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5.1 Outline the differences between primary and secondary ageing, using the skeletal system as an example.

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5.1 Outline the differences between primary and secondary ageing, using the skeletal system as an example.

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Primary ageing is  Loss of reserve capacity in an organ or organ system, Primary ageing Loss of reserve capacity on skeletal system.Secondary ageing is age related changes and diseases - are a consequence of a persons behaviour or environment .

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6.1 Describe the changes in structure and function which occur in the body systems with primary ageing

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6.1 Describe the changes in structure and function which occur in the body systems with primary ageing

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In the integumentary system, the skin wrinkles as the collagen and elastic fibres in the dermis loose their flexibility. In the Nervous system, the brain size and weight decreases because of decrease of motor neurons. In the skeletal system, the bone density and bone matrix decreases and bone becomes more porous

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8.1 List the theories of physiological ageing

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8.1 List the theories of physiological ageing

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The Evolutionary theory, which states that ageing is unavoidable and this results from the declining force of natural selection. The  molecular genetic theories is that there is a change in gene expression as abnormal proteins increases leading to dysregulated metabolic pathways. Theories that fall under cellular theories are Cellular senescence and telomere loss, Apoptotic theory, Free Radical theory and Wear and Tear theory. Theories that fall under System theories are neuroendocrine theory, Immunological theory and Rate of Living theory

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EVOLUTIONARY THEORIES  These theories postulate that aging is unavoidable and is a result of the declining force of natural selection with age.
MOLECULAR GENETIC THEORIES ,Aging results from changes in gene expression .
CELLULAR THEORIES ,Cellular Senescence & Telomere Loss Theory, Aging caused by an increased frequency of senescent cells ( a senescent cell is a cell that has lost the ability to divide and to grow). Old cells are not replaced ,resulting in the ultimate deterioration of the body.
Apoptotic Theory ,Theory holds that all cells are genetically programmed to die. Over time , a point is reached when the dying cells are not replaced quickly enough by new cells , leading to loss of tissue. The loss of tissue compromises the function of the organ(s) that they make up .
Free Radical Theory , Oxidative metabolism produces highly reactive free radicals , Free radicals damages lipids, proteins and DNA.
Wear-and-Tear Theory ,Accumulation of normal injury over time in cells and body systems .
Neuroendocrine Theory ,proposes that ageing results from changes in both neuronal control and in endocrine output, of the hypothalamic-pituitary, adrenal axis. These changes result in dysfunction in the activity of various endocrine glands and their target organs, and ultimately, over time, resulting in ageing .
Immunologic Theory , Postulates that decline of immune function and increased incidence of autoimmunity leads to increased risk of infections and inflammation. Damage caused by these processes, especially inflammation, leads to ageing .
Rate of Living Theory , States that people (and other living organisms) have a finite number of breaths, heartbeats, or other measures, and that they will die once they've used those up.

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9.1 Outline the developmental tasks of late adulthood

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9.1 Outline the developmental tasks of late adulthood

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Adjustment to physical changes. Maintaining intellectual vitality. Adjustment to retirement and changes in income. Establishment of satisfactory housing and physical life circumstances.

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10 Outline the myths of ageing and explain how these myths arise

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10 Outline the myths of ageing and explain how these myths arise

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Aging and Mental Health: The Myth of the Depressed Older Adult/” getting old is a dead end”/decline in mental function • Aging and Life Satisfaction: The Myth of the Youth-Obsessed Older Adult • Aging and Family Relationships: The Myth of the Alienated and isolated Older Adult

They arise because we know someone to whom they have happened. Another reason is that we have a tendency to lump all into one demographic group

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9.4 Outline the ways in which adults can keep active

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9.4 Outline the ways in which adults can keep active

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Continuing Education ,Volunteer, Work, Religious Involvement and Political Activism

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9.5 Outline the ways the elderly can be cared for

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9.5 Outline the ways the elderly can be cared for

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Family care - cared for by relatives Respite care – cared for by a professional caregiver Nursing homes .

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9.3 Outline two types of age stratification theories

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9.3 Outline two types of age stratification theories

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Disengagement theory social forces limit individual choice and direct life at every stage. Ageing is accompanied by a natural decline in role activity and a gradual physical and psychological withdrawal from other people The process of withdrawal between the elderly person and the community is mutual. Activity theory Successful ageing is dependent on a high level of activity and the continuing reciprocal involvement of the individual and the community.

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9.2 Outline the role of cognitive development in successful ageing.

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9.2 Outline the role of cognitive development in successful ageing.

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Integumentary system

●      Epidermis thins (less basal cell activity)

●      Weaker connections between dermis and the epidermis (more infection/skin tears)

●      Less dendritic cells = lower sensitivity of immune system (more infection)

●      Vitamin D production decreases = phosphate and calcium absorption decrease

●      Melanocytes activity decreases = more sensitive to sun

●      Less glandular activity = dry, scaly skin

●      Lower sweat gland activity = less thermoregulation

●      Less blood flow to the skin = inhibits thermoregulation

●      Lower repair rate of skin

●      Dermis thins (fewer elastic fibres) = wrinkling, sagging

Muscular system

●      Skeletal muscle fibres become smaller in diameter

⮚      Decreases size, strength, endurance (fatigue easily reached)

●      Skeletal muscle becomes less elastic

⮚      Fibrosis (more fibrous connective tissue)

●      Decrease in tolerance for exercise (tires quickly + bad thermoregulation)

●      Slower recovery from muscle damage (fewer satellite cells

Nervous system

●      Reduced brain size and weight (decreased volume of cerebral cortex)

●      Decrease in the number of neurons (less cortical neurons, not much loss of brain stem nuclei)

●      Decreased blood flow to brain

⮚      Due to arteriosclerosis (increase in deposition of fatty deposits on blood vessel walls)

⮚      Increased risk of rupturing; increased risk of stroke

●      Changes in synaptic organization of brain

⮚      Dendritic connections decrease; neurotransmitter production decreases

●      Intra + extracellular changes in CNS neurons

⮚      More lipofuscin (granular pigment of unknown function)

⮚      Neurofibrillary tangle (neurofibrils form dense mats)

⮚      Plaque (extracellular accumulation of fibrillary proteins)

Cardiovascular system

●      Blood

⮚      Lower haematocrit (percentage of whole volume contributed by cells)

⮚      Stationary blood clot (thrombus) = could result in pulmonary embolism (thrombus lodges itself in small artery – usually in the lungs)

⮚      Pooling of blood in veins (valves not working)

●      Heart

⮚      Lower maximum cardiac output

⮚      Lower elasticity of cardiac (fibrous) skeleton

⮚      Changes in nodal and conducting cell activity

⮚      Atherosclerosis = restrict coronary circulation

⮚      Damaged cardiac tissue replaced by scar tissue

●      Blood vessel

⮚      Inelastic walls less responsive to pressure changes = could cause aneurysm

⮚      Increased risk of myocardial infarction/stroke (calcium deposits on walls)

⮚      Thrombi can cause atherosclerotic plaque

Lymphatic system

●      Less effective at combating disease

●      T cells less responsive to antigens (shrinking thymus = fewer thymic hormones)

●      B cells less responsive = antibodies rise slower

●      Increased risk of cancer (declined immune surveillance)

Respiratory system

●      Lower vital capacity (elastic tissue deteriorates + calcium uptake in upper respiratory tract)

●      Chest movements change (arthritic ribs and weaker diaphragm)

●      Increased risk of emphysema; bronchiole walls and alveoli thicken

Digestive system

●      Epithelial stem cell division rate decreases = more sensitive digestive tract

●      Smooth muscle tone decreases = slow faecal movement (constipation) + increased reflux (reduced functioning of sphincter muscles)

●      Effects of cumulative damage become evident (e.g. loss of teeth – gingivitis)

●      Increased rates of cancer

●      Dehydration is common (osmoreceptor sensitivity decreases)

●      Directly/indirectly affected by changes in other systems

Reproductive system

●      Decreases secretion of oestrogen and progestin (F)

●      Menstruation seizes (F)

●      Weakened pelvic floor due to child birth (F)

●      Increased risk of prostate cancer (M)

Endocrine system

●      Relatively few changes (mainly sex hormones)

●      Cells become less sensitive to endocrine stimulation

Urinary system

●      Fewer functioning nephrons

●      Less GFR

●      Lower sensitivity to ADH

●      Problems with micturition

⮚      Sphincter muscles lose muscle tone = incontinence

⮚      Stroke/CNS problems

⮚      Urinary retention (enlarged prostate gland)

●      Decreased ureter size

Skeletal system

●      Decrease in bone matrix (more brittle)

●      Decreased collagen- more mineralised bone

●      Rate of osteoblast formation < rate of osteoclasts

●      Joints:

⮚      Wear down of cartilage

⮚      Matrix becomes more rigid

⮚      Decreased synovial fluid production

⮚      Ligaments and tendons shorten and are less flexible

⮚      Arthritis