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It is often thought that the ancient Egyptian society thought only of death, but this is not true. For them, the afterlife was as concrete as the life before it, so they cared about both equally. This led them to several discoveries in the health field.

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Slab stela of Old Kingdom princess Nefertiabet (dated 2590–2565 BC) from her tomb at Giza, painting on limestone, now in the Louvre

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Ancient Egyptian mathematics was the mathematics used in Ancient Egypt from the old kingdom of Egypt. they used a numeral system to solve mathematical problems including fractions.

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In the egyptian Rhind Papyrus, dated 1650 BC, a scribe named Amosis details the solution of 85 problems in arithmetic, fractions, calculus of areas, volumes, progressions, proportional partitions, rule of simple threes, linear equations, basic trigonometry, and geometry.
The Moscow Papyrus is an Egyptian papyrus in the form of a narrow strip 5.5m long and 8cm wide, with 25 mathematical problems written in hieratic writing. It is dated 1700 BC

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The most ancients writing numerical system known are from the Egyptian and Babylonians from 3500 BCE. the egyptians used a grouping system was always given in base 10. The number 1 was depicted by a simple stroke, the number 2 was represented by two strokes, etc. The numbers 10, 100, 1000, 10,000 and 100,000 had their own hieroglyphs. Number 10 is a hobble for cattle, number 100 is represented by a coiled rope, the number 1000 is represented by a lotus flower, the number 10,000 is represented by a finger, the number 100,000 is represented by a frog, and a million was represented by a god with his hands raised in adoration

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The egyptian algebra problems appear in the rhind and moscow mathematic papyrus, both considered  the best known examples of ancient Egyptian mathematics. Aha problems try to solve unknown quantities (known as aha)  To solve aha problems you need to do a technique called "method of false position" that consist in assume a valor to x, and solve the equation, depeding on the result you will change the number for more or for less.

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The ancient Egyptians had laid out tables of a great number of powers of two, rather than recalculating them each time. The decomposition of a number thus consists of finding the powers of two which make it up. The Egyptians knew empirically that a given power of two would only appear once in a number. For the decomposition, they proceeded methodically; they would initially find the largest power of two less than or equal to the number in question, subtract it out and repeat until nothing remained. (The Egyptians did not make use of the number zero in mathematics.

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Excerpt from Rhind's Papyrus dealing with geometric problems with triangles

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The geometry appear in Rhind and Moscow papyrus too and was divisible in two:
Area: Triangles(A=1/2bh), retangles(A=bh) and circles(A=1/4(256/81)d²)
Volume: Cylindral granaries(V=256/81 r² h), rectangular granaries(v= wlh) and truncated pyramid(V=1/3(a² + ab + b²)h

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Their work was based upon agriculture and predicting the seasons.

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The history of Egyptian astronomy begins in the depths of prehistory and the discovery of stone circles at Nabta Playa, dating from the 5th Millennium BC, show that the Egyptians had already developed a calendar. The stone circle shows that they were accomplished at marking time and, it can be assumed, predicting the coming of the floods. They also developed a system of constellations that appear to be of native origin and independent from the work of the Greeks and the Mesopotamians.

Of course, when looking at history, ancient techniques do not begin and end at certain points and there is always a degree of overlap. Whilst Egyptian civilization declined, it became absorbed by the Greek and Roman cultures and the city of Alexandria became one of the most important centers of astronomy, the birthplace of the great Ptolemy. As with many ancient cultures, the Egyptian astronomy began with recording the time of year for agricultural periods, and may well have served a navigational purpose, a common practice in the desert. These observations became imbued with religious significance and became incorporated into their architecture.

There is little doubt that the great Egyptian buildings were based upon the stars; the Great Pyramid is aligned with the cardinal points, and many temples are aligned along the axis of the rising midwinter sun, signifying to Egyptians that they should begin to prepare for planting in the spring. The Great Pyramid of Giza is filled with astronomical significance, based largely upon religious beliefs but with its roots in astrological phenomena. Within the Great Pyramids are southern facing airshafts that point to the star Sirius, with its significance in marking the start of the Egyptian year, and to Orion, associated with death and rebirth, another recurring theme in Egyptian mythology. In addition, the north-facing air shafts point to the circumpolar stars, called ‘The Immortals’ by Egyptians, because they never set.

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The Egyptians were fully aware that the year was about 365 days, and divided it into 12 months of 30 days, with five ceremonial, intercalary days, called the Epagomenal days, added. This calendar lost one day every four years, and they made little attempt to correct this. Instead, they developed another calendar based around the star Sirius, which also consisted of 365 days but which included the extra quarter day. Strangely, they also kept a 360 day ceremonial calendar, running concurrently with the others, and these calendars coincided every 1461 years, which was seen as a time of great celebration and the start of a new age.

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There was no clear line separating magic and religion from medicine.

Physicians were divided into 3 classes:

1. The priests of the goddess Sekhmet, accused of being the main cause of all evil. The role of these men, who maintained a good relationship with the goddess, was to take advantage of this power of influence to induce her not to punish a certain person with illnesses.

2.  The magicians, who had a slightly different view of the matter. For them, the disease was not a simple punishment from the goddess, but the influence of a band of evil spirits - which, of course, they were trying to exorcise.

3. The sunus, a word equivalent to “doctors”, people who received medical instruction in the so-called Per Ankh, which means House of Life. It was the medical school at the time, where you could learn all the known principles about how the human organism works. These sunus, in turn, worked closely with the uts, as the medical assistants were called - the first nurses that are known.

These rituals and spells used to treat illnesses have always had a practical scientific and medicinal basis, and that is why many of them are still used today. Check out some of them:

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Representations of Surgical Instruments Used in Ancient Egypt 

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In fact, mummification is a set of chemical and physical procedures aimed at preserving bodies. These processes required the surgical removal of some internal organs that were separated from each other. This allowed us to know a lot about human anatomy.
When preparing the dead, they could analyze the parts of the body and link them to the illnesses the person had.
Today we can identify signs of surgery on the bodies of mummies, such as perforations in the skull, dental implants and signs of tumor removal. Surgical instruments discovered at archaeological sites include knives, hooks, drills, scales, spoons, saws and containers for burning incense.

Another knowledge that came along with the mummification process was that of the circulatory system. The body of Ramses II (1279 to 1212 BC) had its veins and arteries removed, mummified and replaced. The habit of taking a patient's pulse as a way of assessing his health is described in the 1550 BC Ebers papyrus: "Heart beats should be measured in the pulse or throat," said the ancient document, certainly one of the first medical books of the world.

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The Egyptians tried to ensure that the bodies of the dead went into the afterlife as completely as possible. If any member of the body was missing or seriously injured, it was replaced with simple pieces made of straw, fiber, mud, and butter.
However, in 2007, while studying fake parts on the bodies of mummies, Egyptologist Jacky Finch, from the University of Manchester (England), found on a woman's body fake fingers made with materials different from the simple ornaments already found. For this reason and the wear of the piece, it was concluded that it was the oldest prosthesis ever found in the world, with more than 2,600 years. After this discovery, many other prostheses were found in the bodies of Egyptian mummies, generally parts that replaced the feet or their fingers.

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The use of anesthetics was a common practice among physicians at the time. The book História da Antiguidade Oriental, by the professor at UFRJ, Mário Curtis, mentions a numbing process of parts of the body carried out with a mixture of marble powder and vinegar and highlights the anesthetics based on ingested opiates. These predecessors of morphine only returned to be part of surgical procedures about three centuries ago, in Europe. Which shows that Egyptian civilization already used resources and technologies far ahead of its time

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When pregnancy was suspected, urine tests were performed. The woman urinated in a container in which there was a variety of barley. If she germinated, the pregnancy was confirmed. Scientists speculate that this ancient test worked so well because high levels of estrogen in the woman's urine could have promoted seed growth.

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A short summary of their story in a timeline

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A short summary of their story in a timeline

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Come and learn a little about this history and the context in which these technologies emerged.

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The government of Ancient Egypt was theocratic and monarchist, the king ruled, passed laws and policies based on "the gods choice". And after the Middle Kingdom the pharaoh literally becomes a personification of a god.

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Statues of (from left to right) gods Anubis, Horus and Osiris

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The religion was one of the principals pillars from this society.
Ancient Egyptian religion was polytheistic and centered on relationships with the deities they believed controlled the world, these deified forces included the elements, animal characteristics, or abstract forces. The Egyptians believed in the afterlife and also believed that humans possessed a vital force called "ka", which was maintained with food and water. even after death people received food offerings, as they believed that the spiritual essence would consume.

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The society of ancient Egypt was strictly divided into a hierarchy with the king at the top and then his vizier, the members of his court, priests and scribes, regional governors (eventually called 'nomarchs'), the generals of the military (after the period of the New Kingdom, c. 1570- c. 1069 BCE), artists and craftspeople, government overseers of worksites (supervisors), the peasant farmers, and slaves (that usually worked to pay your defeat in some war).

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When it came to architecture, they built the giants and beautiful structures that are found all over Egypt. Using your knowledge of geometric shapes like as triangles, squares and quadrilaterals. They were able to build amazing monuments which stood the test of time like the Giza pyramids complex, the entire city of Karnak, plus a huge number of well-designed and crafted monuments across Egypt which acted as an inspiration for the Greek civilization to create their own stunning buildings.

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Stellar Clock, used to plot stellar time.

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Egyptian astronomers used sundials to tell the time, dividing the days into 24 hours, although the length of these hours was not fixed, ensuring that day and night both consisted of twelve hours, whatever the time of year. At night, they divided the night sky into 36 groups of stars, called Decans, which could be used to tell the time.

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The Influence of the Egyptian Astronomers

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The Influence of the Egyptian Astronomers

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The Egyptians built their monuments pointing in the cardinal directions and used them to reflect important celestial occurrences revealing the time of year. They also developed a sophisticated calendar, albeit with a lot of complexity and the need to run three separate calendars.This may seem strange to us, but the idea of multiple calendars is a solution that the Mayans arrived at independently. In fact, we use multiple calendars, with the Islamic world maintaining a lunar calendar rather than the solar calendar of the Western world, and Orthodox Christian Churches use the Julian calendar to decide ceremonial dates.

Of course, the astronomy and architecture of the Egyptians has attracted many wild theories about how the Egyptians incorporated the weight and the circumference of the Earth into the Great Pyramid, or that they are the descendents of fugitives from Atlantis. These are conjectural and cannot be taken seriously without a little proof. Despite this, we can say that Egyptian astronomy was extremely sophisticated and many of their ideas became the foundation of our own stargazing and cosmology.

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Ancient Egyptian tombs discovered that date even before the pyramids

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The first royal tombs, called mastabas, were built at Abydos during the first and second dynasties. They were marked with a stele inscribed with the kings' names. The burial chambers were cut into the rock, lined with sun-baked bricks and faced with wooden boards that have long since disappeared. Beside the chambers were rooms containing jars, small objects, and offerings of food and drink. The tombs were surrounded by a large number of graves of women and dwarves. These people may have been servants of the kings who were sacrificed to serve them in their afterlife.

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The Egyptians were not ready for the mighty composite bows of the Hyksos

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Egypt at the height of its empire dominated much of the Middle East and North Africa, but this was done with technology "borrowed" from another people.
Until the Hyksos invasion, which gave rise to the 2nd Intermediate Period (1,700 BC - 1,550BC), the Egyptians only used simple weapons such as stone maces, wooden-tipped spears, axes and bows and arrows to fight the neighboring Nubian and Libyan peoples.
But it was with these people, while under their rule, that the Egyptians learned advanced fortification techniques and improved many weapons such as spears, axes, bows and introduced their iconic war chariots.
You can see more about Hyksos dominance in our timeline.

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Egyptian soldiers in formation with their spears and shields

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Spears with bronze tips and stronger shields

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Spears with bronze tips and stronger shields

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The shield and spear were commonly used together, with one you could defend and with the other you could attack from a safer distance.
But before the Hyksos, the Egyptians used simple wooden spears and shields. During the 2nd Intermediate Period they learned how to make hollow bronze spikes to fit the spear hilt and shields reinforced with animal hide.

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You can see that in earlier periods, when their enemies were unarmored, Egyptian axes were semicircular or crescent-shaped, designed to make deep cuts into unprotected flesh.
Already during its rise in the New Empire, axes gained narrower and straighter blades, ideal for piercing enemies' armor.

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This iconic curved-blade Egyptian sword emerged in the New Kingdom. Served as an ax or short sword, to deliver the finishing blows to an enemy in melee combat.

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Pharaohs often went into battle using a bow in their chariot. In the image, Tutankhamun facing the Nubians

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Before the Hyksos invasion, the Egyptians used a simple bow and an arrow made from a single piece of wood. But the Syrians showed them the power and precision of the composite bow, a complex and expensive weapon made of layers of wood, animal horn and sinew that was "curved" to generate incredible strength.
Composite bows were so expensive and difficult to make that conquering Egyptian armies often asked for bows instead of gold as tribute.

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Ramses II at the Battle of Kadesh against the Hittites

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When talking about Egyptian weapons, we cannot leave aside their powerful and famous war chariots, which were yet another military technology coming from the Hyksos.
Now with all these weapons and military techniques Egypt was ready to free itself from Hyksos rule and dominate other lands in the New Empire.

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Egyptian pharaoh from the novel Os Dez Mandamentos

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After seeing all this technology used by these people for millennia, we cannot deny that they were really brilliant at what they did. But the media tends to associate this brilliance with another ethnic group that was not their own. It's important to remember that the Egyptians are an African people too.
If I ask you now to think of an Egyptian movie character, the chance that the actor playing him is a white person is quite high, this is a result of a practice called whitewashing.
Let's understand this a little better and see some examples:

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Characters from The Last Airbender, Caminho das índias and Doctor Strange

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Commonly associated with the film industry, whitewashing is when a non-white historical or fictional character has his ethnicity exchanged for that of a white person. In the image above we can see some famous cases accused of this racist practice.
And we can see signs of this practice for a long time when Egyptian characters are portrayed on screens. Let's look at two more famous examples:

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As already presented in our timeline, Cleopatra was the last pharaoh of Egypt, belonging to the Ptolemaic dynasty, which had a mixed descent of Greeks, Egyptians and other African peoples.
According to researchers from the Austrian Archaeological Institute, analyzes of the bones of a sister of Cleopatra, Princess Arsinoe, indicated in 2009 that the Egyptian queen was, in part, African.
Knowing this, the chances of the Queen having been a pure white woman with blue eyes, as in the 1963 movie, are slim.

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Reconstruction of Cleopatra's Face by British Archaeologist and Egyptologist Sally Ann Ashton

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The film was heavily criticized at the time of its release for having the proposal to represent elements and characters from Egyptian mythology (in addition to taking place in ancient Egypt), but having almost no black or African actors in its main cast.
Chadwick Boseman, one of the few black actors on the cast (and who has only a few minutes on screen) said in an interview about the film: "People don't make $140 million movies starring black or brown-skinned people."

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https://www.history.com/news/ancient-egyptian-weapons

https://www.infoescola.com/historia/hicsos/

https://www.sciencephoto.fr/image/12653073-Ramses-II-War-Chariot-Battle-of-Kadesh

https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1123/social-structure-in-ancient-egypt/

https://en-academic.com/dic.nsf/enwiki/1909903

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rhind-papyrus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Egypt

https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/ancient-egypt

https://www.penn.museum/sites/egypt/writing.shtml

https://super.abril.com.br/especiais/a-incrivel-ciencia-do-egito-antigo/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_geometry

https://www.britannica.com/art/Egyptian-architecture#ref345247

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_mathematics

https://www.worldhistory.org/Egyptian_Government/#:~:text=The%20government%20of%20ancient%20Egypt,laws%20passed%20and%20policies%20approved

https://www.tripsinegypt.com/ancient-egyptian-inventions/

https://explorable.com/egyptian-astronomy

https://www.fao.org/country-showcase/item-detail/en/c/1287824/#:~:text=Egyptians%20are%20credited%20as%20being,agriculture%20on%20a%20large%20scale.&text=Their%20farming%20practices%20allowed%20them,such%20as%20flax%20and%20papyrus.

https://www.historymuseum.ca/cmc/exhibitions/civil/egypt/egcl02e.html#:~:text=Rabbits%2C%20deer%2C%20gazelles%2C%20bulls,the%20marshes%20along%20the%20Nile.

https://www.historymuseum.ca/cmc/exhibitions/civil/egypt/egypte.html#menu

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The oldest manuscript ever found, about 4,500 years old

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Although paper was invented in the first century in China, it was the Egyptians who created papyrus, the forerunner of modern paper (even the word "paper" comes from "papyrus"). It was made from the plant in the river of the same name. Papyrus was a very strong and durable paper-like material used in Egypt for over 3,000 years.
The oldest manuscript ever found was an Egyptian papyrus detailing the construction of the pyramid at Giza, which was written in approximately 2,500 BC.

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Although hieroglyphs were used by other ancient civilizations, such as some Native American groups such as the Mayans and Aztecs, the Egyptians used them more.
The hieroglyphs were written on papyrus, carved in stone in the tomb and temple walls. Altogether, there are more than 700 hieroglyphics. They were dominated only by people who had power over the population, such as priests, royalty and scribes. Only these had the knowledge to read and write this sacred writing.
Hieroglyphic writing originated just before 3100 BC, at the beginning of the pharaonic civilization. The last hieroglyphic inscription in Egypt was written in the 5th century AD, some 3,500 years later.

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Years after the hieroglyphics they created sorts of cursive hieroglyphics, as they were easier and faster ways for scribes to write with their brushes. Some of these forms of writing are hieratic, demotic and Coptic.

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Egyptians carrying out activities with cattle

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The cultivation practices of the Egyptians

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The cultivation practices of the Egyptians

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The civilization of ancient Egypt was indebted to the Nile River and its dependable seasonal flooding. The river's predictability and fertile soil allowed the Egyptians to build an empire on the basis of great agricultural wealth. Egyptians are credited as being one of the first groups of people to practice agriculture on a large scale.

Their farming practices allowed them to grow staple food crops, especially grains such as wheat and barley, and industrial crops, such as flax and papyrus. They excelled in horticulture. Orchards and gardens were developed in addition to field planting in the floodplains. This horticulture generally took place further from the floodplain of the Nile, and as a result, they required much more work. The perennial irrigation required by gardens forced growers to manually carry water from either a well or the Nile to water their garden crops. Additionally, while the Nile brought silt which naturally fertilized the valley, gardens had to be fertilized by pigeon manure.

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Livestock was important to the Egyptian economy, supplying meat, milk, hides, and dung for cooking fuel. Draft animals such as oxen increased agricultural productivity. Herdsmen and shepherds lived a semi-nomadic life, pasturing their animals in the marshes of the Nile

The principal food crops, barley and emmer, were used to make beer and bread, the main staples of the Egyptian diet. Grains were harvested and stored in granaries until ready to be processed. The quantities harvested each season far exceeded the needs of the country, so much was exported to neighbouring countries, providing a rich source of income for the Egyptian treasury.

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Pharaohs and nobles participated in hunting, fishing and fowling expeditions, a means of recreation that had ritualistic and religious significance. Hunting scenes often depicted on temple walls and tombs reinforce the prowess of kings and nobles. Rabbits, deer, gazelles, bulls, oryx, antelopes, hippopotamuses, elephants and lions were among the wild animals hunted for their meat and skins.

Fishing allowed the working class to add variety to its diet. The poor substituted fish for meat, which they could not afford. The Nile, the marshes of the delta and the Mediterranean Sea offered them a rich variety of species. Fishing methods included the use of a hook and line, harpoons, traps and nets. Birds, including geese and ducks, were also hunted in the marshes and papyrus thickets along the Nile. Small fishing boats (skiffs) were made from papyrus reeds, which are naturally filled with air pockets, making them particularly buoyant. Skiffs were also used for hunting game in the Nile marshes.

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Over a long period of time, the Egyptians built numerous temples along the Nile. Two of the most famous, at Karnak and Luxor. These impressive structures, with their huge columned halls and pylon gateways, were built to honour the dead and venerate local and national gods.
We also have the temples of Abu Simbel, which were built in honor of the pharaoh and his queen.

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Many of the things we use today, believe it or not, came from the ancient Egyptians. There were also technologies developed by them that applied only to the context in which they lived. If you are curious to know some of these technologies, just go ahead with us.

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This video, divided into two parts, in addition to the inventions already presented, brings some others that we haven't seen here in this padlet, from makeup to a police system. Are you curious? Just click on the links below:

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Top 10 Ancient Egyptian Inventions part 1

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Top 10 Ancient Egyptian Inventions Part 2

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Museum with collections of Pharaoh Tutankhamun

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Museum with collections of Pharaoh Tutankhamun

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After what we saw in our timeline do you still want to know more about the boy pharaoh known for his tomb found almost intact? Here you can take a virtual tour of the museum with the collections of Pharaoh Tutankhamun in Giza.

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As seen in our timeline, the temples at Abu Simbel were built at the behest of Pharaoh Ramses II to honor him and his wife, Queen Nefertari. Here you can virtually visit this temple in the city of Aswan