# data[].attributes.body
The plight of our Native Americans is ongoing. They supported their country, fought in three wars before receiving citizenship, and even then it took decades for the civil rights laws to be honored. The U.S. government, post Civil War, essentially took away their land, allotting only small portions back to them. In some ways, the battle for civil rights has been more complicated for Native Americans. Tribes were self-governing and yet, as citizens, also entitled to federal rights. This balancing of the two has been an ongoing source of confusion and disagreement. Nevertheless, the United States and tribal nations have signed over 350 treaties spanning hundreds of years. Many of those treaties have not been honored. Throughout the centuries, positive steps have been made. At least on paper, in 1924 Native Americans were granted full citizenship with the right to vote and in 1934 the government returned much of the land that was taken. In 1968 tribal nations created a Bill of Rights, protecting citizens living on tribal land. However, the battle for complete equality lingers; poverty and the lack of resources persist. Although the Voting Rights Act of 1965 boosted the Native American vote by banning literacy tests and some poll taxes, in 2013 states were given more power to change their voting rules.¹ In order to progress in providing complete equality we must honor our treaties. Specifically, we must clear the tribal lawsuits in our courts and do that quickly. Second, we must provide support for early childhood education so that Native Americans have the same access to equal education as the rest of our citizens. Finally, in more subtle ways we are still suppressing Native Americans’ right to vote by creating lopsided voting districts. Redistricting must occur in order to adequately represent tribal nations.

¹ History.com Editors, “Voting Rights Act 1965,” A&E Television Networks, November 9, 2009, accessed February 18th, 2022.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Expansion West put further pressure on Native Americans to assimilate

# data[].attributes.body
In the late 19th century, the native population was dwindling. The thinking of the time was that the remaining population should be assimilated into the dominant society.¹ In attempting to assimilate, efforts were made to abolish their religion, language and unique culture; so continued the centuries of inadequate treatment of our Native Americans. Passed during Grover Cleveland’s presidency, the Dawes Act of 1887 allowed for the allotment of land to individual Native Americans; however, the “surplus” land was given or sold to white people.² The land given to the Native Americans was often inferior and not worthy of farming. In addition, many of the Native Americans did not have the skills to farm on these substandard plots of land. If the allotment of land was accepted, U.S. citizenship was granted. Unfortunately, almost 100,000 million acres of land were taken and redistributed to American whites.³ Some Native Americans were paid for their land; however, lacking in education, many Native Americans did not have the skills to manage the money and often found themselves without land or funds.

¹ “Native Americans at the Turn of the Century,” Digital History, 2016, assessed February 18th, 2022.

² “The Dawes Act,” U.S. Department of the Interior, July 9th, 2021, accessed February 18th, 2022.

³ Ibid.

# data[].attributes.body
This political cartoon from 1871 titled "Move On!" depicts a stereotypical Native American being removed from voting polls by a police officer. It shows how during this period, Native Americans would only be excepted into society if they assimilated.

“Voting Rights for Native Americans,” Library of Congress, accessed February 18th, 2022.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Before the Snyder Act, Native Americans were in segregated schools as well as not able to vote.

# data[].attributes.body
With the passing of the Snyder Act of 1924, any Native American born in the US was given full citizenship and Native Americans could vote. Before this, citizenship depended on a number of factors including: 1) gender 2) percentage of Native American ancestry 3) veteran status and 4) marital status (married to a US citizen).¹ At the time over 125,000 Native Americans were not considered citizens. By the time Native Americans were granted the right to vote, they fought in several wars for the United States (Civil, Spanish-American, and WWI).² Unfortunately, the decision as to who could vote was left to the states and many still objected to Native Americans voting even after the Snyder Act passed. In fact, many states had official laws on their books that barred Native Americans from voting. It took approximately 40 years for all of the states to comply with the Snyder Act.³ The Voting Rights Act of 1965 provided more of a path for Native Americans to vote, and in fact voter turnout increased. However, subsequent legal action further suppressed the Native American vote by requiring literacy tests or federal ID. The U.S Federal government failed to realize that Native American populations had very different experiences and opportunities than a typical white American.

¹ History.com Editors, “Native American History Timeline,” A&E Television Network, November 27, 2018, accessed February 18th, 2022.

² “Voting Rights for Native Americans,” Library of Congress, accessed February 18th, 2022.

³ “Native American Civil Rights History Timeline,” KnowItAll.org, accessed February 18th, 2022.

# data[].attributes.body
The Indian Reorganization Act was passed in 1934 by the 73rd United States Congress. This was a step toward giving Native Americans more freedom to manage themselves, their government and their land. Just like fellow African Americans, many Native Americans fought in WWI. As a way of showing their appreciation, the U.S. government wanted to understand the plight of the Native Americans and give them more autonomy. The Indian Reorganization Act returned surplus lands taken away due to the Dawes Act.¹ The Act also provided for formal documentation of charters and bylaws for self management and government.² Credit was offered as a way for Native Americans to pay for education, land purchases and development, and other various support as necessary.³ This Act was crucial for the Native American population to address some of the issues including lack of education and land ownership brought on by neglect from their own country.

¹ The Wheeler-Howard (Indian Reorganization) Act, 1934.

² ibid.

³ ibid.

# data[].attributes.headline
"ACT OF JUNE 18, 1934-(Indian Reorganization Act)"

# data[].attributes.subject
"ACT OF JUNE 18, 1934-(Indian Reorganization Act)"

# data[].attributes.body
Link to the full document: https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/COMPS-5299/pdf/COMPS-5299.pdf

The Wheeler-Howard (Indian Reorganization) Act, 1934.

# data[].attributes.body
In 1968, with the passing of the Indian Civil Rights Act, tribal nations were given access to similar, but not identical, rights found in our Bill of Rights. If tribes were to run their own government, it was apparent that citizens needed protection. Among other things, The Indian Civil Rights Act provides freedom of religion, freedom from illegal search and seizure, a speedy trial by jury, freedom from double jeopardy, and freedom from having land taken away without compensation. Through the years, there has been a balancing act between endorsing tribal autonomy and providing support from the federal government. This Act, although necessary, created some confusion in when and how the federal government would be involved in tribal matters. The Act has been amended a number of times, last in 2013, to clear up some of this confusion and to account for societal issues such as violence against women and drug abuse.¹

¹ “Indian Civil Rights Act,” Tribal Court Clearinghouse, accessed February 18th, 2022.

# data[].attributes.body
Despite past efforts including the Indian Civil Rights Act, conditions in Native American communities were dire in some respects. There was an emerging pattern of the U.S. government wanting to dismiss treaties and several bills had been presented to Congress to restrict Native rights.¹ In 1978, hundreds of Native Americans marched over several months from California to Washington DC. to protest these trends in government. They were especially concerned about land rights and water rights.² This symbol of solidarity was important to highlight the fact that Native Americans still faced hardships in America. They did not have equal access to education, their land and water rights were still in dispute, and some tribal nations were sinking deeper and deeper into poverty. Their message to American officials was that they must not forget about their agreement to protect the Native Americans. The message was heard and the Long Walk was a precursor to some of the resolutions in the decades to come.

¹ “1978: ‘Longest Walk’ draws attention to American Indian concerns,” Native Voices, accessed February 18th, 2022.

² Ibid.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Posters like these were used to gain support for the Longest Walk protest. 

# data[].attributes.headline
"Stop The Genocide, Washington DC, July 15 1978"

# data[].attributes.subject
"Stop The Genocide, Washington DC, July 15 1978"

# data[].attributes.body
“1978: ‘Longest Walk’ draws attention to American Indian concerns,” Native Voices, accessed February 18th, 2022.

# data[].attributes.body
Through the years, there has been intermittent acknowledgement by the federal government that our first Americans have been treated poorly and ignored. For example, Richard Nixon, in the 1970’s, created what he called a self-determination plan which endorsed tribal governments and pushed the United States to honor obligations to our Native Americans.¹ At the same time, Native Americans were filing lawsuits against the US government, some dealing with issues a century old. In 2009, President Obama resolved a thirteen-year class action suit claiming the U.S. government did not compensate Native Americans for their land.² In this agreement, 3.4 billion dollars were paid to cover outstanding obligations. After this one, other settlements were made trying to repair the damage done to the Native American populations. These settlements provide some concrete resolution to the plans begun by President Nixon.

¹ “President Nixon: Champion for Native Americans,” Richard Nixon Foundation, December 19th, 2019, accessed February 18th, 2022.

² Rebecca Hersher, “U.S. Government To Pay $492 Million To 17 American Indian Tribes,” npr, September 27th, 2016, accessed February 18th, 2022.

# data[].attributes.body
1) Establish a law which moves all outstanding claims through the political system and settle them within a three year time period. We cannot fully move forward without fully acknowledging and making amends for past mistakes. Many of these suits have been in the system for years. Additional personnel are likely needed to sort through the remaining cases and usher them through government red tape.

2) Create a legislature that mandates realignment of voting lines to adequately include the Native American vote. This is a very current issue as lawsuits were just filed this month in North Dakota. Although Native Americans have the right to vote, and the Civil Rights Act indicates we must not discriminate, in some states we are still finding ways to limit Native American impact on modern-day politics that impact their lives. Redrawing of voting districts happens as populations shift. Therefore, these resources/personnel to do the work exist; so, what is needed is time and effort to create new redistricting plans in the states in question.

3) The Native Americans feel that the U.S. government-tribal relationship was supposed to protect Native Americans, but the state of affairs is still poor. We must honor the treaties (and especially the spirit of the treaties) generated over the centuries. Many tribes are still lacking in basic civil rights: education, housing, healthcare and other resources. A crucial step is to enact additional laws which supply early childhood education to Native American tribes that live in poverty. Education is key to future success and if we do not honor our commitment, the state of Native Americans will not improve. This will require additional funds specifically earmarked for the purpose of early childhood education.

# data[].attributes.body
“1978: ‘Longest Walk’ draws attention to American Indian concerns.” Native Voices. Accessed

February 18th, 2022. https://www.nlm.nih.gov/nativevoices/timeline/546.html.

“25 U.S. Code § 1302 - Constitutional rights.” Legal Information Institute. Accessed 18th, 2022.

https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/25/1302.

Hersher, Rebecca. “U.S. Government To Pay $492 Million To 17 American Indian Tribes.” npr,

September 27th, 2016. Accessed February 18th, 2022. https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/09/27/495627997/u-s-government-to-pay-492-million-to-17-american-indian-tribes#:~:text=A%20%243.4%20billion%20deal%20was,over%20the%20course%20of%20decades.

History.com Editors. “Native American History Timeline.” A&E Television Network, November

27th, 2018. Accessed February 18th, 2022. https://www.history.com/topics/native-american-history/native-american-timeline.

“Indian Civil Rights Act.” Tribal Court Clearinghouse. Accessed February 18th, 2022.

https://www.tribal-institute.org/lists/icra.htm#:~:text=Women%20Act%20(VAWA)-,The%20Indian%20Civil%20Rights%20Act%20(ICRA)%20was%20amended%20for%20the,435%20U.S.%20191%20(1978).

“Native Americans at the Turn of the Century.” Digital History, 2016. Accessed February

18th, 2022. https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3506.

“Native American Civil Rights History Timeline.” KnowItAll.org, accessed February 18th, 2022.

https://www.knowitall.org/interactives/roadtrip/timelines/native-american-civil-rights.html.

Native Hope. “The issues surrounding Native American Education.” Native Hope. Accessed

February 19th, 2022. https://blog.nativehope.org/the-issues-surrounding-native-american-education#:~:text=In%20fact%2C%20Native%20American%20children,the%207th%20and%2012th%20grades.

“President Nixon: Champion for Native Americans.” Richard Nixon Foundation, December

19th, 2019. Accessed February 18th, 2022. https://www.nixonfoundation.org/2016/09/president-nixon-champion-for-native-americans/.

Taylor, Rory. “6 Native leaders on what it would look like if the US kept its promises.” Vox,

September 23rd, 2019. Accessed February 18th, 2022. https://www.vox.com/first-person/2019/9/23/20872713/native-american-indian-treaties.

“​The Allotment and Assimilation Era (1887 - 1934).” Howard University: Law Library.

Accessed February 18th, 2022. https://library.law.howard.edu/civilrightshistory/indigenous/allotment.

“The Dawes Act.” U.S. Department of the Interior, July 9th, 2021. Accessed February 18th,

2022. https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/dawes-act.htm.

The Wheeler-Howard (Indian Reorganization) Act, 1934.

“TRIBES AND VOTERS FILE LAWSUIT CHALLENGING NORTH DAKOTA’S STATE

LEGISLATIVE REDISTRICTING PLAN” Native American Rights Fund, February 7th, 2022. Accessed February 18th, 2022. https://www.narf.org/nd-redistricting-challenge/.

“Voting Rights for Native Americans.” Library of Congress. Accessed February 18th, 2022.

https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/elections/right-to-vote/voting-rights-for-native-americans/.