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关于我的目前发展的作品，还需要对我的作品

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关于我的目前发展的作品，还需要对我的作品表的方向做一定的限定和梳理的规划
因为我在同一时间想要输出东西有些杂乱
一方面我想要表现死亡不是结束，还会有新的轮回，这是针对我们每个人个人而言
另一方面我想表现在只要你和亲人/朋友有记忆精神上的连结，记住曾经一起的创造的共同回忆，那就不是真的死亡。
目前的画面和我的故事呈现还可以改善的是如何将这两个点进行很好的衔接去表现，
那么我这个故事需要去解释表现我们因为我们仍然牵挂死者，所以就算他短暂的离开了，对于死亡的人来说这不是属于他结束，他还有新的开始，也不是属于我们在面对亲人死去这一方的结束，我们一直有精神的连结。
我思考的点在于我如果假定于人死亡有轮回的这个前提概念，我再需要去做铺垫解释为什么吗，但是我上学期已经在做的事尝试建立一个死后世界的进入下一世的世界观，所以我很困扰这一本书里我如何去表现这个概念
还是我就着重于只是借由死者可以轮回，他记得每一次死亡时候的情景的这个设定，去着重表现站在亲人角度的情感精神部分。
这是我下一步想要梳理清楚的问题。

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With regard to my currently developing work, I still need to define and sort out the direction of my worksheet
Because I'm trying to output a bit of a jumble of things at the same time
On the one hand I want to show that death is not the end, that there is a new cycle, that it is personal for each of us
On the other hand I want to show that as long as you have a spiritual connection with your loved ones/friends, remembering the shared memories that you created together, it's not really death.
What can be improved in the current picture and in the presentation of my story is how to connect these two points in a good way.
So my story needs to explain that we are still attached to the deceased, so even if he or she is gone for a short time, it is not the end for the person who has died, there is a new beginning for him or her, and it is not the end for us in the face of the death of a loved one, we are always spiritually connected.
The point I'm thinking about is that if I assume the premise that there is a reincarnation of death, do I need to explain why, but what I've been doing last semester is trying to build a worldview of the world after death into the next life, so I'm struggling with how I'm going to represent this concept in this book
Or do I just focus on the emotional and spiritual part of being in the shoes of a loved one by using the idea that the deceased can reincarnate and that he remembers each death.
That's the next thing I want to sort out.

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This is one of the most visual criteria for quantifying human death. Anatomy is for understanding the causes of death and can visually demonstrate death in a physical form. And as our human bodies are inherently and infinitely beautiful in their construction, this anatomy-related information can make me want to explore the aesthetic meaning of death.

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她是一名裸体女性，呈睡眠状态，静静卧于丝绒垫之上，外面罩着一副由玫瑰木与威尼斯玻璃制成的透明箱。她身上的每一处细节都极富吸引力--瀑布般的长发、闪亮的玻璃眼球、姣好的面容、充满光泽的肌肤......

然而，揭开胸口的蜡板，你就会发现她体内已被正确解剖为七部分，各器官清晰可见；尽管看上去没有任何怀孕体征，其子宫内还蜷着一个胎儿。
她的名字是解剖维纳斯
（Anatomical Venus）
又被称为美第奇维纳斯
（Medici Venus）
或可拆卸的维纳斯
（Demountable Venus）
曾被视为理想的女性人体 以及人体解剖学的完美范例 关于她的故事 要从文艺复兴时期讲起 解剖与解剖模型
从制作木乃伊开始，人类一直对死亡、人体、解剖有着或宗教意义的、或艺术性的、或科学性的探索与解释。然而，由于受到观念与教会禁令的束缚，直至文艺复兴时期，艺术家、自然哲学家，以及大众才第一次对人体解剖产生了浓厚的兴趣；或者说，第一次较大规模地表现出了对人体解剖的兴趣。

为了解人体内部结构，从而更加写实地描绘人物，艺术家们开始在尽可能不被教会发现的情况下解剖尸体。据传，达·芬奇曾解剖过一百多具尸体，还计划与解剖学教授托雷发布一版约120卷的书籍，以展示其解剖研究成果，但因后者过早去世而落空。

▲达·芬奇的人体解剖素描笔记▲

比起达·芬奇，安德烈·维萨里的名气要小很多，而他才是对解剖学产生了革命性影响的人。由于父辈均为宫廷御医，维萨里自幼便阅读了大量医学书籍，并立志成为一名医生。

求学巴黎与任教帕多瓦大学期间，他偷偷地解剖了大量尸体，逐渐发现当时被世人坚信的解剖学理论--古罗马时期的解剖学家盖伦通过解剖动物总结而成的人体解剖学理论存在很多错误。1543年，维萨里发表了《人体构造》，以大量实践资料对人体结构进行了相对精准的描述。

▲《人体构造》插图与封面▲

值得一提的是，哥白尼的《天体运行论》也发表于同年。这两本不同领域的颠覆性著作影响深远，而两位伟人的晚年生活却令人唏嘘。

随着文艺复兴的发展，自16世纪起，帕多瓦、帕维亚、博洛尼亚等城市逐渐出现了"解剖剧院"，全年展出解剖标本，被视为早期的解剖学博物馆--目前仍能到访的历史最悠久的一家建于1594年，位于帕多瓦大学。

因尸体在春季腐烂速度较慢，且正逢假期，部分剧院（多位于博洛尼亚）还会在四旬斋前狂欢节（四旬斋即当时的基督教徒在复活节前进行的为期40天的封斋及忏悔）期间展出刚剖开的真实人体，尸源一般为被判刑的囚犯。

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解剖维纳斯｜美丽、色情、死亡的完美融合

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解剖维纳斯｜美丽、色情、死亡的完美融合-旅游频道-手机搜狐

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她是一名裸体女性，呈睡眠状态，静静卧于丝绒垫之上，外面罩着一副由玫瑰木与威尼斯玻璃制成的透明箱。她身上的每一处细节都极富吸引力--瀑布般的长发、闪亮的玻璃眼球、姣好的面容、充满光泽的肌肤...... 然而，揭开胸口的蜡板，你就会发现她体内已被正确解剖为七部分，各器官清晰可见；尽管看上去没有任何怀孕体征，其子宫内还蜷着一个胎儿。 她的名字是解剖维纳斯 （Anatomical Venus） ...

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The concept I am trying to represent is that there are different forms of funerals around the world, each different way of remembering a loved one who has died, some sombre and sad others in joyful celebrations and many more ways that seem unthinkable to us, but all of these forms are meant to alleviate the sense of loss and grief that people feel. The reason behind those joyful celebrations is not that they do not grieve and honour the dead, but that they always remember them in their memories and cherish the lives and memories they created while they were together, rather than dwelling on the fact that they are gone forever.
There are three types of death, the first is physical death, the second social identity death, and the third is when no one will remember you, when you truly lose all trace of yourself in the world, when you truly die.
And these ways of remembrance, and the beautiful symbolism behind the funeral practices of wishing a loved one a smooth transition to life, are all about people's love and connection to the spiritual memory of the deceased. It is we who remember that we said goodbye, albeit briefly. But we wish our departed loved ones a wonderful afterlife and cherish the wonderful memories we had created together, while always remembering them well in our memories and in our hearts. So we can learn to accept death with openness and face it, and as long as we remember them they will always be with us in our spiritual memory link. And although we will all eventually become skeletons, death is also a new life, and we will begin a new phase in a different way.

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Summary of Damien Hirst

One of the late-20 th century's greatest provocateurs and a polarizing figure in recent art history, Damien Hirst was the art superstar of the 1990s. As a young and virtually unknown artist, Hirst climbed far and fast, thanks to Charles Saatchi, an advertising tycoon who saw promise in Hirst's rotting animal corpses, and gave him a virtually unlimited budget to continue. His shark suspended in a tank of formaldehyde, entitled The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living, wowed and repulsed audiences in 1991. In 1995 (the same year that he won the coveted Turner Prize) Hirst's installation of a rotting bull and cow was banned from New York by public health officials who feared "vomiting among the visitors." Hirst, the Sid Vicious of the art world (the Sex Pistols were his favorite band), is the logical outcome of a process of ultra-commodification and celebrity that began with Andy Warhol.

Accomplishments

From the outset of his career, Hirst devised a fool-proof strategy for grabbing the attention of the public and critics. Rotting corpses appalled and attracted museum visitors, who saw it as a kind of dare. Critics were equally appalled, not so much by the art as by the sky-high prices (often prearranged) paid for it. This kept Hirst at the center of the art world and augmented the value of his work, which continues to command some of the highest prices on the market.

Bloody bodies (martyrs and the death of Christ) and mothers and children (the Madonna and Child) are iconic themes in Western religious painting. Hirst, who was raised Catholic, cites this as an important dimension of his aesthetic sensibility.

Controversial as it is, Hirst's approach is firmly rooted in historical and contemporary sources. In its focus on death, it hearkens back to the memento mori (reminders of mortality) images in European still life. In using biological materials, he joins other contemporary artists of the late-20th century, among them Robert Rauschenberg, with his taxidermied animals, Carolee Schneemann, who covered herself in raw meat, and Joseph Beuys, who constructed Fat Chair and other sculptures made of fat. Where Hirst differs from his historical and contemporary predecessors is in his display of entire corpses as visual spectacles.

Hirst is a great showman. One needn't be an art specialist to appreciate the thrill of seeing a dead shark up close. Not just for art world insiders, these strike a chord with many first-time visitors to museums, introducing them to the challenges of contemporary art in an engaging and immediate way.

Love him or hate him, Hirst was a visionary in anticipating the needs of the contemporary art market. One could argue, as some have, that this in itself is a form of art.

Biography of Damien Hirst

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One of the late-20 th century's greatest provocateurs and a polarizing figure in recent art history, Damien Hirst was the art superstar of the 1990s. As a young and virtually unknown artist, Hirst climbed far and fast, thanks to Charles Saatchi, an advertising tycoon who saw promise in Hirst's rotting animal corpses, and gave him a virtually unlimited budget to continue.

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After further tutorial discussions, I realised that the direction I wanted to take at the moment was moving towards the ideas I wanted to convey. But it's really a very rough and general version, I researched a lot of death funerals and I only conveyed a small amount of why they did it, or an emotional spiritual connection, by introducing them. And it makes the story less of an emotional panel that I wanted to show, and I could have perhaps put myself in the shoes of the family of the deceased and shown more of their emotions, their feelings. Or the purpose of what they were doing in the ceremony, rather than just focusing on the formality of the funeral.
Or discover some examples of stories about what happens at these different funerals, which could be broken down into smaller stories that unfold for each form of funeral, their different stories of the aftermath of the death of their loved ones, but collectively tied together with memories of my soul as it continues to die.
It's nice to know that there's so much more I can dig into and that I can keep going deeper.

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Damien Hirst: Natural History, Britannia Street, London, March 9–July 31, 2022 | Gagosian (no date). Available at: https://gagosian.com/exhibitions/2022/damien-hirst-natural-history/ (Accessed: 22 May 2022).

The wonderfully weird world of Shintaro Kago, manga outsider (2019) Huck Magazine. Available at: https://www.huckmag.com/art-and-culture/manga-artist-interview-shintaro-kago/ (Accessed: 22 May 2022).

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Can You Find Ophelia at the Tate Britain? - Google Art and culture (no date). Available at: https://artsandculture.google.com/story/can-you-find-ophelia-at-the-tate-britain/hgVBStHbo8K7Qg (Accessed: 22 May 2022).

Sachin Pinanas (2021) Anthropology: death rituals around the world, Yoair Blog. Available at: https://www.yoair.com/zh-CN/blog/anthropology-rituals-of-death-around-the-world/ ( Accessed: 22 May 2022).

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Island girl depicts Africa's most traditional corpse-turning festival, where they take out the remains and dance together_BAIKE_BAIBAINEWS-The Paper (no date). Available at: https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_10221935 (Accessed: 22 May 2022).

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人的一生有三次死亡，第一次是脑死亡，身体

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人的一生有三次死亡，第一次是脑死亡，身体死亡。第二次是社会死亡，葬礼上人们已经承认他在社会空间里已经是去世的状态。第三次死亡，是真正的死亡，因为他在精神上已经被人彻底遗忘。
腐烂是一种艺术，死亡不可避免
我又一次死了。就在刚才每当我的身体死亡，我什么都记起来/很苦恼大多数时候总是会看到很多悲伤的面容，我明白他们是是真的不舍和难过
（这是一场基督教的葬礼，亲人来献上鲜花，做最后的道别，大家都在沉重悲痛肃穆的氛围下）
在这场白色的中式葬礼，死亡离别是主题，大家都在痛苦地哭泣，虽然大多数人相信佛教的轮回，但难掩悲痛也无法不伤心。我也要和这具呆了很久的身体告别。
我曾经是艺术家/音乐人/厨师/小偷/家庭主妇…
每一次死亡时，我都可以见证犹如我不同的人生一样，不同的死亡葬礼。
这是一次在西藏的天葬，藏传佛教信奉身体死亡时已经无用，应该回馈给自然，一半给陆地上的动物，一半给水里的生物。
还有一次是在的海葬，这种形式可以追溯到几千年前，世界各地一些地区都有这样的仪式。通常会把遗体或骨灰放置船上，最初会以小船载入水中，挂上风帆，乘着落日余晖驶向海洋深处
有些不一样的是埃及人反而十分重视死后身体的保护，他们认为这是来世重生的重要承载卡和巴的容器。所以他们为此还发明了制作木乃伊的技术，会把我的身体去水后，掏空内脏，撒上秘制的香料牢牢裹上。
更有甚者，在菲律宾当地人们会把我死去后的身体放在悬崖边的棺材旁安置的椅子上供人前来吊唁，流下的液体会涂抹在小孩身上，他们认为这会继承死者良好的品质。而后会把尸体以婴儿形式放入悬崖上的悬棺上安葬。
在印度的各个宗教流派中，他们认为身体和宇宙都是载体和短暂的。我的身体被浸入河水中，再将芝麻或大米放入死者口中，用酥油（澄清的黄油）洒在尸体和柴堆上，然后画三行表示阎摩（死神）、卡拉（时间，火葬神）和死人。在燃烧的火光中亲人们从悲痛否认开始，以平淡接受结束。
但有的地方，像在加纳，一改之前的悲伤氛围，他们会请专门的跳舞团队来抬着我的棺材做各种高难度的跳舞姿势，周围来参加葬礼的人，也要穿着专门定做的各种颜色的漂亮衣服一起舞蹈。甚至我的棺材可以根据我生前的个性，职业，成就或未实现的梦想来定做，这次我是渔夫，所以我的棺材也做成了精美的鱼的造型。
这种欢乐的庆祝，是发自内心的庆祝我顺利的完成了这一世，也是我庆祝我可以展开新的旅程。
在马达加斯加，虽然在其他地方看起来这有些匪夷所思，他们会每隔几年把我的身体翻出来，解开裹尸布，涂抹蜂蜜，一起抱着舞蹈。他们认为身体完全腐烂，死者才能顺利进入下一世。我看到那一世亲人丝毫没有对腐烂的尸体有任何嫌弃，反而在诉说他们的种种心事，在尝试和死去的我分享他们的生活点滴。是和死去的人保持一种连结，甚至我没见过面的家里的小孩子也能以这种方式见面。
在墨西哥的亡灵节，家家户户都摆上了死去的亲人生前有爱吃的食物的组成的Orfenda，他们期盼这一天死去的亲人会和它们一起度过美好的一天，在这欢乐的气氛里并不意味他们不会悲伤和想念逝去的亲人，而是选择庆祝与他们在一起的时间所创造的生活和记忆，而不是沉迷于他们永远离开的事实。每到这个节日，我就感到我并没有真正的死亡，我活在他们的思念和记忆的连结里。
近些年里，人们随着科学发展有了更多的新的形势，像把亲人的骨灰做成烟花，在英国地区最先流行的一种形式。他们记得亲人愿望，记得他们想要在死后最后最后灿烂一把的愿望。
或是把含有百分之十的骨灰变成宝石，做成贴身饰物一直佩戴，以另一种形式永远的陪伴彼此。
太阳会落下但还会升起，死亡也是下一次新生。

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There are three deaths in a person's life, the first being brain death and physical death. The second time is social death, where the funeral has acknowledged his state of being dead in the social space. The third death is the real death, because he has been completely forgotten in spirit.

Decay is an art and death is not inevitable

I am dead once again. Just now whenever my body dies, I remember everything / it's very distressing most of the time always see a lot of sad faces and I understand that they are are really upset and sad
(It was a Christian funeral, with loved ones coming to lay flowers and say their final goodbyes, all in an atmosphere of heavy sadness and solemnity)
In this white Chinese funeral, death and parting was the theme and everyone was crying in pain. Although most people believe in Buddhist reincarnation, it was hard to hide the grief and sadness. I, also, had to say goodbye to this body that had stayed for a long time.
I was an artist/musician/cook/thief/housewife...
Each time I died, I could witness a different death funeral as if it were my different life.
It was a sky burial in Tibet, where Tibetan Buddhism believes that the body is useless when it dies and should be given back to nature, half to animals on land and half to creatures in the water.
Another was a sea burial in, a form that dates back thousands of years and is practised in some regions around the world. Usually the body or ashes are placed on a boat, initially in a small boat loaded into the water, sailed with a sail and sailed out into the depths of the ocean in the setting sun
Somewhat differently, the Egyptians instead placed great importance on the protection of the body after death, which they considered to be an important vessel for carrying the kah and ba for rebirth in the afterlife. That is why they invented the technique of mummification, where the body is de-watered, emptied of its internal organs and wrapped securely in secret spices.
What's more, in the Philippines, my dead body is placed on a chair next to a coffin on the edge of a cliff for people to come and pay their respects, and the liquid is applied to the child, which they believe will carry on the good qualities of the deceased. The body is then buried as a baby on a hanging coffin on the cliff.
In the various religious schools of India, they consider the body and the universe to be both carrier and ephemeral. My body is immersed in river water, sesame or rice is then placed in the mouth of the deceased, ghee (clarified butter) is sprinkled over the body and the woodpile, and three lines are drawn to represent Yama (the god of death), Kala (time, the god of cremation) and the dead. In the light of the burning fire the relatives begin with grief and denial and end with plain acceptance.
But in some places, like in Ghana, for a change from the previous sad atmosphere, they have a special dance team come to carry my coffin and do all sorts of difficult dance poses, and those who come around for the funeral dance together in beautiful clothes of various colours specially made for the occasion. Even my coffin can be customised to suit my personality, profession, achievements or unfulfilled dreams during my lifetime, and in this case I was a fisherman, so my coffin is made in the shape of a beautiful fish.
This joyful celebration is a heartfelt celebration that I have successfully completed this life and that I am celebrating that I can embark on a new journey.
In Madagascar, although it may seem a little outlandish elsewhere, they would turn my body out every few years, unshroud it, smear it with honey and dance together in a hug. They believe that the body decays completely so that the deceased can move smoothly into the next life. I saw that my relatives in that life did not have any dislike for the decaying body at all, but instead were telling all sorts of things that were on their minds and were trying to share bits and pieces of their lives with the dead me. It was a way of maintaining a connection with the dead, and even the little children in the family I had never met were able to meet in this way.
On the Day of the Dead in Mexico, families set up Orfenda, a composition of foods that their dead loved ones had loved during their lifetime, and they look forward to the day when their dead loved ones will spend a good day with them, in a joyful atmosphere that does not mean they do not grieve and miss their dead loved ones, but choose to celebrate the lives and memories created by their time with them, rather than dwelling on the fact that they are forever away. Every time this holiday comes around, I feel that I am not really dead, that I live on in their thoughts and the connection of their memories.
In recent years there have been more new developments in science, such as the making of fireworks from the ashes of loved ones, one of the first popular forms in the UK. They remember the wishes of their loved ones and their desire to have a final splendour after death.
Or the ashes containing ten per cent of the ashes are turned into precious stones and made into a personal ornament to be worn all the time, to be with each other forever in another form.

The sun will set but it will rise again, and death is the next rebirth.

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Diamonds are supposed to be a girl's best friend. Now, they might also be her mother, father or grandmother.

Swiss company Algordanza takes cremated human remains and - under high heat and pressure that mimic conditions deep within the Earth - compresses them into diamonds.

Rinaldo Willy, the company's founder and CEO, says he came up with the idea a decade ago. Since then, his customer base has expanded to 24 countries.

Each year, the remains of between 800 and 900 people enter the facility. About three months later, they exit as diamonds, to be kept in a box or turned into jewelry.

Most of the stones come out blue, Willy says, because the human body contains trace amounts of boron, an element that may be involved in bone formation. Occasionally, though, a diamond pops out white, yellow or close to black - Willy's not sure why. Regardless, he says, "every diamond from each person is slightly different. It's always a unique diamond."

Most of the orders Algordanza receives come from relatives of the recently deceased, though some people make arrangements for themselves to become diamonds once they've died. Willy says about 25 percent of his customers are from Japan.

At between $5,000 and $22,000, the process costs as much as some funerals. The process and machinery involved are about the same as in a lab that makes synthetic diamonds from other carbon materials.

The basic process reduces the ash to carbon, then slides it into a machine that applies intense heat and pressure - for weeks. That's at least several hundred million years faster than diamonds are made in nature.

"The more time you give this process, the bigger the rough diamond starts to grow," Willy says. After the new diamond cools off, the crystal isground and cut to shape, and sometimes engraved with a laser.

It only takes about a pound of ashes to make a single diamond, Willy says. His company has created up to nine diamonds from one individual's ashes.

Algordanza isn't the only company blinging out the afterlife, either. An American company called LifeGem offers the same services, and there are a number of U.S. patents for similar procedures.

Most of the time, Willy says, people take the diamonds to a jeweler to be made into rings or pendants.

"I don't know why, but if the diamond is blue, and the deceased also had blue eyes, I hear almost every time that the diamond had the same color as the eyes of the deceased," says Willy, who personally delivers the diamonds to his Swiss customers.

Each time, he says, the family is happy that their loved one has, in a sense, returned home. And in sparkling form to boot.

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From Ashes To Ashes To Diamonds: A Way To Treasure The Dead

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Diamonds are supposed to be a girl's best friend. Now, they might also be her mother, father or grandmother. Swiss company Algordanza takes cremated human remains and - under high heat and pressure that mimic conditions deep within the Earth - compresses them into diamonds.

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Ashes to ashes, dust to diamonds. That's the afterlife some companies are offering grieving families - a chance to remember the twinkle in a lost loved one's eye by gazing into the glint of a gemstone grown from their cremated remains.

That's right. Science can't yet help you live forever. But it can turn you into a diamond, which - if you listen to the jewelry industry - is basically the same thing. After a year of the entire world watching scientists race against the devastating death toll of COVID-19, we can now thank technology for vaccines for the living and the option to commemorate those we've lost in ever-expanding ways.

Diamonds From Cremation Ashes

Natural diamonds take about a month to form under extreme pressure and temperature in the mantle layer of the Earth's core, about 150 miles underground. Over millions of years, the gems are then pushed by volcanic activity to the surface, where they are mined and coveted by humans as symbols of eternal love. In 1954, General Electric became the first company to successfully replicate those high temperature and pressure conditions to create diamonds from elemental carbon in a laboratory. These man-made stones first became commercially available in the 1980s.

More recently, some companies have begun incorporating carbon from cremated ashes into this process, offering family members the chance to keep a piece of their lost loved one close by, forever. Just picture it: instead of proposing to your sweetheart with your grandmother's heirloom ring, you could cut straight to the source and propose to them with grandma.

A human body is almost entirely composed of four elements: oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon. With three of those being gaseous, cremated remains contain a hefty carbon content that can be purified down to this single elemental building block of society's most storied stone. The carbon is then pressed between two plates at high temperatures in a lab, where it crystalizes around a diamond fragment, much like an oyster generating layers of pearl around a grain of sand.

Eterneva, based in Austin, Texas, is one of several companies offering families the chance to design a custom gem memorial, down to the size, shape and even the color of the stone. A yellow diamond is produced with the addition of a bit of nitrogen, while a colorless rock requires that the lab make sure no nitrogen from the air infiltrates the diamond incubator. A blue gemstone can be lab-generated by incorporating boron into the recipe. And red, green and black hues are achieved through an irradiation process that alters the way the finished stone reflects light. Three weeks of irradiation produces a reddish diamond while a black diamond requires about two months.

Adelle Archer, co-founder and CEO of Eterneva, says she has seen the action of designing and monitoring the creation of a commissioned diamond help family members through the grieving process. They allow customers to virtually track each growth step and will even hand-deliver the final product if its destination is nearby.

"We just obsess over the experience," Archer says. "This is not just a memorialization process. This is something that will help you heal."

This claim sparked the interest of leading grief theorist Candi Cann at Baylor University in nearby Waco, Texas. Cann is currently mining the experiences of Eterneva customers for empirical evidence of these healing benefits. The ongoing study will help researchers understand how creating and wearing a diamond from a relative's ashes influences emotional acceptance of that loss.

In the meantime, anecdotes of grief therapy through jewelry abound. Archer says Eterneva makes most of their diamonds for people experiencing the pain of losing a loved one far too soon, creating solace stones from the ashes of sons, daughters, husbands and wives. One woman who lost her father shortly before he was supposed to walk her down the aisle had diamonds made from his ashes set into her wedding band so that he could still be with her on her special day. Others find that the ease of transporting or inheriting a diamond compared to an urn makes it possible to maintain that connection.

"For a parent, it means the world to them that they have a conversation piece to talk about and share their child," says Archer.

Ingredients Matter

For skeptics, though, it all comes down to the composition of the stone. Death diamonds have generated pushback from some traditional jewelers who claim that the process is a scam since the final gemstone is typically only made up of about 10% of carbon from the cremated ashes. The other 90% is generic stock carbon added into the mix to streamline the process and ensure lower rates of contamination by other minerals.

Barbara McAlister, a graduate student in dance at Texas Women's University, was one who immediately warmed to the idea of growing a diamond as a future way to honor her partner.

"When I first heard about this, I loved that idea of something beautiful coming out of something tragic," McAlister says.

But upon learning that the diamond would only contain 10 percent of her partner's remains, she immediately reconsidered, even though she recognized she does feel attachment to items, like a favorite shirt, that represent her partner without containing parts of him.

"I think in my mind it was a minimum 50 percent of the person," McAlister says. "I would be willing to pay for that. It does feel different that it's such a small percentage."

Because they supplement with generic lab carbon, it takes just half a cup of cremated ashes for Eterneva to produce up to eight different diamonds, with prices starting at about $3,000. Other companies offering similar options include Atlanta-based Saint Diamonds and the Swiss company Lonite.

Some companies can also source the 10 percent of personal carbon from a handful of hair. According to Tim Cupery, a professor of sociology at Fresno State University and an expert in religious studies, this option may appeal to members of the world's major monotheistic religions, which have historically forbid cremation. The Catholic Church, for example, excommunicated members for being cremated until 1963.

Personally, Cupery says, he would probably not choose to pay to turn a loved one into a diamond, because he doesn't tend to form attachments to objects. His wife recently misplaced her engagement ring, which he had inherited from his great-grandmother.

"It didn't really bother me," Cupery says. "It's a symbol of a real thing, but the real thing is gone."

Is It Sustainable?

For conscientious customers, death care decisions may be influenced more by pandemic circumstances or sustainability values than by how much of the diamond is made from their loved one's remains. The popularity of eco-death options like green burials , which avoid the use of caskets and embalming chemicals, are on the rise as people increasingly seek to minimize the carbon footprint of their death.

Tessie Offner, an ecologist living in Florida, recently had to make unexpected funeral arrangements for her father. Because of conditions during the pandemic, cremation ended up being the best option for her family. Offner appreciated that, though the cremation decision felt rushed, the option of later turning those ashes into a diamond didn't have to be.

"I think the hardest thing, when it's not something you've prepared for, is needing to make a decision quickly and feeling pressured to do something now even though it might not be what you wanted to do ultimately," Offner says. "With this option, you could hang on to the cremains until you are able to save enough money for a diamond. There's no pressure."

Offner also valued the portability and durability of a diamond compared to an urn, and the seemingly lower impact on the Earth compared to embalming and burial. According to Archer, growing a diamond uses about the same amount of energy as a household air conditioner unit. But it does still require cremation, which typically involves both energy expenditure and the emission of air pollutants.

Although the calculation of the carbon footprint of compressed carbon commemoration is pending, it seems that glittering and eternal diamonds have now infiltrated the industry of darkness and finality. At a time of exceptional grieving due to COVID-related loss of life, science offers a way to share the sparkle of loved ones lost too soon.

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After You Die, Your Body Could Be Turned Into a Diamond

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Ashes to ashes, dust to diamonds. That's the afterlife some companies are offering grieving families - a chance to remember the twinkle in a lost loved one's eye by gazing into the glint of a gemstone grown from their cremated remains. That's right. Science can't yet help you live forever.

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Scattering Ashes with Fireworks - whats involved?

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It's not an uncommon last wish for someone to want to go out with a bang and have their funeral ashes scattered by fireworks. It also very common for loved ones to want to cherish the happy memories they had with someone and to celebrate the great life that has sadly passed away.

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烟花葬是一个既能寄托生者哀思，又可达成死者心愿的葬礼或许是向逝者致以最后敬意的最好方式。在英国举办的这一文化展开辟了 殡葬主题区，其中不少参展商推出新概念（烟花葬）殡葬形式，使观众大开眼界。 所谓"烟花葬"，是指把死者的骨灰混入烟花中，之后由 大炮 或其他发射器射向夜空，在夜空绽放。生者在璀璨的烟花中，送逝者最后一程。 烟花葬约耗费900英镑（约1800美元）至1800英镑(3600美元)， 尽管"烟花葬"在英国还是新生事物，但美国早有先例。

英国每年约有60万人死亡，70%采用火葬方式。近年来，越来越多人希望以别开生面的方式为 逝者送行，倡导尊重死者遗愿，各种新式 殡葬 法应运而生。近期举办的这一文化展开辟了殡葬主题区，其中不少参展商推出新概念殡葬形式，使观众大开眼界。

弗格斯·贾米森是一家名为"烟花上方有 天堂"的殡葬公司负责人。据他介绍，"烟花葬"几年前就已问世，人们逐渐开始接受这种另类殡葬方式。 [1]

天堂之星烟花公司的工作人员表示，近年来烟花葬越来越受到人们欢迎，因为烟花能够勾起人们对于逝者的美好回忆。

2005年，美国著名作家、"荒诞新闻之父"亨特·汤普森在阿斯彭家中开枪自杀身亡后，家人和朋友在悲痛中完成他的遗愿：用大炮把他的骨灰射向天空。他的骨灰随烟花装入一门 大炮内，从位于科罗拉多州一座47米高的塔上发射，化做漫天璀璨烟花。红色、白色、蓝色和绿色的烟花齐燃，持续了近10分钟，许多名流参加了这场奇特的"烟花葬"。汤普森为自己举行"烟花葬"的想法由来已久。在1978年 英国广播公司(BBC)播出的一部纪录片中，他希望自己去世后用大炮把骨灰射向天空。

2014年， 55岁的英国女子安内特·毛德 (Annette Maunder)因抗癌失败，于9月去世。离世前她要求将自己的骨灰制成烟花，在生命结束之际再"灿烂一把"。安内特在去世前和丈夫盖瑞(Gary)一同想到烟花葬。在她死后，盖瑞便依照其意愿联系了位于英国埃塞克斯郡的天堂之星烟花公司(Heavenly Stars Fireworks)。此后该公司耗时两周 ，用安内特的骨灰制作了250只特制烟花。11月，盛有安内特骨灰的部分烟花将被用在德文郡普利茅斯市的达文波特公园烟花大会上。另一部分烟花则会用在安内特挚友的60大寿庆祝活动中。届时，五光十色的烟花将点亮夜空，持续绽放1到2分钟。安内特生前的亲朋好友都会出席观看。这不仅是向安内特致敬，也是和她做最后的告别。 [2]

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烟花葬是一个既能寄托生者哀思，又可达成死者心愿的葬礼或许是向逝者致以最后敬意的最好方式。在英国举办的这一文化展开辟了 殡葬主题区，其中不少参展商推出新概念（烟花葬）殡葬形式，使观众大开眼界。 所谓"烟花葬"，是指把死者的骨灰混入烟花中，之后由 大炮 或其他发射器射向夜空，在夜空绽放。生者在璀璨的烟花中，送逝者最后一程。 烟花葬约耗费900英镑（约1800美元）至1800英镑(3600美元)，

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How to scatter ashes in a firework or to "go out with a bang" are increasingly common questions that I get asked, either by family members or those sorting out their future funeral plans. These are not silly questions either; there are several options available from self-fired items that can include ashes, to full-blown professional displays for a big send-off.

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通过第一次展开关于死亡这个主题，我是发现

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通过第一次展开关于死亡这个主题，我是发现了我无法面对最亲近之人终有一天会离开我这件事，我无法面对死亡，也并没有解决的办法。
在上学期的调研学习中，我试图通过宗教，或者各种濒死体验的调查，想要以一些神秘学的东西确定可能我们死亡并不是结束，而是一个周期性的完结，也是一个开始，为了下一次新的生命周期。通过建立一个afterlife的以此来宽慰我自己和我的观众。
这学期我回到了死亡本身，死亡本身是不可避免的，我们都将会死亡。我通过调研各种宗教，世界各个地区独有的丧葬方式，和他们对于死亡的理解，似乎终于可以让我去直接面对死亡。很多宗教或者地区的观念和对于尸体的处理方法都是矛盾的（例如埃及认为要保护好身体为了来世重生，而藏传佛教认为死去身体已经无用应该回馈给自然而抵消不好的业障）有的仪式现场充满悲伤，而有的则在尽情庆祝。我通过调研这些各种各样的葬礼仪式或者相关节日后，我明白大家都是会对于亲人朋友的去世会感到真切的悲痛和想念，他们不同的仪式里悲伤或者欢乐庆祝，或者各种我们看起来匪夷所思的方式，都是帮助人们去应对，减缓这种失去和悲伤的感觉。他们总会从否定死亡，悲伤，到接受死亡，怀念。我调研到的那些庆祝死亡，或者欢乐氛围的仪式节日，让我对死亡有了新的认识，他们的把悲伤转化成了选择庆祝与去世的人在一起时所创造的生活和记忆，而不是沉迷于他们永远离开的事实。他们一直在通过这种方式与去世的人有精神的记忆的连结，保留住美好的记忆，并带着无限的祝福

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By first developing the theme of death, I discovered that I could not face the fact that the people closest to me would one day leave me, that I could not face death and that there was no solution.
In my research studies last semester, I tried to establish, through religion, or various investigations of near-death experiences, that perhaps our death is not the end, but rather the end of a cycle and the beginning, for the next new life cycle, with something occult. By establishing an afterlife as such to relieve myself and my audience.
This semester I return to death itself, which is inevitable, we will all die. By researching various religions, unique ways of burial in various parts of the world, and their understanding of death, it seems that I can finally face it directly. Many religions or regions have contradictory ideas and ways of dealing with the body (e.g. Egypt believes in protecting the body for rebirth in the next life, while Tibetan Buddhism believes that the dead body is useless and should be given back to nature to counteract bad karma), some ceremonies are full of sadness, while others are full of celebration. Through my research into these various funeral rituals or related festivals, I have come to understand that people feel genuine grief and miss the death of a loved one or friend, and that their different rituals of grief or joyful celebration, or any number of ways that seem unimaginable to us, help people cope with and mitigate this sense of loss and grief. They always go from denying the death and grieving to accepting it and remembering it. The ritual festivals I researched that celebrated death, or the joyful atmosphere, gave me a new perspective on death, and their transformation of grief into a choice to celebrate the life and memories created while being with the person who died, rather than dwelling on the fact that they are gone forever. In this way they have been able to connect with the spiritual memory of the person who has died, preserving the good memories and carrying them with them with infinite blessings.

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Many people recently became aware of burial at sea during the infamous disposal of Osama Bin Laden's body. According to the U.S. Military, Bin Laden was placed in a metal coffin and thrown into the Arabian Sea. Of the many ways societies that lay the dead to rest, burying them at sea is one tradition that we often forget in the modern age. Believe it or not, burial at sea is not only one of the oldest ceremonies associated with death, but it still occurs today all around the world.

Burial at sea refers to the disposal of human remains in the ocean, which is typically done from a ship or boat. This unique form of burial is associated with many cultures, and different traditions throughout time. What all the variations ultimately have in common is a connection to the open sea, and a desire to connect those who have been lost to the mysterious and infinite deep.

Burial at Sea: Everything You Need to Know

Burial at Sea in Ancient Times

Burials at sea can be traced back thousands of years, with recorded instances of sea burials dating back as far as the ancient civilizations of the Romans, Greeks, and Egyptians. Sea burial was considered a common funerary practice alongside other traditions practiced in these societies. Though all of these ancient civilizations gave preference to burial in tombs, there were still occasions which necessitated a sea burial. In particular, deaths during battle, when the dead were far from home. In such cases, conducting an earth burial would not be possible for obvious reasons.

Perhaps the most famous example of a civilization that practiced sea burials were the Vikings. The infamy of the Vikings' sea burials is in part a result of their invasion of the British Isles in 700 A.D. Their "ship burials", as they are now called, involved the use of an entire naval ship as a container for the dead and the various traditional objects buried with them. These kinds of burials can be traced back in Scandinavia to the Iron Age, and are featured prominently in the Norse Sagas.

These sagas also speak of ashes being scattered over the sea, and of Viking ships being set on fire and pushed out to sea to be consumed by the flames. It should be noted that ship burials often took place on land, with the ship either cremated or interred under a burial mound. One would probably not want to argue with a Viking about the technicality of a sea burial on land...

Military Burial at Sea

Historically, British seamen (in particular, the British Navy) found it necessary to perform burials at sea. This practice stood in contrast to practices of the Spanish and French, who would prefer to keep the bodies of the deceased onboard until they reached a port of entry where they could anchor and perform earth burials.

Sailors have historically been superstitious people, so it comes as no surprise that there are a number of superstitions associated with burials at sea. A common superstition amongst sailors was that sea birds carried the souls of dead sailors to the afterlife, which also meant that it was extremely unlucky to do such birds any harm.

The British developed their own unique rituals for burials at sea, which would often involve the body being sewn into a shroud by the ship's sail maker or one of his mates. This shroud (which was often made from the shipmate's sleeping hammock) was rumoured to have been stitched tightly, with the last stitch sewn through the sailor's nose to ensure they were truly dead ( yikes!). The body would be weighed down to make sure it sank and didn't drift off to shore. Finally, after being given a religious service conducted by the captain of the ship, the body would be tipped into the water feet first.

Burial at Sea Today

Sea burials still occur today, though there are a number of strict regulations in place. In England, for instance, cremated remains can be scattered freely at sea, but a full body burial must be done with a coffin meeting regulatory requirements, and may only be conducted in specific locations. Similarly, in Australia, a permit is required to bury a body at sea. These permits can be difficult to get, and are usually only granted where the deceased has a strong connection to the sea. This usually means that the deceased served in the navy, or had some other form of profession associated with the sea. There are also numerous regulations in place regarding the state of the body itself, such as the body being left un-embalmed, placed in a metal casket, or sewn into a weighted shroud. The burial must also take place in water deeper than 6,000 feet.

Unsurprisingly, protecting the environment is a central concern when it comes to contemporary sea burials. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency regulations state that burials at sea require the burial "site" to be at least three nautical miles (3.5 miles) from land, and at a depth of at least 600 feet. Some states have even more specific regulations about how far from shore these burials can take place- all depending on the depth of the water in certain areas. For instance, off of the Eastern coast of the United States, the closest sufficient depths are off Miami (5 miles) and Long Island (75 miles). This means that, in some cases, you would be required to travel more than 30 miles into the ocean to find a burial site!

Ocean Scattering

While full body burial at sea may not be available to just anyone (legally, that is), scattering ashes can be a different story. While most states and provinces will have laws related to scattering, many operate on a 'don't ask don't tell' basis. You can take a boat out on the water to scatter ashes, or buy a biodegradable urn that will sink to the bottom of the sea. Another option are Eternal Reefs. This company offers to turn cremated remains into a living ocean reef. Their reef balls remain fixed to the ocean floor and become vital habitat for marine life.

The Famous Buried at Sea

Though burial at sea is far from being the most common burial practice today, as we have seen, they still take place all over the world. Here is a list of some of the most famous people to have sea burials in the past 40 years:

(1930-1980): was cremated, and his ashes were scattered in the Pacific Ocean.

(1911-1993): his ashes scattered off Point Dume in Malibu, California.

(1912-1996): cremated ashes scattered in the sea.

(1960-1999): ashes were scattered into the Atlantic Ocean by the U.S. Navy off Martha's Vineyard.

(1951-2014): was cremated the day after his death, and his ashes were scattered in San Francisco Bay.

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Burial at Sea: Everything You Need to Know

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Many people recently became aware of burial at sea during the infamous disposal of Osama Bin Laden's body. According to the U.S. Military, Bin Laden was placed in a metal coffin and thrown into the Arabian Sea. Of the many ways societies that lay the dead to rest, burying them at sea is one tradition that we often forget in the modern age.

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Hollywood | Fort Lauderdale Fishing Charters - Lady Pamela

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Burial at Sea - [Beautiful Celebration of Life]

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Pashupatinath, Nepal - Warren Richardson Photography

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President Mukherjee attends the Cremation Ceremony of late Shri I. K. Gujral, former PM of India

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Hindu Cremation Ceremony | Pashupatinath Temple | Kathmandu, Nepal

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Although Hinduism is the third largest religion worldwide, not much is known about the customs & beliefs of the Hindu religion. And this goes for what goes on at a Hindu funeral ceremony.

This guide will cover their beliefs about death, and the rituals carried before, during, & after it occurs. It will discuss how Hindus handle the cremation process, and the differences between a funeral taking place in India than in the Western World.

In addition, we will explain what to expect at a Hindu funeral and give you some recommendations on etiquette when attending one.

Hindu Beliefs About Death

As believers of reincarnation, Hindus follow the idea that it's only their body that dies. The soul is reborn in a different form after death.

This recycling of life continues until the soul finds it's true nature. This is referred to as Brahma, which is their one God.

Brahma & Death

Brahma has many forms. There are thousands of gods and goddesses that contain a part of Brahma. Many Hindus choose one or more of those gods to serve and worship.

This process can take many lifetimes. Therefore with each death, they strive to move closer to Brahma. They believe that when the body dies, the soul departs through the top of their head. It then lives on in a different form after a regrouping.

That form can be human, animal, insect, or even plant. Hindus are avid believers of karma. They feel that by suffering, they cancel out past negative deeds. This is accomplished by fasting, confession, and intense prayer, to name a few.

Hindus are frequently seen with their heads shaved, which is a way for them to make sacrifice. Their karma helps to determine the form in which they are reborn in the next life.

Hindu Death Rituals

A Hindu's journey to death is multifaceted and has numerous stages. It sometimes begins before death and continues for a period of time after death, which we will explain later.

Close to Death

If it's apparent that death is coming soon, there are a few preparations to be completed if possible.

Some rites are completed by a priest, but the majority are performed by the family. If possible, a Hindu should die in their home with their loved ones. If they are hospitalized and death is imminent, ideally they are brought home.

When death is about to occur, they are normally placed on the floor with a grass mat and a priest is summoned.

They should be positioned at either the home's entry or in their room, with their head toward the east. There should also be a light at their head.

The priest and the family assemble around the dying person. A small amount of water, from the Ganges River if possible, is placed into the dying person's mouth.

Family members sing hymns, recite prayers, and chant the dying person's mantra. A mantra is a distinct syllable or word, usually chanted repeatedly, which brings about clear and positive thoughts.

The person is urged to concentrate on their mantra. This is meant to bring all their energy to the top of their head.

As they die, they should think of Brahma and other happy thoughts, such as their family. These thoughts will aid the soul in leaving the body at the highest state.

At Death

If it's not possible to put the water into the deceased person's mouth before death, it should be done immediately after their death. Everyone must ensure that they do not touch the body any more than necessary. They perceive it as impure.

If the person is unconscious at the time of death, their mantra should be softly spoken into their right ear. The body is then placed with the head toward the south and incense is burned.

In some sects, a cloth is placed under the chin and tied to the top of the head. Their big toes and are tied together as are their thumbs. Religious pictures are turned toward the wall and mirrors are sometimes covered.

As mentioned, there may be some variations in this process, depending on the sect.

Preparing for cremation

Ideally the deceased should be cremated before the next dusk or dawn, whichever comes first.

In most traditions, the chief mourner passes an oil lamp over the body. He or she then removes the clothes of the deceased and wraps the body in a white cloth. The chief mourner is typically the oldest son if the departed is a father, and the youngest son if the mother.

After that, sesame oil is applied to the body and then bathed with water. The body is redressed and placed in a coffin.

The younger children may encircle the body with small illuminated sticks while singing hymns.

The women place rice into the mouth of the departed for nourishment during their journey. If the deceased is a man, the wife places the wedding pendant around his neck and the coffin is then closed.

At that time, the body is removed feet first and transported to the cremation site.

Hindu Funeral Ceremony: The Cremation

Hindu funeral rites have many variations, so keep in mind that other versions of the following ceremony are possible.

If the cremation takes place in India, it is generally performed near the Ganges river.

The casket is occasionally transported to the cremation site by vehicle, but is commonly carried by foot.

In most sects, only men are present at the cremation. The mouth of the departed is again filled with rice, by the men this time. Coins are sometimes placed over the eyes.

The Pyre

The site is typically a pyre made of wood and straw with a platform on top, where the deceased is placed. The body is carried around the pyre three times counter-clockwise, and then placed on the platform. If in a casket, the cover is removed.

The chief mourner again circles the pyre three times with a clay pot of water on his left shoulder, and a burning torch behind his back. With each circle, someone knocks a hole in the clay pot, which allows the water to pour out. This signifies that life is leaving the vessel.

After the third circle, without facing the body, the chief mourner lights the pyre.

The Ganges River

It is the most polluted river in the world, due in a large part to the thousands of cremations performed there. Sometimes as many as 200 a day. It's littered with bodies and cremated remains.

Indian Vs Hindu Funeral in USA

In the USA, the cremation must be performed in a crematorium, therefore a revised ceremony has to be arranged. Surprisingly, it's not extremely different.

Most crematoriums allow the ceremonies and rituals to be performed before the cremation. The body is carried into the facility feet first and toward the south, if possible. The circling of the body is also typically performed.

Subsequently, instead of the chief mourner lighting the fire, the body is then placed into the cremation chamber.

Some facilities allow the family to place ghee and sacred wood inside the coffin. A number of crematoriums even allow a fire to be lit in the coffin, proceeding the cremation.

If the person is hospitalized and it's not possible to bring them home, the same procedures as in "Close to Death" are performed there.

Funeral Etiquette

When attending a Hindu funeral, many people are unsure of what to expect, how to act, and what to wear. Below are a few tips on Hindu funeral etiquette.

What to Wear to a Hindu Funeral?

It's important to note that the proper attire is quite different than at most funerals.

Wearing the color black to a Hindu funeral is not appropriate. The color white is vital in the Hindu culture, so that would be the best color to wear.

The attire is casual and respectable. Women should keep hemlines and necklines modest. Arms should be covered and open toe shoes are appropriate. You do not need to wear a head covering. Men should dress in a white shirt.

Funeral Flowers

Do not bring flowers to a Hindu funeral. Flowers play an important role in the ceremony, but not in the usual sense.

Everything leading up to the cremation is considered the last chance for the family to assist with the soul's transition to the next life.

Flowers being delivered or brought to the funeral would be considered a distraction and could cause harm to the soul of the deceased.

Funeral Prayers & Mantras

When a Hindu is dying, they strive to attain the greatest state of consciousness possible. The family recites mantras and Hindu prayers, while they focus on the top of the deceased's head. Additionally, they frequently use a mala, which is a string of beads intended to keep them focused on their prayers.

Burial customs & practices

Although cremation tends to be prevalent, burial is much more common than most people think. It's actually the preferred method in some locations and sects.

Most times, the purpose of cremation is to purify the person before beginning their passage to their new life. Nevertheless saints, infants, and young children are already considered to be pure and are typically buried.

In India, burial is more commonplace in the south. Also the more rural areas tend to bury their dead as well.

If you have an opportunity to visit a Hindu cemetery, you may be surprised by their appearance. The graves that have markers, are frequently painted in vibrant colors.

To hinder the growing problem of overcrowding, some graves are not marked. That way, another person can be buried in the same plot later.

Rituals After Death

The death of a Hindu person is a lengthy and complicated journey. Although excessive mourning is inappropriate, there is an extended period of rituals and ceremonies after the cremation.

Hindu Mourning Period

The mourning period begins after the cremation and usually lasts 13 days. Upon the completion of the cremation, there is a phase of ritual impurity.

Everyone returns home, bathes, and cleans the home.

A water pot and lamp are placed where the body was located. The water is changed every day.

The family does not leave the home for a period of time, which varies between the different sects. It's sometimes for as long as a year, but usually much less.

The family is not allowed to prepare meals for at least one day after the cremation, therefore, relatives bring prepared food to the home.

Excessive mourning is avoided and a happy environment in the home is encouraged.

They believe the soul of the departed is still conscious of any emotions on their behalf. Excessive mourning can inhibit them in their transition. In some sects, it's even dishonorable to cry over the dead.

A memorial ceremony is held on either the third, fifth, seventh, or ninth day, when relatives have a meal of the deceased's favorite food. A plate of the food is placed in front of the deceased's photo. Afterward, the plate is taken outside to a vacant place. On the 31 st day, the home is cleaned and a service is conducted that basically recreates the original funeral ceremony.

What to Do with Ashes?

The next day after the cremation, the men in the family gather the cremated remains and scatter them in the Ganges river if possible.

If outside the country, the cremains can be sent to India to be scattered in the Ganges river.

In some cases, someone from the family will actually travel to India to take care of the ashes.

If those options aren't possible, Hindus have begun scattering the cremains in a river or other body of water in the US. There may be some guidelines to follow. Check with local authorities to ensure the scattering is done legally.

One-year Anniversary

A year later, Shraddha rites are performed. This provides momentum to deceased ancestors so they can reincarnate and advance to a more superior form. This is performed every year as long as any sons of the deceased are still alive.

As you see, the death of a Hindu is a complex matter. Nevertheless, we have strived to give you a basic explanation to guide you on the beliefs, customs, and ceremonies that take place before, during, and after the death of a Hindu.

Hopefully, we have aided you in what to expect, how to act, and the proper etiquette.

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Hindu Funeral Cremation Guide: The Ceremony, Beliefs, Customs, & More

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Although Hinduism is the third largest religion worldwide, not much is known about the customs & beliefs of the Hindu religion. And this goes for what goes on at a Hindu funeral ceremony. This guide will cover their beliefs about death, and the rituals carried before, during, & after it occurs.

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阿奴比斯的形象仍然是所有埃及众神中最知名

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阿奴比斯的形象仍然是所有埃及众神中最知名的，因为他从埃及王朝一世起就存在于壁画上，直至中王朝十世王朝以前，他都担任为掌管冥界的神，担任非常重要的审判步骤。
在一次次传说的流传版本下，在早期的神话中，他被描绘成拉的儿子。在第一中间时期（公元前 2181-2055 年）所写的棺材文本中，阿努比斯是母牛女神赫萨特或猫头巴斯特的儿子。另一个传统将他描绘为拉和奈芙蒂斯的儿子。希腊普鲁塔克（约公元 40-120 年）称阿努比斯是奈芙蒂斯和奥西里斯的私生子，但他被奥西里斯的妻子伊西斯收养
在最大的最全的神话体系里，这里将阿奴比斯这个独立的神引入奥西里斯神话体系，是因为这个故事比任何其他古埃及神话都更详细、更有凝聚力，所以得已流传得更为久远。并且在公元前几个世纪末，因为阿奴比斯为伊西斯收养，伊西斯和奥西里斯的影响力极大。而后在希腊古罗马时期的埃及，又进行了新的神话结合后，阿奴比斯作为和死亡相关的角色一直延续至今。但是他不再是掌管冥界的主神，而只是作为奥西里斯的“得力助手”，他协助奥西里斯审判死者的灵魂，保护死者的躯体，以及监督木乃伊的制作。

阿奴比斯作为来世证明的角色，是让人们对来世抱有希望的重要神话认证。同时也是作为一个警告和惩戒机制规劝人们在作恶前要有考量，因此在审判时会失去来世的机会。有利于统治者的对人民的管理。

在在流行和媒体文化中，阿努比斯经常被错误地描绘成阴险的死神。在 20 世纪和 21 世纪，他通过书籍、电子游戏和电影而广受欢迎，艺术家会给他邪恶的力量和危险的军队。尽管他声名狼藉，但他的形象仍然是埃及众神中最知名的，他的雕像和绘画的复制品仍然很受欢迎。

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The figure of Anubis remains the best known of all the Egyptian gods, for he was present in wall paintings from the First Dynasty until the Middle Dynasties and served as the god of the underworld until the Tenth Dynasty, when he took on the very impotent role of judge.

The parentage of Anubis varied between myths, times and sources. In early mythology, he was portrayed as a son of Ra. in the Coffin Texts, In the Coffin Texts, which were written in the First Intermediate Period (c. 2181-2055 BC), Anubis is the son of either the cow goddess Hesat or the cat-headed Bastet. Another tradition depicted him as the son of Ra and Nephthys. The Greek Plutarch (c. 40-120 AD) states that Anubis was the illegitimate son of Nephthys and Osiris, but that he was adopted by Osiris's wife Isis
In the largest and most comprehensive body of mythology, here attempts to incorporate Anubis the independent deity Anubis into the Osirian pantheon

The story is more detailed and cohesive than any other ancient Egyptian myth, and so has survived much longer. And at the end of the first few centuries BC, Isis and Osiris were extremely influential because of the adoption of Anubis by Isis. Later, in Greco-Roman Egypt, new mythological combinations were made and Anubis continued as a character associated with death to this day. But he was no longer the main god of the underworld, but merely the 'right-hand man' of Osiris, who assisted him in judging the souls of the dead, protecting their bodies and supervising the making of mummies.

Anubis' role as proof of the afterlife is an important mythological authentication that gives people hope for an afterlife. It also serves as a warning and disciplinary mechanism exhorting people to consider before committing evil, and therefore to lose their chance of an afterlife at judgement. It facilitated the rulers' management of the people.

In popular and media culture, Anubis is often misrepresented as the sinister god of death. In the 20th and 21st centuries, he became popular through books, video games and films, where artists would give him evil powers and dangerous armies. Despite his notoriety, his image remains the most recognisable of the Egyptian gods, and reproductions of his statues and paintings remain popular.

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Anubis plays the role of protector in all aspects of the personal experience of death, even standing beside the soul after death as an impartial judge and guide

He is the protector of the dead, ensuring that they receive their rightful burial and supporting them after death, helping to bring them back to life. He is invoked to protect the dead, often tending to the bodies of kings, presiding over mummification rites and funerals, or standing with Osiris, Turner or other gods in the heart of the soul in the temple of truth in the afterlife at the time of weighing.

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When myths are retold, what parts are highlighted ,and what parts become absent ?Does this have a political function？Does the myth have contemporary relevance in visual culture?

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When myths are retold, what parts are highlighted ,and what parts become absent ?Does this have a political function？Does the myth have contemporary relevance in visual culture?

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Here's one thing we know: Día de los Muertos, or Day of the Dead, is not a Mexican version of Halloween.

Though related, the two annual events differ greatly in traditions and tone. Whereas Halloween embraces terror and mischief on the last night of October, Day of the Dead festivities unfold over the first two days of November in an explosion of color and life-affirming joy. Sure, the theme is death, but the point is to demonstrate love and respect for deceased family members. In towns and cities throughout Mexico, revelers don funky makeup and costumes, hold parades and parties, sing and dance, and make offerings to lost loved ones.

The rituals are rife with symbolic meaning. The more you understand about this feast for the senses, the more you will appreciate it. Here are 10 essential things you should know about Mexico's most colorful annual event. (See more stunning photos from Day of the Dead celebrations.)

1. The holiday dates back thousands of years.

Day of the Dead originated several thousand years ago with the Aztec, Toltec, and other Nahua people, who considered mourning the dead disrespectful. For these pre-Hispanic cultures, death was a natural phase in life's long continuum. The dead were still members of the community, kept alive in memory and spirit-and during Día de los Muertos, they temporarily returned to Earth.

Today's Día de los Muertos celebration is a mash-up of pre-Hispanic religious rites and Christian feasts. It takes place on November 1 and 2-All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day on the Catholic calendar-around the time of the fall maize harvest.

2. It has been recognized by UNESCO.

Cultural heritage is not just monuments and collections of objects. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) says that cultural heritage also includes living expressions of culture-traditions-passed down from generation to generation.

In 2008, UNESCO recognized the importance of Día de los Muertos by adding the holiday to its list of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. Today Mexicans from all religious and ethnic backgrounds celebrate Día de los Muertos, but at its core, the holiday is a reaffirmation of Indigenous life.

3. Altars are an important tradition...

The centerpiece of the celebration is an altar, or ofrenda, built in private homes and cemeteries. These aren't altars for worshipping; rather, they're meant to welcome spirits back to the realm of the living. As such, they're loaded with offerings-water to quench thirst after the long journey, food, family photos, and a candle for each dead relative. If one of the spirits is a child, you might find small toys on the altar.

Marigolds are the main flowers used to decorate the altar. Scattered from altar to gravesite, marigold petals guide wandering souls back to their place of rest. The smoke from copal incense, made from tree resin, transmits praise and prayers and purifies the area around the altar. (Here's how marigolds became iconic symbols of the Day of the Dead.)

4. ...and so are literary calaveras...

Calavera means "skull." But during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, calavera was used to describe short, humorous poems, which were often sarcastic tombstone epitaphs published in newspapers that poked fun at the living. These literary calaveras eventually became a popular part of Día de los Muertos celebrations. Today the practice is alive and well. You'll find these clever, biting poems in print, read aloud, and broadcast on television and radio programs.

5. ...especially the calavera Catrina.

In the early 20th century, Mexican political cartoonist and lithographer José Guadalupe Posada created an etching to accompany a literary calavera. Posada dressed his personification of death in fancy French garb and called it Calavera Garbancera, intending it as social commentary on Mexican society's emulation of European sophistication. " Todos somos calaveras," a quote commonly attributed to Posada, means "we are all skeletons." Underneath all our manmade trappings, we are all the same.

In 1947 artist Diego Rivera featured Posada's stylized skeleton in his masterpiece mural "Dream of a Sunday Afternoon in Alameda Park." Posada's skeletal bust was dressed in a large feminine hat, and Rivera made his female and named her Catrina, slang for "the rich." Today, the calavera Catrina, or elegant skull, is the Day of the Dead's most ubiquitous symbol. (Learn more about the dark history of the holiday's immortal icon.)

6. Families bring food to the dead.

You work up a mighty hunger and thirst traveling from the spirit world back to the realm of the living. At least that's the traditional belief in Mexico. Some families place their dead loved one's favorite meal on the altar. Other common offerings:

Pan de muerto, or bread of the dead, is a typical sweet bread (pan dulce), often featuring anise seeds and decorated with bones and skulls made from dough. The bones might be arranged in a circle, as in the circle of life. Tiny dough teardrops symbolize sorrow. (Read more about Pan de muerto.)

Sugar skulls are part of a sugar art tradition brought by 17th-century Italian missionaries. Pressed in molds and decorated with crystalline colors, they come in all sizes and levels of complexity.

Drinks to celebrate the holiday include pulque, a sweet fermented beverage made from the agave sap; atole, a thin warm porridge made from corn flour, with unrefined cane sugar, cinnamon, and vanilla added; and hot chocolate.

7. People dress in costumes.

Day of the Dead is an extremely social holiday that spills into streets and public squares at all hours of the day and night. Dressing up as skeletons is part of the fun. People of all ages have their faces artfully painted to resemble skulls, and, mimicking the calavera Catrina, they don suits and fancy dresses. Many revelers wear shells or other noisemakers to amp up the excitement-and also possibly to rouse the dead and keep them close during the fun.

8. Streets are decorated in papel picado.

You've probably seen this beautiful Mexican paper craft plenty of times in Mexican restaurants. The literal translation, pierced paper, perfectly describes how it's made. Artisans stack colored tissue paper in dozens of layers, then perforate the layers with hammer and chisel points. Papel picado isn't used exclusively during Day of the Dead, but it plays an important role in the holiday. Draped around altars and in the streets, the art represents the wind and the fragility of life.

9. Mexico City hosts an iconic parade.

Día de los Muertos is more popular than ever-in Mexico and, increasingly, abroad. For more than a dozen years, the New York-based nonprofit cultural organization Mano a Mano: Mexican Culture Without Borders has staged the city's largest Day of the Dead celebration.

But the most authentic celebrations take place in Mexico. If you find yourself in Mexico City the weekend before Day of the Dead this year, make sure to stop by the grand parade where you can join in on live music, bike rides and other activities in celebration throughout the city.

10. Other communities celebrate in unique ways.

Countless communities in Mexico celebrate Day of the Dead, but styles and customs differ by region, depending on the region's predominant pre-Hispanic culture. Here are a few places that stand out for their colorful and moving celebrations:

Pátzcuaro: One of the most moving Day of the Dead celebrations takes place each year in Pátzcuaro, a municipality in the state of Michoacán about 225 miles west of Mexico City. Indigenous people from the countryside converge on the shores of Pátzcuaro Lake, where they pile into canoes, a single candle burning in each bow, and paddle over to a tiny island called Janitzio for an all-night vigil in an indigenous cemetery.

Mixquic: In this Mexico City suburb, bells from the historic Augustinian convent toll and community members bearing candles and flowers process to the local cemetery, where they clean and decorate the graves of their loved ones.

Tuxtepec: This small city in the northeastern part of Oaxaca state is best known for its sawdust rugs. For days, locals painstakingly arrange colored sawdust, flow

er petals, rice, pine needles, and other organic materials in elaborate, ruglike patterns on city streets. Traditionally made for important processions, Tuxtepec's sawdust rugs are judged in a contest held during Día de los Muertos.

Aguascalientes: Located roughly 140 miles north of Guadalajara, Aguascalientes-birthplace of engraver José Guadalupe Posada-stretches its Day of the Dead celebrations to nearly a week during its Festival de Calaveras (Festival of Skulls). The festival culminates in a grand parade of skulls along Avenida Madero.

Learn more about traveling to Mexico, or explore our Day of the Dead page just for kids.
Editor's note: This story was originally published on October 26, 2017. It has been updated.

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Top 10 things to know about the Day of the Dead

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Día de los Muertos is celebrated across Mexico with skulls, skeletons, and graveside visits-but what does this beloved holiday really represent?

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Day of the Dead originated several thousand years ago with the Aztec, Toltec, and other Nahua people, who considered mourning the dead disrespectful. For these pre-Hispanic cultures, death was a natural phase in life’s long continuum. The dead were still members of the community, kept alive in memory and spirit—and during Día de los Muertos, they temporarily returned to Earth.

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Learn about the history surrounding Day of the Dead. Get to know the origins of the holiday and why thousands honor their dead during Dia de Muertos.

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世界上不同的地方，不同的宗教，不同的信仰

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世界上不同的地方，不同的宗教，不同的信仰，都有自己对于死亡的理解和葬礼仪式。我想这些仪式就是为了帮助人们应对悲伤和失去。
我理解的是肉体的死亡不是真正的死亡，被彻底遗忘才是，我们对于死亡的悲伤是因为十分在乎，既然这种死亡是必然性，为什么我们不把握我们已经拥有的所有的美好的记忆，我们通过最后的仪式，葬礼，我们不是以悲伤的方式而是正如一些地区以庆祝的方式。去庆祝我们在一起的所有的美好的回忆，庆祝这一世圆满的结束，也庆祝我们下一段新的旅程。

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Different parts of the world, different religions, different faiths, all have their own understanding of death and funeral rituals. I think these rituals are meant to help people cope with grief and loss.
My understanding is that physical death is not really death, being completely forgotten is. We grieve death because we care so much, and since this death is inevitable, why don't we take advantage of all the good memories we already have, and we do it through the last rites, the funeral, not in a sad way but in a celebratory way, as in some regions. To celebrate all the good memories we have had together, to celebrate the successful end of this life and the next part of our journey.

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Renowned for its amazing wildlife sanctuaries, the Republic of Ghana is often called West Africa's "golden child." International companies like Google, Guinness and Coca-Cola have set up facilities in Accra, the nation's capital city.

But Accra is also known for another industry - this one more homegrown. And it's, well, a business so unique that it's caught the eye of death care providers all over the world.

You see, in Ghana there's big demand for big coffins, oftentimes shaped like chili peppers, taxi cabs, even Nike sneakers - just about any object imaginable. Each one's a vibrant work of art, requiring skillful carpentry. In the Ga language, the funerary boxes are called " abebuu adekai," which means "proverbial coffins." English-speakers know them by another name: "fantasy coffins."

The practice of building fantasy coffins is effectively limited to Ghana and Togo (a neighboring country). According to Genevieve Keeney, this region has a corner on the highly specialized artform. A licensed embalmer, Keeney's the president and chief operating officer of the National Museum of Funeral History (NMFH) in Houston, Texas.

Keeney says she's never "come across or been presented with" any parallels to fantasy coffins from other parts of the globe. "I get made aware of quite a lot of interesting rituals and customs and have yet to hear of anything close," she says.

Her museum houses the largest collection of fantasy coffins outside Ghana. Altogether, the NMFH has a dozen on permanent display, their shapes ranging from a Mercedes-Benz to a red-legged crab. Similar coffins have been showcased at the University of Iowa, the Brooklyn Museum and the National Museum of Modern Art in Paris, France.

Honoring the Departed

The ornate coffins reflect traditional beliefs about ancestry and death. Modern fantasy coffins were devised by the Ga people, who are members of the greater Accra region's Ga-Adangme ethnic group. In their culture, dying is seen as a period of transition. It's also thought that the deceased have the power to affect living relatives from beyond the grave. Keep your loved ones happy post-mortem, and they might grant you some blessings down the road.

So making a good impression on newly dead family members is considered hugely important. That's where fantasy coffins come in.

Traditionally, it was common practice to bury a corpse with some personalized trinket - like a miniature canoe - that represented the individual's former career. Back in the 20th century, an Accra-area carpenter by the name of Seth Kane Kwei did something similar, but on a much larger scale.

Kwei was born in 1922 and by all accounts, he had an entrepreneurial spirit. When Kwei was a young man, he persuaded the family of a local chief who died unexpectedly to bury the leader in a cocoa pod-shaped palanquin he had ordered just before his death. Then in the 1950s, Kwei's grandmother died. Remembering the chief, he crafted an elaborate coffin for her in the shape of an airplane, as a way of celebrating her lifelong interest in aviation.

The project changed his life. Soon, Kwei was approached by mourning clients requesting personalized coffins whose designs would tell the stories of their occupants. One early customer commissioned a boat-shaped unit for his dead father, a fisherman.

And the rest was history.

Going Out in Style

Kwei probably wasn't the sole inventor of fantasy coffins as we now know them. Yet he undoubtedly deserves credit for popularizing the artistic funerary boxes.

Artistic coffins did become the specialty at Kwei's workshop, where his skills were passed on to his sons and grandson. Some of Kwei's other apprentices, like the carpenter Paa Joe, would go on to found competing fantasy coffin businesses in Accra. Paa Joe is now considered one of Ghana's most renowned coffin artists, and his works have been exhibited in New York City's premier American Folk Art Museum.

Given their often-elaborate shapes, it's easy to forget that - first and foremost - the caskets must be functional. "The body and coffin are buried in the ground after the funeral service," Keeney notes. On the Kane Kwei Carpentry Workshop's official website, patrons are told that a fantasy coffin can usually be completed within a week or two of the down payment.

Building materials vary. Most fantasy coffins are intended for use in funerals. But some are tailor-made display pieces built to wow the guests at foreign art galleries and museums. The latter tend to be made of hard woods like African mahogany. A coffin of this sort can easily sell for $3,000 to more than $9,000. Meanwhile, funeral-ready coffins will consist of cheaper, lightweight woods.

Regardless of where the coffins are headed, they all need to be sanded, painted and re-sanded before the client hauls them off. As for the shapes, that's up to the buyers. A Delaware man once asked Eric Adjetey Anang (Seth Kane Kwei's grandson) for a coffin modeled after a Leinenkugel-brand beer bottle. Other artists have built human-sized wooden cameras, eagles and hairdryers for their customers.

In Ghana, bodies often spend months or even years inside refrigerated storage units while the family of the deceased organizes the funeral. After the date and time are set, and the coffin's paid for, the event can proceed. Ghanaian funerals are lengthy, expensive affairs that can last for three full days at a time.

Apart from the guests, a typical list of attendees can include musicians, DJs, photographers, caterers and bartenders. Visitors can help the family recoup some of the costs by raising funds on-site - while also making time to dance the night away.

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Renowned for its amazing wildlife sanctuaries, the Republic of Ghana is often called West Africa's "golden child." International companies like Google, Guinness and Coca-Cola have set up facilities in Accra, the nation's capital city. But Accra is also known for another industry - this one more homegrown.

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“It is the most amazing way of respecting the dead that I have ever experienced. I came expecting the most macabre of ceremonies but instead found an extreme form of adoration for loved ones that will forever change how I view life and death.  My enlightenment feels bittersweet as I realize my own aversions still prevent me from wanting to visit my loved ones at their graves and the void this creates in my life. I don’t have the stomach for facing death.  I stubbornly prefer to bury and forget; somehow thinking this will satisfy desire to remember the way they were.  I’ve found more happiness in death than I could have ever imagined.”

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Dancing with Corpses: Famadihana, or Turning of the Bones in Madagascar

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Dancing with Corpses: Famadihana, or Turning of the Bones in Madagascar

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2020-04-21 14:49 来源：澎湃新闻·澎湃号·湃客

作为一名科普新媒体的"弄潮儿"，每天查（wang）阅（shang）资（chong）料（lang）那肯定是必不可少的。而bilibili作为央视点名的学习网站，自然我是每日必刷的，可奇怪的是，这阵子在我众多推荐的学习视频中突然混入了一个鬼畜区视频（我发四，我没有以及绝对没有刷鬼畜区），封面是几位黑人老哥，而标题--<黑人抬棺>更是让我忍不住点开了视频...

视频伴随着一段电音响起，然后镜头划过七位黑人老哥后，他们就开始了一段魔幻的抬棺蹦迪之旅。

黑哥一笑，生死难料，棺材一抬，人间白来

说实话，当时我看完视频后惊呆了，棺材还能这么玩的？真就让人死了都不得安宁呗。一开始我还以为这是别人做的恶搞视频，但实际上这段视频是正儿八经来自BBC的一篇报道，介绍的则是加纳共和国当地近些年流行起来的一种抬棺舞。

在加纳人的一生中，有两件最重要的事，一件是婚礼，另一件则是葬礼。与大多数国家举行葬礼时的沉重气氛不同，加纳的葬礼并不是为了表达悲伤，而是为了祝愿死者死后的生活更加美好，他们认为人既然是哭着来到世界上，为何不让他们高高兴兴离开呢？

所以加纳人的葬礼更像是一场热闹的party，死者的家人、朋友甚至是过路人都欢聚一堂，在室外搭建的敞篷内举行庆祝活动，时间一般会持续整个周末（从星期五开始至星期日晚上结束）。

当然，在庆祝活动之前，为了尊重一下死者，还是会先来上一段仪式。根据2010年的人口普查，加纳最常见的宗教是基督教，占人口的71.2%，其次是穆斯林，占人口的17.6%，因此仪式通常是基督教的祝福和一场致死者的演讲。

完事之后，葬礼才进入正题，参加葬礼的人们开始各自攀谈，其中谈资最足的一般是各自穿的衣服，因为大多数人为了葬礼都会专门请裁缝来缝制一套极具特色的新衣服，然后大家都会互相欣赏对方的衣服，硬是把葬礼逛出了时装周的感觉。

不过，前面只能算是开胃小菜，真正的高潮是音乐和舞蹈环节，音乐通常是具有加纳风格的爵士乐和铜管乐队所组合而成的。

随着葬礼的进行，主人家请来的舞蹈嘉宾们开始表演加纳最受欢迎的舞蹈"azonto"。

而抬棺舞的出现也恰恰是因为加纳人对舞蹈的喜爱。据说有一位加纳的酋长过世了，这位酋长生前特别喜爱舞蹈，因此他的子女们希望在他们父亲入土为安之前，能让送葬队抬着棺材最后再跳一支舞。

但是酋长的子女们找了许多送葬队，由于没有先例，他们都不敢接这个活，这要是成了还好，要是弄砸了，估计连小命都得交代在那里了。

最后找到了本杰明·爱多（Benjamin Aidoo）团队（也就是开头视频中的那七人）问他们干不干，当时生意不好的他们也没有多加思考，当场就答应了下来。

而大家也都懂黑人兄弟们的天赋--唱、跳、RAP还有...所以跳舞对他们而言并非难事，难的怎么抬着棺材跳舞。为此，本杰明团队在当地舞蹈的基础上重新编排了一段新舞蹈，并删除了一些危险动作后（防止翻车），顺利在葬礼上把酋长给送走了。

这场表演过后，本杰明团队的抬棺舞在当地火了，因为加纳人普遍喜欢跳舞，这种送葬形式无疑成为了葬礼上的新高潮，许多送葬队开始争相模仿，抬棺舞也成为加纳葬礼上一个必不可少的重要节目。

既然是人生中仅有的两件大事之一，加纳人对葬礼的规格绝不含糊。首先该请的摄影师、DJ、主持人、调酒师、专业送葬者、舞者等一个都不能少。还有宣传葬礼的巨型彩色广告牌，这些广告牌被放置在道路的显眼处，以保证过往的每个人都能注意到。

另外，主人家还要负责来参加葬礼的宾客吃住问题，要知道，加纳的葬礼少则一两百人，多则三至四百人，而负担这么多人的吃住费用几乎要花费一个普通家庭全年的收入。据加纳一位从事葬礼筹划者称：办一场葬礼的平均费用差不多在15000~20000美元之间，有时候甚至比一场婚礼的花费还要高昂。

除了葬礼上的这些费用之外，唯一花在死者身上的就是棺材了。加纳的棺材一直以精美奇特著称，并且为了实现死者生前的愿望，一般都会为他们定制个性化的棺材。

比如说死者生前如果是个汽车狂热迷，那就将他的棺材造成一辆汽车，或者如果你生前喜欢读书，那你的棺材就做成一本书的样子。

当然，这些棺材造价可都不便宜，首先用于埋葬的棺材通常由普通软木制成，加上手工费得要个7~800美元。此外，由于加纳的奇幻棺材已成为当地最独特的文化出口产品，因此那些被当做艺术品的棺材更是可以卖到3000美元甚至更高。在2014年，一口来自加纳的保时捷形棺材在伦敦拍卖行Bonhams以6500英镑的价格售出。

所以毫不夸张地说，死后的加纳人才是一生中最高光时刻。

目前，黑人抬棺舞经过许多博主的二次创作，发展出了各种不同版本和含义，不过，大家调侃归调侃，但不要对这种文化习俗有什么偏见或鄙视，跟我们亲人逝世以哭泣来祭奠差不多，他们则是通过舞蹈来安慰失去亲人的生者。

https://www.frazerconsultants.com/2017/04/cultural-spotlight-ghanaian-funeral-traditions/

https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-44303067

https://roadsandkingdoms.com/travel-guide/accra/the-fantasy-coffins-of-ghana/

https://globalpressjournal.com/africa/ghana/ghana-s-extravagant-funerals-drive-families-into-debt-disturb-community-peace/

https://thedigitalwise.com/2020/04/14/heres-everything-you-should-know-about-the-coffin-dance-crew-meme-we-watch-on-internet-frequently/

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原标题：《每一场<黑人抬棺舞>，都是加纳人对死者最大的尊重》

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每一场"黑人抬棺舞"，都是加纳人对死者最大的尊重_湃客_澎湃新闻-The Paper

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2020-04-21 14:49 来源：澎湃新闻·澎湃号·湃客 作为一名科普新媒体的"弄潮儿"，每天查（wang）阅（shang）资（chong）料（lang）那肯定是必不可少的。而bilibili作为央视点名的学习网站，自然我是每日必刷的，可奇怪的是，这阵子在我众多推荐的学习视频中突然混入了一个鬼畜区视频（我发四，我没有以及绝对没有刷鬼畜区），封面是几位黑人老哥，而标题-- ...

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Dancing Pallbearers, also known as Dancing Coffin and the Coffin Dance, are a Ghanaian group of pallbearers who are based in the coastal town of Prampram in the Greater Accra Region of southern Ghana, although they perform across the country as well as internationally. They are locally referred to as Nana Otafrija Pallbearing and Waiting Service or Dada awu.

Though the group initially gained worldwide attention though a BBC feature story in 2017, the footage became part of an Internet meme in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020.

The Dancing Pallbearers are led by Benjamin Aidoo, who started the group as a regular pallbearer service. He later had the idea of adding choreography to their pallbearing work. Extra fees are charged for dancing with the coffin during a funeral. The Dancing Pallbearers first rose to prominence in 2017 when they were featured in a BBC News report.

In April 2020, the group became the subject of a darkly comedic internet meme when videos of people suffering various mishaps, followed by clips of the pallbearers dancing with coffins (implicitly the victims of the preceding clips), were widely uploaded to YouTube and TikTok. The clips are generally paired up with the song "Astronomia" by Russian musical artist Tony Igy and remixed by Dutch duo Vicetone, although others use either "You Know I'll Go Get" by DJ Haning and Rizky Ayuba (a remixed version of Enrique Iglesias's song " Finally Found You") or Lenka's " Trouble Is a Friend". Many uses of this meme are commonly associated with the COVID-19 pandemic, which was ongoing when the meme became popular.

In Brazil, the social media meme was brought to the streets, as a billboard image featuring the coffin dancers was displayed with the caption 'stay home or dance with us'. In May, the group released a video where they capitalized on the phrase, encouraging viewers to 'stay home or dance with us'.

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Dancing Pallbearers, also known as Dancing Coffin and the Coffin Dance, are a Ghanaian group of pallbearers who are based in the coastal town of Prampram in the Greater Accra Region of southern Ghana, although they perform across the country as well as internationally.

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There's a tribe in the northern Philippines called the Igorot that traditionally bury their dead in so-called "hanging coffins" on a cliff near the town of Sagada. They're not alone in this practice: the Bo people of southern China, for just one example, did it centuries ago, as well, and both the Bo and the Igorot's unusual "cemeteries" have become popular tourist attractions. Some of the Sagada hanging coffins are even brightly painted, adorned with crosses and DIY memorials, surrounded by graffiti, and festooned with old wooden chairs.

The chairs are just one of many "mysteries" found at the site of the hanging coffins of Sagada. The list below takes you step-by-step through the traditional burial rituals of the Igorot, revealing several fascinating facts along the way as well as the answers to many of those mysteries, straight from a tribal elder.

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7 Fascinating Facts About The Hanging Coffins Of The Philippines

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There's a tribe in the northern Philippines called the Igorot that traditionally bury their dead in so-called "hanging coffins" on a cliff near the town of Sagada. They're not alone in this practice: the Bo people of southern China, for just one example, did it centuries ago, as well, and both the...

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The Filipino tribe that hangs its dead from cliffs

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In the Philippines, the Igorot people practice an ancient burial ritual where the elderly carve their own coffins and the dead are hung off the side of a cliff.

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Death is not the end: Fascinating funeral traditions from around the globe

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Funeral practices are deeply ingrained in culture and reflect beliefs and values. Here, take a look at just a few interesting funeral traditions from around the world.

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Rituals of death in the form of funeral rites are some of the main signs of the beginnings of human civilisation. They show evidence of the formation of societies, as people treat the body with care and respect. These rituals are part of every society, ancient and modern.

Human beings are very different from each other and have unique cultures and identities. Sometimes these differences can seem insurmountable. However, there is one thing that binds all of humanity together: death.

Cultures and societies around the world have their own unique ways of dealing with death. Because death is such an integral part of life, it may seem wrong and inappropriate to see other rituals than your own. However, it is important to understand that not every culture sees death in the same way.

Different views of death apply to different rituals. Just because they are different from our own does not mean that these rituals are misguided or incorrect. All these rituals and practices have the same purpose. They help people to cope with loss and grief and the inevitability of death.

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丧葬仪式形式的死亡仪式是人类文明开端的一些主要标志。 它们显示了社会形成的证据，因为人们以关心和尊重的方式对待身体。 这些仪式是每个社会的一部分，无论是古代还是现代。

人类彼此截然不同，具有独特的文化和身份。 有时，这些差异似乎是无法克服的。 然而，有一件事将全人类联系在一起：死亡。

不同的文化对死亡有不同的看法。 因此，他们也有不同的仪式来描述对待身体的"正确"方式。 让我们探索世界各地的死亡仪式。

美国社会

美国社会将死亡描绘成一个禁忌话题。 人们使用委婉语将死亡称为"传递"或将死者称为"不再与我们同在"。 似乎有很多与死亡的想法相关的恐惧。

死亡仪式

在美国，死亡仪式以葬礼的形式出现。 美国的传统葬礼通常包括两个步骤。 在探视期间，殡仪馆将死者的遗体展示出来，以便家人和朋友表达敬意。 这可以是开放式或封闭式棺材。

葬礼或追悼会紧随其后。 通常，这涉及最常见的墓地埋葬。 因为大多数美国人是基督徒，所以这项服务包括祈祷、圣经阅读或亲人的悼词。 有些人可能会在葬礼后在另一个地点举办聚会或聚餐。

躲避

美国社会将死亡视为要与之战斗的敌人。 医院里的病人"与疾病作斗争"并"成为受害者"而死。 尽管死亡是生命中不可避免的一个方面，但美国社会试图与不可能的事情作斗争。 人们将现代医学和高科技机器视为战胜死亡的潜在解决方案。

美国社会也倾向于拒绝提及死亡。 当人们生病或年老时，他们的家人会将他们送到医院或收容所。 因此，人们无法亲眼目睹死亡过程。

殡仪馆和防腐过程也使人们远离死亡。 殡葬师使用化妆品和衣服来装扮身体。 它们赋予身体生命的外观。

这也是殡葬业是这样一个商业行业的原因之一。 人们花费数千美元来避免死亡的混乱。 2019 年，全国平均葬礼费用为 7,640 美元。 2021年美国殡仪馆行业市场规模约为16亿美元。

变革即将来临

从 61.4 年到 40.5 年，埋葬率从 2009% 下降到 2018%。然而，同时火葬率从 32.3% 上升到 53.5%。 死者家属已开始远离殡仪馆等传统机构，以更好地控制亲人的待遇。 也许这表明美国人看待死亡的方式发生了转变。

日本社会

在日本社会，死亡被视为生活的普通部分。 它在日本文化中占有特殊的地位。 死亡是与直接参与仪式的家庭的亲密关系。

宗教

日本文化中有各种各样的宗教，这些宗教有助于人们相信死后会发生什么。 神道教是日本最古老的宗教，围绕着对祖先和自然精神的崇拜。 它将死亡描述为最终的结局。 人一旦死了，就永远消失了。

大约 67% 的日本人口是佛教徒。 佛教认为有轮回。 那么，死亡只是肉体的终结。 灵魂会在来世继续存在，直到转世。

基督教拥护地狱、天堂和炼狱的观念。 它也有来世，但没有重生。 一个人一生中的行为决定了他们永远的结局。

日本社会中有各种各样的死亡仪式，涉及所有这三种宗教的部分或所有方面。

死亡仪式

在日本文化中，死者的尸体与活人一样被对待。 家属尽快将尸体带回家。 他们经常拒绝尸检，因为它们被视为侵入性程序。

大多数日本葬礼遵循佛教习俗。 尸体在家里几天后，家人经常举行仪式。 客人带钱，称为 光传 ，为了家人。 他们烧香祈祷。 然后，家人将尸体送去火化。

最后，死者家属用筷子从火化的遗体中挑出骨头。 这让家人可以表达他们对死者的关心和爱。 这种仪式是家庭对死者的最后责任。

尽管这侧重于更传统的葬礼，但重要的是要注意日本的死亡仪式越来越具有商业性。

文化塑造

历史上，武士道守则下的武士过去常常犯 ，或仪式自杀，当指示。 人们期待他们随时为他们的战友或他们的领主而死。 七福 被认为是光荣和勇敢的。

外国人，尤其是西方人，经常将日本社会视为以死亡为中心的社会。 他们相信日本将死亡和死亡浪漫化。 然而，这种情况并非如此。

死亡在日本社会中扮演着重要角色，因为日本人将其视为生活的一部分。 他们表达对死者的尊重和喜爱。 死亡是一种亲密的事情，可以让家人直接参与其中。

西藏社会

天葬

西藏的死亡仪式以天葬的形式出现。 天葬遵循佛教的死亡观念。 在这种仪式中，秃鹫会吃掉死者的尸体。

流程图 空中葬礼 由两个步骤组成。 首先是准备。 家人用传统的白布将死者的遗体包裹起来，放在屋子里长达 5 天。 这样灵魂才能过渡到重生。 牧师阅读经文以净化身体的灵魂。

第二步是真正的天葬。 死者的尸体在"幸运日"被带到高处。 在那里，身体以胎儿的姿势休息。 这是代表人们作为婴儿进入世界的方式。 因此，身体离开地球的方式与它进入地球的方式相同。 祭司们点燃桑树烟来吸引秃鹫。 最后，秃鹫降落在尸体上并吃掉它。

信仰

西藏人认为秃鹫是圣鸟。 它们不杀死生物，而是在它们死后吃掉它们。 秃鹫被称为 D秋尼 在藏语中，是指女性神灵。 秃鹫吞噬身体，将其带到天堂，直到轮回。

桑烟作为一条路，邀请 空行母 到天葬。 身体作为供奉神灵的祭品。

如果秃鹫迅速吃掉尸体，则被认为是吉祥的。 这意味着死者将获得重生。 如果秃鹫不吃尸体，则意味着死者犯了大罪。 如果发生这种情况，祭司会祈祷以消除死者的罪孽。

天葬有几个禁忌。 仪式是私密的，陌生人不得靠近 葬礼场. 家庭成员也不能参加，因为灵魂可能会徘徊而不是继续前进。

还有一个 实用元素 到天葬。 在西藏，冰冻的土地很难进行真正的埋葬。 天葬也促进了生命的循环。 随着秃鹫吞噬尸体，人类回归自然。

加纳社会

在加纳，葬礼是为了纪念死者。 他们专注于庆祝死者的生活，而不是专注于悲伤。 尽管加纳有不同的文化，但我们将专注于死亡仪式的大多数。

死亡仪式

在加纳，以葬礼形式举行的死亡仪式是精心制作的。 棺材或棺材盛着死者的尸体。 护柩者在街道上游行，而家人和参加者则在棺材旁边跳舞。

大多数葬礼在周末举行，通常在星期六。 人们前往各个城镇和村庄参加。 参加者身着黑色或红色传统服装，可携带礼物。 参加葬礼的人越多，意味着死者非常受欢迎。 因此，葬礼是人们聚会、喝酒和吃饭的大型社交活动。 一些葬礼可能涉及追悼会，人们为死者祈祷。 然而，大多数葬礼都涉及舞蹈和庆祝活动。

行业应用

葬礼在加纳非常商业化。 殡葬业是当地最大的产业，无论是在城市还是农村。 平均葬礼费用约为 15,000 至 20,000 美元。 人们花在葬礼上的钱和婚礼的钱一样多，甚至更多。

葬礼的商业化虽然与美国社会相似，但背后的道理却大相径庭。 美国社会视死亡为禁忌。 他们的殡葬业依赖于让死亡远离公众。 加纳葬礼的商业化源于对死亡的不同理解。 他们将死亡视为一种庆祝活动，因此殡葬业利用了这一点。

葬礼的许多部分都描绘了加纳死亡的商业性质。 价值从 600 美元到 3,000 美元不等的巨大广告牌宣布葬礼。 人们雇佣鼓手和乐队在游行中陪伴棺材。 当地木匠为个人制作独特的棺材。 最近，棺材或棺材代表死者的职业或他们个性的某些方面。 它还展示了社会地位和财富。 因此，棺材可能采用可口可乐瓶、鱼或飞机的形状。

奢华的葬礼经常遭到公众人物的强烈反对。 一些人认为太多的钱进入死者而不是生者。 然而，大多数人认为围绕死亡的庆祝活动使悲伤的过程更容易。

总结

世界各地的文化和社会都有自己独特的处理死亡的方式。 因为死亡是生命中不可或缺的一部分，看到自己以外的其他仪式似乎是错误和不恰当的。 然而，重要的是要了解并非每种文化都以相同的方式看待死亡。

在大多数情况下，美国人害怕死亡。 他们的仪式围绕着避免它展开。 殡仪馆对尸体进行防腐处理和装扮，以给人以生命的错觉。 医院让垂死的病人远离公众。 美国社会将死亡商业化，以使其更加临床和遥远。

日本语 佛教文化 ，另一方面，将死亡视为亲密且不可避免的事情。 家庭在维护遗体和确保葬礼尊重遗体方面发挥着巨大作用。

西藏的天葬，在有些人看来，似乎不是那种文化的一部分，相当恶毒和残忍。 然而，他们认为天葬是精神的。 秃鹰将灵魂和身体带到天堂，为重生做准备。 天葬遵循生命的循环。

加纳的葬礼是对生命的庆祝，尽管它们可能看起来奢华而奢侈。 他们将死者的亲人聚集在一起，因此他们可以享受彼此的陪伴。 尽管加纳的葬礼相当商业化，但它们依赖于对死者的亲密和依恋。

对死亡的不同看法适用于不同的仪式。 仅仅因为它们与我们自己的不同并不意味着这些仪式被误导或不正确。 所有这些仪式和习俗都有相同的目的。 他们帮助人们应对失去和悲伤以及死亡的必然性。

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人类学：世界各地的死亡仪式

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丧葬仪式形式的死亡仪式是人类文明开端的一些主要标志。 它们显示了社会形成的证据，因为人们以关心和尊重的方式对待身体。 这些仪式是每个社会的一部分，无论是古代还是现代。 人类彼此截然不同，具有独特的文化和身份。 有时，这些差异似乎是无法克服的。 然而，有一件事将全人类联系在一起：死亡。 不同的文化对死亡有不同的看法。 因此，他们也有不同的仪式来描述对待身体的"正确"方式。 让我们探索世界各地的死亡仪式。 美国社会将死亡描绘成一个禁忌话题。 人们使用委婉语将死亡称为"传递"或将死者称为"不再与我们同在"。 似乎有很多与死亡的想法相关的恐惧。 在美国，死亡仪式以葬礼的形式出现。 美国的传统葬礼通常包括两个步骤。 在探视期间，殡仪馆将死者的遗体展示出来，以便家人和朋友表达敬意。 这可以是开放式或封闭式棺材。 葬礼或追悼会紧随其后。 通常，这涉及最常见的墓地埋葬。 因为大多数美国人是基督徒，所以这项服务包括祈祷、圣经阅读或亲人的悼词。 有些人可能会在葬礼后在另一个地点举办聚会或聚餐。 美国社会将死亡视为要与之战斗的敌人。 医院里的病人"与疾病作斗争"并"成为受害者"而死。 尽管死亡是生命中不可避免的一个方面，但美国社会试图与不可能的事情作斗争。 人们将现代医学和高科技机器视为战胜死亡的潜在解决方案。 美国社会也倾向于拒绝提及死亡。 当人们生病或年老时，他们的家人会将他们送到医院或收容所。 因此，人们无法亲眼目睹死亡过程。 殡仪馆和防腐过程也使人们远离死亡。 殡葬师使用化妆品和衣服来装扮身体。 它们赋予身体生命的外观。 这也是殡葬业是这样一个商业行业的原因之一。 人们花费数千美元来避免死亡的混乱。 2019 年，全国平均葬礼费用为 7,640 美元。 2021年美国殡仪馆行业市场规模约为16亿美元。 从 61.4 年到 40.5 年，埋葬率从 2009% 下降到 2018%。然而，同时火葬率从 32.3% 上升到 53.5%。 死者家属已开始远离殡仪馆等传统机构，以更好地控制亲人的待遇。 也许这表明美国人看待死亡的方式发生了转变。

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Famadihana is a funerary tradition of the Malagasy people in Madagascar. During this ceremony, known as the turning of the bones, people bring forth the bodies of their ancestors from the family crypts, rewrap the corpses in fresh cloth, and rewrite their names on the cloth so they will always be remembered. Then they dance to live music while carrying the corpses over their heads and go around the tomb before returning the corpses to the family tomb. They believe in celebrating the life lived by the dead person.

Famadihana appears to be a custom of somewhat recent origin, perhaps only since the 17th century in its present form, although it may be an adaptation of premodern double funeral customs from Southeast Asia. The custom is based upon a belief that the spirits of the dead finally join the world of the ancestors after the body's complete decomposition and appropriate ceremonies, which may take many years. In Madagascar, this became a regular ritual usually once every seven years, and the custom brings together extended families in celebrations of kinship, sometimes even those with troubled relations.

The practice of Famadihana is on the decline due to the expense of silk shrouds and belief by some Malagasy that the practice is outdated. Early missionaries discouraged the practice, and Evangelical Christian Malagasy have abandoned the practice in increasing numbers. The Catholic Church, however, no longer objects to the practice, because it regards Famadihana as purely cultural rather than religious. As one Malagasy man explained to the BBC, "It's important because it's our way of respecting the dead. It is also a chance for the whole family, from across the country, to come together."

Additionally, the practice of Famadihana is thought to be connected to pneumonic plague transmission in the region. The Malagsy government has issued rulings forbidding the practice for individuals who died of plague, but there have been reports of people ignoring this decree.

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Famadihana is a funerary tradition of the Malagasy people in Madagascar. During this ceremony, known as the turning of the bones, people bring forth the bodies of their ancestors from the family crypts, rewrap the corpses in fresh cloth, and rewrite their names on the cloth so they will always be remembered.

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2020-12-02 14:39 来源：澎湃新闻·澎湃号·湃客

原创 PUMBAA 游猪生态

每个地方都有自己纪念逝去亲人的方式，而在马达加斯加，死者和生者的联系则更为密切。每隔一段时间，这里的人们就会把亲人的遗体从墓室中请出来，和家人一起跳舞。他们把这个仪式叫做Famadihana（翻尸节），以此表达对祖先的尊敬。

作者/爱美丽 Amelie

大家好，我是来自非洲马达加斯加的爱美丽Amelie，我将用我的亲身经历，向我们的中国读者描绘最真实的「翻尸节」现场。

据《纽约时报》报道，在这个印度洋上的岛国中，数百万有着不同信仰的人都崇尚这一风俗。在这些马达加斯加人眼中，死者和生者之间并不是那么界限分明，祖先们的灵魂有时会在在世的后代中来去，而Famadihana就是他们向祖先报告家庭新闻并获得祝福和引导的机会。

■ 我们的村庄所在地区Vakinankaratra。

01 什么情况下会举行「翻尸节」呢？

「翻尸节」是我们最重要的习俗之一，尤其对于那些来自高原的人来说。

在马达加斯加，高原指的是三个地区：Vakinakatra， Analamanga（代表首都）；以及Vakiniadiana（我们的村庄所在地区）。在Vakinakaratra地区，我们每七年左右做一次，习俗是基于这样一种信念，即遗体完全分解后，死者的灵魂最终会加入祖先的世界。

那一般什么情况会举行「翻尸节」呢？通常有两种情况：一是下一代建造了一个新的坟墓，希望家人的尸体回到祖先的坟墓；二是全家一起向祖先祈福。

另外，当一个孩子去世或家庭中很少有人连续去世时，我们不会将他们的遗体直接放在家庭的墓室里，而是放在旁边，等到举行「翻尸节」的时候再将他们放进去。当祖先旧的墓室已满，新墓室建成时，也会举行这样的仪式。

我们家庭只做了一次「翻尸节」，那时我们需要将祖父的坟墓迁到另一个城市。

我们家庭的翻尸节是在 2016 年 7 月举行的。事实上，对于这个习俗，必须在炎热季节的 7 月和 8 月左右进行。在举办前，我们去找了村里的祭司，询问"黄道吉日"。我们必须按照他说的那样做，要做多少天，什么时候做，要拿走尸体多久等等。我不知道具体是怎么回事，听我的家人说，如果不遵照他的规定，这个家庭就会死人。

和尸骨"共舞"时，我们必须非常小心。祭司说我们有三天两夜的节日时间。我的祖父母是被安葬在两个不同的地方。当我爸爸和伯伯有钱时，他们就决定在另一座城市祖父母的田地里建造自己的墓室。两个儿子有责任建造它并为节庆支付费用，因为这也将成为他们各自家庭的墓室。

因此，在翻尸节的第一天，我们需要将这两具尸体集中在我曾祖父母的大房子里；第二天，我们需要为所有客人准备一整天的食物；到了第三天，我们将它们埋在新的墓室中。按照祭司的指示，一切都精心计划，按部就班。

02 翻尸节让村庄每个人都参与其中

在「翻尸节」前两三天，整个村庄都进行了聚会，大家一起商量分工。实际上，这就是为什么马达加斯加村庄中的人们友好的原因。他们不像大城市的人，当有人去世或在诸如「翻尸节」之类的庆祝活动中，整个村的人一起负责柴火、水和安帐篷等等。每个人都必须参与其中，在葬礼期间，每家每户还会拿出一杯米。

■ 节日的前一天，村民们聚集在一起准备水，帐篷和木头。

在我们家举办的翻尸节仪式上，我们只准备了水桶和帐篷所需的塑料袋，其他一切都有村里人来帮忙，甚至在清晨，妇女们都忙着带水来做饭。此外，村里的男人负责杀牛杀猪和做饭。主办家庭的职责是照顾好客人，提供食物和打扫卫生。

如果有需要，我们也可以雇人做餐食服务等等。但是，我们更喜欢遵循习俗，因为这就是我们所说的Fiarahamonina或社会。这会更加贴近我们的根，更何况，它已经被组织得如此之好。

■ 这是我曾祖父母最后的一所房子，我们在这里做了举行"翻尸节"活动。我们竖起了一个临时墙壁，以方便我们控制客人的人数。

03 主人家用音乐和跳舞欢迎每一位客人

活动在下午 1 点左右开始，因为墓室不允许在那个时间之前被打开。据说，如果在那之前打开了，就会有人被带进去。

■ 我的叔叔和堂兄弟们在等待家庭介绍时跳舞。

首先，我们聚集在帐篷周围等待其他人，村里的人暂时不需要出现。我们开始与奏乐的人一起跳舞。事实上，"翻尸节"必须是一件快乐的事，而且始终少不了音乐。当乐队的人开始演奏时，意味着活动开始了。因此，听到音乐后，人们开始逐渐聚集到附近，主人家必须在乐队附近跳舞。

等到村里的人来差不多了，就会有家族的介绍。每个一家之主都要介绍自己的家庭，并说明与主人家之间的关系。

04 前往墓地路上，我们必须载歌载舞

需要注意的是，未经祭司的许可，作为主人家的我们也是不能去墓室的。

■ 在队伍举着旗子的第一个人是我的弟弟。队伍中第四个祭司，他穿着绿色长裤。

在做完家庭介绍几分钟后，祭司让我们去墓室。前去的队伍中，需要主人家的孩子作为领队，而且他需要带着国旗。这个职责落到了我的弟弟身上，因为我的弟弟是我们大家庭唯一的孙子。

我们不能走在旗帜前面，除了祭司。其他孙辈孩子负责带上丝巾，那是用来给尸体裹上的新的丝绸裹尸布。

祭司会要求我们花三个小时到墓地，即使我们离那里只有 1 公里。所以我们需要非常缓慢地走路和跳舞以度过这三小时。祭司让我们在墓地附近休息，他已经安排好了一切，包括我们应该在哪个时间到达墓地。

■ 一家人在等待的时候在地毯上跳舞。

幸运的是，这位祭司很友善，我们没有在房子附近等待很长时间。大约 15 分钟后，后面的人也赶到了。在等待时，我们必须让所有的东西都跳起舞来，比如旗子、丝绸裹尸布和地毯。

05 只有父亲健在的男子，才能打开墓室

■ 与打开墓室的男子分享马达加斯加威士忌。

终于，到达我祖父的坟墓了。村民们已经在那儿等着。在习俗中，男人负责打开墓室。只有尚未失去父亲的男人才能打开墓室。主人家必须给他们马达加斯加人酿造的威士忌，以犒劳他们的帮忙。

事实上，在我们的文化中，关于家庭墓葬的很多规则都反映了男人在家庭中的统治地位。

首先，男人是一家之主，为下一代建造墓室只是父亲的责任。但是，一个没有白发的男人不能建造墓室，除非他的父亲命令他这样做，否则他也不能在他的父亲还活着的时候建造一座墓室。

其次，妻子应始终被埋在丈夫家庭的墓室中。结婚后，她必须跟随丈夫，除非她被要求不要，并有具体原因。当妻子在很年轻的时候去世时，她将身披嫁衣埋葬在她父母的墓室中。一个男人只能有一位妻子在他的墓室，那将是他最后一个结婚的妻子。

另外，单身女性死后，她将与父亲的家人一起被埋葬。这种传统仍然反映出男人在社会中的重要性。事实上，当男人跟随一个女人到她的家里或那个女人比他赚得更多时，对男人来说是一种耻辱。

我认为，在这里，男女平等仍将需要数年才能被接受。女人负责家务，男人负责赚钱养家。如果她决定工作，则必须同时照顾她的工作和家庭。在大城市，人们开始逐渐接受这种变化，并且喜欢独立的女人。但是在像我们这样的村庄里，如果一个男人做家务，人们仍然会有不太好的评价。

回到墓地现场。找到墓室门后，他们用钥匙将其打开。按照我们的习惯，住在祖先房子的家庭负责保管钥匙。由于里面有气味，祭司会用一种特殊的药草喷洒，几秒钟后，里面充满了药草的烟雾和气体，之前里面的气味完全消散。尸体在里面被很好地分类，并且做有标记，所以我们已经知道谁是谁。

■ 他们找到了我祖父母的尸体，然后用毯子将它们带出来。

■ 他们在确认是正确的尸体，我的曾祖父母和祖父。

■ 只有家庭中的男人才能用新的丝绸裹尸布包裹他们。他们需要很小心地贴上它们。

这对我们来说是一个非常激动的时刻，因为那是我们在祖父去世后第二次见到他的尸体。这是一种夹杂着幸福与悲伤的复杂心情，而且要看到他被丝绸裹尸布包裹着的尸骨并不容易，我希望我余生都不会再这样做了。

06 只能由近亲晚辈扛着遗体跳舞

■ 最年长的在墓室上方讲话的人，他正在解释这种习俗对我们有多重要。

包裹完尸体后，村中年纪最大的长者必须发表讲话，宣布庆祝活动正式开始。这时，会有一些特别的歌曲响起来，我的家人开始扛着尸体一起跳舞。他们一边跳舞时，一边要扛着尸体环绕墓室。

■ 他们与尸体共舞，开始带他们去墓前参观。

外国人会认为这很奇怪，但事实并非如此。它是我们家庭成员的遗骨，因此没有什么可害怕的。我们在那里跳了大约 30 分钟，然后回去等我祖母的尸体。

■ 按照我们的习俗，扛着遗体去房子时，最小的孙子们必须带着死者的照片。

■ 将两具尸体聚到一起后，我们将它们放在祖先的屋子里。他们必须被放在楼上，而且旗帜就放在旁边。

07 举办一场翻尸节，成本非常昂贵

根据传统，主人家至少必须为客人准备两头牛，一头猪和数百公斤大米。这是一笔不小的开支。由于成本高昂，在我们地区，只有很少的家庭每五到七年实践一次。当然，你提供的食物越多，你的家族在周边就越有名。

我们的聚会终于开始了。第一个晚上，全家人负责和客人分享食物--用牛器藏和猪肉做的汤配米饭。为了庆祝，我们买了三头牛和两头猪。我们用"vilihy gasy"或马达加斯加的盘子、水桶装肉和米饭。通常，我们要为来的客人和村民服务至凌晨，甚至不会控制人数，不会管是谁来。

■ 在第一个晚上与客人分享食物。

厨房一直在运转，日夜都在煮东西，否则没办法每顿饭喂饱数百人。有些人甚至睡在火炉旁。因为习惯了在村子里的大型活动上做饭，这些人已经知道该如何安排自己的工作。他们将煮好的米饭放入塑料袋中，然后再放入桶中。按照我们的传统，不用给他们付工钱，但最后剩下的肉和米饭归他们。在我们家这次，他们最后拿走了四大锅的肉。

08 有人会偷盖尸毯，因为那会带来好运

到了晚上，会有著名歌手为聚会打气。现场非常拥挤，到处都是醉汉。还有一个问题是会有很多女巫。我听说，如果你有一块尸体用的毯子，伏都教徒就可以很好地工作。所以，女巫想靠近他们去偷一块地毯。因为他们的缘故，晚上最好不要一个人在附近走动。

此外，有些人也喜欢把地毯带回家，因为他们相信这会给他们带来祝福。有些人还会在丝绸裹尸布中放些东西，以为自己祈求祝福。他们说他们的伏都教徒将会非常强大。

09 主人家招待的人数越多，越有面子

■ 轮候的人正在看"hira gasy"。

第二天是最重要的一天，因为所有客人和附近的村民都会来观看"hira gasy"（马达加斯加传统音乐）并吃饭。一共有两组"hira gasy"，一组为白天，一组为了晚上。因为它们要进行一整天。

这是非常累的一天，我们要从上午 9 点为他们提供食物到下午 4 点。这个地方只能容纳大约 50 个人，所以我们还必须设法阻止更多的人进入。

事实上，如果那天不能招待数百甚至数千人，这对于这一家来说会是一个巨大的耻辱。按照习俗，进来时，每一家要给一个装有钱的信封。只有给了钱的人才可以进入。

我们必须把他们的名字和钱数记在本子里，最后看看都有谁来了以及给了多少钱。下一次，当他们邀请我们时，我们需要给出至少差不多数目的钱。村民和家人轮流进入，还必须通报他们的住所，以避免入侵者。

■ 我的哥哥们在拦着没有遵照安排的村民。

最后一天，我们将尸体埋到新墓中。为了等到下午 1 点，会有一些打气的歌手在现场。

总的来说，这是充满情感的"翻尸节"。外国人也许会觉得这是一个奇怪的节日，但我认为这对我们的习俗很有启发性。当外国人在协助这些仪式时，他们认为场面一团糟且令人恐惧。但是对于主办的家庭来说，一切都是有意义的，且组织良好，使大家庭和村民都更团结在一起。

10 翻尸节意义在于尊重祖先的土地

一般而言，我们并不称马达加斯加是我们的Firenena或国家，而是我们的"Tanindrazana"（马达加斯加语，"祖先的土地"的意思）。

我认为这是由于我们祖先的文化没有受到基督教的影响。我们总是被教育要回到自己的国家，特别是当年老的时候。我见过很多马达加斯加人嫁给外国人的例子，即使会影响他们的婚姻，他们也想在马达加斯加退休。如果身体没有被埋在自己"祖先的土地"，那将是一个很大的家庭耻辱，尤其是对于男人而言。不幸的是，许多外国人（例如中国人）不理解为什么马达加斯加人对自己的土地要求如此严格。

几年前，有一些中国投资者想毁坏马达加斯加的一个村庄以进行利用。当地人进行了一些示威，以表明他们对此有多不满。问题不在于土地或房屋，而在于"祖先的土地"，那是一家人的根基所在。

事实上，当一个孩子出生，父母会将胎盘和脐带埋在自家门口附近。不知道自己是谁，或试图遵循别国文化的人被称为"失去脐带的人"。我们认为他会因为祖先的悲伤或我们所说的"tsiny"而在生活中倍感挣扎。

■ 我母亲的祖先家，住了将近 200 年，他们的脐带埋在这里。

如我之前所说的，我们总是向祖先和上帝祈求祝福。我们始终尽力维护祖先的房屋，因为这是他们的脐带被埋葬的地方。在我母亲出生的村庄里，祖先的房子已经存在了将近 200 年。我母亲祖父母的祖父母是第一个住在那里的人。他们那一代所有人的脐带都埋在门的附近。我们不允许它被破坏，我们在它附近建造房屋。

对于我们来说，翻尸节意义重大，因为它反映了我们的座右铭：Tanindrazana（祖先的土地）和Fihavanana（我们与家园的距离有多密切）。

原标题：《岛国女孩描绘非洲最传统的翻尸节，他们将遗体取出一起跳舞 | 非洲真实故事》

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岛国女孩描绘非洲最传统的翻尸节，他们将遗体取出一起跳舞_湃客_澎湃新闻-The Paper

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2020-12-02 14:39 来源：澎湃新闻·澎湃号·湃客 原创 PUMBAA 游猪生态 每个地方都有自己纪念逝去亲人的方式，而在马达加斯加，死者和生者的联系则更为密切。每隔一段时间，这里的人们就会把亲人的遗体从墓室中请出来，和家人一起跳舞。他们把这个仪式叫做Famadihana（翻尸节），以此表达对祖先的尊敬。 作者/爱美丽 Amelie ...

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10种世界上最常见的丧葬方式，切记谨慎思考后再观看

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Day of the Dead

Observed by

Mexico, and regions with large Mexican populations

Type

Cultural

Christian (with syncretic elements)[1]

Significance

Prayer and remembrance of friends and family members who have died

Celebrations

Creation of home altars to remember the dead, traditional dishes for the Day of the Dead

Begins

November 1

Ends

November 2

Date
November 2

Next time

2 November 2024

Frequency

Annual

Related to

All Saints' Day, All Hallows' Eve, All Souls Day[1]

The Day of the Dead ( Spanish: el Día de Muertos or el Día de los Muertos) is a holiday traditionally celebrated on November 1 and 2, though other days, such as October 31 or November 6, may be included depending on the locality. It is widely observed in Mexico, where it largely developed, and is also observed in other places, especially by people of Mexican heritage. The observance falls during the Christian period of Allhallowtide. Some argue that there are Indigenous Mexican or ancient Aztec influences that account for the custom, and it has become a way to remember those forebears of Mexican culture. The Day of the Dead is largely seen as having a festive characteristic. The multi-day holiday involves family and friends gathering to pay respects and to remember friends and family members who have died. These celebrations can take a humorous tone, as celebrants remember funny events and anecdotes about the departed.

Traditions connected with the holiday include honoring the deceased using calaveras and marigold flowers known as cempazúchitl, building home altars called ofrendas with the favorite foods and beverages of the departed, and visiting graves with these items as gifts for the deceased. The celebration is not solely focused on the dead, as it is also common to give gifts to friends such as candy sugar skulls, to share traditional pan de muerto with family and friends, and to write light-hearted and often irreverent verses in the form of mock epitaphs dedicated to living friends and acquaintances, a literary form known as calaveras literarias.

In 2008, the tradition was inscribed in the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.

Origins, history, and similarities to other festivities

Mexican academics are divided on whether the festivity has genuine indigenous pre-Hispanic roots or whether it is a 20th-century rebranded version of a Spanish tradition developed during the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas to encourage Mexican nationalism through an "Aztec" identity. The festivity has become a national symbol in recent decades and it is taught in the nation's school system asserting a native origin. In 2008, the tradition was inscribed in the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.

Views differ on whether the festivity has indigenous pre-Hispanic roots, whether it is a more modern adaptation of an existing European tradition, or a combination of both as a manifestation of syncretism. The beginning of the Christian observance of Allhallowtide, including All Saints' Day and its vigil, as well as All Souls' Day, is observed on the same days in places like Spain and Southern Europe, and elsewhere in Christendom. Critics of the native American origin claim that even though pre-Columbian Mexico had traditions that honored the dead, current depictions of the festivity have more in common with European traditions of Danse macabre and their allegories of life and death personified in the human skeleton to remind of the ephemeral nature of life. Over the past decades, however, Mexican academia has increasingly questioned the validity of this assumption, even going as far as calling it a politically motivated fabrication. Historian Elsa Malvido, researcher for the Mexican Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH, or National Institute of Anthropology and History) and founder of the institute's Taller de Estudios sobre la Muerte (Workshop of Studies on Death), was the first to do so in the context of her wider research into Mexican attitudes to death and disease across the centuries. Malvido completely discards a native or even syncretic origin arguing that the tradition can be fully traced to Medieval Europe. She highlights the existence of similar traditions on the same day, not just in Spain, but in the rest of Catholic Southern Europe and Latin America such as altars for the dead, sweets in the shape of skulls and bread in the shape of bones.

Agustin Sanchez Gonzalez has a similar view in his article published in the INAH's bi-monthly journal Arqueología Mexicana. Gonzalez states that, even though the "indigenous" narrative became hegemonic, the spirit of the festivity has far more in common with European traditions of Danse macabre and their allegories of life and death personified in the human skeleton to remind us the ephemeral nature of life. He also highlights that in the 19th-century press there was little mention of the Day of the Dead in the sense that we know it today. All there was were long processions to cemeteries, sometimes ending with drunkenness. Elsa Malvido also points to the recent origin of the tradition of "velar" or staying up all night with the dead. It resulted from the Reform Laws under the presidency of Benito Juarez which forced family pantheons out of Churches and into civil cemeteries, requiring rich families to have servants guard family possessions displayed at altars.

The historian Ricardo Pérez Montfort has further demonstrated how the ideology known as indigenismo became more and more closely linked to post-revolutionary official projects whereas Hispanismo was identified with conservative political stances. This exclusive nationalism began to displace all other cultural perspectives, to the point that in the 1930s the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl was officially promoted by the government as a substitute for the Spanish Three Kings tradition, with a person dressed up as the deity offering gifts to poor children.

In this context, the Day of the Dead began to be officially isolated from the Catholic Church by the leftist government of Lázaro Cárdenas motivated both by "indigenismo" and left-leaning anti-clericalism. Malvido herself goes as far as calling the festivity a "Cardenist invention" whereby the Catholic elements are removed and emphasis is laid on indigenous iconography, the focus on death and what Malvido considers to be the cultural invention according to which Mexicans venerate death. Gonzalez explains that Mexican nationalism developed diverse cultural expressions with a seal of tradition but which are essentially social constructs which eventually developed ancestral tones. One of these would be the Catholic Día de Muertos which, during the 20th century, appropriated the elements of an ancient pagan rite.

One key element of the re-developed festivity which appears during this time is La Calavera Catrina by Mexican lithographer José Guadalupe Posada. According to Gonzalez, while Posada is portrayed in current times as the "restorer" of Mexico's pre-Hispanic tradition, he was never interested in Native American culture or history. Posada was predominantly interested in drawing scary images which are far closer to those of the European renaissance or the horrors painted by Francisco de Goya in the Spanish War of Independence against Napoleon than to the Mexica tzompantli. The recent trans-Atlantic connection can also be observed in the pervasive use of couplet in allegories of death and the play Don Juan Tenorio by 19th-century Spanish writer José Zorrilla which is represented on this date both in Spain and in Mexico since the early 19th century due to its ghostly apparitions and cemetery scenes.

Opposing views assert that despite the obvious European influence, there exists proof of pre-Columbian festivities that were very similar in spirit, with the Aztec people having at least six celebrations during the year that were very similar to Day of the Dead, the closest one being Quecholli, a celebration that honored Mixcóatl (the god of war) and was celebrated between October 20 and November 8. This celebration included elements such as the placement of altars with food (tamales) near the burying grounds of warriors to help them in their journey to the afterlife. Influential Mexican poet and Nobel prize laureate Octavio Paz strongly supported the syncretic view of the Día de Muertos tradition being a continuity of ancient Aztec festivals celebrating death, as is most evident in the chapter "All Saints, Day of the Dead" of his 1950 book-length essay The Labyrinth of Solitude.

Ruben C. Cordova emphasizes the zeal with which the Spanish attempted to extinguish indigenous religious beliefs and practices, such that it is often difficult to reconstruct their main features. Over time, indigenous converts became extremely devout Catholics. As Mexico modernized, the traditional practices that the Spanish had brought to the Americas survived most robustly in rural and less affluent communities, which had high concentrations of indigenous and mestizo populations. Thus archaic Spanish religious practices in marginal areas came to be mistakenly regarded as the "pure" core of primarily "indigenous" Day of the Dead festivities.

The Aztecs devoted two twenty-day months in their ritual calendar to the dead: the ninth and tenth months, which were for children and adults, respectively. Cordova argues that some recollection of these festivals "was compressed down to two days and cryptically celebrated within the Catholic liturgical calendar", which is why, in Mexico, "unlike other Latin American countries with Day of the Dead traditions - All Saints' Day is dedicated to children, and All Souls' Day is dedicated to adults."

He also notes that the same object, such as a stone skull carved by the Aztecs, would have different meanings in different religious contexts. For the Aztecs, bones-and skulls in particular-were reservoirs of enormous sacred power. A stone skull could evoke sacrifice, and the skull racks where the skulls of sacrificed captives were displayed. The Spanish could take an Aztec skull and repurpose it by placing it on a holy water font, or under a cross in a cemetery, whereby it would be transformed into a memento mori.

Regardless of its origin, the festivity has become a national symbol in Mexico and as such is taught in the nation's school system, typically asserting a native origin. It is also a school holiday nationwide.

Observance in Mexico

Altars and installations in Mexico City museums and public spaces

A number of Mexico City's museums and public spaces have played an important part in developing and promoting urban Day of the Dead traditions through altars and installations. These notable organizations include: Anahuacalli, The Frida Kahlo Museum, The Museum of Popular Cultures, The Dolores Olmedo Museum, The Museum of the First Printing Press, and The Cloister of Sor Juana. From turn of the millennium until the imposition of the James Bond-inspired parade, remarkable large-scale installations were created on the Zocalo, Mexico City's central square.

During Día de Muertos, the tradition is to build private altars ("ofrendas") containing the favorite foods and beverages, as well as photos and memorabilia, of the departed. The intent is to encourage visits by the souls, so the souls will hear the prayers and the words of the living directed to them. These altars are often placed at home or in public spaces such as schools and libraries, but it is also common for people to go to cemeteries to place these altars next to the tombs of the departed.

Plans for the day are made throughout the year, including gathering the goods to be offered to the dead. During the three-day period families usually clean and decorate graves; most visit the cemeteries where their loved ones are buried and decorate their graves with ofrendas (altars), which often include orange Mexican marigolds (Tagetes erecta) called cempasúchil (originally named cempōhualxōchitl, Nāhuatl for 'twenty flowers'). In modern Mexico the marigold is sometimes called Flor de Muerto ('Flower of Dead'). These flowers are thought to attract souls of the dead to the offerings. It is also believed the bright petals with a strong scent can guide the souls from cemeteries to their family homes. The common name in English, marigold, is derived from Mary's gold, a name first applied to a similar plant native to Europe, Calendula officinalis.

Toys are brought for dead children ( los angelitos, or 'the little angels'), and bottles of tequila, mezcal or pulque or jars of atole for adults. Families will also offer trinkets or the deceased's favorite candies on the grave. Some families have ofrendas in homes, usually with foods such as candied pumpkin, pan de muerto ('bread of dead'), and sugar skulls; and beverages such as atole. The ofrendas are left out in the homes as a welcoming gesture for the deceased. Some people believe the spirits of the dead eat the "spiritual essence" of the ofrendas' food, so though the celebrators eat the food after the festivities, they believe it lacks nutritional value. Pillows and blankets are left out so the deceased can rest after their long journey. In some parts of Mexico, such as the towns of Mixquic, Pátzcuaro and Janitzio, people spend all night beside the graves of their relatives. In many places, people have picnics at the grave site, as well.

Families tidying and decorating graves at a cemetery in Almoloya del Río in the State of Mexico, 1995

Some families build altars or small shrines in their homes; these sometimes feature a Christian cross, statues or pictures of the Blessed Virgin Mary, pictures of deceased relatives and other people, scores of candles, and an ofrenda. Traditionally, families spend some time around the altar, praying and telling anecdotes about the deceased. In some locations, celebrants wear shells on their clothing, so when they dance, the noise will wake up the dead; some will also dress up as the deceased.

During Day of the Dead festivities, food is both eaten by living people and given to the spirits of their departed ancestors as ofrendas ('offerings'). Tamales are one of the most common dishes prepared for this day for both purposes.

Family altar for the Day of the Dead on a patio

Pan de muerto and calaveras are associated specifically with Day of the Dead. Pan de muerto is a type of sweet roll shaped like a bun, topped with sugar, and often decorated with bone-shaped pieces of the same pastry. Calaveras, or sugar skulls, display colorful designs to represent the vitality and individual personality of the departed.

In addition to food, drinks are also important to the tradition of Day of the Dead. Historically, the main alcoholic drink was pulque; today families will commonly drink the favorite beverage of their deceased ancestors. Other drinks associated with the holiday are atole and champurrado, warm, thick, non-alcoholic masa drinks.

Agua de Jamaica (water of hibiscus) is a popular herbal tea made of the flowers and leaves of the Jamaican hibiscus plant (Hibiscus sabdariffa), known as flor de Jamaica in Mexico. It is served cold and quite sweet with a lot of ice. The ruby-red beverage is also known as hibiscus tea in English-speaking countries.

In the Yucatán Peninsula, mukbil pollo ( píib chicken) is traditionally prepared on October 31 or November 1, and eaten by the family throughout the following days. It is similar to a big tamale, composed of masa and pork lard, and stuffed with pork, chicken, tomato, garlic, peppers, onions, epazote, achiote, and spices. Once stuffed, the mukbil pollo is bathed in kool sauce, made with meat broth, habanero chili, and corn masa. It is then covered in banana leaves and steamed in an underground oven over the course of several hours. Once cooked, it is dug up and opened to eat.

A common symbol of the holiday is the skull (in Spanish calavera), which celebrants represent in masks, called calacas (colloquial term for skeleton), and foods such as chocolate or sugar skulls, which are inscribed with the name of the recipient on the forehead. Sugar skulls can be given as gifts to both the living and the dead. Other holiday foods include pan de muerto, a sweet egg bread made in various shapes from plain rounds to skulls, often decorated with white frosting to look like twisted bones.

In some parts of the country, especially the larger cities, children in costumes roam the streets, knocking on people's doors for a calaverita, a small gift of candies or money; they also ask passersby for it. This custom is similar to that of Halloween's trick-or-treating in the United States, but without the component of mischief to homeowners if no treat is given.

A distinctive literary form exists within this holiday where people write short poems in traditional rhyming verse, called calaveras literarias (lit. "literary skulls"), which are mocking, light-hearted epitaphs mostly dedicated to friends, classmates, co-workers, or family members (living or dead) but also to public or historical figures, describing interesting habits and attitudes, as well as comedic or absurd anecdotes that use death-related imagery which includes but is not limited to cemeteries, skulls, or the grim reaper, all of this in situations where the dedicatee has an encounter with death itself. This custom originated in the 18th or 19th century after a newspaper published a poem narrating a dream of a cemetery in the future which included the words "and all of us were dead", and then proceeding to read the tombstones. Current newspapers dedicate calaveras literarias to public figures, with cartoons of skeletons in the style of the famous calaveras of José Guadalupe Posada, a Mexican illustrator. In modern Mexico, calaveras literarias are a staple of the holiday in many institutions and organizations, for example, in public schools, students are encouraged or required to write them as part of the language class.

José Guadalupe Posada's depiction of La Calavera Catrina, shown wearing a then-fashionable early 20th-century hat.[39]

Posada's most famous print, La Calavera Catrina ("The Elegant Skull"), was likely intended as a criticism of Mexican upper-class women who imitated European fashions. It was first published posthumously in a broadside with a text (not by Posada) that mocked working-class vendors of chickpeas.

Posada's image of a skeletal figure with a big hat decorated with two ostrich feathers and flowers was elaborated into a full scale figure by Mexican Muralist Diego Rivera in a fresco painted in 1946-47. Rivera's Catrina has a simple Tehuana dress and a feather boa, as well as other features that make allusions to the indigenous peoples of Mexico. Through the addition of these indigenous features, Rivera rehabilitated Catrina into a nationalist emblem.

The Catrina character has become deeply associated with the Day of the Dead. Catrina figures made of a wide range of materials, as well as people with Catrina costumes, have come to play a prominent role in modern Day of the Dead observances in Mexico and elsewhere. The Catrina phenomenon has in fact gone beyond Day of the Dead, resulting in non-seasonal and even permanent "Catrinas", including COVID-19 masks, tattoos, permanently decorated cars, and Catrina-themed artworks. Some artists have even developed a sub-specialization in Catrina imagery.

Theatrical presentations of Don Juan Tenorio by José Zorrilla (1817-1893) are also traditional on this day.

Local traditions

The traditions and activities that take place in celebration of the Day of the Dead are not universal, often varying from town to town. For example, in the town of Pátzcuaro on the Lago de Pátzcuaro in Michoacán, the tradition is very different if the deceased is a child rather than an adult. On November 1 of the year after a child's death, the godparents set a table in the parents' home with sweets, fruits, pan de muerto, a cross, a rosary (used to ask the Virgin Mary to pray for them), and candles. This is meant to celebrate the child's life, in respect and appreciation for the parents. There is also dancing with colorful costumes, often with skull-shaped masks and devil masks in the plaza or garden of the town. At midnight on November 2, the people light candles and ride winged boats called mariposas (butterflies) to Janitzio, an island in the middle of the lake where there is a cemetery, to honor and celebrate the lives of the dead there.

In contrast, the town of Ocotepec, north of Cuernavaca in the State of Morelos, opens its doors to visitors in exchange for veladoras (small wax candles) to show respect for the recently deceased. In return the visitors receive tamales and atole. This is done only by the owners of the house where someone in the household has died in the previous year. Many people of the surrounding areas arrive early to eat for free and enjoy the elaborate altars set up to receive the visitors.

Another peculiar tradition involving children is La Danza de los Viejitos (the Dance of the Old Men) where boys and young men dressed like grandfathers crouch and jump in an energetic dance.

In the 2015 James Bond film , the opening sequence features a Day of the Dead parade in Mexico City. At the time, no such parade took place in Mexico City; one year later, due to the interest in the film and the government desire to promote the Mexican culture, the federal and local authorities decided to organize an actual Día de Muertos parade through Paseo de la Reforma and Centro Historico on October 29, 2016, which was attended by 250,000 people. This could be seen as an example of the pizza effect. The idea of a massive celebration was also popularized in the Disney Pixar movie .

Observances outside of Mexico

United States

An ánima for the dead

Women with calaveras makeup celebrating Día de Muertos in the Mission District of San Francisco, California

In many U.S. communities with Mexican residents, Day of the Dead celebrations are very similar to those held in Mexico. In some of these communities, in states such as Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, the celebrations tend to be mostly traditional. The All Souls Procession has been an annual event since 1990 in Tucson, Arizona. The event combines elements of traditional Day of the Dead celebrations with those of pagan harvest festivals. People wearing masks carry signs honoring the dead and an urn in which people can place slips of paper with prayers on them to be burned. Likewise, Old Town San Diego, California, annually hosts a traditional two-day celebration culminating in a candlelight procession to the historic El Campo Santo Cemetery.

The festival also was held annually at historic Forest Hills Cemetery in Boston's Jamaica Plain neighborhood. Sponsored by Forest Hills Educational Trust and the folkloric performance group La Piñata, the Day of the Dead festivities celebrated the cycle of life and death. People brought offerings of flowers, photos, mementos, and food for their departed loved ones, which they placed at an elaborately and colorfully decorated altar. A program of traditional music and dance also accompanied the community event. The Jamaica Plain celebration was discontinued in 2011.

The Smithsonian Institution, in collaboration with the University of Texas at El Paso and Second Life, have created a Smithsonian Latino Virtual Museum and accompanying multimedia e-book: Día de los Muertos: Day of the Dead. The project's website contains some of the text and images which explain the origins of some of the customary core practices related to the Day of the Dead, such as the background beliefs and the offrenda (the special altar commemorating one's deceased loved one). The Made For iTunes multimedia e-book version provides additional content, such as further details; additional photo galleries; pop-up profiles of influential Latino artists and cultural figures over the decades; and video clips of interviews with artists who make Día de Muertos-themed artwork, explanations and performances of Aztec and other traditional dances, an animation short that explains the customs to children, virtual poetry readings in English and Spanish.

In 2021, the Biden-Harris administration celebrated the Día de Muertos.

California

Santa Ana, California, is said to hold the "largest event in Southern California" honoring Día de Muertos, called the annual Noche de Altares, which began in 2002. The celebration of the Day of the Dead in Santa Ana has grown to two large events with the creation of an event held at the Santa Ana Regional Transportation Center for the first time on November 1, 2015.

In other communities, interactions between Mexican traditions and American culture are resulting in celebrations in which Mexican traditions are being extended to make artistic or sometimes political statements. For example, in Los Angeles, California, the Self Help Graphics & Art Mexican-American cultural center presents an annual Day of the Dead celebration that includes both traditional and political elements, such as altars to honor the victims of the Iraq War, highlighting the high casualty rate among Latino soldiers. An updated, intercultural version of the Day of the Dead is also evolving at Hollywood Forever Cemetery. There, in a mixture of Native Californian art, Mexican traditions and Hollywood hip, conventional altars are set up side by side with altars to Jayne Mansfield and Johnny Ramone. Colorful native dancers and music intermix with performance artists, while sly pranksters play on traditional themes.

Similar traditional and intercultural updating of Mexican celebrations are held in San Francisco. For example, the Galería de la Raza, SomArts Cultural Center, Mission Cultural Center, de Young Museum and altars at Garfield Square by the Marigold Project. Oakland is home to Corazon Del Pueblo in the Fruitvale district. Corazon Del Pueblo has a shop offering handcrafted Mexican gifts and a museum devoted to Day of the Dead artifacts. Also, the Fruitvale district in Oakland serves as the hub of the Día de Muertos annual festival which occurs the last weekend of October. Here, a mix of several Mexican traditions come together with traditional Aztec dancers, regional Mexican music, and other Mexican artisans to celebrate the day.

In San Diego, California, the city that borders Mexico, the celebrations range across the entire county. All the way up at the most northern part of the county, Oceanside celebrates their annual event which includes community and family altars built around the Oceanside Civic Center and Pier View Way, as well as events at the Mission San Luis Rey de Francia. In the more central area of San Diego, City Heights celebrates through a public festival in Jeremy Henwood Memorial Park that includes at least 35 altars, lowriders, and entertainment, all for free. Down in Chula Vista, they celebrate the tradition through a movie night at Third and Davidson streets where they will be screening "Coco." This movie night also consists of a community altar, an Altar contest, a catrin/catrina contest, as well as lots of music, food, and vendors. Overall, San Diego is booming with colorful celebrations honoring ancestors across the county.

In Italy, November 2 is All Souls' Day and is colloquially known as Day of the Dead or "Giorno dei Morti". While many regional nuances exist, celebrations generally consist of placing flowers at cemeteries and family burial sites and speaking to deceased relatives. Some traditions also include lighting a red candle or "lumino" on the window sills at sunset and laying out a table of food for deceased relatives who will come to visit. Like other Day of the Dead traditions around the world, Giorno dei Morti is a day dedicated to honoring the lives of those who have died. Additionally, it is a tradition that teaches children not to be afraid of death.

In Sicily, families celebrate a long-held Day of the Dead tradition called The Festival of the Dead or "Festa dei Morti". On the eve of November 1, La Festa di Ognissanti, or All Saints' Day, older family members act as the "defunti", or spirits of deceased family members, who sneak into the home and hide sweets and gifts for their young descendants to awake to. On the morning of November 2, children begin the day by hunting to find the gifts in shoes or a special wicker basket of the dead called "cannistru dei morti" or "u cannistru", which typically consist of various sweets, small toys, boned-shaped almond flavored cookies called "ossa dei morti", sugar dolls called "pupi di zucchero", and fruit, vegetable, and ghoul shaped marzipan treats called " Frutta martorana". The pupi di zucchero, thought to be an Arabic cultural import, are often found in the shapes of folkloric characters who represent humanized versions of the souls of the dead. Eating the sugar dolls reflects the idea of the individual absorbing the dead and, in doing so, bringing the dead back to life within themselves on November 2. After gifts are shared and breakfast is enjoyed, the whole family will often visit the cemetery or burial site bearing flowers. They will light candles and play amongst the graves to thank the deceased for the gifts, before enjoying a hearty feast. The tradition holds that the spirits of the deceased will remain with the family to enjoy a day of feasting and merriment.

Acclaimed Sicilian author Andrea Camilleri recounts his Giorno dei Morti experience as boy, as well as the negative cultural impact that WWII era American influence had on the long-held tradition.

"Every Sicilian house where there was a little boy was populated with dead familiar to him. Not ghosts with white linzòlo and with the scrunch of chains, mind you, not those that are frightening, but such and as they were seen in the photographs exhibited in the living room, worn, the occasional half smile printed on the face, the good ironed dress in a workmanlike manner, they made no difference with the living. We Nicareddri, before going to bed, put a wicker basket under the bed (the size varied according to the money there was in the family) that at night the dear dead would fill with sweets and gifts that we would find on the 2nd morning upon awakening. After a restless sleep we woke up at dawn to go hunting... Because the dead wanted to play with us, to give us fun, and therefore they didn't put the basket back where they had found it, but went to hide it carefully, we had to look for it... The toys were tin trains, wooden toy cars, rag dolls, wooden cubes that formed landscapes... On November 2nd we returned the visit that the dead had paid us the day before: it was not a ritual, but an affectionate custom. Then, in 1943, with the American soldiers the Christmas tree arrived and slowly, year after year, the dead lost their way to the houses where they were waiting for them, happy and awake until the end, the children or the children of the children... Pity. We had lost the possibility of touching, materially, that thread that binds our personal history to that of those who had preceded us..."

Food plays an important part of Italy's day of the dead tradition, with various regional treats being used as offerings to the dead on their journey to the afterlife. In Tuscany and Milan the "pane dei morti" or "bread of the dead" is said to be the characteristic offering. In northern Apulia, a wheat growing region, a sweet dish for the Day of the Dead is Colva or "Grains of the Dead". Fave dei morti or "fava beans of the dead" are another dish for the day found widespread through Italy. Ossa dei morti, suitably elongated and frosted "bones of the dead" are sweets found in Apulia and Sicily. In Sicily, families enjoy special day of the dead cakes and cookies that are made into symbolic shapes such as skulls and finger bones. The "sweets of the dead" are a marzipan treats called frutta martorana. On the night of November 1, Sicilian parents and grandparents traditionally buy Frutta di Martorana to gift to children on November 2.

In addition to visiting their own family members, some people pay respects to those without a family. Some Italians take it upon themselves to adopt centuries-old unclaimed bodies and give them offerings like money or jewelry as a way to ease their pain and ask for favors.

Asia and Oceania

Mexican-style Day of the Dead celebrations occur in major cities in Australia, Fiji, and Indonesia. Additionally, prominent celebrations are held in Wellington, New Zealand, complete with altars celebrating the deceased with flowers and gifts.

Philippines

A ofrenda in a Filipino American household.

Due to the close cultural connections of the Philippines and Mexico, with extensive links going back to the Spanish Empire, the Day of the Dead is celebrated in this Hispanic-Asian country as well. In the Philippines "Undás", "Araw ng mga Yumao" (Tagalog: "Day of those who have died"), coincides with the Roman Catholic celebration of All Saints' Day and continues on to the following day: All Souls' Day. Filipinos traditionally observe this day by visiting the family dead to clean and repair their tombs, just as is done in Mexico. Offerings of prayers, flowers, candles, and even food, while Chinese Filipinos additionally burn joss sticks and joss paper ( kim). Many also spend the day and ensuing night holding reunions at the cemetery, having feasts and merriment.

Czech Republic

As part of a promotion by the Mexican embassy in Prague, Czech Republic, since the late 20th century, some local citizens join in a Mexican-style Day of the Dead. A theater group conducts events involving candles, masks, and make-up using luminous paint in the form of sugar skulls.

In Belize, Day of the Dead is practiced by people of the Yucatec Maya ethnicity. The celebration is known as Hanal Pixan which means 'food for the souls' in their language. Altars are constructed and decorated with food, drinks, candies, and candles put on them.

Día de las Ñatitas ("Day of the Skulls") is a festival celebrated in La Paz, Bolivia, at the beginning of November after the celebrations of All Saints. In pre-Columbian times indigenous Andeans had a tradition of sharing a day with the bones of their ancestors on the third year after burial. Today families keep only the skulls for such rituals. Traditionally, the skulls of family members are kept at home to watch over the family and protect them during the year. On November 9, the family crowns the skulls with fresh flowers, sometimes also dressing them in various garments, and making offerings of cigarettes, coca leaves, alcohol, and various other items in thanks for the year's protection. The skulls are also sometimes taken to the central cemetery in La Paz for a special Mass and blessing.

The Brazilian public holiday of Dia de Finados, Dia dos Mortos or Dia dos Fiéis Defuntos (Portuguese: "Day of the Dead" or "Day of the Faithful Deceased") is celebrated on November 2. Similar to other Day of the Dead celebrations, people go to cemeteries and churches with flowers and candles and offer prayers. The celebration is intended as a positive honoring of the dead. Memorializing the dead draws from indigenous and European Catholic origins.

Costa Rica celebrates Día De Los Muertos on November 2. The day is also called Día de Todos Santos ( All Saints Day) and Día de Todos Almas ( All Souls Day). Catholic masses are celebrated and people visit their loved ones' graves to decorate them with flowers and candles.

In Ecuador the Day of the Dead is observed to some extent by all parts of society, though it is especially important to the indigenous Kichwa peoples, who make up an estimated quarter of the population. Indigena families gather together in the community cemetery with offerings of food for a day-long remembrance of their ancestors and lost loved ones. Ceremonial foods include colada morada, a spiced fruit porridge that derives its deep purple color from the Andean blackberry and purple maize. This is typically consumed with guaguas de pan, bread shaped like infants (or, more generally, people), though variations include many pigs-the latter being traditional to the city of Loja. The bread, which is wheat flour-based today, but was made with masa in the Pre-Columbian era, can be made savory with cheese inside or sweet with a filling of guava paste. These traditions have permeated mainstream society, as well, where food establishments add both colada morada and guaguas de pan to their menus for the season. Many non-indigenous Ecuadorians visit the graves of the deceased, cleaning and bringing flowers, or preparing the traditional foods, too.

Guatemalan celebrations of the Day of the Dead, on November 1, are highlighted by the construction and flying of giant kites. It is customary to fly kites to help the spirits find their way back to Earth. A few kites have notes for the dead attached to the strings of the kites. The kites are used as a kind of telecommunication to heaven. A big event also is the consumption of , which is made only for this day during the year. In addition to the traditional visits to grave sites of ancestors, the tombs and graves are decorated with flowers, candles, and food for the dead. In a few towns, Guatemalans repair and repaint the cemetery with vibrant colors to bring the cemetery to life. They fix things that have gotten damaged over the years or just simply need a touch-up, such as wooden grave cross markers. They also lay flower wreaths on the graves. Some families have picnics in the cemetery.

It is common for Peruvians to visit the cemetery, play music and bring flowers to decorate the graves of dead relatives.

Southern Italy and Sicily

A traditional biscotti-type cookie, ossa di morto or bones of the dead are made and placed in shoes once worn by dead relatives.

References

Further reading

Andrade, Mary J. Day of the Dead A Passion for Life - Día de los Muertos Pasión por la Vida. La Oferta Publishing, 2007. ISBN 978-0-9791624-04

Anguiano, Mariana, et al. Las tradiciones de Día de Muertos en México. Mexico City 1987.

Brandes, Stanley (1997). "Sugar, Colonialism, and Death: On the Origins of Mexico's Day of the Dead". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 39 (2): 270-299. doi:10.1017/S0010417500020624. S2CID 145402658.

Brandes, Stanley (1998). "The Day of the Dead, Halloween, and the Quest for Mexican National Identity". Journal of American Folklore. 111 (442): 359-380. doi:10.2307/541045. JSTOR 541045.

Brandes, Stanley (1998). "Iconography in Mexico's Day of the Dead". Ethnohistory. 45 (2). Duke University Press: 181-218. doi:10.2307/483058. JSTOR 483058.

Brandes, Stanley (2006). Skulls to the Living, Bread to the Dead. Blackwell Publishing. p. 232. ISBN 978-1-4051-5247-1.

Cadafalch, Antoni. The Day of the Dead. Korero Books, 2011. ISBN 978-1-907621-01-7

Carmichael, Elizabeth; Sayer, Chloe. The Skeleton at the Feast: The Day of the Dead in Mexico. Great Britain: The Bath Press, 1991. ISBN 0-7141-2503-2

Conklin, Paul (2001). "Death Takes a Holiday". U.S. Catholic. 66: 38-41.

Cordova, Ruben C. (2005). "Calaveras". In Ilan Stavans, ed.-in-chief, and Harold Augenbraum, assoc. ed., Encyclopedia Latina: History, Culture, and Society in the United States. Danbury, CT: Grolier Academic Reference, 4 vols.: I: 248 - 249.

Cordova, Ruben C. (2005). "Posada, José Guadalupe". In Ilan Stavans, ed.-in-chief, and Harold Augenbraum, assoc. ed., Encyclopedia Latina: History, Culture, and Society in the United States. Danbury, CT: Grolier Academic Reference, 4 vols.: II: 258 - 259.

Cordova, Ruben C. (2019). "Is Day of the Dead More Indigenous or Catholic? Friars Durán and Sahagún vs. Wikipedia". Glasstire, October 31.

Cordova, Ruben C. (2019). "José Guadalupe Posada and Diego Rivera Fashion Catrina: From Sellout To National Icon (and Back Again?)". Glasstire, November 2.

Cordova, Ruben C. (2019). "A Guide to Day of the Dead in Mexico City". Glasstire, November 2.

Cordova, Ruben C. (2019). The Day of the Dead in Art. San Antonio, TX: City of San Antonio Department of Arts & Culture, Centro de Artes. https://www.getcreativesanantonio.com/Portals/3/Files/DOD_CATALGOGUE_digital.pdf

Cordova, Ruben C. (2020). "A Brief History of Day of the Dead". San Antonio Report, November 1,

Cordova, Ruben C. (2020). "Catrina Mania!". Glasstire, November 2.

Cordova, Ruben C. (2021). "Catrina Mania III". Glasstire, November 1.

Cordova, Ruben C. (2022). "Catrina Mania IV: Brandon Maldonado's Catrinas". Glasstire, October 30.

Garcia-Rivera, Alex (1997). "Death Takes a Holiday". U.S. Catholic. 62: 50.

Haley, Shawn D.; Fukuda, Curt. Day of the Dead: When Two Worlds Meet in Oaxaca. Berhahn Books, 2004. ISBN 1-84545-083-3

Lane, Sarah and Marilyn Turkovich, Días de los Muertos/Days of the Dead. Chicago 1987.

Lomnitz, Claudio. Death and the Idea of Mexico. Zone Books, 2005. ISBN 1-890951-53-6

Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo, et al. "Miccahuitl: El culto a la muerte", special issue of Artes de México 145 (1971)

Nutini, Hugo G. Todos Santos in Rural Tlaxcala: A Syncretic, Expressive, and Symbolic Analysis of the Cult of the Dead. Princeton 1988.

Oliver Vega, Beatriz, et al. The Days of the Dead, a Mexican Tradition. Mexico City 1988.

Roy, Ann (1995). "A Crack Between the Worlds". Commonwealth. 122: 13-16.

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Day of the Dead Observed by Mexico, and regions with large Mexican populations Type Cultural Christian (with syncretic elements)[1] Significance Prayer and remembrance of friends and family members who have died Celebrations Creation of home altars to remember the dead, traditional dishes for the Day of the Dead Begins November

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I went to see the 'the Camden town murder series' series in his exhibition, where the same two figures (a man with a blurred face in clothes and a nude woman) are designed in such a way that the viewer can imagine different narratives and relationships between the figures through the different layouts of the images. His focus is on the emotional connection between the figures as a result of these different forms, rather than just on the visual effect of the images.

I was struck by this desire to try to experiment with different images and convey the emotions between the characters to the viewer, I always think that the images I've created recently don't have enough visual tension. I think it's actually kind of a lack of clarity on the specific point of what I really want to convey to the viewer. If I really knew that I needed to focus on what I wanted to say, what point of view and what emotion I wanted to convey, then it would be clearer in terms of the consideration of the image, or the use of the medium.

I should go through what I really want to say so that I have a more focused image. I don't just want to think about using a certain form, or achieving a strong visual effect.

Also, I really admire Walter's use of colour, and I found through my research that his later paintings were an inspiration to Pop Art. The later colours are bright, but I prefer his early series of exercises to the strong visual effects of the later ones, where he has achieved a subtle and precise control of all the spatial relationships and details in the overall very dark grey areas. The series of nighttime street scenes in particular are very pleasing to the eye. I really feel the charm of the use of wonderful colours in the images.

It was a wonderful exhibition and I learnt and thought a lot about it, thanks to my tutor's recommendation.

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Ophelia draws on the character of the same name in Shakespeare's Hamlet, who is apparently driven mad before falling in a river while picking wildflowers. To paint this enigmatic scene, Millais had his model Elizabeth Siddall lie fully dressed in a bath.

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Can You Find Ophelia at the Tate Britain? - Google 艺术与文化

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Ophelia draws on the character of the same name in Shakespeare's Hamlet, who is apparently driven mad before falling in a river while picking wildflowers. To paint this enigmatic scene, Millais had his model Elizabeth Siddall lie fully dressed in a bath.

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I used as an element those flowers picked in Hamlet, about Ophelia before she died.
The inspiration for this print came from the Tibetan Buddhist concept of dividing the human body in two, and from my book on human anatomy.
I think it is interesting to summarise the image for both the negative and positive parts. I wanted to bring out the sense of the woman as if she were asleep (as Ophelia is) and look serene and beautiful, while at the same time trying to show a sense of calm cruelty and severity in the anatomy.

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So it is with the resurrection of the dead. When we die, our earthly bodies are planted in the ground, but they will grow up and live forever. Our bodies are buried in brokenness , but they will grow up in glory. They are buried in weakness, but they will grow up. They are buried as natural human bodies, but they will be raised up as spiritual bodies. Just as there are natural bodies, so there are spiritual bodies.

...... Then, when our dying bodies become never-dead bodies, this Scripture will be fulfilled: "Death swallows up victory; death, where is your victory? Death, where is your sting? (1 Corinthians 15:35-55, extracts from verses 42-44; 54-55, NLT)

"For the LORD will come down from heaven with a loud command, with the voice of an angel and with the call of God, and the dead in Christ will rise first." (1 Thessalonians 4:16)

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A body farm is a research facility where decomposition can be studied in a variety of settings. The initial one was conceived by anthropologist William M. Bass in 1987 at the University of Tennessee in Knoxville, Tennessee, where Bass was interested in studying the decomposition of a human corpse fr…

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As one of the six paramitas of the Bodhisattva path, giving is a highly valued Buddhist practice. Buddhists believe that after death, the consciousness will either participate in the cycle of rebirth or enter nirvana through the merits of spiritual practice, and that the body is no longer useful to oneself and can be given to predators. The Sutra on Giving Up One's Body emphasises that after death, the body should be divided into two parts, one for the fish, turtles, shrimps and crabs in the water, and one for the birds, animals, insects and ants on the land, so that the deceased can eliminate the bad karma of previous lives. The Corpse Grove Sutra also emphasises that after death the body can be thrown into the Corpse Grove for giving to birds, animals, insects and fish, etc.

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A śmaśāna is a Hindu crematory ground, where dead bodies are brought to be burnt on a pyre. It is usually located near a river or body of water on the outskirts of a village or town; as they are usually located near river ghats they are also called smashan ghat.

The word has its origin from Sanskrit language: shma refers to shava ("corpse"), while shana refers to shanya ("bed"). The other Indian religions like Sikhism, Jainism and Buddhism also use śmaśāna for the last rites of the dead.

As per Hindu rites, the dead body is brought to śmaśāna for Antim Sanskar (last rites). At the cremation ground, the chief mourner has to obtain the sacred fire from the Dom caste, who reside by the śmaśāna and light funeral pyres ( chita) for a fee.

Various Hindu scriptures also give details of how to select the site of śmaśāna: it should be on the northern side of the village with land sloping towards the south, it should be near a river or a source of water and should not be visible from a distance.

Dead bodies are traditionally cremated on a funeral pyre usually made of wood. However, nowadays in many cities of India there are electric or gas based furnaces used in indoor crematoria.

In the Pali Canon discourses, Gautama Buddha frequently instructs his disciples to seek out a secluded dwelling (in a forest, under the shade of a tree, mountain, glen, hillside cave, charnel ground, jungle grove, in the open, or on a heap of straw). The Vinaya and Sutrayana tradition of the "Nine Cemetery Contemplations" (Pali: nava sīvathikā-manasikāra) described in the Satipatthana Sutta demonstrate that charnel ground and cemetery meditations were part of the ascetic practices in Early Buddhism.

'Cemetery contemplations', as described in Mahasatipatthana Sutta ( DN: 22) and the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta ( MN: 10):

...have as their objects a corpse one or two or three days old, swollen up, blue-black in colour, full of corruption; a corpse eaten by crows, etc.; a framework of bones; flesh hanging from it, bespattered with blood, held together by the sinews; without flesh and blood, but still held together by the sinews; bones scattered in all direction; bleached and resembling shells; heaped together after the lapse of years; weathered and crumbled to dust.

At the end of each of these contemplations there follows the conclusion: "This body of mine also has this nature, has this destiny, cannot escape it."

Similar are the 10 objects of loathsomeness (asubha q.v.).

The śmaśāna is said to be abode of ghosts, evil spirits, fierce deities, tantrics. Therefore, people in general prefer to avoid going near śmaśāna at night. Per Hindu rituals women do not go to śmaśāna, only males go to śmaśāna to perform last rites. Only the Doms and Chandalas reside in or near śmaśāna.

Śmaśāna is a place, where followers of Vamamarga like Aghori, Kapalika, Kashmiri Shaivism, Kaula of now scarce Indian tantric traditions do sadahna (for example Shava sadhana) and rituals to worship Kali, Tara, Bhairav, Bhairavi, Dakini, Vetal, etc. invoke occult powers within them. Śmaśāna is also used for similar purpose by followers of Tibetan Buddhist traditions of Vajrayana, Dzogchen for sadhna of Chöd, Phowa, Zhitro, etc. The deity called Shmashana Adhipati is usually considered to be lord of Śmaśāna.

There are also cases of sattvic worship on śmaśān. For example, Shailendra Sharma, a realized yogin, has been living on a śmaśān near the Govardhan hill since 1993. He found and installed a natural shivalingam there and began to perform daily puja of Shiva worshipping.

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A śmaśāna is a Hindu crematory ground, where dead bodies are brought to be burnt on a pyre. It is usually located near a river or body of water on the outskirts of a village or town; as they are usually located near river ghats they are also called smashan ghat.