumar. Click here to listen/buy

In Hindustani tradition a performance consists of several sections. Played by the soloist in free rhythm with tanpura or drone accompaniment, it is the alap which reveals most about a musician's mastery and prowess. The music winds down briefly, and then introduces a slow, almost lazy pulse for the so-called jor section.The gat is a fixed musical figure; the same melodic phrases can be heard again and again.In the jhala , quick-fire "question and answer" exchanges between instrumentalists can occur towards the end - a great opportunity for witty performers, especially when a drum imitates a melody instrument.

It's a subtly different experience if the musicians belong to the traditions of south India . Performances are shorter and they rarely linger in a slow tempo for any length of time. But the underlying principles and motivations have plenty in common, and the fundamental idea of profoundly exploring a mood and a set of notes still drives the music.

Hindustani Instrumental Music

India's classical music is deeply bound to the country's ancient mystical traditions. This unique Rough Guide brings together the greatest names in Indian Classical music, performing some of the most beautiful ragas of India's classical legacy. Enjoy the musical artistry of legendary performers such as Shivkumar Sharma, Hari Prasad Chaurasia, Zakir Hussain and Ravi Shankar. Click here to listen/buy

Karnatic Instrumental Music

K arnatic (Carnatic, Karnatak) music was once the musical language of the entire subcontinent, grounded in Hinduism and boasting a history and mythology thousands of years old as the articulation of Dravidian culture. Its tenets, once passed on only orally, were codified in Vedic literature between 4000 and 1000 BC, long before Western classical music was even in its infancy. One of the four main Vedic texts, the Sama Veda , is the basis for all that followed. The music and the faith which inspired it have remained inseparable. Visitors to the vast temples of south India are much more likely to encounter music than they would be in the north. It's usually the piercing sound of the nagaswaram ( shawm ) and the tavil (barrel drum). More than likely it accompanies flaming torches and a ceremonial procession of the temple deity.

Nowadays, concerts will typically feature a named principal soloist (either vocal or instrumental) with melodic and rhythmic accompaniment and a tanpura or drone player. Percussionists of standing are often included in concert announcements and advertising as they are attractions in their own right. Female musicians involved in a principal role tend to be vocalists, vina (or veena) players or violinists. Male musicians have access to a wider range of musical possibilities as well as outnumbering female principal soloists or accompanists by roughly three to one. Both of the subcontinent's two classical systems give pride of place to the voice while melodic instruments, to some degree, are played to mimic it.

Vocal Music

The bhajan is the most popular form of Hindu devotional composition in north India. Lyrically, bhajans eulogize a particular deity and frequently retell episodes from the Hindu scriptures. In the South, bhajans tend to retain their original Hindustani raga but are set in Karnatic talas, as the Karnatic violinist V.V. Subrahmanyam 's exquisite recordings for the Gramophone Company of India show.

Folk Music

Folk music in India is often described as desi (or deshi ), meaning "of the country", to distinguish it from art music, known as marga (meaning "chaste" and, by extension, classical). Desi, a catchall term, also embraces folk theatre and popular music of many colours. While there is extraordinary folk music to be found all over India, there are three areas where it is particularly rich and easy to access as a visitor - Rajasthan, Kerala and Bengal, where the Bauls are the inspirational music providers. Rajasthani groups and Baul musicians are popular performers on the world music circuit.

The harvest is celebrated in every culture and in the Punjab it gave rise to bhangra , a folk dance which, in its British commercial form, has transmogrified into a form of Asian pop. Following on from the crossover success of bhangra, dandiya , a new folk-based genre, has emerged as a new phenomenon with a club-based following in India.

Film Music - Bollywood

Indianfilms often succeed because of their songs . Stars get stereotyped and rarely find roles outside, say, romantic lead, swashbuckler, comic light relief, baddie and so on. What's more, these highly paid actors and actresses lip-synch to pre-recorded songs sung by vocal superstars such as Lata Mangeshkar and S.P. Balasurahmaniam , off-camera. After these superstars, Kavita Krishnamurthy , Alka Yagnik and Udit Narayan are among the crowd-pulling names.

The leading trio which dominated the Hindi cinema for over thirty years were Mukesh (1923-76), Mohammed Rafi (1924-80) and Lata Mangeshkar (b. 1929). Dreamy strings provide the lush backings, an Indianized account of Hollywood strings, but bursting with touches that could only come from the subcontinent. The Los Angeles of the Indian film industry is Mumbai , the decolonialized Bombay, hence the common shorthand Bollywood - a film industry in-joke that stuck and went international.

East-West Fusions

Guitar legends John McLaughlin and Jerry Douglas collaborate with Indian slide guitar maestro Debashish Bhattacharya to explore Beyond The Ragasphere, accompanied by a galaxy of friends including tabla giants Pandit's Bickram Ghosh and Tanmoy Bose and introducing the stunning vocals of Anandi Bhattacharya. Click here to listen/buy

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Sitar To Bollywood: Sounds Of The Subcontinent What many people casually refer to as Indian music is actually the classical music of the north of the Indian subcontinent, embracing the expansive cultural and religious diversity of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and even Bhutan. Karnatic (south) Indian music is olde

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International cricket in the early part of the 20th century was dominated by the original members of the Imperial Cricket Conference, England, Australia, and South Africa. Later renamed the International Cricket Conference and then the International Cricket Council, the ICC gradually took over more responsibility for the administration of the game and shifted its power base from west to east. When in 2005 the ICC moved its offices from Lord's in London-home of the MCC, the game's original rulers and still its lawmakers-to Dubai, the shift away from the old ways of governance was complete. The priorities of the game changed too. By the turn of the 21st century, only Australia and England still played Test cricket to full houses. Everywhere else, and particularly in India and Pakistan, crowds flocked to see limited-overs internationals. Test cricket became almost an afterthought. Although the power to change the laws of the game have remained with the MCC, the ICC developed its own Code of Conduct for players, officials, and administrators, which sets out disciplinary procedures and protects the spirit of the game. It also organized major international tournaments, including the one-day and Twenty20 World Cups and the Champions Trophy. In 2000 the ICC set up the Anti-Corruption Unit (renamed the Anti-Corruption Unit and Security Unit in 2003) to combat the growing threat of illegal gambling and match fixing. At the beginning of the 2010s, the ICC had 10 full members and dozens of associate and affiliate members.

One of the founding members of the ICC, Australia remains one of its most powerful countries both on and off the field. The history of cricket in Australia dates to 1803 when the game was introduced by the crew of a British ship. The first intercolonial match took place in 1851 between Victoria and Tasmania, and by the end of the 19th century teams from England were touring Australia regularly. The first official Test match was played in Melbourne in 1877 by Australia and England, beginning the oldest rivalry in international cricket, a series that became known as The Ashes ( see Test Matches below).

Cricket is played throughout Australia, and matches are ferociously competitive at every level. All the great Australian players from Sir Don Bradman to Shane Warne developed their skills in club cricket before graduating to the state and national teams, and the Australian style of cricket is marked by aggressiveness with bat, ball, and, often, voice in an attempt to intimidate opponents. Through the 20th century, Australia produced a series of outstanding teams, and the country dominated international cricket into the new century, winning three successive one-day World Cups (1999-2007) and twice recording runs of 16 consecutive Test victories (1999-2001 and 2005-08). In 2005 England's Test victory over Australia, the first since 1987, was celebrated with an open-top bus ride through the city of London.

In June 2000 Bangladesh became the 10th country to be accorded full Test status. It played its first Test match in November of that year, against India in Dhaka. Known as the Tigers, the Bangladeshi team struggled to perform at the highest level, winning only three of its first 68 Tests. However, Bangladesh has defeated the nine countries that preceded it to Test status in one-day matches, a feat completed with a victory over England in Bristol in 2010. Bangladesh's first appearance in an international tournament had come in England in the ICC Trophy competition for associate members in 1979. In 1997 Bangladesh won the trophy and qualified for the 1999 World Cup, beating Pakistan in the group stages. A domestic first-class tournament between six regional teams was established in 2000-01. Since Bangladesh gained Test status, cricket arguably has become the most popular sport in the country.

Cricket is played in every corner of India, on city streets, in village fields, and on maidans-open playing fields, the largest of which (such as the Azad, Cross, and Oval maidans in South Mumbai) can host dozens of overlapping matches. Historically, Indian cricketers have displayed a good eye and strong wrists, and Indian batsmen, most notably Sunil Gavaskar and Sachin Tendulkar, have been some of the most productive and stylish in the history of cricket. The dry flat pitches of the subcontinent have also traditionally produced high-class spin bowlers.

The origins of the game in India date to the 18th century. A touring team led by the English gentleman cricketer Lord Hawke played a match against the "All India" team in January 1893. India played its first Test in 1932 and waited 20 years for its first Test victory, against England in Madras (now Chennai). The game developed so fast in India, however, that by the end of the 20th century India was one of the world's foremost cricketing countries. With the growth of the Indian Premier League in the early 21st century, it became the undisputed home of Twenty20 cricket and the financial hub of the international game, though the popularity of Test cricket has declined dramatically in India. India's prominence in one-day cricket was further confirmed when it won the Cricket World Cup in 2011.

Cricket has always taken second place to rugby in the sports priorities of New Zealanders, but, as in Australia, the game has a strong national structure in New Zealand. The long history of domestic cricket in the country is often dated from the first representative interprovincial match, between Auckland and Wellington, in 1860, though there is evidence that unofficial matches between provinces were played in New Zealand decades earlier. The NZ Cricket Council was formed in 1894 and was admitted to full membership of the ICC in 1926. With only a small base of players on which to draw, New Zealand has always struggled to compete with England and Australia in Test cricket. As in most cricketing countries, the one-day game has proved more popular in New Zealand. In Richard Hadlee, who was knighted in 1990, the country produced one of the greatest cricketers of any era.

The development of cricket in Pakistan has been chaotic, quixotic, and exotic in roughly equal measure. Under the leadership of Imran Khan, Pakistan won the 1992 World Cup, but often its cricket was blighted by political interference and scandal. A low point was reached in 2010: To begin with, the national team was in virtual exile, unable to persuade other countries to play in Pakistan for fear of terrorist attacks in the wake of an assault in Lahore on the visiting Sri Lankan team bus in March 2009 that left six policemen dead and several players injured. Moreover, three members of the Pakistani team touring England were involved in allegations of "spot fixing"-that is, fixing the results of certain bowls in return for money-and were banned by the ICC. Huge profits could be made in illegal betting markets in Asia by predicting the results of individual bowls. Only a few years earlier several Pakistan players also had been banned as a result of investigations over match fixing. Yet Pakistan has also produced a host of talented cricketers such as Khan, Wasim Akram, Abdul Qadir, and Inzamam-ul-Haq and has proved itself adept at Twenty20 cricket, winning the T20 World Cup in 2009.

South Africa played its first Test, against England in Port Elizabeth, as early as in 1889. Cricket has been at the heart of the country's sporting culture ever since. When South Africa was banned from the ICC from 1970 to 1991 because of its apartheid policies, cricket administrators worked quietly to integrate nonwhite players into the system, which was based largely on traditional all-white schools and state teams. When apartheid was abolished, cricket was far more prepared to cope with the social and political changes than was rugby union. Makhaya Ntini, a world-class fast bowler, who made his international debut for South Africa in 1998 and played in more than 100 Tests, served as a role model for the new generation of black cricketers. On the other hand, in 2000 Hansie Cronje, the captain of South Africa, was banned for match fixing in a scandal that brought into question the integrity of South African cricket. It was not until 2003, when South Africa hosted a successful World Cup, that the rehabilitation of country's cricketing reputation was complete. South Africa has always been a great exporter of cricketers, mainly to England. Allan Lamb and Robin Smith were prominent members of the England team in the 1980s and '90s; Kevin Pietersen and Jonathan Trott were mainstays of the Ashes-winning side of 2010.

Even before Test status was awarded to Sri Lanka in 1981, the island country was a popular destination for touring teams, particularly for English teams on the way to Australia by boat. Given the disadvantages of its relatively small population and of the civil war that disrupted life on the island for three decades, Sri Lanka developed into a top cricketing country with surprising speed. In 1996 it won the World Cup, beating Australia in the final by playing aggressive, innovative cricket under the inspired leadership of Arjuna Ranatunga. The victory instilled belief in a new generation of players that included Sanath Jayasuriya; Mahela Jayawardene, an elegant and aggressive batsmen; and Muttiah Muralitharan, who in 2010 became the first bowler to take 800 Test wickets. The Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004 devastated the cricket-playing regions of southern Sri Lanka, including the Test match ground at Galle, and took the lives of many promising young players. Nonetheless, Sri Lanka recovered to reach the World Cup final again in 2007. Calamity struck again in 2009, when the Sri Lankan team's bus was attacked by terrorists on the way to the ground for the second Test against Pakistan in Lahore.

Cricket has been a unifying force in the Caribbean since the West Indies became the fourth Test-playing side in 1928. The islands have generally played other sports as independent countries, but British colonial influence contributed to the formation of a united regional team. For a time in the 1970s and '80s, when the West Indian team featured a quartet of fast bowlers-led by Michael Holding, Malcolm Marshall, Andy Roberts, and Joel Garner-and batsmen of the destructive capacity of Sir Viv Richards and Clive Lloyd, the West Indies were virtually unbeatable. Blessed with an abundance of talented players and true pitches, Caribbean cricket has always been played with an unorthodox flourish, seen most clearly in the batsmanship of Sir Garfield Sobers, Richards, and Brian Lara.

In the 21st century cricket declined in popularity in the West Indies, a result of a lack of strong administrative leadership and because of the increasing appeal of potentially more lucrative sports such as athletics (track and field), football (soccer) and basketball. After playing in the finals of the first three World Cups (1975, 1979, and 1983) and winning the first two, the West Indian team failed-with the exception of 1996-to reach even the knockout stage of subsequent World Cups, including in 2007, as the host of the event.

Until Test status was granted to Zimbabwe in 1992, the country's best cricketers, such as Colin Bland, played for South Africa. Indeed, the history of the cricket in the two countries has been inextricably linked. Long before the newly independent and renamed Zimbabwe became an associate member of the ICC in 1980, teams representing its Rhodesian forerunner states had participated in the Currie Cup, the South African domestic first-class tournament (first in 1904-05, then in the early 1930s, and again after World War II). Competing in its first World Cup in 1983, Zimbabwe surprised the world by beating Australia, yet Graeme Hick, arguably the country's best batsman, left shortly thereafter to play for England.

Zimbabwean cricket in the early 21st century has been marked by chaotic administration and political interference. In 2004 Heath Streak was sacked as captain of the national team, precipitating a crisis from which Zimbabwe took years to emerge, including an exile from Test cricket that began in 2006 and ended in 2011. The country's political volatility during this period had much to do with the situation. In the 2003 World Cup, for example, England forfeited its match in Zimbabwe, citing security concerns. During the same tournament, two Zimbabwe players, Andy Flower and Henry Olonga, wore black armbands to "mourn the death of democracy" in their country.
Andrew Longmore

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cricket - cricket - International cricket: International cricket in the early part of the 20th century was dominated by the original members of the Imperial Cricket Conference, England, Australia, and South Africa. Later renamed the International Cricket Conference and then the International Cricket Council, the ICC gradually took over more responsibility for the administration of the game and shifted its power base from west to east.

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Unlocking a treasure trove of spices, Indian dishes showcase elaborate, intricate flavors. Here are twenty-five essential staples of the Indian pantry.

For centuries, India enticed spice-hungry traders. As foreigners took away spices, they also contributed to India's cuisine. The Chinese brought rice and the wok; the Portuguese introduced vinegar, tomatoes, potatoes, and chilies. Persian, Mongolian and Indonesian influences were also significant. Here are key ingredients to stock in your pantry for delicious DIY Indian recipes.

A Peek Inside the Indian Pantry
Listen to Allrecipes "Homemade" podcast to hear Aarti Sequeria's essential Indian spices and more!
Additional spices: Indian food is so rich with spices that what we have above is only a partial list. For a well-stocked pantry, you might consider stocking up on peppercorns (the source of "heat" in spicy foods before the introduction of chiles), fennel seeds, poppy seeds, bay leaves, black mustard seeds, nigella seeds (kalonji--sometimes called black onion seed), saffron, and asafoetida.

Chiles: Indigenous to America, chiles were introduced into India by the Portuguese. They are essential ingredients in making vindaloo curries (itself a perversion of a Portuguese word vindalho, which combines the words "vinho," for vinegar, and "aldos," for garlic.) Indian cuisine makes use of both fresh chiles (whole, minced, or made into a paste) and dried chiles. If a recipe calls for chile powder, use ground cayenne pepper - do not use a spice blend. Try cayenne in Jonagold's Chicken Vindaloo.

Flour: Breads can be eaten in place of rice in many parts of India: grilled breads such as naan, griddled breads such as chapati and roti, and the crepe-like dosa. Fried breads such as samosas, pappadam, and paratha are served as appetizers and snacks and as desserts. Check out our collection of Indian Breads.

A few for the fridge

Dairy products are relatively rare in Indian cuisine, due to their short shelf-life in the warm climate and a historical lack of refrigeration. By processing dairy foods (culturing yogurt, clarifying butter, cooking milk to make sweets), Indian cooks made them more available.

Related

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Essential Ingredients in the Indian Pantry

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Unlocking a treasure trove of spices, Indian dishes showcase elaborate, intricate flavors. Here are twenty-five essential staples of the Indian pantry. For centuries, India enticed spice-hungry traders. As foreigners took away spices, they also contributed to India's cuisine. The Chinese brought rice and the wok; the Portuguese introduced vinegar, tomatoes, potatoes, and chilies.

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About Indian Mythology

Introduction

Indian religion and mythology are closely interwoven and cannot really be separated. Moreover, both are so vast and confused that any generalization is likely to oversimplify. The earliest Indian texts are the Vedas, a series of sacred hymns in honor of the Aryan gods, who personified natural forces such as the sun, storm, fire, soma, and the like. The Vedic religion was materialistic, devoted to obtaining power, prosperity, health, and other blessings by means of ritual and sacrifice.

By the time of Buddha around 500 B.C., the old Vedic religion had been transformed by Brahmin priests into a fantastical hodgepodge, with the priests claiming godlike powers for themselves. Buddha addressed himself to the problem of human suffering and discovered a way to eliminate it through disciplined living and giving up one's desires. He gained so many followers that the Brahmins were forced to incorporate his ideas into their teachings. The result was Hinduism, a modified polytheism with three major gods: Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva.

We will look at the principal Vedic and Hindu gods and relate two appropriate myths. Then we will view two legends, the first deriving from the Ramayana and the second treating the life of Buddha.

Main Vedic Gods

Indraisthe main god of the Vedas, a hard-drinking, swaggering warrior who rides his solar chariot across the sky and wields the thunderbolt. As a storm god he brings the rain to fertilize India's parched soil.

Mitraand Varunamaintain the cosmic order. Mitra, the sun, presides over contracts and friendship, while Varuna, the moon, supervises oaths. Like Indra, these gods reflect the values of the warrior caste.

Soma is both a narcotic plant and a god who gives inspiration, liberates men, and represents the principle of life.

Puchan brings all things into relationship, blessing marriage, providing food, guiding travelers, and ushering the dead.

The Devasand Asuras are gods and demons, respectively, and battle each other with magical powers.

The Rakshas are evil semi-divine creatures that practice black magic and afflict men with misfortune.

Hindu Gods and Concepts

Brahma refers to the spiritual reality underlying all phenomena, and is sometimes personified as a god. Brahma emerged from the golden egg created by the waters of chaos and established every universe.

The Transmigration of Souls refers to the propensity of souls to incarnate themselves in various material forms, from the mineral to the superhuman. Since soul matter is indestructible, each soul lives innumerable lives.

Karma refers to the debt of sin incurred in the past and in this present life, a debt that must be paid before the soul is to reach perfection.

Siva is an extremely important Hindu god, the dancing deity of creation and destruction. He has four arms and has a third eye on his forehead with which he destroys. His worship is marked by asceticism.

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Introduction
Indian religion and mythology are closely interwoven and cannot really be separated. Moreover, both are so vast and confused that any generalizatio

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How the Philippine Independence Happened

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How the Philippine Independence Happened

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Philippine independence declared | June 12, 1898 | HISTORY

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During the Spanish-American War, Filipino rebels led by Emilio Aguinaldo proclaim the independence of the Philippines after 300 years of Spanish rule. By mid-August, Filipino rebels and U.S. troops had ousted the Spanish, but Aguinaldo’s hopes for independence were dashed when the United States formally annexed the Philippines as part of its peace treaty with […]

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Native Population

Puerto Rico's native Taíno population-whose hunter-gatherer ancestors settled the island more than 1,000 years before the Spanish arrived-called it Borinquén, and referred to themselves as boricua (a term that is still used today).

During his second expedition to the Indies in 1493, Christopher Columbus returned several Taíno captives to Borinquén and claimed the island for Spain, calling it San Juan Bautista. In 1508, Juan Ponce de León founded the first European settlement, Caparra, near a bay on the island's northern coast; Caparra was renamed Puerto Rico (or "rich port") in 1521.

Over time, people began referring to the entire island by that name, while the port city itself became San Juan. Smallpox soon wiped out the vast majority of the Taíno, with many others enslaved by the Spanish to mine silver and gold and to construct settlements.

Spanish Rule

In order to produce cash crops such as sugar cane, ginger, tobacco and coffee, the Spanish began importing more slaves from Africa in the 16th century. They also spent considerable resources turning San Juan into an impregnable military outpost, building a fortified palace for the governor (La Fortaleza) as well as two massive forts-San Felipe del Morro and San Cristobál-that would withstand repeated attacks by rival powers such as England, the Netherlands and France.

Under Spanish colonial rule, Puerto Rico experienced varying levels of economic and political autonomy over the centuries. By the mid-19th century, however, a wave of independence movements in Spain's South American colonies had reached Puerto Rico.

In 1868, some 600 people attempted an uprising based in the mountain town of Lares. Though the Spanish military efficiently quashed the rebellion, Puerto Ricans still celebrate "El Grito de Lares" (The Cry of Lares) as a moment of great national pride.

Foraker Act

In July 1898, during the brief Spanish-American War, U.S. Army forces occupied Puerto Rico at Guánica, on the island's south side. Under the Treaty of Paris, which formally ended the war later that year, Spain ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, the Philippines and Cuba to the United States.

The interim U.S. military government established on the island ended in 1900 after Congress passed the Foraker Act, which formally instituted a civil government in Puerto Rico. Having enjoyed considerable autonomy in the latter years of Spanish colonial rule, many Puerto Ricans bristled under the control exercised by the United States.

In 1917, Congress passed the Jones-Shafroth Act, which granted U.S. citizenship to all Puerto Ricans and made Puerto Rican males eligible for the military draft; some 18,000 of the territory's residents were subsequently drafted into World War I.

Operation Bootstrap

Big political, economic and social changes swept Puerto Rico after World War II. In 1948, Congress passed an act permitting Puerto Ricans to elect their own governor. Four years later, Puerto Rico would officially become a U.S. commonwealth, which enabled the island to create its own constitution and granted other powers of self-government.

By that time, the U.S. and Puerto Rican governments had jointly launched an ambitious industrialization effort called Operation Bootstrap. Even as Puerto Rico attracted an influx of big American companies, and became a center for manufacturing and tourism, the decline of its agricultural industries led many islanders to seek employment opportunities in the United States.

Between 1950 and 1970, more than 500,000 people (some 25 percent of the island's total population) left Puerto Rico, an exodus known as La Gran Migración (the Great Migration). Today, more than 5 million people of Puerto Rican descent live in the United States, with huge communities centered in Chicago, Philadelphia, Miami and especially New York City.

Is Puerto Rico Part of the U.S?

Puerto Rico is a territory of the United States, but the island's ambiguous status in relation to the United States has driven heated debate over the years between those who support its commonwealth status, those who favor full-fledged Puerto Rican statehood and those who want the island to be its own independent nation.

As citizens of a commonwealth, Puerto Ricans can elect a non-voting representative in Congress and vote in presidential primaries, but cannot vote for president because Puerto Rico is not part of the electoral college.

After three separate votes in 1967, 1993 and 1998 reaffirmed Puerto Rico's commonwealth status, a majority of residents who voted in a 2012 referendum said they were not satisfied with the status quo, and indicated their preferred choice was statehood.

Hundreds of thousands of voters left the second part of the referendum blank, however, leaving the question open for further debate. A fifth referendum in 2017 ended in a majority vote for statehood, but only 23 percent of voters (a historic low) turned out.

Economic Crisis

In the first decade of the 21st century, Puerto Rico's economic growth slowed, even as its national debt rapidly expanded. In 2015, the worsening economic crisis led its governor to announce that the commonwealth could no longer meet its debt obligations.

Two years later, under legislation passed by Congress to help Puerto Rico deal with its economic crisis, the commonwealth declared a form of bankruptcy, claiming debt of more than $70 billion, mostly to U.S. investors.

In September 2017, Puerto Rico's economic woes were compounded when Hurricane Maria, a Category 4 hurricane with some 150 mph winds, made direct landfall on the island. In Maria's aftermath, Puerto Rico's inhabitants-some 3.4 million American citizens-found themselves in a humanitarian crisis, facing debilitating shortages of water, food and fuel and a deeply uncertain future.

HISTORY Vault

Sources

Doug Mack, The Not-Quite States of America: Dispatches from the Territories and Other Far-Flung Outposts of the USA. W.W. Norton, 2017.
Puerto Rico, History, Art & Archives: U.S. House of Representatives.
Smithsonian.
Library of Congress.
Puerto Rico statehood referendum draws big support-but small turnout, CNN.

Fact Check

We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.

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Puerto Rico is a large Caribbean island of roughly 3,500 square miles located in the West Indies. After centuries of Spanish rule, Puerto Rico became a territory of the United States in 1898 and has been largely self-governing since the mid-20th century.

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The 10 countries around the world with the most Irish emigrants | IrishCentral.com

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Around 70 million people around the globe claim Irish ancestry.

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Nina Evason,

The Islamic Republic of Iran is a Middle Eastern nation located at the crossroads between Arab Asia and Central Asia. While it borders seven different countries, the Iranian people do not seem to affiliate themselves with the Arab world; nor do they share much commonality with those in South/Central Asia. Rather, the distinctive Persian identity engenders a strong sense of pride and belonging among its people. It is common for Iranians to refer to themselves as "Persian", which carries the association and prestige of the historical empire. ¹ The Iranian culture and people have a history of being one of the most progressive in the Middle East. Iranians can often recount the country's legacy and heritage in great detail.

Modernity and Education

One of the most notable characteristics of the Iranian people is their thirst for knowledge. In first interactions with a stranger on the street, one may find that a taxi driver is, in fact, an 'expert' on architecture, or a colleague can explain the complex history of countries they've never visited. Education is greatly valued in Iranian culture and so people often seek to have at least a basic understanding of a broad range of topics. Many people study for a higher education or post-graduate degree as strong respect is shown to those who have proof of expertise. All leaders are expected to have a high level of academic achievement or theological education.

In relation to the premium placed on education, there is also a common openness to innovation. Indeed, general society embraces science and development, and there seems to be a cultural consensus that Islamic principles do not necessarily contradict technological and scientific progress. Iran has been swift and forthcoming in adopting and bringing forward new ideas. One can notice it in the institutions dedicated to technology and medical sciences, but also in the general population's remarkable mobilisation of multiple social networks.

Islam in Iran

Across its history, Iran has continuously pursued modernisation whilst looking to maintain its spiritual integrity. It has had a Muslim majority population for centuries and so the culture is deeply characterised by its strong Islamic influence. The Iranian people have a record of practising quite a progressive form of Shi'a Islam. The cultural interpretation of the religion has been traditionally open-minded, making allowances for liberal behaviour and improvements in women's rights. People generally had more the freedom of choice and expression over, for example, whether they wished to pray or wear a ' hijab'.

However, in 1979, the Islamic Revolution overthrew the secular monarchy and the Islamic Republic was subsequently established. This system of theocratic governance remains in place today. Under it, Islamic theologians and ' mullahs' constitute the highest ranks of leadership. They ensure civil law and court decisions abide by the principles of Islam, and are generally highly conservative. Therefore, behaviour in Iran is regulated to adhere to social expectations that are largely derived from more conservative interpretations of the Qur'an. This religious governance directly affects the public, political, economic and legal aspects of people's lives. Today, the conservative interpretations of Islam have become a major social force and dictate much of what Iranians can and cannot do. Iranians regularly break the Islamic civil rules; however, this always carries a risk of arrest. Speaking up or publishing material that questions the current system can also be interpreted as anti-Islamic.

Many Iranians have misgivings about the politicisation of Islam. Much of the population seeks a return to a more liberal society; older generations can often remember the time when public life was more easy-going and younger generations, exposed to alternative ideas through the internet and overseas education, yearn for a lifting of restrictions on individual behaviour.

Despite the firmly entrenched reach of the Islamic Republic, Iranians generally discuss politics with vigour. Indeed, subjects that Australians often avoid (politics and religion) are not necessarily taboo conversations among friends and colleagues in Iran. Many people use humour to criticise their leaders through 'doublespeak', and share their theories of scandal and corruption with strangers. Nevertheless, while politics is commonly ridiculed, most people are very reluctant to criticise Islam both from a social standpoint and a moral/theological perspective. It is important for non-Muslims to understand that many Iranians generally recognise the government as the source of their complaint, not Islam.

Surface and Underground Culture

Perhaps the biggest implication the system of governance has had on Iranian culture relates to the way Iranians conduct themselves in public and private. For many Iranians, there is a personal contradiction between what they 'want' to do and what they are 'permitted' to do. Therefore, it is very important to distinguish the political culture and values of the government from the culture and values of the Iranian people.

At first glance, public behaviour in Iran is generally conservative. It is uncommon for people to overtly express themselves or publicly identify with unconventional subcultures or hobbies. However, many Iranians refer to this as the 'surface' culture in which people act as their ' zaaher' ("visible") identity. In public, people behave in the way that will benefit them (i.e. keeping to the rules to avoid attracting the attention of government operatives). However, individuals may not necessarily believe in these actions and instead fake them for the sake of their safety and reputation.

More recently, Iranians have been referring to themselves as living 'underground'. 'Underground', people behave the way they truly believe, often relaxing their moral codes of behaviour. This is the way they act at home or with their inner circle, where they can reveal their ' baaten' ("inside" or "true") identity without risk of arrest. For example, at one point, all music and dancing were banned and Iranians had to carefully hide the activities they loved 'underground'.

Pride and Humbleness

Behaviour in Iran is also noticeably influenced by people's perceptions of pride and dignity. This is based on the traditional idea that people should protect their personal and family honour by giving a public impression of dignity and integrity. As people don't want to risk doing something shameful, they generally adhere to social expectations. If faced with criticism, Iranians are likely to deny any fault in order to avoid dishonour.

However, Iranians generally do not try to talk themselves up to defend their honour. While prestige can be gained through achievement, boasting of it is seen as pretentious and can draw quick dislike and denigration. Instead, people are expected to self-deprecate their success. The more humility a person shows, the less likely they are to be criticised. By the likes of tall poppy syndrome, people are expected to be humble and unassuming about themselves. Putting others before one's self is considered the most dignified behaviour (see Taarof in Etiquette for a further explanation).

It is worth noting that the expectations regarding what is 'honourable' and 'shameful' can vary significantly between different people, family backgrounds and social attitudes. For example, the younger Iranian generation generally do not feel the need to stringently apply the honour code and will often hide certain 'shameful' actions they consider reasonable from the older generations, who might be deeply offended by such behaviours.

Social Hierarchies

Iranian culture remains relatively class conscious. Significant class differences were exacerbated through periods of recent economic hardship and instability. While some households may employ servants, others may struggle to put food on the table. Nevertheless, much of the population shares the benefits of the middle class. Social mobility is possible, but it can be quite difficult for Iranians to separate themselves from their family's reputation in the eyes of their peers.

Largely, one's family is the biggest social indicator of status. Education, wealth and ethnic or tribal associations can all affect a person's social standing. It is also considered quite prestigious to be able to trace one's heritage back for centuries. In recent decades, access to political power has become one of the biggest social advantages and indications of privilege. Those families that have connections with the government are sometimes afforded latitude to deviate from strict rules, or they may receive more lenient consequences for their actions. Religious association also has powerful leverage in society. Someone who is a theologian is presumed to have the moral high ground and power in decision-making, gaining them a lot of respect.

Diversity

It should not be assumed that all Iranians share the same language, cultural, religious or political beliefs. There is a huge variation in social codes, behaviours and beliefs between different regions of Iran. One will find different cities have varying reputations from one another, whilst rural areas can have almost entirely different traditions and values. Furthermore, ethnic minorities tend to have distinctive forms of social organisation that are sometimes more collectivistic.

In recent years, there has been reasonably little disagreement between ethnicities in Iran - which is significant considering the diversity. Most Iranians seem to be unified across ethnic divides. Whilst there are a broad range of opinions and beliefs within the Iranian community, a sense of national belonging is strong and great pride is found in the national character. Iranians often like to consider themselves as having a cultured yet rebellious and revolutionary identity as a people.

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Learn about the cultural concepts, history, demographics and social structures informing society

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Two categories have been created to organize the examples of code-meshing we have collected: Code-meshing in the Real World and Code-meshed Academic Works.

Code-meshing in the Real World: here you will see a wide variety of code-meshed texts and videos. Several of these come from pop culture such as TV shows (A Different World), comedians ( Key & Peele), hip-hop music ( Chance the Rapper), and even Broadway musicals (In the Heights). Others feature works of literature by authors who reflect on their heritage and foreground their native languages and dialects vis-à-vis the dominant language and discourse, including The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao, Beyond the Rice Fields, and . In addition to its code-meshed title, Borderlands/ La frontera even crosses registers and genres, incorporating poetry, ethnography, autobiography, and sociopolitical history. Other texts discuss the authors' familial languages directly such as in the writings of Amy Tan and Zadie Smith. Some of the videos you will see explore code-meshing across spoken and signed languages like at the "Signs" restaurant in Toronto.

We've also found some less-obvious examples of code-meshing such as a preface to an ethnic cookbook ( Permission to Speak, Afro-Vegan) and in a TED talk by Jamila Lyiscott. Code-meshing may even be found in presidential greetings! ( "Wha gwaan Jamaica!")

Other 'real world' code-meshing resources we have collected are academic studies which have observed and traced the intricacies of mixed languages (including pidgins and creoles) around the globe ( APiCS) and the diversity of dialects within a single language, like English ( Do You Speak American?)

Code-Meshed Academic Works: here you will find examples of scholars who have used code-meshing in a variety of ways. It has long been common to use code-meshing across registers (often in the title such as in To Study Err-making is Cognitive Science or Blowin' in the Wind), and more recently there has been a move towards using code-meshing across languages and dialects. In all cases, code-meshing allows scholars to reveal and express their distinct, insightful perspectives. They take ownership of their language as well as their voice, presence, and identity as a communicator. Some consistently use it as a writing strategy for an entire essay ( Should Writers Use They Own English?) or even an entire book ( Talkin' and Testifyin'). Others use it in their academic works at strategic junctures to make a point or take a stance ( Racism in Writing Programs).

Feel free to explore the examples collected in this site. What patterns do you notice? How might certain examples be relevant to your own writing courses, assignments, and students? How might others be less relevant?

Join the convo!

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Two categories have been created to organize the examples of code-meshing we have collected: Code-meshing in the Real World and Code-meshed Academic Works. Code-meshing in the Real World: here you will see a wide variety of code-meshed texts and videos.

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World War II (U.S. National Park Service)

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National Archives & Records Administration

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We know that Code-Switching and Code-Mixing are TYPICAL processes for those who speak more than one language or more than one dialect. They are powerful strategies that require metalinguistic skills and are NOT indicative of language impairment. Often, speakers who use two languages together are described as "confused" or "they don't know either language well." That simply isn't the case. Let's take a look at the research.

Let's Start with the Definitions

Code-Switching

Alternating between two or more languages or language varieties/dialects in the context of a single conversation. Using elements of more than one language when conversing in a manner that is consistent with the syntax, morphology, and phonology of each language or dialect.

Code-Mixing

Truth be told, many people use the terms Code-Switching and Code-Mixing interchangeably. Some linguists, however, make a distinction in which Code Mixing refers to the hybridization of two languages (e.g. parkear, which uses an English root word and Spanish morphology) and Code-Switching refers to the movement from one language to another.

Many pairs of languages have a hybrid name. Some languages hybridized with English include Spanglish for Spanish, Hindlish for Hindi, and Frenglish for French.

Code-Meshing

Code meshing is an instructional approach that invites multiple languages and language varieties within the classroom.

The idea behind this approach is that students who speak other languages and language varieties should be encouraged to share those in the classroom and not be made to feel that their home language or dialect is any less valuable than any other dialect or language. Classrooms that accept only the dominant forms of English as "correct" and "appropriate" can discourage students from diverse backgrounds from participating. Dr. Brandy Gatlin-Nash introduced us to the term Code-Meshing at the Bilinguistics-SLP Impact Virtual Conference on Building Equity for Diverse Learners in Special Education. She discussed the importance of encouraging students to use their home dialects in their classroom writings and then using the students' work to teach them to be bidialectal. It allows students to reveal and express their perspectives in a personal way. Through the use of code-meshing, teachers are enabled to respect the diversity of the students in their classrooms.

What is an example of code mixing?

For more on code-meshing, see Mesh It, Y'all: Promoting Code-Meshing Through Writing Center Workshops and Creating Conversation: Code-Meshing as a Rhetorical Choice.

Translanguaging

Translanguaging is is another term occasional used to describe the use of two languages.

A few years ago I was asked by a school district SLP what the deal is with this new term "translanguaging." She said, "I just don't see how this is any different than code-switching and code-mixing."

So, what exactly is translanguaging? Well, when a child uses translanguaging, he or she uses any and all of his language knowledge, structures, etcetera, to communicate. So when we use a dual-language approach in our assessments, we are allowing for translanguaging. Or, more easily stated, we let kids use both (or all) of their languages/language varieties to accomplish tasks.

I read a blog post by Francois Grosjean, (you know, the guy who shared with us in the 80s that a bilingual is not two monolinguals in one), who says that translanguaging is the same behavior as "interacting with other bilinguals, changing language base freely, translating whenever needed, and intermingling one's languages in the form of codeswitching and borrowing." He interviewed one of the term's most visible proponents, Ofelia Garcia, and asked her what the difference is, and what the benefit is in replacing the terms. She stated that it may look the same from the outside but the difference is that those earlier terms are an external views of language while "translanguaging takes the internal perspective of speakers whose own mental grammar has been developed in social interaction with others." In a nutshell, it is allowing the use of any language content and construction for expression.

Why do people use Code-Switching, Code-Mixing, and Code-Meshing?

There are many reasons that people who are exposed to more than one language or language variety use code-switching and code-mixing.

Sometimes Ideas are Better Expressed in One Language than Another

Sometimes ideas are better expressed in one language than another for people. This can be due to having the vocabulary in one language but not the other. It can also be that the idea is culturally bound. An example that a friend who spent a lot of time in Bolivia shared was pay de manzana, which translates literally to apple pie but pay de manzana in Bolivia was very different for her than apple pie in New York, so when she was describing her Bolivian experience, she used pay de manzana.

This connection between culture and food is also illustrated in research studies. Peña and colleagues (2002) asked elementary school students to name all of the foods they could think of. They asked students the same question in different languages on different days. What was so cool about this study is that the students gave roughly the same number of items when asked in Spanish and English but they didn't give the SAME items. In English, the top items included hamburgers, hot dogs, and French fries. In Spanish some of the top items included tacos, frijoles (beans) and caldo (soup). This shows how closely tied together language and culture are. It's not just a different set of words for saying the same thing, it's a different mode used in different situations.

Languages and Dialects Are Used to Mark Ethnic and Group boundaries

Hall and Nilep (2015) describe the impact of code-switching on ethnic identity.

"Code-switching [is] a product of local speech community identities. Speakers are seen as shifting between ingroup and outgroup language varieties to establish conversational footings informed by the contrast of local vs. non-local relationships and settings."

Connecting with your people

One of my favorite code-switching features is the "lah" used in Malaysian and Singaporean varieties of English (or Manglish and Singlish, as they are known). These two countries share a long history and the linguistic particle "lah" is something they have maintained despite Singapore's independence from Malaysia in 1965. The term "lah" can be used to express affirmation, dismissal, exasperation or exclamation in different contexts. But you can't just stick the word "lah" any old place in a sentence. Those from Singapore and Malaysia cannot always explain what the appropriate use of "lah" is but they can always tell when you don't use it correctly! Here's a great article on this if you're interested in reading more.

Marking in-group (informal) vs out-group (more formal)

The way we speak also has the power to make us feel close to people or in a more formal relationship. This has been well documented. As far back as the early 80's Genesee (1982) and Bourhis (1983; 1984) studied people's reactions to different types of code-switching and found that the groups in their studies (English speakers and French Canadian speakers) consistently expressed favoritism toward ingroup language choices.

And there are many other reasons people use code-switching and code-mixing.

These include quoting other people, clarifying or explaining a point a point, adding personality to a comment, emphasizing a point, reflecting your mood, and so on.

What is an example of code switching?

First, we should note that there are rules to code-switching. Segments in each language or dialect follow the rules of that language or dialect. There are also rules about where in an utterance code switching can occur (such as phrase boundaries). These rules vary somewhat by language because they are guided by the languages used in code-switching. We've included links and references to some great resources at the end of this post so you can explore your languages of interest.

Below are some examples of code-switching from evaluations I have done of students who were not diagnosed with a language disorder.

Single Word Code-Switching

Here's an example of single word code-switching from a 6-year-old Spanish speaker who has been in the process of learning English for 2-3 years. Single word code-switching can be done for specificity in vocabulary or when a child does not know a label in both languages.

The venado (deer) run and he go off a cliff.

Phrasal and Intersentential Code-Switching

The following is the Capi Story from the PLS-5-Spanish told by a child who was 4;6 and has grown up speaking both languages at home. He is in a dual language classroom for pre-Kindergarten. Notice that he switches from one sentence to another, sometimes from one phrase to another, and in dialogue.

Capi was dormido aquí. (Capi was asleep here)

The girl say, "¿Qué podemos hacer?" to the boy. (The girl say, "What can we do?" to the boy)

Hacen una casa. (They make a house)

He was making the house and he cut out a door.

Y él tiene su cobija y está happy. (And he had his blanket and he was happy).

Code-switching in dialogue

Next is a brilliant example of code-switching by a 6-year-old girl who speaks Standardized American English dialect and African American English dialect. The excerpts are from her retelling of the Mercer Mayer wordless picture book Frog Goes to Dinner.

She used Standardized American English dialect for the parents when they were ordering food in a restaurant and African American English dialect for the parents when they were disciplining their son at home. If that doesn't show you that she grasps the use of the two dialects, I don't know what does. Here's to 6-year-old metalinguistic skills! (Contextual information is in parentheses following each utterance.)

The boy is looking at the mirror. (He is getting ready to go out to dinner with his parents)

The dog was sad and the boy was leaving.

I will have a drink of wine. (The parents talking to each other at the restaurant)

Waiter, we will have a cup of wine and spaghetti. (The parents ordering from the waiter)

(Then the boy's frog gets out and wreaks havoc at the restaurant.

Please, that's my frog. (The boy says to the waiter).

(The family then gets kicked out of the restaurant)

You gonna be grounded six days! (Parents talking to son at home: AAE use of the Zero Copula)

For more information check out: Why Understanding Cultural Parameters is Important to SLPs

How do we write about Code-Switching and Code-Mixing in Speech-Language Reports?

I know I don't need to say this again but I'm going to anyway. Code-switching and code-mixing not indicative of language disorder. That's not to say that a child who code-switches can't have a language disorder but it not INDICATIVE of a disorder. So how do we talk about this is our speech-language evaluation reports?

Here are a couple of examples I pulled from reports I have written.

He was noted to code-switch, often using a Spanish word in English when he did not appear to know the name of it in English. Code-switching is a normal process in children acquiring two languages.

With the examiner, he used Spanish more easily than English, but demonstrated an increasing English vocabulary as he often used English words within Spanish utterances. This phenomenon of using more than one language within or between utterances, known as code-switching, is common for both bilingual children and adults. It shows flexibility of language skills and that Student is able to access both systems as needed to most effectively communicate a message.

So there you have it. Code-switching is a normal process used for a wide range of reasons by children and adults who are exposed to more than one language variety or dialect. It doesn't equate to confusion, and in fact indicates strength in metalinguistic skills. And don't you forget it, lah.

References

Bland-Stewart, L. M. (2005). Difference or deficit in speakers of African American English? What every clinician should know... and do. The ASHA Leader, 10(6), 6-31.

Bourhis, R. Y. (1983). Language attitudes and self‐reports of French‐English language usage in Quebec. Journal of Multilingual & Multicultural Development, 4(2-3), 163-179.

Bourhis, R. Y. (1984). Cross-cultural communication in Montreal: Two field studies since Bill 101. international Journal of the Sociology of Language, 1984(46), 33-48.

Genesee, F. (1982). The social psychological significance of code switching in cross-cultural communication. Journal of language and social psychology, 1(1), 1-27.

Hall, K., & Nilep, C. (2015). 28 Code-Switching, Identity, and Globalization. Discourse Analysis, 597.

Peña, E. D. (2012). Code-Switching Doesn't Mean Confusion. 2 Languages 2 Worlds Blog.

Peña, E. D., Bedore, L. M., & Zlatic-Giunta, R. (2002). Category-generation performance of bilingual children.

Seymour, H. N., Bland-Stewart, L., & Green, L. J. (1998). Difference versus deficit in child African American English. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 29(2), 96-108.

Bland-Steward, L. M. Difference or Deficit in Speakers of African American English? What Every Clinician Should Know. https://doi.org/10.1044/leader.FTR1.10062005.6

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Code-Switching and Code-Mixing - What You Need to Know

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Code-Switching and Code-Mixing are TYPICAL processes when speaking more than one language or dialect that are not indicative of a disorder.

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March 19, 1848: Early Life
Wyatt Berry Stapp Earp is born in Monmouth, Illinois. He is the fourth child of Nicholas and Virginia Ann Earp, after James, Virgil, and Martha. From Nicholas' first marriage, Wyatt has an older half-brother, Newton.

Wyatt will spend his early life in Illinois and Iowa. Wyatt's younger brothers Morgan and Warren and sisters Virginia Ann and Adelia will be born between 1851 and 1861, although both Martha and Virginia Ann will die in childhood.

Wyatt Earp with his mother, Virginia Ann. Courtesy John Rose.

1861-62
Wyatt's three older brothers join the Civil War on the side of the Union. According to legend, a thirteen year-old Wyatt makes several attempts to run away and join the army, but Nicholas finds him each time and brings him home where he puts Wyatt in charge of harvesting their crop.

Summer 1865
After the end of the Civil War, Newton, James, and Virgil reunite with the family, who are now living in California. Although too young to work himself, Wyatt helps his older brother Virgil in his work as a stagecoach driver.

Spring 1866: Searching for a Role
Wyatt explores the West while hauling freight. He travels between California and Arizona Territory, making stops in Las Vegas and Salt Lake City.

Spring 1868
Wyatt is hired to grade track for the building of the Union Pacific Railroad. He learns boxing and gambling during time he spends at the railhead in Wyoming.

November 24, 1869
Wyatt rejoins his family, who are now settled in Lamar, Missouri. Nicholas resigns as the Constable of the Township, and Wyatt is appointed in his place.

January 10, 1870
Wyatt Earp marries Urilla Sutherland, who dies within the year. Urilla's cause of death is speculative, but most likely caused by typhus or from complications during childbirth. In November, Wyatt sells the house he had bought only two months earlier.

March 28, 1871
Wyatt is accused of stealing a horse in Van Buren, Arkansas. He evades punishment by fleeing.

Wyatt allegedly spends the next several years in saloons, gambling houses, and brothels of the frontier. He has multiple relationships with prostitutes, as well as several arrests for his involvement with them.

October 1874: Becoming a Lawman
Wyatt helps a police officer in Wichita, Kansas track down a thief who has stolen a wagon. He gains public acclaim for his involvement in catching the horse thief, the same crime he had been accused of years earlier. Wyatt subsequently becomes a policeman in Wichita, helping to keep the Cowboys in line.

May 19, 1876
Wyatt becomes deputy town marshal of Dodge City, Kansas. He travels there with Mattie Blaylock, a former prostitute. The two will be together until 1882.

Summer 1877
After a brief time doing outdoor work in Dakota Territory, Wyatt returns to Dodge City and is made City Marshal.

December 1879
Wyatt and Mattie travel to Tombstone, Arizona Territory, after receiving news from Virgil about a huge silver strike there.

They are joined by Wyatt's closest friend Doc Holliday and his companion Mary Katherine Cummings, better known as Big Nose Kate.

The group is too late to profit from the silver rush, and Wyatt reassumes the role of lawman in Tombstone.

Many cowboys were loosely organized criminals connected to a few main families, like the Clantons and the McLaurys

March 1881: Wyatt's Feud With the Cowboys Begins

Wyatt joins a posse after some Cowboys (local outlaws) rob a Tombstone stagecoach and kill its driver.

Wyatt and his men catch and jail Luther King, but are unsuccessful in their search for Bill Leonard, Harry Head, and Jim Crane.

June 2, 1881
Wyatt seeks help in this search from Ike Clanton, a rancher with ties to the Cowboys. Wyatt, hoping that catching these men will get him elected sheriff, offers Ike a reward of $6,000 for his help. Ike sets a plan in motion, but gets increasingly paranoid that Wyatt will inform the Cowboys of his betrayal.

October 25, 1881
Ike Clanton spends the night in Tombstone, drinking heavily and making threats against the Earp clan.

October 26, 1881: The Gunfight at the OK Corral
Tensions between the Earps and the Cowboys explode in the famous Gunfight at the OK Corral. The fight pits Wyatt, his brothers Morgan and Virgil, and Doc Holliday against Ike Clanton, Billy Clanton, Frank McLaury, and Tom McLaury.

Frank and Tom McLaury and Billy Clanton are killed; Morgan and Virgil Earp and Doc Holliday are wounded but survive. Ike Clanton runs away, and Wyatt emerges from the fight unharmed.

October 29, 1881
Ike Clanton files murder charges against Wyatt, Wyatt's brothers, and Doc Holliday. Wyatt and Doc Holliday are arrested and held in prison for 16 days.

November 29, 1881
Judge Wells Spicer clears the Earps and Doc Holliday of the murder charges.

December 28, 1881: The Feud Continues
Wyatt's brother Virgil is shot while walking home from a saloon to his hotel, where he is staying to protect himself from assassins, crippling his arm for life.

The identities of his attackers remains a mystery.

Portrait of Wyatt Earp taken sometime between 1869 and 1871. Craig A. Fouts Collection

December 29, 1881
Wyatt becomes Deputy United States Marshal.

March 18, 1882
The aftermath of the Gunfight at OK Corral is not over, as unknown assailants attack Wyatt and Morgan Earp in a saloon. Wyatt again escapes unharmed, but Morgan is killed.

March 20, 1882
Wyatt and his posse kill Frank Stilwell, believing him responsible for Morgan's death. Over the next few weeks, they search the area for other suspects in Morgan's murder, killing Florentino "Indian Charlie" Cruz and Curley Bill Brocius, and maybe more.

Late April 1882: Leaving Tombstone
Wyatt and his posse scour the area, but have no further encounters with the local cowboys. They decide to leave the territory, and they camp briefly outside of Trinidad, Colorado.

Fall 1882
Wyatt joins his brother, Virgil, in San Francisco.

He becomes romantically involved with an old acquaintance, Josephine Marcus. They will be together until Wyatt's death in 1929.

1884
Beginning in January, Wyatt and Josie travel throughout the West, searching for gold and running horse races. Wyatt occasionally acts as a representative of law enforcement, but does not hold any one position for very long.

June 1, 1887
Ike Clanton is killed by detective Jonas V. Brighton.

1888
Wyatt and Josie spend time in San Diego. Wyatt gets involved in horse racing, gambling, and refereeing boxing matches.

1893
Wyatt and Josie return to San Francisco. During this time, Wyatt's occupation is listed as "capitalist."

Fall 1897
Wyatt and Josie join others in a gold rush to Nome, Alaska. They run a saloon and various gambling ventures during their time there.

1901: Wyatt Builds a Legacy
Wyatt and Josie return to California. Wyatt stakes claims in gold and copper mines near the Whipple Mountains. Over the next few years he supports himself by mining, police work, gambling, and real estate deals.

Wyatt spends several summers in Los Angeles, where he meets Hollywood actors and becomes an adviser on the set of silent Western films. Wyatt supposedly meets John Wayne when he is working as an extra and prop man - Wayne later says he based his depictions of Western lawmen on Wyatt Earp.

The 1920s
Wyatt is given the honorary title of Deputy Sheriff of San Bernardino County, California.

1923
Wyatt begins writing his memoirs with the help of personal secretary John H. Flood. His autobiography is coldly received during his lifetime - one publisher called the writing "stilted, florid and diffuse."

January 13, 1929
Wyatt Earp dies in Los Angeles, California, at the age of 80.

January 19, 1934
"Frontier Marshal" - a film adaptation of Stuart N. Lake's biography of Wyatt Earp - premieres, starring George O'Brien as the renamed "Michael Wyatt." Wyatt Earp and his legend will become the inspiration for dozens of subsequent films and television series.

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The Life of Wyatt Earp | American Experience | PBS

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March 19, 1848: Early Life Wyatt Berry Stapp Earp is born in Monmouth, Illinois. He is the fourth child of Nicholas and Virginia Ann Earp, after James, Virgil, and Martha. From Nicholas' first marriage, Wyatt has an older half-brother, Newton. Wyatt will spend his early life in Illinois and Iowa.

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German and Japanese Expansion

Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan unleashed World War II with the intention of establishing, by military conquest, a permanent dominance over Europe and Asia respectively. These two nations were the most significant members of the Axis partnership, which was based on anti-Communism and dissatisfaction with the world order after World War I.

Under the leadership of dictator Adolf Hitler, Nazi Germany aimed at the acquisition of a vast, new empire of "living space" (Lebensraum) in eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. The Nazi leadership calculated that the realization of German hegemony in Europe would require war, and began planning a European war from the day the Nazis came to power in late January 1933.

Imperial Japan followed a policy of military conquest with support of its Emperor, military establishment, and many in the educated elite who sought Japanese rule and influence throughout East Asia and the Pacific Ocean. Germany and Japan formed an anti-Communist front aimed at the Soviet Union in 1936. That same year Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany formed the Axis alliance, shortly after Italy completed its brutal and successful conquest of Ethiopia.

Japan had initiated its policy of military conquest by invading Chinese Manchuria in September 1931. Six years later, in July 1937, Japan invaded China proper to unleash World War II in Asia.

Invasion of Poland

Germany incorporated Austria and the Czech lands without having to resort to war in 1938 and 1939. With a pact of nonaggression, Germany secured the neutrality of the Soviet Union, ruled by dictator Joseph Stalin. Germany then invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, beginning World War II in Europe.

Having permitted Nazi Germany to destroy the interwar Czechoslovak state, Britain and France had guaranteed the integrity of Poland's borders in April 1939. They responded to the German invasion of Poland by declaring war on Germany on September 3. Within a month, German and Soviet forces conquered Poland and partitioned the Polish state.

Invasion of Norway and Denmark

The lull which followed the defeat of Poland ended on April 9, 1940, when German forces invaded Norway and Denmark. Denmark surrendered that day. Norway held out until early June before German forces could occupy the entire country.

Invasion of Western Europe

On May 10, 1940, Germany began its assault on western Europe by invading France and the neutral Low Countries (the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg). The Low Countries were under German occupation by the end of May. On June 22, 1940, France signed an armistice with Germany. The armistice provided for the German occupation of the northern half of France and permitted the establishment of a collaborationist regime in the south with its seat in Vichy. From July 10 to October 31, 1940, the Germans waged, and ultimately lost, an air war over England, known as the Battle of Britain.

Russo-Finnish War

In accordance with sphere of influence arrangements with Nazi Germany in 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Finland at the end of November 1939. After a bitterly fought winter war, the Soviets forced the Finns to cede territory along the northern shores of Lake Lagoda north of Leningrad (St. Petersburg) and on the Arctic coastline in March 1940.

Soviet Annexations

The Soviet Union occupied and annexed eastern Poland in 1939. With German encouragement, the Soviet Union occupied the Baltic states in June 1940 and annexed them in August 1940. The Soviets also seized Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from Romania in late June 1940.

Italy Enters the War

Italy entered the war on June 10, 1940, and invaded southern France on June 21. Dissatisfied with Italy's share in the spoils at the armistice negotiations, Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini attacked Greece in October 1940 from Albania (which the Italians had seized in April 1939). The Italians also attacked British forces in Egypt from Italian-controlled Libya in late October 1940. Both adventures resulted in military disaster that required German intervention.

Axis Advances

Germany enticed Hungary, Romania, and Slovakia in November 1940 and Bulgaria in March 1941 to join the Axis. In April 1941, Germany-supported by Italy, Hungary and Bulgaria-invaded and dismembered Yugoslavia. By mid-June, the Axis powers had subdued Greece. Out of the collapse of Yugoslavia arose the so-called Independent State of Croatia under the leadership of the fascist and terrorist Ustasa organization. The new state, which encompassed Bosnia and Herzegovina, formally joined the Axis on June 15. Germany occupied eastern Slovenia, the Serbian Banat and most of Serbia proper. Italy seized Istria and western Slovenia, attached Kosovo province to Albania, and occupied the Croat-Dalmatian coastline and Montenegro. Hungary annexed Backa in northeastern Yugoslavia, and Bulgaria occupied Macedonia and the Pirot province of Serbia. After permitting Bulgaria to occupy Greek Thrace, Germany and Italy divided Greece into occupation zones, with the Italians in the west and the Germans in the east.

Invasion of the Soviet Union

On June 22, 1941, the Germans and their Axis partners (except Bulgaria) invaded the Soviet Union in direct violation of the German-Soviet Pact of August 1939. Finland, seeking redress for its defeat in the winter war of 1939-1940, joined the Axis and the German invasion. By the end of October 1941, German troops had advanced deep into the Soviet Union, overrunning the Baltic states and laying siege to Leningrad in the north; capturing Smolensk and marching on Moscow in the center; and capturing Kiev (Kyiv) and approaching Rostov on the mouth of the Don River in the south. Stiffening Red Army resistance in August and again in November 1941 prevented the Germans from capturing the key cities of Leningrad and Moscow. On December 6, 1941, Soviet troops launched a significant counteroffensive that drove the Germans permanently from the outskirts of Moscow.

United States Enters World War II

One day later, on December 7, 1941, Japan, still engaged in warfare on the Chinese mainland, launched a surprise air attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The United States immediately declared war on Japan. Great Britain followed suit. On December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States.

War in the Pacific

During the winter of 1941-1942, the Japanese attacked and conquered the Philippines, French Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia), and British Singapore. In the late spring and early summer of 1942, the British were able to halt the Japanese advance in Burma; and the US soundly defeated the Japanese navy at Midway in the Pacific. In August 1942, US forces halted the Japanese advance in the Pacific islands towards Australia at Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands.

Allied Bombing of Germany

In May 1942, the British Royal Air Force carried out a raid on the German city of Köln (Cologne) with a thousand bombers, for the first time bringing war home to Germany. For the next three years, Allied air forces systematically bombed industrial plants and cities all over the Reich, reducing much of urban Germany to rubble by 1945.

The War in North Africa

In late 1942 and early 1943, Anglo-American forces achieved a series of significant military triumphs in North Africa. The failure of Vichy French armed forces to resist enabled the Allies to quickly occupy French North Africa to the Tunisian border within days of landings on the beaches of Morocco and Algeria on November 8, 1942. It also triggered the German occupation of Vichy France on November 11, 1942. The British victory over the German Afrika Korps at El Alamein in Egypt in late October 1942 precipitated the flight of Axis military units west across Libya into eastern Tunisia. Trapped in Tunisia, the Axis forces in Africa, approximately 150,000 troops in all, surrendered in May 1943.

Soviet Counteroffensive

In June 1942, the Germans and their Axis partners resumed their offensive in the Soviet Union, reaching Stalingrad (Volgograd) on the Volga River, securing the Crimean peninsula, and penetrating deep into the Caucasus region by late September 1942. In November, Soviet troops launched a counteroffensive northwest and southwest of Stalingrad that cut off the German forces in the city. On February 2, 1943, the German Sixth Army surrendered to the Soviets. The Germans mounted one more offensive at Kursk in July 1943, the biggest tank battle in history, but Soviet troops and tanks blunted the attack and assumed a military initiative that they would not again relinquish. By late 1943, the Germans were forced to evacuate the Caucasus and to relinquish Kiev.

Allied Landings in Italy

In July 1943, the western Allies successfully landed in Sicily. This precipitated the decision of the Italian Fascist Party Grand Council to depose Mussolini. Led by Field Marshal Pietro Badoglio, the Italian Army took advantage of the political vacuum to overthrow the Fascist regime, replacing it with a military dictatorship. In early September, just prior to the landing of Anglo-American forces in Salerno near Naples, the Badoglio government surrendered unconditionally to the Allies on September 8. German troops stationed in Italy seized control of northern Italy, and continued to resist. Mussolini, who had been arrested by Italian military authorities, was rescued by SS commandos in September and established (under German supervision) a neo-Fascist puppet regime in northern Italy.

The Allies successfully landed near Anzio, just south of Rome, but were not able to capture Rome until early June 1944. German troops continued to occupy northern Italy, and resisted tenaciously until they surrendered on May 2, 1945. After the liberation of Rome, Allied air forces could bomb German targets in eastern Europe, such as the synthetic fuel and rubber plants at Auschwitz-Monowitz in Silesia.

D-Day

D-Day: Photographs On June 6, 1944 ( D-Day), over 150,000 Allied soldiers landed on the Normandy beaches of France. Trapped on the Normandy coast for six weeks, the British and Americans broke loose on July 25 and liberated Paris by August 25. On September 11, 1944, the first US troops crossed into Germany. By December, all of France, most of Belgium, and part of the southern Netherlands had been liberated.

Soviet Advances

On June 22, 1944, Soviet forces destroyed the German Army Group Center in Eastern Belorussia. They swept west to the Vistula River across from Warsaw by August 1, 1944. In early August, Soviet troops, having conquered the eastern Romanian province of Bessarabia, appeared on the Prut River and prepared to strike into the heart of Romania, precipitating a Romanian surrender on August 23. The Bulgarians surrendered on September 8, 1944. These developments forced the Germans to evacuate Greece, Albania, and southern Yugoslavia.

To forestall Hungarian government efforts to pursue a separate peace, Germany had occupied Hungary on March 19, 1944. Germany had then, in October, sponsored a coup d'état of the radical Arrow Cross Party to prevent another Hungarian effort to surrender.

Finally, with the appearance of Soviet troops on the Finnish border, Finland sued for an armistice on September 12, 1944.

In August 1944, the underground Polish Home Army and the Slovak National resistance organizations rose against the Germans to liberate Warsaw and Slovakia from German rule; the Germans were able to quell both uprisings.

Defeat of Germany

On December 16, 1944, the Germans launched an unsuccessful counterattack in Belgium and northern France, known as the Battle of the Bulge. By New Year's Day, British and US troops had driven the Germans back into Germany. On January 12, 1945, the Soviets resumed the offensive, liberating Warsaw and western Poland. In December the Soviets had encircled Budapest, though the city did not fall until February 13, 1945. By early April, the Soviets had driven the remnants of the Arrow Cross regime out of Hungary and forced the surrender of the fascist Slovak Republic with the fall of Bratislava on April 4, 1945. On April 13, the Soviets captured Vienna, while Marshal Josip Tito's Partisans compelled the flight of the Ustasa leaders and the collapse of the so-called Independent State of Croatia.

In mid-February 1945, the Allies bombed Dresden, killing up to 25,000 German civilians. US troops crossed the Rhine River at Remagen on March 7, 1945. A final Soviet offensive on April 16, 1945, enabled Soviet forces to encircle Berlin. As Soviet troops fought their way towards the Reich Chancellery, Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945. On May 7, 1945, Germany surrendered unconditionally to the western Allies at Reims and on May 9 to the Soviets in Berlin.

Defeat of Japan

After clearing the Japanese from the Solomon Islands in November 1942, British and US forces began slowly to move northward, island-hopping toward the Japanese mainland, while British forces worked with the Nationalist Chinese government to fight the Japanese in China. In a parallel campaign, the Chinese Communist movement fought the Japanese, while it defended itself against attacks from the Nationalists. In October 1944, US troops landed in the Philippines; by May 1945, British and US troops had conquered Okinawa, the last major Japanese base before the mainland itself.

On August 6, 1945, the United States dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima, following with a second atomic bomb on Nagasaki on August 9. On August 8, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan and invaded Japanese-occupied Manchuria.

Less than a week later, on August 14, 1945, Japan agreed to surrender; the formal ceremony took place on September 2. World War II was over.

Deaths during World War II

World War II resulted in an estimated 55 million deaths worldwide. While many of the following statistics are subject to variation in the available source material, they serve as benchmarks for estimates. In battle, the United States lost 292,129 dead and 139,709 missing in action. The Soviet Union suffered 8,668,400 dead and another 4,559,000 missing. Germany lost 2,049,872 dead and 1,902,704 missing. China lost 1,324,516 dead and 115,248 missing. Japan lost 1,506,000 dead and 810,000 missing. Great Britain lost 397,762 dead and 90,188 missing.

The large number of civilian dead was equally appalling. The Soviet Union lost 14,012,000 civilians, including between 1.0 and 1.5 million Jews. China lost more than a million civilians; while Poland lost nearly five million civilians, including nearly three million Jews.

Author(s): United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC

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Germany started World War II in Europe on September 1, 1939, by invading Poland. War would continue until 1945. Learn more about key events in the history of WWII.

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[The Biography of Guadalupe Lupita Gallegos]: a machine readable transcription.

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The Library of Congress is not aware of any copyright in the documents in this collection. As far as is known, the documents were written by U.S. Government employees. Generally speaking, works created by U.S. Government employees are not eligible for copyright protection in the United States, although they may be under copyright in some foreign countries. The persons interviewed or whose words were transcribed were generally not employees of the U.S. Government. Privacy and publicity rights may apply.

Suggested credit line: Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, WPA Federal Writers' Project Collection.

The introduction was written by Ann Banks © 1980 and produced by Joanne B. Freeman. The sound recordings were produced by Joan Murphy Stack and engineered by Rob Attinello. The actors who read the manuscripts were Clement Cottingham, Billie Durand, George A. Jackson, Jr., Margaret Root, Edward S. Stout, and Edna Jeweline White.

Privacy and Publication

Issues pertaining to privacy and publicity may arise when a researcher contemplates the use of letters, diary entries, or reportage found in library collections. Because two or more people are often involved (e.g., photographer and subject) and because of the ease with which they can be reused, photographs and motion pictures represent the types of documents in which issues of privacy and publicity emerge with some frequency.

Privacy and publicity rights are, of course, distinct from copyright. For example, an advertiser may have the photographer's permission (as copyright owner) to use a portrait. But in order to avoid invading privacy, the advertiser may also need the sitter's permission to use the photograph. In fact, publishers sometimes ask photographers to submit a copy of a "release form" in order to establish that the subject of a photograph gave his or her consent.

Although the risks for use in a periodical's "editorial" pages may be less than for use in advertising or for other commercial purposes, they can still be high if the person depicted is held up to ridicule or presented in a libelous manner.

While it is true that famous or public figures who seek recognition have thereby surrendered some privacy, they may have the right to control the commercial use of their image (likeness, voice, signature, etc.). This principle recognizes that a celebrity's image can be an asset in trade.

For more on these and related topics, consult the following books:

Chernoff, George and Hershel Sarbin. Photography and the Law, NY: AMPHOTO, 1971. Library of Congress call number: KF2042.P45C44 1971.

Schultz, John and Barbara Schultz. Picture Research: A Practical Guide, NY: Van Nostrand, 1991. Library of Congress call number: TR147.S38 1991.

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[The Biography of Guadalupe Lupita Gallegos]: a machine readable transcription.

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The Library of Congress is not aware of any copyright in the documents in this collection. As far as is known, the documents were written by U.S. Government employees. Generally speaking, works created by U.S. Government employees are not eligible for copyright protection in the United States, although they may be under copyright in some foreign countries.

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Interesting and Historical Facts About Philippine

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Interesting and Historical Facts About Philippine

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The second-largest archipelago in the world, the Philippines is made up of 7,641 islands. It's beloved for over 36,000 km of pristine white beaches, but it has more to offer visitors than sandy stretches. From its chaotic capital Manila and crumbling colonial towns to island-hopping and volcanic vistas, the Philippines offers history, culture, nature and adventures in spades. To give you a better idea of this fascinating country, here are seven interesting facts about the Philippines.

Interesting Facts about the Philippines

1. It's home to the world's longest underground river

Deep underneath the St Paul's Mountain Range in the island of Palawan is the Puerta Princesa Subterranean River National Park. It was c reated millions of years ago, stretching 24km beneath the mountains. The longest navigable underground river, it's since become a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is recognised as one of the Seven Wonders of Nature.

You can visit parts of the cave system by entering the cave from the point where the river reaches the sea.

2. There are 175+ languages in the country

There are at least 175 languages spoken in the Philippines and at least 171 of them are considered 'living' languages. You'll have no trouble being understood though since more than 52 million people speak English, making it the fifth largest English-speaking nation in the world.

Other languages include Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon and Bicolano, as well as four tribal dialects that are not known to have any living speakers.

3. It boasts three of the world's largest shopping malls

Shopping is a big deal in the Philippines. In fact, it boasts three of the world's ten largest shopping malls: SM Megamall, SM North Edsa and SM Mall of Asia.

The biggest mall is the SM North Edsa, measuring an impressive 498,000m2. Put into context, that's larger than the Vatican City. You'll find the supermall in Quezon City, in Manilla. Even if you're not a self-proclaimed shopaholic, it's still worth the trip to take a peek at the sky garden, simulated river and cinema complex.

4. An island with more volcanoes than towns

Camiguin is only 14 miles long and 8.5 miles wide, but it's the only island on the planet with more volcanoes than towns. It boasts more volcanoes per square mile than any island on earth too.

Fear not though, the volcanoes have been dormant since the 1950s so there's no need to avoid it. Far from it actually, its bubbling hot springs, white-sand beaches and cheerful locals make it a popular spot for tourists.

5. It's the home of Asia's first Basketball League

Basketball is a national obsession in the Philippines. It's thought that the love affair began under American Colonial rule during the early twentieth century, when it was first introduced into the public school system as a women's game. Today it's everywhere, from makeshift hoops on street corners to dedicated sports centres.

The Philippines professional league is Asia's first and also one of the oldest in the world - second only to the NBA.

6. Jeepneys are still the most popular mode of transport

Jeepneys are synonymous with the Philippines. After World War II, American troops left behind thousands of surplus Jeeps. Resourceful Filipinos cobbled these together and converted them into transport vehicles that can hold up to 20 people at one time. They're easy to spot, usually painted in vibrant colours with slogans emblazoned across them.

Jeepneys are slowly being phased out to ease congestion in the city, in favour of more environmentally-friendly alternatives. But, there are still plenty ploughing through the streets so you should have time to hop on an iconic piece of history.

7. The national bird is the Monkey-Eating Eagle

The Philippine Eagle is also, quite unfairly, known as the monkey-eating eagle. It doesn't actually eat monkeys, but its prey isn't exactly immodest in size - pigs, snakes and bats. With a wing span of around two metres, it isn't difficult to see how it manages this.

It is also considered one of the rarest and most powerful birds in the world and killing one comes at a hefty price - 12 years imprisonment.

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7 Interesting Facts About the Philippines - Big 7 Travel

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The second-largest archipelago in the world, the Philippines is made up of 7,641 islands. It's beloved for over 36,000 km of pristine white beaches, but it has more to offer visitors than sandy stretches. From its chaotic capital Manila and crumbling colonial towns to island-hopping and volcanic vistas, the Philippines offers history, culture, nature and adventures in spades.

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There is virtually no other population group that has shaped the past of the USA quite as strongly as German emigrants, with almost seven million of them making their way to the New World over the course of four centuries. Currently 40 to 60 million Americans cite "German" as their primary origin and thus represent the largest immigrant group - even greater than those descended from Irish and Italians.

German emigration to the USA began at the end of the 17th century when Germany was suffering from the after-effects of the bloody religious conflicts of the Thirty Years' War, and Christian minorities were being persecuted. Many farmers lived in poverty, their very existence threatened by failed harvests and land shortages, so many decided to leave for a country that appeared to offer both freedom and prosperity. That country was America.

In 1683 a group of 13 orthodox Quaker families from Krefeld left for New England, where they founded Germantown, the first closed German settlement, which is now a suburb of Philadelphia. They were followed in 1709 by 13,000 peasant farmers from the Palatinate, hence they were known as the Palatines. Rumour had it that the Queen of England would gift them land, but this proved to be just that - a rumour. In the end, 3,000 made it across the Atlantic and settled in what is now Albany, New York.

A new life in "the land of the free"

The situation in Germany worsened when the start of industrialisation caused the population to grow dramatically. In the mid-19th century, around three quarters of farmers did not have enough land to make a living, hence they began migrating in huge numbers from 1816 - the start of official German mass emigration to the USA. The opportunities seemed too good to be true: A peasant farmer who had to survive on half a hectare of land in Germany could acquire 64 hectares after just ten years in the United States.

A lack of political prospects was also a motivational factor behind emigration. For many people, the failure of the Revolution of 1848 represented proof that common people were unlikely to gain any rights to freedom in Germany anytime in the near future, and as a result, many members of the left-wing liberal middle classes and their supporters emigrated to the USA - the so-called "48ers".

Mobile and well-integrated

Once in the USA, the Germans initially established themselves as a respected immigrant group, classic "hyphen-Americans" with dual identity. Countless communities developed with schools, churches and clubs, in which the German language and culture was preserved and cultivated. As advanced industrialisation took hold in the USA, German-Americans were among the most established groups of the population, both in farming and among the new blue-collar professions.

Their early presence among the new industries also led to Germans becoming more mobile than virtually any other group. They were less tightly concentrated in individual regions than other immigrants and spread across the country working as foremen in railway construction, for example.

The image of those with German roots changed abruptly upon the outbreak of the First World War. All of a sudden, they came under pressure to cast off their ethnic identity. Full-blown anti-German hysteria meant that the German language and culture were ostracised.

Thus, a process was set in motion which made German immigrants unique among all the major immigrant groups, and which was further fuelled by the Second World War - the almost complete erosion of their original identity. No other group lost its public visibility to quite the extent of the German-Americans during the course of the 20th century.

After the Second World War, the USA remained an important destination country for new groups of German emigrants. These included the fiancées and wives of American soldiers who had been stationed in Germany, as well as an increasing number of academics and highly qualified professionals. They still form the most important group of German immigrants in the USA today. In 2017, around 12,500 Germans emigrated to America.

© www.deutschland.de

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There is virtually no other population group that has shaped the past of the USA quite as strongly as German emigrants, with almost seven million of them making their way to the New World over the course of four centuries.

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Yale University Library Research Guides: Latinx Studies: Oral Histories

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The Defense Department pays tribute to all who served the nation during World War II and to the Allied countries whose service members fought side-by-side with America's forces. DOD honors the troops who perished in the fight, were listed as missing in action or were prisoners of war; the veterans who returned; and the sacrifices of their families in the fight to preserve freedom.

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Wiccan Holidays Archives - Salem Witch Museum

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Wiccan Holidays Archives - Salem Witch Museum

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Happy October! Tickets go on sale at midnight for the upcoming day. We are not requiring proof of vaccination at this time however, all visitors MUST still wear masks in all Salem businesses. THERE ARE NO EXCEPTIONS at this time. CLICK HERE for detailed information on how to visit Salem and the Museum. Please note - Tickets are sold ONLINE and we highly recommend purchasing them before you arrive. Plan carefully and add extra travel time as traffic is VERY HEAVY especially on weekends and the City of Salem strongly urges you to use public transportation. Note that we cannot switch your ticket times and WE DO NOT REFUND IF YOU MISS YOUR PRESENTATION.

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Wiccan Holidays Archives - Salem Witch Museum

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Happy October! Tickets go on sale at midnight for the upcoming day. We are not requiring proof of vaccination at this time however, all visitors MUST still wear masks in all Salem businesses. THERE ARE NO EXCEPTIONS at this time. CLICK HERE for detailed information on how to visit Salem and the Museum.

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Encyclopédie d'histoire numérique de l'Europe

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A wire spiked with metallic points, barbed wire-called artificial bramble-was invented in the mid-1870s in the United States. At the time it was intended to enclose the gigantic properties of the Wild West, and to allow farmers to save on the labour needed to watch over livestock. However, the military quickly took interest in the properties of this new material, which was soon used on battlefields, notably during the Boer wars and the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. Yet it was during The Great War that this artificial bramble was the most massively deployed.

A Not So Accessory Defence

An example among many others is the area of Saint-Laurent-Blangy, a village north of Arras held by the 47th infantry regiment of Saint-Malo during the winter of 1914-1915, which gives a precise idea of the quantities of barbed wire that were placed by the warring countries during the course of the conflict. The maps in the unit's war diaries give an overview, with the hatched sections representing barbed wire encircling even the smallest thoroughfare dug in the battlefield, so as to protect against enemy incursion. Combatant testimonies help depict this vast protective network from ground level, one that was interspersed with metal stakes such that the wires erected a spiky, sharp, and impassable rail of sorts, able to lacerate possible intruders.

The generic term barbed wire in fact ultimately conceals a number of objects serving approximately the same function. Often arranged on either side of the no man's land, chevaux-de-frise resembled a kind of large wooden X wrapped in barbed wire. Similarly, the famous Brun entanglement, a large coil of iron wire spiked with tips, was stretched across the length of the trench or the tunnel needing protection. Less well known is the hérisson [hedgehog], a kind of metallic star that is barely visible in a bed of leaves or branches, and the pig-tail stake, a coiled stem ending in a sharp point; both of them represent formidable obstacles when planted in the ground. All of these elements are part of the "accessory defences" category, which in military jargon includes any of the objects placed in front of trenches to protect against enemy attacks.

Jacques Meyer, a war veteran and graduate of the École normale supérieure who became a historian of The Great War in the 1960s, pointed out that the placement and maintenance of these weapons was among the worst chores that could be assigned to infantrymen. This particularly dangerous form of work could only be done at night or on foggy days to avoid the risk of enemy snipers. In doing so, barbed wire and other accessory defences relate to the very nature of trench warfare, a tactical equation that, in many respects, resembles a sort of reciprocal siege warfare in which both sides lay siege to the other.

A Two-Edged Weapon

Limey. Coils of barbed wire, 5 March 1916.
Source: BDIC; VAL 166-053, Inventory number of the Photographic Section of the army: 35765

Yet this reality does not fit well with ideological and strategic precepts that impose offensives. A formidably effective fortification when used defensively, barbed wire was, on the contrary, highly penalizing in an offensive situation. Not only do these metal defences force troops to make breaches to exit from their own lines, but the Brun entanglements, pig-tails and other hérissons were moreover resistant to even the most violent artillery preparations. For example in May 1915, after an attack in the area of Saint-Laurent-Blangy, the editor of the war diary of the 47th infantry regiment accounted for the operation's stinging failure by the fact that the enemy's "barbed wire" was still intact.

Unlike human beings, whose vigilance can always be caught off guard, accessory defences are continually effective, even when the assault has ended and the survivors have returned to their trenches. Barbed wire thus developed into a formidable psychological weapon, a kind of clothesline on which the corpses of combatants dried for days, as though pinned up like a sinister hunting trophy. The effect on the men's morale was disastrous, so much so that shame of ending up hanging from the enemy's accessory defences constituted a genuine topos of combat literature.

Numerous authors insisted on the dehumanizing character of the violence practiced on the battlefields of World War One. Barbed wire certainly had an essential role in this process, which at least unconsciously did not escape contemporaries. It is notable how much the wordage for accessory defences- chevaux-de-frise, hérisson, pig-tails-make use of animal vocabulary, thus relegating infantrymen to the rank of livestock caught in their own trenches.

A Weak Memorial Impact?

Walking on battlefields a century after the events, one can still find some of these metallic vestiges, which incidentally can offer reminders of their intact effectiveness to the clumsy. Nevertheless, although barbed wire is not absent from the collective memory of World War One, it paradoxically seems to relate more to the memory of captivity than to trench warfare. This is probably a consequence of our mental representations that tend to establish barbed wire as the absolute symbol of imprisonment and, more generally, of totalitarian systems. Here we have the undeniable mark of competing memories, with the representation of a World War Two circumscribed to Auschwitz quite often imposing itself over any other form of memory.

We can subsequently examine the relevance of this symbol, which in fact proves not to be very nuanced. A penitentiary such as Fresnes or Fleury-Mérogis, a death camp such as Treblinka, a Soviet gulag or a Chinese laogai, or a stalag, all share the use of barbed wire. Yet they are all part of radically different historical meanings, which this shared symbol does not make it possible to appreciate at their true value. And what should be said of Amnesty International, the organization fighting for human rights, whose logo depicts a candle intertwined with barbed wire?

We can find the same ambiguity when barbed wire materializes a hermetically closed border. Although it could seem anachronistic in the context of a Cold War determined by the nuclear weapon and the balance of terror, it was nevertheless a curtain of barbed wire that was erected during the night of 12-13 August 1961, the first stage of the construction of the Berlin Wall. What was no more than an accessory defence during World War One later served to keep citizens of the East German capital inside the communist space, an illustration of the iron curtain evoked by Churchill in his famous Fulton speech. Over fifty years later, during the summer of 2015, Hungary built a huge barbed wire fence, 175 km long, along its border with Serbia. Yet the objective is no longer to prevent the flight of European citizens, but rather the entry of "migrants" into the Schengen space-an arresting semantic inversion.

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Barbed Wire in Wartim: Uses and Memories

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A wire spiked with metallic points, barbed wire-called artificial bramble-was invented in the mid-1870s in the United States. At the time it was intended to enclose the gigantic properties of the Wild West, and to allow farmers to save on the labour needed to watch over livestock.

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Photo of 1778 Franco-American Treaties being signed Painting

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Photo of 1778 Franco-American Treaties being signed Painting

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The signing of the Treaty of Amity and Commerce and of Alliance between France and the United States

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The Library of Congress believes that many of the papers in the Detroit Publishing Company collection are in the public domain or have no known copyright restrictions and are free to use and reuse. For example, all photos published in the U.S. more than 95 years ago are in the public domain.

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This article was most recently revised and updated by

Tombstone, city, Cochise county, southeastern Arizona, U.S. The site was ironically named by Ed Schieffelin, who discovered silver there in 1877 after being told that all he would find would be his tombstone. (An alternative account holds that the townsite was named for the granite rocks of the nearby Dragoon Mountains, which stand out against the landscape like tombstones.) By 1881 a silver rush had set in, bringing an estimated 7,000 people to the area. Along with the prospectors came adventurers and outlaws, among whom were Wyatt Earp, John H. "Doc" Holliday, and Johnny Ringo, whereupon Tombstone gained a reputation for lawlessness. Feuds were common, the most notable being the gun battle at the O.K. Corral in 1881 between the Earp and Clanton families. The boom days quickly ended in 1911 with floodwaters in the mines, labour strikes, and low silver prices. Tombstone was the county seat from 1881 to 1931. Now a tourist centre, it retains a pioneer atmosphere and was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1962. Restored sites include Boot Hill Cemetery, Bird Cage Theater, the O.K. Corral, and the Tombstone Epitaph (newspaper, 1880) office. Inc. 1881. Pop. (2000) 1,504; (2010) 1,380.

Amy Tikkanen, Corrections Manager.

Learn More in these related Britannica articles:

Arizona, constituent state of the United States of America. Arizona is the sixth largest state in the country in terms of area. Its population has always been predominantly urban, particularly since the mid-20th century, when urban and suburban areas began growing rapidly at the expense of the countryside. Some scholars...

Wyatt Earp, legendary frontiersman of the American West, who was an itinerant saloonkeeper, gambler, lawman, gunslinger, and confidence man but was perhaps best known for his involvement in the gunfight at...

Doc Holliday, gambler, gunman, and sometime dentist of the American West. Holliday was reared in Georgia in the genteel tradition of the Old South, graduated from the Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery in...

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Tombstone, city, Cochise county, southeastern Arizona, U.S. The site was ironically named by Ed Schieffelin, who discovered silver there in 1877 after being told that all he would find would be his tombstone. (An alternative account holds that the townsite was named for the granite rocks of the

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Linguist Noam Chomsky on Black English, AAVE, Ebonics, etc.

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Linguist Noam Chomsky on Black English, AAVE, Ebonics, etc.

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Linguist Noam Chomsky on Black English, AAVE, Ebonics, etc.

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What's in a name? Why do some linguists not call it African American Vernacular English (AAVE) anymore? - Language Jones

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What's in a name? Why do some linguists not call it African American Vernacular English (AAVE) anymore? - Language Jones

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Today's post will be a short one, but it's something I should have written a long time ago. Thanks to social media, there is a rising awareness among the general public of the validity of the language variety most associated with Black Americans who are the descendants of enslaved people. However, just as people on Twitter are taking the term AAVE mainstream, linguists are moving away from it. This has created some awkward situations, in which well meaning lay people are suspicious of linguists doing cutting edge work, precisely because they are not using the same terminology. I tend, now, to use African American English or African American Language. Here's a breakdown:

African American Language: This is the term now most used by linguists studying this language variety. The 2015 Oxford Handbook of African American Language has very thorough discussion as to why. The basic idea is that, in an academic environment, calling it African American English seems to suggest a particular position on the origin of the language variety. That is, people saying AAE in an academic environment might suggest they believe the Anglicist hypothesis that the language variety is basically English with some West African flavor (see Labov 1998 for an articulation of this argument). But we don't know that, and it's actually quite a contentious claim. Others (like John Rickford) argue convincingly for the Creole Origins Hypothesis, which says that AAL started as a creole - not a variety of English - and later became more like English through contact. Calling it AAL sidesteps any strong stance on origins, and does not presume mutual intelligibility with other varieties of English. This last part is important, as there is a growing body of evidence that English speakers who don't also speak AAL actually don't understand a lot of AAL. This is an area of ongoing research and contention.

African American English: I tend to use this when talking with the general public, in part because people haven't heard of AAL, and in part because I've found that most people will understand AAE better as a valid variety of English than as a language variety in its own right that may seem mutually intelligible but isn't always. Most English speakers understand most of the AAE they hear, and can be trained to understand all of it. They also intuitively understand that there are different varieties of English, and so tying it in to Appalachian, Southern, Scottish, Received Pronunciation, etc. helps people understand how it can be different, but still valid. This term is very similar to AAVE, but...it's missing the V.

African American Vernacular English: AAE is missing the V because the V is for "vernacular", which, in this case, means something like "casual". In the 1970s and 80s, most of the work on AAVE was being done by white researchers who did not speak the language variety. This is still basically the case, although it's changing. One result of this fact was that even the people attempting to valorize AAE implicitly viewed it as a casual register. Arthur Spears, however, has argued very convincingly (for at least 20 years) that there is also a "Standard" register which is different from white, mainstream, classroom English, and which is recognized as a formal standard register. Think about Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. giving a speech. He's still got all of the phonological markers of African American speech, and many of the morphosyntactic markers, but it's not vernacular by any stretch of the imagination. One example of AASE is the full closure and release of /t/ in the middle of a trochee (two syllables where the first is stressed). Most white Americans would pronounce /t/ as a flap in that situation, no matter the formality of the speech (think ladder/latter). However, many AAE speakers, when speaking formally, will release the /t/ similar to how it is released at the beginning of a word. So "identity" might be 'eye-dennidy" [ɑ͡ɪdɛɾ̃ɪɾi] for even the most formal of white speakers, but "ah-dint-ih-tea" [ɑːdɪ̃tɪtʰi] for some AASE speakers. (I'm told that many HBCUs used to, or still do, have "diction" classes which cultivate this style of speaking). Notice that in the second example, there are features AAE shares with Southern (white) American English, like ah for eye and dint for dent, and that these are common in AAE but not universal, so someone from Harlem might say [ɑ͡ɪdɛ̃tɪtʰi] when speaking formally. The point is, historically AAE was thought of as being exclusively the domain of casual speech, and studies often privileged the way teenagers and gang members (!) spoke, and it wasn't until there were more Black voices in the academy that this blind spot began to be corrected. It's still a problem for the general public, as even the most well meaning people, many of whom speak AAE, will still assume that AAE is slang and miss that it is a complete linguistic system. On fleek is not AA(V)E from a linguistic perspective, but they don't think it be like it is but it do is AAE. Much of the discussion of AAE and borrowing/appropriation misses that what is being borrowed often is slang, and that AAE is much, much harder to accurately imitate!

Ebonics: This term was originally coined to describe a variety of contact languages with African influence, and is a blend word of "ebony" and "phonics" for "black sounds". This means that not only did Ebonics refer to African American Language, but it also refers to Gullah, to Black Canadian English, to Dominican Spanish, Haitian Kreyol, Jamaican Patwa, and Brazilian Portuguese, among others. In the 1990s there was a massive media storm over the term, after the Oakland school board attempted a (smart) maneuver to increase funding to teach literacy and classroom English to children who spoke AAL at home - they argued that AAL was not the same thing as English, and therefore funding earmarked for second language English learners should also go to underfunded English classes in primarily Black neighborhoods. The media latched onto this, and it was misrepresented as Oakland trying to teach all kids to "speak Ebonics" and there were tons of articles with titles like "Ain't ain't a word" (side note, imagine if it actually wasn't - this would read like "blorf blorf a word!"). After 1996, the term ebonics became associated in the popular consciousness with (1) African American Language and (2) the idea that it is broken, bad, and defective. Because it is now effectively a pejorative for AAL, linguists no longer use it.

There are also a lot of historical names that are no longer used. It wasn't until the late 1960s that linguists took AAL seriously, and in the beginning you'll find papers talking about things like " Northern Negro English", " Black English Vernacular (BEV")" or " Black English " (some linguists from that time still use the latter, although both BE and BEV seem to be about whether one prefers "Black" or "African American" which is an entirely separate conflict to wade into).

For all of these, it should be noted that the language variety is not exclusive to Black people, although they comprise the vast majority of the fluent speakers of AAL. This is similar to the situation with Russian. The vast majority of its speakers are from a handful of ethnic groups, but this is because of history and geopolitics, and not DNA. There's no AAL gene that's magically associated with melanin, but there is massive residential and educational segregation in the US, and a strong social stigma against AAL, so it's rare to find fluent, native, non-Black speakers. Because it is the language of an oppressed people, there are also strong feelings around ownership and who has the right to speak it, even seemingly paradoxically, among black folks who don't speak it.

I think most linguists working on AAL would love to see AAL catch on in the mainstream, but I think this is highly unlikely. I do, however, hope to see AAE replace AAVE, as that V is doing a lot of work. I have published papers that use AAVE, where appropriate - like when Christopher Hall and I wrote about "the n-word" which only occurs in informal speech - but it feels weird to see people attempting to valorize AAL while simultaneously implicitly calling it informal and vernacular.

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©Taylor Jones 2020

Have a question or comment? Share your thoughts below!

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What's in a name? Why do some linguists not call it African American Vernacular English (AAVE) anymore? - Language Jones

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Today's post will be a short one, but it's something I should have written a long time ago. Thanks to social media, there is a rising awareness among the general public of the validity of the language variety most associated with Black Americans who are the descendants of enslaved people.

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Believe it or not, there is far more to German food than sausages and sauerkraut. Just take a look at these top dishes, with recipes to try at home.

Delve into the world of German cuisine and you will soon discover an array of rich, hearty, and delicious dishes that are great comfort food. While each region of Germany has its own specialty dishes and traditional cuisine, there are certain culinary delights that people cherish throughout the country. And because many of these are easy to make, you won't find it too difficult to incorporate them into your weekly meal plan, either. So why not explore German culture with your tastebuds and create your own dishes using these handy recipes. Guten Appetit!

1. Wurst

Let's start with an obvious one - Wurst. There are an estimated 1,500 varieties of sausage in Germany. These are prepared in many different ways and include a range of ingredients and unique spice blends. You will find these on street stalls almost everywhere across the country. One of the most popular varieties is Bratwurst, a pan-fried or roasted sausage made from veal, beef, or pork. Others include Wiener (Viennese), which is smoked and then boiled, and the blood sausages, Blutwurst and Schwarzwurst.

You will also find regional specialties such as Berlin's Currywurst (with curried ketchup on top) and Bavaria's Weisswurst, a white sausage that you peel before eating with sweet mustard. Meanwhile, Nuremberg is famous for its grilled Rostbratwurst, which people eat with fermented shredded cabbage (sauerkraut). And in the state of Thuringian, the local Rostbratwurst is made using distinctive spices like marjoram and caraway.

Make your own

2. Rouladen

This typical German dish consists of bacon, onions, mustard, and pickles wrapped in thinly sliced beef or veal which is then cooked. Rouladen is also considered to be part of traditional Polish cuisine in the Upper Silesia region. Here it is known as rolada Śląska ( Silesian roulade). It is also famous in the Czech Republic where it is called Španělský ptáček ( Spanish bird). While the mixture varies from region to region, beef has become popular over the last century. The cut is usually topside beef or silverside since this is the cheaper cut. You will find this hearty German food at festivals and family dinner tables across the country. It usually comes with dumplings, mashed potatoes, Blaukraut (cooked red cabbage), and red wine gravy.

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3. Käsespätzle

Germany's answer to pasta, Spätzle is especially popular in the south of the country. These soft egg noodles are made from wheat flour and egg and are often topped with cheese () and roasted onions. Although the origin of the dish is disputed and variations are found in neighboring countries, Spätzle remains a Swabian specialty. There, the general cooking rule is to use one more egg than the number of guests. It is often served with meat dishes that use a lot of sauce or gravy, such a s Rouladen, or in stews, such as Gaisburger Marsch (a Swabian stew). In some regions, the dough contains other ingredients like cherries (Kirschspätzle), apples (Apfelspätzle), liver ( Leberspätzle), sauerkraut ( Krautspätzle), or even beer.

Make your own

4. Eintopf

A steaming bowl of Eintopf will warm anyone up on a cold day. The name of this traditional German stew literally means 'one pot' and refers to the way of cooking rather than its contents. That said, most recipes contain the same basic ingredients: broth, vegetables, potatoes or pulses, and pork, beef, chicken, or fish. Eintopf is similar to Irish stew and you will find many different regional specialties throughout Germany. These include Lumpen und Flöh (which means 'rags and fleas') in the Kassel area and Linseneintopf (lentils) in Thüringen. Full of flavor and heart-warming goodness, it's no wonder this tasty dish is one of the most popular German foods.

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5. Sauerbraten

Germans love their meat dishes, and Sauerbraten (meaning 'sour' or 'pickled' roast) is one of the country's national dishes. You can make a pot roast by using many different types of meat, which you marinate in wine, vinegar, spices, herbs, and then season for up to ten days. This recipe is also ideal for tenderizing cheap cuts of meat. Schweinebraten (which translates as 'roast pork') is a delicious Bavarian recipe that you will commonly find in beer halls. It usually comes with braised cabbage or sauerkraut and dumplings ( Knoedel) and goes down nicely with an ice-cold pilsner.

6. Kartoffelpuffer

What a fantastic word! Perfect to enjoy as either a side dish or a light snack, Kartoffelpuffer are shallow pan-fried pancakes made from grated or ground potatoes mixed with flour, egg, onion, and seasoning. You can top them with a variety of sweet or savory condiments, such as sour cream, cottage cheese, apple sauce, or cinnamon. You will often find this tasty German food at outdoor markets in the winter and some variations use sweet potatoes which are also popular.

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7. Brezel

Great to eat as a side dish or snack, the Brezel (pretzel) is a type of baked pastry that is made from dough commonly shaped into a knot. A Brezel is usually sprinkled with salt, however, other seasonings include cheese, sugar, chocolate, cinnamon, and different seeds. This is a popular German food to eat with German beer and you will find it in bakeries and on street stalls throughout the country. They usually come plain, sliced, and buttered ( Butterbrezel) or with slices of cold meats or cheese. Lecker!

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8. Schnitzel

Our list of top German foods wouldn't be complete with mentioning Schnitzel. Coated in breadcrumbs and often served with a slice of lemon, this thin, boneless cutlet of meat is an iconic part of German cuisine. You can choose a Wiener Schnitzel (Viennese style) made from veal, or a Schnitzel Wiener Art, with pork ( Schwein). If you order a Hamburg-style schnitzel, it will arrive with a fried egg on top, while a Holsten-style schnitzel comes with an egg, anchovies, and capers.

Make your own

9. Schwarzwälder Kirschtorte

You'll find lots of cakes and tarts to tempt you in Germany, but few people can resist a huge slice of Germany's most famous cake: the delicious Schwarzwälder Kirschtorte (which literally means 'Black Forest cherry torte'). This dessert gets its name from Schwarzwälder Kirschwasser, a liqueur distilled from tart cherries. Interestingly, German law actually mandates that Kirschwasser must be present in the cake for it to be labeled a Schwarzwälder Kirschtorte. Alternating layers of rich chocolate cake, cherries, and whipped cream are topped off with more cream, maraschino cherries, and chocolate shavings for a luxurious finish.

Make your own

10. Apfelstrudel

Although Apfelstrudel (apple strudel) is one of Austria's national desserts, Germany has also adopted it into its local cuisine. The popular dish consists of buttery pastry filled with apples that are flavored with sugar, cinnamon, and raisins. The dish became popular in the 18th century under the Habsburg empire. You can make the delicate flakey pastry from an elastic dough, which you knead and stretch until it is almost paper-thin. You then butter the thin pastry layers together, before wrapping them around the apple filling and baking it. It is common to eat the dessert in slices with a sprinkling of powdered or icing sugar. Simply heavenly!

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Believe it or not, there is far more to German food than sausages and sauerkraut. Just take a look at these top dishes, with recipes to try at home. Delve into the world of German cuisine and you will soon discover an array of rich, hearty, and delicious dishes that are great comfort food.

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Assignment of Camp Serial Numbers and the Introduction of Tattooing

Incoming prisoners were assigned a camp serial number which was sewn to their prison uniforms. Only those prisoners selected for work were issued serial numbers; those prisoners sent directly to the gas chambers were not registered and received no tattoos.

Initially, the SS authorities marked prisoners who were in the infirmary or who were to be executed with their camp serial number across the chest with indelible ink. As prisoners were executed or died in other ways, their clothing bearing the camp serial number was removed. Given the mortality rate at the camp and practice of removing clothing, there was no way to identify the bodies after the clothing was removed. Hence, the SS authorities introduced the practice of tattooing in order to identify the bodies of registered prisoners who had died.

Just before I turned 6, my family was deported to Auschwitz from the Theresienstadt ghetto. My arm was tattooed with the number 169061. There, I was separated from my sister and mother and put into a barracks with older boys-many seemed to be twins.
-Rene Guttmann

There was one person who would rub the...a little piece of dirty alcohol on your arm, and the other one had the...had the needle with the inkwell, and he would do the numbering. So my number is 65,316.
-Miso (Mike) Vogel

Method of Tattooing

Originally, a special metal stamp, holding interchangeable numbers made up of needles approximately one centimeter long was used. This allowed the whole serial number to be punched at one blow onto the prisoner's left upper chest. Ink was then rubbed into the bleeding wound.

When the metal stamp method proved impractical, a single-needle device was introduced, which pierced the outlines of the serial-number digits onto the skin. The site of the tattoo was changed to the outer side of the left forearm. However, prisoners from several transports in 1943 had their numbers tattooed on the inner side of their left upper forearms. Tattooing was generally performed during registration when each prisoner was assigned a camp serial number. Since prisoners sent directly to the gas chambers were never issued numbers, they were never tattooed.

Adoption of Tattooing Throughout the Auschwitz Complex

Tattooing was introduced at Auschwitz in the autumn of 1941. As thousands of Soviet prisoners of war (POWs) arrived at the camp, and thousands rapidly died there, the SS authorities began to tattoo the prisoners for identification purposes. At Auschwitz II (Birkenau), the SS staff introduced the practice of tattooing in March 1942 to keep up with the identification of large numbers of prisoners who arrived, sickened, and died quickly. By this time, the majority of registered prisoners in the Auschwitz complex were Jews.

In the spring of 1943, the SS authorities throughout the entire Auschwitz complex adopted the practice of tattooing almost all previously registered and newly arrived prisoners, including female prisoners. Exceptions to this practice were prisoners of German nationality and "reeducation prisoners," who were held in a separate compound. "Reeducation prisoners," or "labor-education prisoners," were non-Jewish persons of virtually all European nationalities (but at Auschwitz primarily Germans, Czechs, Poles, and Soviet civilians) who had run afoul of the harsh labor discipline imposed on civilian laborers in areas under German control.

Prisoner Numbers

The first series of prisoner numbers was introduced in May 1940, well before the practice of tattooing began. This first series was given to male prisoners and remained in use until January 1945, ending with the number 202,499. Until mid-May 1944, male Jewish prisoners were given numbers from this series.

A new series of registration numbers was introduced in October 1941 and remained in use until 1944. Approximately 12,000 Soviet POWs were given numbers from this series (some of the POWs murdered at Auschwitz were never registered and did not receive numbers).

A third series of numbers was introduced in March 1942 with the arrival of the first female prisoners. Approximately 90,000 female prisoners were identified with a series of numbers created for female prisoners in March 1942 until May 1944.

Each new series of numbers introduced at Auschwitz began with "1." Some Jewish prisoners (but not all) had a triangle tattooed beneath their serial number.

In order to avoid the assignment of excessively high numbers from the general series to the large number of Hungarian Jews arriving in 1944, the SS authorities introduced new sequences of numbers in mid-May 1944. This series, prefaced by the letter A, began with "1" and ended at "20,000." Once the number 20,000 was reached, a new series beginning with "B" series was introduced. Some 15,000 men received "B" series tattoos. For an unknown reason, the "A" series for women did not stop at 20,000 and continued to 30,000.

A separate series of numbers was introduced in January 1942 for "reeducation" prisoners who had not received numbers from the general series. Numbers from this new series were assigned retroactively to "reeducation" prisoners who had died or been released, while their superseded general-series serial numbers were reassigned to new "general" arrivals. This was the only instance in the history of Auschwitz of numbers being "recycled." Approximately 9,000 prisoners were registered in the "reeducation" series. Beginning in 1943, female "reeducation" prisoners were given serial numbers from their own new series, which also began with "1." There were approximately 2,000 serial numbers in this series.

Beginning in February 1943, SS authorities issued two separate series' of number to Romani (Gypsy) prisoners registered at Auschwitz: one for the men and one for the women. Through August 1944, 10,094 numbers were assigned from the former series and 10,888 from the latter. Romani prisoners were given the letter Z ("Zigeuner" is German for "Gypsy") in addition to the serial number.

The camp authorities assigned more than 400,000 prisoner serial numbers (not counting approximately 3,000 numbers given to police prisoners interned at Auschwitz due to overcrowding in jails who were not included in the daily count of prisoners).

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Tattoos and Numbers: The System of Identifying Prisoners at Auschwitz

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Incoming prisoners were assigned a camp serial number which was sewn to their prison uniforms. Only those prisoners selected for work were issued serial numbers; those prisoners sent directly to the gas chambers were not registered and received no tattoos.

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German food is more than a mere mix of beer, sauerkraut and sausage. Done well, it is rich, hearty and delicious. Check out our list of Germany's 20 best foods.

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(Primary Source) A nun in the revolution: Remembering, forgetting EDSA

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(Primary Source) A nun in the revolution: Remembering, forgetting EDSA

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A nun in the revolution: Remembering, forgetting EDSA

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For Sister Helen, nothing beats physical activism in terms of impact. ‘I think unless you get a mass of people out on the streets, nothing will change.’

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Larry Vandermolen, Irene Cheung - from 4ESG/site

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Primary Source: The Story of German Immigrants

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As soon as the boat landed, . . . myself and a few others went out into the city to look for a place of temporary residence. Afterwards inquiries were to be made, and the country visited in search of a permanent farm-home. The idea of purchasing wild government land had already been given up. Our fa…

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italian culture

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Italian Culture: Facts, Customs & Traditions

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Italian culture traces its roots back to the ancient world and has influenced art, fashion and food around the world.

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Pew Research Center's Social & Demographic Trends Project

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Multiracial Americans are at the cutting edge of social and demographic change in the U.S.-young, proud, tolerant and growing at a rate three times as fast as the population as a whole.

As America becomes more racially diverse and social taboos against interracial marriage fade, a new Pew Research Center survey finds that majorities of multiracial adults are proud of their mixed-race background (60%) and feel their racial heritage has made them more open to other cultures (59%).

At the same time, a majority (55%) say they have been subjected to racial slurs or jokes, and about one-in-four (24%) have felt annoyed because people have made assumptions about their racial background. Still, few see their multiracial background as a liability. In fact, only 4% say having a mixed racial background has been a disadvantage in their life. About one-in-five (19%) say it has been an advantage, and 76% say it has made no difference.

While multiracial adults share some things in common, they cannot be easily categorized. Their experiences and attitudes differ significantly depending on the races that make up their background and how the world sees them. For example, multiracial adults with a black background-69% of whom say most people would view them as black or African American-have a set of experiences, attitudes and social interactions that are much more closely aligned with the black community. A different pattern emerges among multiracial Asian adults; biracial white and Asian adults feel more closely connected to whites than to Asians. Among biracial adults who are white and American Indian-the largest group of multiracial adults-ties to their Native American heritage are often faint: Only 22% say they have a lot in common with people in the U.S. who are American Indian, whereas 61% say they have a lot in common with whites.

The U.S. Census Bureau finds that, in 2013, about 9 million Americans chose two or more racial categories when asked about their race. The Census Bureau first started allowing people to choose more than one racial category to describe themselves in 2000. Since then, the nation's multiracial population has grown substantially. Between 2000 and 2010, the number of white and black biracial Americans more than doubled, while the population of adults with a white and Asian background increased by 87%. And during that decade, the nation elected as president Barack Obama-the son of a black father from Kenya and a white mother from Kansas.

The share of multiracial babies has risen from 1% in 1970 to 10% in 2013. And with interracial marriages also on the rise, demographers expect this rapid growth to continue, if not quicken, in the decades to come.

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Yet the Pew Research survey findings suggest that the census's estimate that 2.1% of the adult population is multiracial may understate the size of the country's mixed-race population. Taking into account how adults describe their own race as well as the racial backgrounds of their parents and grandparents-which the census count does not do- Pew Research estimates that 6.9% of the U.S. adult population could be considered multiracial. This estimate comprises 1.4% in the survey who chose two or more races for themselves, an additional 2.9% who chose one race for themselves but said that at least one of their parents was a different race or multiracial, and 2.6% who are counted as multiracial because at least one of their grandparents was a different race than them or their parents.

These findings emerge from a nationally representative survey of 1,555 multiracial Americans ages 18 and older, conducted online from Feb. 6 to April 6, 2015. The sample of multiracial adults was identified after contacting and collecting basic demographic information on more than 21,000 adults nationwide. For comparative purposes, an additional 1,495 adults from the general public were surveyed, including an oversample of non-Hispanic adults who are black and have no other races in their background and who are Asian and no race.

To be sure, not all adults with a mixed racial background consider themselves "multiracial." In fact, 61% do not. An added layer of complexity is that racial identity can be fluid and may change over the course of one's life, or even from one situation to another. About three-in-ten adults with a multiracial background say that they have changed the way they describe their race over the years-with some saying they once thought of themselves as only one race and now think of themselves as more than one race, and others saying just the opposite.

In addition to painting a portrait of multiracial Americans, the survey findings challenge some traditional ideas about race. The Census Bureau currently recognizes five racial categories: white, black or African American, American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, and Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander. Hispanic origin is asked about separately as an ethnicity and is not considered a race.

But when Latinos are asked whether they consider being Hispanic to be part of their racial or ethnic background, the survey finds that about two-thirds of Hispanics say it is, at least in part, their race. For the majority of this report, Hispanic origin is treated as an ethnicity, rather than a race, and multiracial Hispanics are those who say they are Hispanic and two separate races (for example, someone who is Hispanic and also chooses black and white as his or her races). This is consistent with how the Census Bureau counts mixed-race Hispanics. However, because Hispanic identity is tied to both race and ethnicity for many Latinos, Chapter 7 of this report explores a broader definition of mixed race.

The Multiracial Experience

The survey finds that many multiracial adults, like other racial minorities, have experienced some type of racial discrimination, from racist slurs to physical threats, because of their racial background.

Again, the specific races that make up an individual's background matter. For example, while about four-in-ten mixed-race adults with a black background say they have been unfairly stopped by the police because of their racial background, only 6% of biracial white and Asian adults and 15% of white and American Indian adults say they have had this experience. A similar pattern is evident for other types of racial discrimination.

For multiracial adults with a black background, experiences with discrimination closely mirror those of single-race blacks. Among adults who are black and no other race, 57% say they have received poor service in restaurants or other businesses, identical to the share of biracial black and white adults who say this has happened to them; and 42% of single-race blacks say they have been unfairly stopped by the police, as do 41% of biracial black and white adults. Mixed-race adults with an Asian background are about as likely to report being discriminated against as are single-race Asians, while multiracial adults with a white background are more likely than single-race whites to say they have experienced racial discrimination.

Demographically, multiracial Americans are younger-and strikingly so-than the country as a whole. According to Pew Research Center analysis of the 2013 American Community Survey, the median age of all multiracial Americans is 19, compared with 38 for single-race Americans.

The Pew Research survey finds that multiracial adults also are less likely than other adults to be college graduates and less likely to be currently married. But when they do wed, mixed-race Americans are more likely than other adults to marry someone who also is multiracial. Mixed-race adults are also more likely than the general public to have close friends or neighbors who are multiracial.

Even so, shared multiracial backgrounds do not necessarily translate into shared identity. Only about a third (34%) of all multiracial Americans think they have a lot in common with other adults who are the same racial mix that they are, while only half as many (17%) think they share a lot with multiracial Americans whose racial background is different from their own.

The Size of the Multiracial Population

It was less than 50 years ago that the U.S. Supreme Court, in the case bearing the evocative title Loving v. Virginia, struck down laws prohibiting mixed-race marriages. And it has been only 15 years since the U.S. Census Bureau first allowed Americans to choose more than one race when filling out their census form.

Since then the multiracial population has grown significantly. To measure its size, the Pew Research Center used a different method than the Census Bureau for determining an individual's racial background. In addition to self-reported race, Pew Research took into account the racial backgrounds of parents and grandparents. This approach led to the estimate that multiracial adults currently make up 6.9% of the adult American population.

Using this definition, the Pew Research survey finds that biracial adults with a white and American Indian background comprise half of the country's multiracial population-by far the country's largest multiracial group but also the one whose members are the least likely to consider themselves "multiracial" despite their mixed-race background.

Black and American Indian biracial adults account for an additional 12% of the total multiracial adult population, while those with a white and black background make up 11%. Those with white, black and American Indian in their racial background make up 6% of the mixed-race population, and white and Asian biracial adults account for 4%. An additional 11% are Hispanic multiracial adults. The remaining share of the mixed-race population is scattered across the 16 other combinations of races represented in the Pew Research sample.

The relatively small share of all U.S. adults who are mixed race obscures the rapid growth of the multiracial population. If current trends continue-and evidence suggests they may accelerate-the Census Bureau projects that the multiracial population will triple by 2060.

Feeding this growth is the increase in mixed-race couples and, as a natural consequence, births of children who have a multiracial background. For example, since 1980 the share of marriages between spouses of different races has increased almost fourfold (from 1.6% to 6.3% in 2013).

The share of multiracial children is growing at an even faster rate. In 1970, among babies living with two parents, only 1% had parents who were different races from each other. By 2013, that share had risen to 10%. Today, nearly half (46%) of all multiracial Americans are younger than 18. By contrast, only 23% of the overall U.S. population is under the age of 18.

As the multiracial population in the U.S. grows, its profile is also changing. While biracial white and American Indian is currently the predominant group among mixed-race adults, in 2013 a majority of mixed-race babies were either biracial white and black (36%) or biracial white and Asian (24%). Some 11% were white and American Indian.

The Multiracial Identity Gap

Multiracial identity is complicated, as much an attitude that can change over a lifetime as it is a genetic or biological certainty. Only four-in-ten adults with a mixed racial background (39%) say they consider themselves to be "mixed race or multiracial." Fully 61% say they don't consider themselves to be multiracial.

When asked why they don't identify as multiracial, about half (47%) say it is because they look like one race. An identical share say they were raised as one race, while about four-in-ten (39%) say they closely identify with a single race. And about a third (34%) say they never knew the family member or ancestor who was a different race. (Individuals were allowed to select multiple reasons.)

This multiracial "identity gap" plays out in distinctly different ways in different mixed-race groups. A quarter of biracial adults with a white and American Indian background say they consider themselves multiracial. By contrast, seven-in-ten white and Asian biracial adults and 61% of those with a white and black background say they identify as multiracial.

For some mixed-race Americans, the pressure to identify as a single race is a significant part of the multiracial experience. According to the survey, about one-in-five (21%) say they have felt pressure from friends, family or "society in general" to identify as a single race.

A similar share says they have attempted to look or behave a certain way in order to influence the way others perceive their race.

Being Mixed Race

A majority of multiracial adults say they are proud of their mixed racial background (60%), more see their racial background as an advantage than a disadvantage (19% vs. 4%), and they overwhelmingly say they have rarely if ever felt ashamed or like an outsider because of their mixed racial background.

While these views are broadly shared by each of the five biggest multiracial groups, the large proportion of white and Asian biracial adults who see their racial background as an advantage stands out. About six-in-ten in this group (58%) say their racial background has been an advantage to them in life. In the other four groups, only about one-in-four or fewer say their racial heritage has been as helpful.

This contrast further sharpens when white and Asian biracial Americans are compared with single-race whites and Asians. According to the survey, white and Asian biracial Americans are even more likely than single-race whites (58% vs. 32%, respectively) or Asians (15%) to say their racial background has been an advantage.

Social Connections

Mixed-race adults often straddle two or more worlds, and their experiences and relationships reflect that.

Overall, biracial adults who are both white and black are three times as likely to say they have a lot in common with people who are black than they do with whites (58% vs. 19%). They also feel more accepted by blacks than by whites (58% vs. 25% say they are accepted "very well") and report having far more contact with their black relatives: 69% say they've had a lot of contact with family members who are black over the course of their lives, while just 21% report similar levels of contact with their white relatives. About four-in-ten (41%) say they have had no contact with family members who are white.

By contrast, biracial adults who are white and Asian say they have more in common with whites than they do with Asians (60% vs. 33%) and are more likely to say they feel accepted by whites than by Asians (62% vs. 47% say they are accepted "very well"). More also say they have had a lot of contact with family members who are white than say the same about Asian members of their family (61% vs. 42%).

For biracial adults who are white or black and American Indian, their connections with the white or black community are often stronger than the ones they feel toward Native Americans; about one-in-four or fewer in each group say they have a lot in common with American Indians.

Other survey findings suggest these differences may slow the development of a multiracial group identity similar to the sense of linked fate and shared experience that unites many blacks and other minority groups. Overall, the Pew Research survey finds that few multiracial adults think they have much in common with other mixed-race Americans-even those who share their racial background.

Marriage and Friendships

As a group, mixed-race adults are much more likely than all married adults to have a spouse or partner who is also multiracial, the survey finds. Among all mixed-race adults who are married or living with a partner, about one-in-eight (12%) say their spouse or partner is two or more races. By comparison, only 2% of adults among the general public who are married or living with a partner say the same.

The survey also finds that multiracial adults with a white background are significantly less likely than single-race whites to have a white partner (67% vs. 92%). Multiracial adults with a black background are also less likely than single-race blacks to have a spouse or partner who is black only (54% vs. 86%).

A similar pattern emerges when the focus turns to the friendships formed by multiracial Americans. Mixed-race adults are more likely than the general public to have friends who are multiracial. According to the survey, eight-in-ten multiracial adults say at least some of their friends are mixed-race, compared with 62% for all adults.

The Politics of Multiracial Americans

Overall, the politics of multiracial Americans resemble the country as a whole. About six-in-ten (57%) multiracial adults identify with or lean toward the Democratic Party, while 37% support or lean toward the Republican Party, and 6% favor neither major party. Among the general public, about half (53%) tend to favor Democrats, while 41% support or lean toward the GOP.

But just as the country is a mix of individuals and groups with different party preferences and ideological leanings, multiracial Americans are likewise politically diverse.

Multiracial Americans with a black background favor the Democratic Party, similar to the party preferences of single-race blacks. For example, about nine-in-ten biracial black and American Indian adults (89%) identify or lean toward the Democratic Party, as do 92% of all single-race blacks. By contrast, single-race whites favor the Republican Party over the Democrats by a ratio of 55% to 41%.

White and Asian biracial adults also tend to favor the Democratic Party over the GOP (60% vs. 38%), roughly similar to the 68% to 26% advantage held by Democrats among single-race Asians.

The political leanings of biracial white and American Indians-the country's largest multiracial group-closely resemble those of single-race whites. Among this group, the Republican Party holds a 53% to 42% advantage over the Democrats, making it the only major mixed-race group that tilts toward the GOP. (The sample of single-race Native Americans was too small to analyze.)

The remainder of this report examines in greater detail the attitudes, experiences and demographics of multiracial Americans. Chapter 1 traces the history of efforts by the U.S. Census Bureau to measure race and reports on the latest government estimates of the size of the multiracial population. Chapter 2 describes how the Pew Research Center used a different method than the Census Bureau to measure racial background and how that method produces a significantly larger estimate of the country's multiracial population. Chapter 3 describes how multiracial adults see their own racial identity and how they believe others see their racial background. Chapter 4 focuses on how the racial backgrounds of the country's largest multiracial groups shape their attitudes and experiences in different ways, including the likelihood they have encountered racial discrimination. Chapter 5 describes the social connections of multiracial Americans, including how much mixed-race adults say they have in common with other races and how accepted they feel by different racial groups. Chapter 6 examines the party preferences and political ideology of multiracial adults as well as their views on abortion, aid to the poor, marijuana legalization and other issues. Chapter 7 reports on the elements of Hispanic identity and the percentage of Hispanics who consider their Hispanic background to be, at least in part, their race. It also explores an expanded definition of multiracial adults that includes Hispanics who are one race but say they consider their Hispanic background to be part of their racial background.

Other Key Findings

In their ideological preferences, white and American Indian biracial adults are the only group where political conservatives outnumber liberals (37% to 18%), virtually identical to the ideological preferences of single-race whites. Biracial Americans who are white and Asian or white and black tilt toward the political left.

Few multiracial adults (9%) say a relative or member of their extended family has treated them badly because they are mixed race. But these experiences vary considerably by multiracial group. For example, white and black biracial adults are much more likely than adults with a biracial white and American Indian background to say they have been treated badly by a family member (21% vs. 4%).

Today's mixed-race parents are more likely to have talked to their own children about being multiracial. Fully 46% of multiracial parents say they talked to their adult children when they were growing up about having a mixed-race background. By contrast, about a third (32%) say their parents had similar conversations with them.

One-in-four mixed-race adults say people are often or sometimes confused by their racial background. And one-in-five (19%) say that they have felt like they were a go-between or "bridge" between different racial groups.

For multiracial adults, as for the general public, race is not the most important element of their personal identity. Some 26% of multiracial adults say their racial background is "essential" to their identity (as do 28% of all adults). Both multiracial adults and the general public are much more likely to point to gender (50% for multiracial adults, 51% for the general public) or religion (39% for both groups) as essential parts of their identity.

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Multiracial Americans are at the cutting edge of social and demographic change in the U.S.-young, proud, tolerant and growing at a rate three times as fast as the population as a whole.

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Filipino American Primary Source Documents

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Filipino American Primary Source Documents

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DocsTeach is a product of the National Archives education division. Our mission is to engage, educate, and inspire all learners to discover and explore the records of the American people preserved by the National Archives.

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DocsTeach is a product of the National Archives education division. Our mission is to engage, educate, and inspire all learners to discover and explore the records of the American people preserved by the National Archives. The National Archives and Records Administration is the nation's record keeper.