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North American Masks

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This mask was probably worn around the neck as a pendant and may have given the wearer a new identity, perhaps that of an ancestor or a god. It was made by the Olmecs, the earliest known settled civilization of Central America.

The Olmec

The Olmecs lived in the low-lying Gulf Coast area of what is now Mexico in about 1200-400 B.C.E. at sites such as San Lorenzo, Tres Zapotes, Laguna de los Cerros and La Venta.

These and the other Olmec centers were well planned and included many of the features that would be associated with later civilization in Central America including the Mexica (Aztecs) and Maya. Alongside impressive public spaces and large platform-mounds made of earth, there is evidence of a ceremonial ball game and complex astrological calendars.

Olmec art is very distinctive and clearly reflects their religion. Jaguars feature prominently because the Olmecs believed that, in the distant past, a union between a woman and a jaguar produced an earlier race of were-jaguars.

The Olmecs worked mainly in stone and particularly favored jade, or greenstone, which they believed had distinctive properties linked with fertility and procreation. These sought-after materials were brought into the region through long distance trade networks.

Earliest known writing in America

The head above is made from a dark green stone called serpentinite and would have been worked by skilled craftspeople using hand tools.

On either side of the mouth (detail above) there are two Olmec glyphs (picture signs). Olmec glyphs are the earliest known writing in America. These fine-line motifs symbolically define the four quarters of the human world with the king as ruler at the center. The Olmec art style is found on objects as far afield as the Valley of Mexico to the north and the Pacific coast of Chiapas to the south. This suggests a widely-shared set of beliefs that was to have a profound influence on many later Mesoamerican stylistic traditions.
Suggested readings:
M. Coe, et al., The Olmec World: Ritual and Rulership (New York, 1996).

R. Diehl, The Olmecs: America's First Civilization (London, 2004).

M. Miller, and K. Taube, The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican Religion (London, 1993).

C. Pool, Olmec Archaeology and Early Mesoamerica (Cambridge, 2007).

K. Taube, Olmec Art at Dumbarton Oaks (Washington D.C., 2004).

S.T. Evans, Ancient Mexico and Central America: Archaeology and Culture History (London, 2008).

© Trustees of the British Museum

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This mask was probably worn around the neck as a pendant and may have given the wearer a new identity, perhaps that of an ancestor or a god. It was made by the Olmecs, the earliest known settled civilization of Central America.

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Ancient Egyptian Masks of Ritual and Death

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Ancient Egyptian Masks of Ritual and Death

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African Masks

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So now let's talk about why the ancient Egyptians used funerary masks in the first place.

The most obvious reason is to protect the head and face of the mummy. The ancient Egyptians believed in preserving the physical body after death because it was part of the afterlife experience as well.

The other reason was to strengthen the chance of acceptance into the afterlife by projecting an image of themselves that is appealing to the gatekeepers of the afterlife - the gods that would judge and determine their fates.

For those who could afford it, they had elaborate masks that would resemble an idealized version of themselves - perhaps in their youth - but with divine features such as the gilded skin and blue hair.

The gods, specifically the sun-god Ra, were thought to have skin made of gold and hair made of lapis lazuli.

That wasn't just for show - it was because they believed that to be endowed with divine status, one would have easier access into the afterlife and become accepted by the gods themselves.

It helped their cause of resurrection in everlasting life in Aaru, the Field of Reeds.

Those who could not afford gold leaf and precious minerals, but still could afford a mask, would have theirs made of wood or other less-costly materials, such as plaster or hardened mummy shrouds, yet with idealized features such as large eyes, red skin tones for men and yellow skin tones for women, and other embellishments.

But before the mask was adorned, the body of the deceased was washed, emptied of all internal organs except the heart, dried and wrapped during the very long mummy-preparation rituals.

The masks would sometimes also have symbols that helped the deceased in the afterlife, such as a winged scarab, the goddesses Nekhbet and Wadjet on the forehead of a pharaoh's mask, and inscriptions from the Book of the Dead or other funerary texts.

Mummy masks evolved over time - at first they were made by hardening the outer layer of the mummy shroud, and then they were produced separately using molds, and then finally they were made with precious metals beaten into shape.

Ancient Egyptian Masks for Religious and Funerary Rituals

Ancient Egypt had hundreds, if not thousands, of religious rituals and festivals that sometimes required intricate practices and an ambiance to match.

One such ritual was the Opening of the Mouth and Eyes ceremony, where a priest wearing the mask of Anubis supported the deceased while another priest would perform the opening of the mouth.

And during the embalming and mummification process, the practitioners would also wear masks of Anubis - after all, he was the god of embalming.

But there were also religious processions and rituals where priests and priestesses would adorn the masks of the specific deities they were "evoking" or trying to emulate.

Not many ancient Egyptian masks used in rituals and ceremonies still exists, as they were not made to last as long as those intended to preserve the mummy of the deceased for all eternity.

I hope you enjoyed this page and video on Ancient Egyptian Masks. If you did, please share it with anyone else you think might like it. And if you subscribe to my newsletter, you'll be updated whenever I upload a new page or video.

Thanks and take care!
Mai

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Ancient Egyptian Masks - For Death & Ritual

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So now let's talk about why the ancient Egyptians used funerary masks in the first place. The most obvious reason is to protect the head and face of the mummy. The ancient Egyptians believed in preserving the physical body after death because it was part of the afterlife experience as well.

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African Masks

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As a UMFA docent, I love the drama of the Kuba Royal Mask complex. These are three masks which give us insight into the values of the Kuba people as well as serving as beautiful examples of Kuba artistic skill and creativity. In addition, the Kuba creation story (which follows) is such fun to explore with both children and adults.

The Kuba kingdom existed from the fifteenth century to the nineteenth centuries in present day Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire). It is presently a conglomeration of nineteen ethnic groups loosely joined by a common monarchy. Royal complex masks are made for male initiation ceremonies. They are also used for funerals.

The Kuba people live along the Congo River. They are mostly farmers and fishermen. The Kuba are known for their raffia embroidered textiles, fiber and beaded hats, carved palm wine cups and cosmetic boxes. But they are most famous for their monumental helmet masks featuring exquisite geometric patterns, stunning fabrics, seeds, beads, and shells. They have been described as a people who cannot bear to leave a surface without ornament.

The UMFA's stunning Royal Mask Complex is a collection of three masks that depict the main characters in the Kuba creation story.
Kuba Creation Myth (adapted)

In the beginning there was only darkness, water, and the great god Bumba. One day Bumba, in pain from a stomach ache, vomited up the sun. The sun dried up some of the water, leaving land. Still in pain, Bumba vomited up the moon, the stars, and then some animals: the leopard, the crocodile, the turtle, and, finally, some men.

After creating the world, the great god sent his sons Woot and Bwoom with their sister Mweel to bring culture to the Kuba people. Woot was a wise and thoughtful ruler who brought government to the people and taught them arts and crafts. Woot became leader of the Kuba and married his beautiful sister Mweel.

Woot's brother, Bwoom, was very rude and ill-mannered, as well as being aggressive and jealous of his older brother. In an epic battle, Bwoom and Woot fought for the love of Mweel and the right to the throne.

Woot: Only designates of the king can wear the Woot mask since Woot is the mythical descendent of the first king. The mask is topped with an elephant trunk since the elephant is a royal emblem. Two beaded strips represent the tusks. White fur below the chin represents the wisdom the ruler gains with age and experience. The Kuba use geometric patterns and love to fill up all the spaces. The Woot mask is decorated with cowrie shells (which were once used as currency), leopard skin, and beads. Red beads denote good fortune, blue beads signify high rank, and white beads symbolize purity and faithfulness.

Unidentified artist, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kuba peoples, Mask (Muykeem or MwashMboy), 20th century, wood, pigment, beads, cowrie shell, cloth, and raffia, The Owen D. Mort, Jr. Collection of African Art assisted by the George S. and Dolores Doré Eccles Foundation, UMFA1985.052.815.

Bwoom represents the brutishness and commonness of this character. Bwoom is aggressive and boorish. Copper strips call attention to maleness.

Unidentified artist, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kuba kingdom,Bwoom Mask, 20th century, wood, beads, raffia and copper, partial gift of Owen D. Mort, Jr. for the Owen D. Mort, Jr. Collection of African Art, with additional funds from the George S. and Dolores Doré Eccles Foundation Museum, UMFA1985.053.004.

Mweel is the ideal, beautiful woman. Diamond patterns emphasize her smooth brow; white and black triangles represent hearth and home; lines on cheeks represent tears because of the pain women must bear and also because these are funerary masks.

Unidentified artist, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kuba peoples, Mask (Ngady Amwaash), 20th century, wood, pigment, cowrie shell, raffia, and beads, purchased with funds from the Emma Eccles Jones
Foundation, UMFA2006.31.1.

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Art We Miss | Royal Mask Complex | The Utah Museum of Fine Arts

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As a UMFA docent, I love the drama of the Kuba Royal Mask complex. These are three masks which give us insight into the values of the Kuba people as well as serving as beautiful examples of Kuba artistic skill and creativity.

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African Masks

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Worn during male and female initiation ceremonies (Likumbi), muti wa lipiko helmet masks (pl. mapiko meaning 'head of the Lipiko') are a visual representation of past ancestors. The masks are used to demonstrate the ancestors joy and approval at the successful completion of the intensive initiation rights by boys and girls of the village.

"Once a year, during the dry season, boys are withdrawn from society before their rebirth as adults with the approach of the wet season. Initiation involves seclusion, circumcision, tattooing, the filing of teeth and the acquisition of knowledge that is otherwise secret. The return to society is marked by the performance of masquerade." ³

The muti wa lipiko masks are also used to celebrate the entry of the youngsters back into the Makonde community as men and women.
Distinguishing Features

Made of wood and human hair

Thin and lightweight

Shows head (and sometimes the eyebrows and lashes) inlaid with human hair

Narrow eyes

Indicated pupil

Eyelids bulged

Nose usually flat and small with carved out nostrils

Exaggerated, full lips

Small mouth opening with filed teeth (for performer to look through)

Raised scarification marks made from beeswax found in older masks (newer masks have carved scars)

Two major styles exist:

1) Abstract face masks from Tanzania

Masks that cover the face

Greater range of styles

2) Naturalistic helmet masks from Mozambique
Worn completely over the head

Female masks feature:

Small plugs in ears and lips

Rounded cheeks

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Muti Wa Lipito ('Head of the Lipiko' Helmet Mask):

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Worn during male and female initiation ceremonies (Likumbi), muti wa lipiko helmet masks (pl. mapiko meaning 'head of the Lipiko') are a visual representation of past ancestors. The masks are used to demonstrate the ancestors joy and approval at the successful completion of the intensive initiation rights by boys and girls of the village.

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African masks

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THE UNIVERSAL MASK

Masks are universal to Mankind. We find them as early as 30,000 B.C. On cave paintings of hunting scenes with masked dancers. The mask-bearers were believed to be possessed by the spirit represented by the mask.

The masks seen here are used in ceremonies related to initiation, health, marriage, prosperity, harvest, peace, death, birth or the dispelling of evil spells.

The masks in the permanent collection of the Museum of Ancient and Modern Art are very old and have been abundantly used. The emotions which characterize them are many and varied. They run the whole gamut of possible expressions. Some of them are awesome and stark. They suggest powerful and fearsome individuals. Other masks are cheerful, sometimes even comic. No possible expression of the inner soul has been missed.

The forms of masks typically have not changed during the centuries. That makes dating sometimes almost impossible. The reason for this strict adherence to style is the concept that the spirit will not recognize its abode if it is different from the conventional forms.

Carving a mask is a very sophisticated art and trade. Very often the knowledge of carving is transmitted from father to son through several generations, but sometimes a young man is selected because he has shown a special gift for carving.

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free saturday morning children's art classes

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Masks are universal to Mankind. We find them as early as 30,000 B.C. On cave paintings of hunting scenes with masked dancers. The mask-bearers were believed to be possessed by the spirit represented by the mask. The masks seen here are used in ceremonies related to initiation, health, marriage, prosperity, harvest, peace, death, birth or the dispelling of evil spells.

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Asian Masks

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A Tsam ceremony was held at the beginning of the year to exorcise evil. It consisted of a series of masked dances and often had a narrative content. Tsam (in Tibetan, Cham) means masked dance, and local variations of the festival were once practiced in Tibet, Ladakh, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, China and Mongolia, but only in Ladakh and Bhutan and at a few remote, inaccessible monasteries has it been protected from destructive politics and the impact of Western civilization. In Tibet, Mongolia, Transbaikalia, and China the festival either fell victim to the ruthless Stalinist suppression of Buddhism in the 1930s, or more recently to the vandalism unleashed by the Chinese Cultural Revolution of Mao Zedong. Today in Mongolia efforts are being made to revive the tradition, with elderly monks who survived persecution teaching young monks the rituals and choreography of Tsam.

While the use of grotesque masks in the Tsam dances creates an impression of going back to high antiquity, the festival is in fact a relatively recent tradition. Among the southern Mongol tribes, the annual dance seems to have been adopted during the second half of the eighteenth century. At the capital of Urga (near present-day Ulan Baatar) it is said that these dances were first performed in the monastery of Bogdo Gegen ("Living Buddha") in 1811.

A variety of sources allows us to reconstruct the outlines of the Tsam in Mongolia. This is of special interest because this type of sacral performance attained during its brief life span in this country a level that was never equaled in any other. Tsam masks of Mongolian production, for example, are exceptionally large and have an artistic expressiveness only rarely matched in other countries.

Although Tibetan and Mongolian manuals exist which detail the iconography and outline the choreography of the Tsam, eyewitness accounts of early Western travelers imply that the dances actually differed in many ways from the manuals. Indeed, it is these accounts, together with photographs and even a few early films, which allow us to gain an impression of the character of the Tsam festival and the sequence of its dances. A collection of undated glass negatives of photographs taken during the Tsam festival in Ulaan Baatar by an unknown photographer and preserved in the National Archives of Mongolia provides an important source of information.

A rare collection in the Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography in St. Petersberg of polychromed wooden figurines representing the different roles in the festival enable us to reconstruct the actual use of the impressive masks and colorful costumes. In addition to the masks, a very small number of large tangka paintings, displayed on tall masts during the festival, as well as some bronze sculptures, and ritual implements were saved from destruction during the religion repression of the Soviet regime and later Chinese Communist regime. They constitute the few remaining artifacts of Tsam rituals. Most of them now belong to collections of the national museums of Mongolia and many are being shown abroad for the first time in this exhibition.

The two Citipati patrol the perimeter of the Tsam square in Ulaan Baatar (before 1937).

In the rituals of the Mongolian Tsam festival, tantric and much older shamanistic traditions of dance merged in harmonious fashion. Mongolian shamanism may have owed its great vitality and dynamism to the fact that it had already absorbed all kinds of tantric elements when Buddhism first reached Mongolia. The shamanistic influence, as it manifests itself in the Tsam festival, is therefore a multi-layered phenomenon, the different strata of which cannot always be clearly distinguished.

In Urga, the Tsam festival was held in an open space in which seven concentric circles were drawn in chalk inside a clearly marked square. In the center of these circles, an open tent or canopy was erected in which was installed the zor, a pyramid made of dough and crowned by a skull. At the beginning of the ceremony, the lingka, a doll made of dough, was placed next to the zor. The dances started with a performance by two Citipati, that is figures wearing skull masks and skeleton costumes. The two characters represent the Lords of the Charnel Grounds and through their dance rituals and the mantras they repeated, the pavilion and objects enshrined in it were transformed into a mystic Charnel Ground where the desire that is the root of rebirth is extinguished and where higher knowledge can be obtained. A host of others including the White Old Man, a sometimes buffoon-like character who represents fertility, and Khashin Khan and his eight sons, who represent a sort of reception committee for the other dancers, are members of the standard Tsam repertory and play out their roles. Afterwards, other groups of characters wearing demonic masks appear and dance around the zor, banishing all evil by driving it into the lingka. At the same time the soul is delivered from the grip of demons. The festival is concluded by a lama wearing a stag mask who tears apart the lingka with his sword. The lingka was made of fast-rising dough. This allowed the audience to clearly see the belly of the doll expand during the duration of the ceremony, creating a dramatic and convincing effect.

Dharmapalas at the Tsam festival in Ulaan Baatar (before 1937)

The concentric circles drawn on the ground around the zor and the lingka created three bands that were used by masked dancers, separated by bands that were left unused. The innermost circle was reserved for the Master of the Dance. The dances were accompanied by a small orchestra consisting of wind and percussion instruments. Just outside the southern end of the square a huge thangka representing the supreme deity Vajrapani was displayed. In front of this, a shrine to the same deity was placed. In the third and outer circle only the shanag, or Black Hats, danced. The shanag, the only participants in the ritual not to wear masks, represent the earliest stratum of pre-Buddhist Tibetan religion called Bonpo. Bonpo, like popular Mongolian religion, had unmistakable shamanistic characteristics.

The final character to appear in the Tsam square was Yama, God of the Realm of Death and Supreme Judge of the Dead whom the Mongols call Erlig Khan. He usually appeared wearing a Buffalo mask, with a lasso for catching souls in one hand and a skeleton-shaped scepter in the other. His arrival at the head of the possession constituted the climax of the ritual.

Mongolian masks symbolizing the actual presence of a deity never have their eyes pierced. The performers therefore had to look through the mouths of the masks, adding extra height to the performer. As the temporary residence of gods and demons, masks are like statues and treated as sacred objects. When not in use, they were stored in monasteries and paid homage to in daily rituals.

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Smith Renaud, Inc. -  http://www.smithrenaud.com

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Dancing Demons - Ceremonial Masks of Mongolia

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A Tsam ceremony was held at the beginning of the year to exorcise evil. It consisted of a series of masked dances and often had a narrative content.

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Asian masks

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Art-Pacific (Carolyn Leigh - Ron Perry): Guide to artifacts

Ceremonial Masks from the villages of Java and Bali, Indonesia

Dance dramas performed on Java and Bali probably originated in ancient rituals honoring the ancestors and the deities of planting and harvest. Later, Hindu and Islamic religious beliefs added to the richness of the ceremonial stories.
Figure 1: Two Javanese masks
Even today on predominantly Moslem Java, trance dances are performed in the villages with a variety of animal masks. The mask ( topeng) is held over a fire to draw the spirit of the animal into it and to bring the dancer under it's power.

Court dramas are more formalized and usually celebrate the lives and exploits of the Javanese royalty. Informal versions of these stories and others of Hindu origin from the Ramayana and Mahabharata are performed by traveling troupes in the Javanese countryside.

The Balinese perform a constant calendar of ceremonies in keeping with their Hindu traditions. One of the most famous dances is that of the confrontation between Rangda, the widow witch, and the Barong, who resembles a small Chinese dragon. Others are based on stories of the royal courts. A village drama frequently goes on all night with the villagers informally coming and going, eating, laughing when the comic characters make jokes at the expense of local people and enjoying the story which they have all known since childhood.
Figure 2: Two Balinese masks
Family workshops on both Bali and Java produce masks. The Balinese carve many elaborately detailed wooden masks with a wide variety of forms, reflecting the Hindu belief that everything has an active spirit.

The mask maker dries the wood and, after the carving is finished, an undercoat of white gesso is applied with the colored paints applied on top. Metallic foils are used for accents. Javanese masks from the villages are usually painted with ordinary paint. Horsehair is used for mustaches and beards, glass or mirrors may be used for eyes. Sometimes there is a back cross-brace where the performer grips the mask with his teeth.

A mask communicates some of the life of the ceremonial world that it represents. Although their features are fixed, in a performance the masks become as animated as the faces of human actors.

On Bali, the Ubud Village Tourist Center posts a weekly list of performances in the area. Most of these are by professional troupes and the dances have been shortened to give visitors a sampling of the different traditional dances. Tickets are inexpensive and available at the Center or from street vendors. No matter what the street sellers say, there are no reserved seats, so go a little early to get a good view.
More photographs and information on Javanese and Balinese masks
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Artifacts on this site are collected in the field by my husband, Ron Perry. I take the photographs, do the html, text and maps. More background inWho We Are. Art-Pacific has been on the WWW since 1996. We hope you enjoy our New Guinea tribal art and Indonesian folk art as much as we do. Carolyn Leigh, P.O. Box 85284, Tucson, AZ 85754-5284 USA, Art-Pacific at http://www.art-pacific.com/

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Art-Pacific.com: Guide to Artifacts - Ceremonial Masks from the villages of Java and Bali, Indonesia

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Art-Pacific (Carolyn Leigh - Ron Perry): Guide to artifacts Dance dramas performed on Java and Bali probably originated in ancient rituals honoring the ancestors and the deities of planting and harvest. Later, Hindu and Islamic religious beliefs added to the richness of the ceremonial stories.

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Asian Masks

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Kamat's Potpourri: The Masks of India - Table of Contents

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Barkcloth Dance Masks from Papua, New Guinea

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Barkcloth Dance Masks from Papua, New Guinea

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Asian Masks

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Three dramatic barkcloth masks offer an insight into the traditional beliefs and celebrations of the Elema people from the Gulf of Papua, Papua New Guinea, at the turn of the 20th century.

Papua New Guinea masks fact file

Date

Late 19th - Early 20th century

Made in

Gulf of Papua, Papua New Guinea, Melanesia, Oceania

Made from

Cane, plant fibre, barkcloth, pigments, human hair

Acquired

Gift of Wellcome Historical Medical Museum

Dimensions

A.1951.371 - height 855mm, height including hanging streamers 1235mm, width 110mm, depth 450 mm.

A.1951.372 - height 840mm, max. diameter 400mm.

A.1951.373 - height 745mm, width 385mm, depth 337mm.

Where do the masks come from?

New Guinea is the second largest island in the world after Greenland. It lies just below the equator, its closest point only 150km north of the Cape of York Peninsula of Queensland, Australia, with the Torres Strait between. Papua New Guinea is the eastern half of the island, with the Indonesian territories of West Papua to the west. Papua New Guinea also includes the off-shore islands of New Britain, New Ireland, the Admiralty Islands, and others.

Papua New Guinea is the most linguistically diverse country in the world, with 852 recorded languages. That is about 12% of all global languages, spoken by about 0.1% of the world's population, in a country almost six times as big as Scotland. The island's rugged landscape is covered in thick rainforest, wide rivers and tropical swamps.

The predominantly accepted theory is that the inhabitants were geographically isolated from each other, so hundreds of distinct indigenous languages developed over thousands of years. However, more recent research into trade and cultural exchange has disproved this theory.

With so many distinct communities, Papua New Guinea developed a great variety of social, cultural and artistic forms of expression, including dramatic masked performances.

The Elema people

The Elema people inhabit the eastern side of the Papuan Gulf, a 300 mile-long bay which curves around from the Torres Straits, above Australia and the Great Barrier Reef, to the modern capital of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby.

As the three masks discussed here date from before 1924, the rest of this article refers to the traditional society of the time during which they were made, rather than to contemporary Papua, which has changed drastically.

In the late-19th and early-20th century, there were few roads in Papua New Guinea, and transport along the coast and rivers was normally provided by dugout canoe. Society was traditionally divided by gender, with the men living in longhouses called an elavo or eravo, while the women and children lived separately. The longhouses were massive, up to 10 metres wide, 10-12 metres high, and up to 100 metres long.

As well as physically living separately, men and women preserved their own distinct traditional knowledge. Women knew the secrets of fertility, reproduction and childbirth, while the men kept a great many rituals to mediate between the human and spirit worlds. People believed that this knowledge must be guarded and kept secure, as inappropriate knowledge or exposure to rituals by the unprepared or uninitiated could be dangerous and harmful.

While men lived in longhouses, they also created other special buildings used to store masks, ancestor boards and fish-tail drums, which were used for dances and performances. The ancestor boards depict clan emblems and spirits, who watched over the living clan members.

The Elema people had an elaborate mask tradition, with masks made of various natural materials including palm leaf, cane and barkcloth. Masked rituals allowed communication with, and attempts to control, the spirits. Spirits represented by masks were generally associated with places or features in the forest, river or sea, rather than deceased ancestors or enemies.

Three different types of masks were made by the Elema:

The semese or hevehe were the most secret and sacred, with many restrictions on construction, wearing and meaning. Up to 6 or 7 metres high, oval in shape with projecting beaks, they represented sea monster spirits and their children. The identity of the wearer would be completely obscured as it was believed that they physically embodied the spirits depicted. At the height of celebrations, over 100 such masks could emerge from the longhouse; they would have been an impressive and awe-inspiring sight.

The eharo, the type the three masks in our collection fall under, were worn at the beginning and end of the hevehe ceremonial cycle.

Finally, conical masks worn during the kovave cycle were used to initiate young boys into adulthood and to appease the nature spirits.

Masked rituals often involved repetitive singing and drumming, which created a mesmerising atmosphere that left participants in a trance-like state. A sacred instrument often called a 'bullroarer' was also used. When swung around in the air, it produces an unearthly sound that is believed to be the voices of the spirits. The sound of the bullroarer was sometimes used as a warning to the uninitiated, particularly women, to hide out of the way so as not to see the procession of sacred objects which could harm them.

Masked rituals were a celebration for the whole community. Preparations such as constructing the masks, growing crops and raising pigs for feasting could take months or even years. But while they were mainly a celebration, masked rituals also had a more serious side: the welcoming and appeasing of spirits. The rituals also served to persuade the spirits to support the community's human efforts and endeavours. Masks could allow dancers to be temporarily possessed by spirits and lose their own personal identities.

The hevehe ceremonial cycle

The hevehe ceremonies took place on a cycle that lasted between 7-20 years, and were a very important part of community life. Their main purpose was to pacify and drive away any angry spirits from the community's land, often back into the sea.

The cycle began with the construction of a new ceremonial longhouse. Inside, over a number of years, the massive hevehe masks would be made in secrecy, with public feasting and gift-giving celebrating different stages of progress. When all of the masks were finished, a new door was made in the longhouse for the masked figures to finally emerge for a month of celebrations.

Eharo masks

Eharo masks like the three in the Museum's collections were worn before and during the emergence of the sacred hevehe masks as less serious, un-sacred, more humorous accompaniments. Anthropologist FE Williams records them as being called 'dance head pieces', or 'things of gladness'.

Some eharo masks represent totemic spirits associated with individual clans. Others embody comic social commentary, representing characters or humorous figures from oral traditions, such as lecherous old men or uninitiated boys. The construction of eharo was less secretive than the hevehe and could be observed by women. The audienceknew that there were men beneath the masks, for instance, although their bodies were often hidden under thick fringes of plant fibres or barkcloth strips, with a variety of cloth wraps and body paint, as can be seen in a series of photographs held by the British Museum.

Other photos of young men wearing eharo masks can be found on the British Museum collections database by searching 'Gibson Photo, Port Moresby'.

Eharo masks were made and worn by young men from neighbouring villages at the request of the village hosting the ceremony. As they entered the settlement where the ceremony was due to take place, women threw shredded coconut at the masks' wearers to neutralise their seductive powers. Once rendered harmless, the masked figures would dance with the women to entertain the audience. Generally dancing in pairs, they would swoop though the crowds, where they would play drums and sing and dance amongst the crowd.

Masks would usually be burnt at the end of the month-long ceremony, so surviving examples are rare. In the first two decades of the 20th century, European missionaries and traders caused massive social upheaval by confiscating or publically destroying sacred objects and eliminating traditional cultural practices. Masks like these survive because they were collected by anthropologists in the field, or sent home to Europe and America by missionaries as evidence of their zealous conversions.

Three barkcloth eharo masks in National Museums Scotland's collection

All three masks are made of barkcloth stretched over a split-cane frame, sewn together with vegetable fibre and coloured with white, red and black natural pigments. Across the Pacific, barkcloth is a symbolic and often high status non-woven textile made from the pounded inner bark of either the dye fig or paper mulberry tree.

The masks show great vitality, originality and diversity in form, shape and scale, with abstracted and stylised facial features. They have a great presence, power and dynamism lying latent in their wide staring eyes, gaping mouths and sharp teeth. They are reasonably light-weight, which meant they could be worn for long periods by physically active performers, although the wearer's vision would have been extremely limited.

Two of the three masks incorporate long projecting structures that resemble, or may represent, the fin or snout of a marine creature, decorated with a black serrated pattern. A.1951.372 is a tall, narrow, helmet-like mask reaching 84cm high. Like the fin or snout, the eyes and mouth are bordered with serrated black teeth or abstract shapes: those around the eyes extend upwards to partially encircle the forehead ornament. Rounded, thin wooden teeth surround an open triangular mouth that projects slightly forwards below the nose. The base of the mask is supported on a projecting wicker frame bound with twine, from which a grass fibre fringe would originally have hung.

A.1951.371 is larger and more ornate in structure and decoration, with a pointed cone on the top and projecting fins that point sideways and backwards. Hanging from the fins are the remains of thin barkcloth streamers, which are striped and painted with red pigment. The pointed snout extends forwards with a bristling forest of needle-thin wooden teeth, about the scale and sharpness of cocktail sticks. Like A.1951.372, this mask is supported on a projecting wicker frame bound with twine, from which a grass fibre fringe would originally have hung.

Very similar examples to mask A.1951.371 exist in other museums, including the British Museum and the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa in Wellington, New Zealand.

A.1951.371 has a triangular, visor-like face that points down from a domed headpiece and is covered with at least two different types of human hair in tight brown and black curls. As with the other two masks, the face is again surrounded by a serrated black border with black fishhook-like shapes descending below the eyes.

A similar-shaped mask held by Fairbanks Museum and Planetarium, St Johnsbury, Vermont, has been identified as a hornbill or a crocodile.

Acquisition

The three masks in the Museum collection are from a group of over 270 world cultures artefacts received as gifts between 1949 and 1953 from the collections of the Wellcome Historical Medical Museum. The pharmacist and entrepreneur Henry Wellcome amassed an enormous collection of very diverse anthropological material relating to physical and spiritual health and well-being of different cultures throughout the world. Following his death, the collection was distributed to several different museums.

Wellcome acquired his material from a vast range of sources, including ethnographic dealers, so there is little information or provenance for some objects. Receipts in the Museum's archives indicate that the masks were acquired at auction in 1924 and 1925 and fully accessioned into the Wellcome Historical Medical Museum in 1936, but sadly no further mention is made of where, when, how or by whom the masks were acquired, made or used.

Further reading

Beier, U. and Kiki A.M. Hohao: The uneasy survival of an art form in the Papuan Gulf (Thomas Nelson (Australia) Limited, Melbourne, 1970).

Newton, D., Art Styles of the Papuan Gulf exhibition catalogue (The Museum of Primitive Art, New York, 1961)

Welsh R.L., Webb V-L, and Haraha, S, Coaxing the Spirits to Dance: Art and Society in the Papuan Gulf of New Guinea exhibition catalogue (Hood Museum of Art, Dartmouth College, 2007)

Williams, F. E., The Drama of Orokolo: the social and ceremonial life of the Elema (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1940)

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Barkcloth dance masks from Papua New Guinea

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Search Explore our places, collections and stories Close Three dramatic barkcloth masks offer an insight into the traditional beliefs and celebrations of the Elema people from the Gulf of Papua, Papua New Guinea, at the turn of the 20th century.

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Fine Spanish Colonial Arts: Mexican and Guatemalan masks

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Fine Spanish Colonial Arts: Mexican and Guatemalan masks

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Central and South American Masks

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For centuries, the indigenous people of Guatemala and Mexico have produced extraordinary masks that show us the varied and colorful expressions of their culture. They have played an essential part in Guatemalan and Mexican ritual, their dances, drama, fertility rites, planting cycles and religious ceremonies.

Their primary intention was not to conceal. Indeed, rather than being an object behind which the wearer might remain invisible, a mask became the vehicle through which a totally different entity could emerge and be revealed. As if magically transformed, the wearer assumed the role of another being; perhaps that role was of a deity, an animal, a historical hero, a revered ancestor, an angel, a bird, a devil or a child. In Mexico, the tradition of mask carving, pageantry and ceremonial dancing were practiced long before the arrival of the Spanish. Following the Spanish conquest of the Americas, different mask traditions took root, and with the collapse of religious empires new traditions were born. Catholic priests working with indigenous communities instructed Indians to join into annual Catholic celebrations, in which various Saints and Feast days for the Virgin Mary were introduced. In Mexico, various masked dancers performed the Dance of the Christians and Moors, a popular story in which the Moors were defeated by the Christians. In Guatemala, performers play the roles of Hernan Cortes, Pedro de Alvarado, Don Pedro Portocarrero and La Malinche, in the infamous, but ever popular Dance of the Conquest.

We encourage you to spend a moment, click the buttons, browse our extensive catalog, ask questions and discover the beauty and inspiration inherent in these rare art forms. Please bookmark this page. We are adding content, updating information, and posting new inventory frequently.

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For centuries, the indigenous people of Guatemala and Mexico have produced extraordinary masks that show us the varied and colorful expressions of their culture. They have played an essential part in Guatemalan and Mexican ritual, their dances, drama, fertility rites, planting cycles and religious ceremonies.Their prim

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Carnival Dominicano: Masks, Traditions, and Culture

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Carnival Dominicano: Masks, Traditions, and Culture

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Central and South American Masks

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The single biggest celebration of culture in the Dominican Republic takes place during the month of February. Carnival celebrations unite Dominicans from all walks of life and of all ages as everyone takes to the streets as participant or spectator. Parades kick off in the country's main regions and cities pre-Lent on the first Sunday of February. They continue every Sunday of the month, culminating with Independence Day festivities on February 27.

A tradition that dates back to the Spaniards, who brought it to the island in the 15th century, Carnaval Dominicano is the oldest carnival in the Caribbean region. It metamorphosed after contact with indigenous and African influences, as residents used it to make fun of the colonial masters in their elaborate costumes. Over the years, it turned into a Dominican version comprised of characters that tell the history, and folklore of the country's various provinces, and reflect Dominicans' mixed heritage. Diversity is indeed the cornerstone of Carnival in the DR. From the more Taíno influenced north coast costumes to the African influenced southwest, it's a vibrantly cheerful part of the Dominican Republic's history, culture, and people.

The cities with the oldest Carnival traditions in the country are Santo Domingo, La Vega, Santiago, Montecristi, and Cabral. Although former dictator Rafael Trujillo prioritized the "social carnivals" for the elite and created separation of the classes with private club performances, the Dominican people rose above and turned it into a celebration for all.

Each city or province has its main Carnival character: a limping devil or diablo cojuelo with respective masks. Why is it limping? The legend says that this devil was so mischievous that it was banished and pushed down to Earth, and left with an injured leg turned lame.

If you don't see some form of devil at Carnival, you're not in the Dominican Republic. In addition, parades include Dominican folklore personalities and comparsas groups in varying costumes, with specific messages that range from the comical to the political. No two parades will be the same, allowing you to hop around the entire month across the DR's thirty-one provinces to see the range in roots and traditions.

Carnival ends the first Sunday in March with the grand Desfile Nacional, or National Parade in Santo Domingo-on the heels of Independence Day celebrations. The most popular Carnival devils and groups from the thirty-one provinces descend on the Malecón (the city's seafront boulevard) and compete for national prizes. This final parade is the longest, most spectacular display of diversity and creative costumes you'll see anywhere in the Caribbean. In 2016, over 170 groups paraded, from 2pm to about 9pm.

Below are thirteen of the main carnival characters from around the Dominican Republic, and the meaning behind the elaborate masks, costumes, and personalities of Carnaval Dominicano.

Dominican Republic Carnival Masks and Characters

La Vega's Diablo Cojuelo

Dating back to the 1500s, Carnaval de La Vega or Carnaval Vegano is the biggest, most vibrant carnival celebration in the Dominican Republic. Its principal character, the diablo cojuelo or limping devil, is instantly recognized because of the exaggerated mask features, with protruding eyes and teeth.

Dressed in a cloak, shiny shirt and broad trousers covered with bells, mirrors, and ribbons-all meant as a mockery of the Spanish medieval knights-the devils scare the crowd away with their giant masks and their whips. Each group of these limping devils from La Vega design and handcraft their masks every year, months ahead of Carnival, and hidden from the competitors.

Carnaval de La Vega is also one of the most commercially sponsored carnivals in the country. Masks have evolved over recent years to become more oriental and baroque in their features, which many criticize. But they still impress with their larger-than-life costumes as crowds spill all over the streets for one big, small-town party.

The Vejiga: The Devil's Weapon

A defining characteristic across the country's Carnivals is the devils' use of vejigas, inflicting pain on anyone in their path. These aren't your regular whips: they are made of a cow's dried, inflated bladder, cured with lemon, ashes, and salt. They are so hard to the touch that anyone who receives a vejigazo on their buttocks may be bruised for weeks. Watch your behind! The sisal rope seen in this image is used by Santiago's devils as an additional weapon; the Cachúas from Cabral also use their own version of a fouet.

La Vega's Carnaval de La Boa

Held in the morning, prior to the main La Vega Carnival a couple of streets away, is the less publicized Carnaval de La Boa. This is a traditional version of how Carnival used to be celebrated in La Vega 50 years ago-with simpler costumed devils with whips, who dance, leap, and pose with children. It stretches just one block, but is a popular pick for families.

Los Lechones of Santiago

Carnaval de Santiago is the second most popular Carnival in the country after La Vega. It's one of the most creative and colorful, and among the liveliest in crowd participation around the city's iconic Restoration Heroes Monument. Santiago's reigning carnival characters are the lechones or "piglets"-devils in masks that resemble the face of a pig (Santiago's pork is renowned). They aren't scary because of their tall horns, but rather have a curved, long snout. There are hundreds of participating lechones groups-with variances in their masks and costumes to denote their neighborhood.

The two most popular are Los Pepines, with tall, pointed snouts but smooth horns, and Los Joyeros, with masks that are spiked with numerous thorns. Their clothing is similar, and consists of a long-sleeved shirt and pants made of silk, adorned with sequins, beads, and mirrors, and fitted with a wide belt.

Santiago's devils open up the parade as they were originally considered the guardians of carnival or vejigantes, warding off the crowds and keeping order in the streets.

Fear of the lechones is due to their signature fouet or sisal rope, which they swing mercilessly up in the air at high velocity above their heads, before it hits the ground with a loud bang. You will shudder at the sound of the air whistling above you. You don't want to be within its range-remain behind the sidewalk barricades for safety. They also carry a vejiga in the other hand to swing at participants' rear ends if they are in their way. Between cracking whips and hitting bottoms, the lechones dance a style of African dance, swinging their legs side to side and lunging forward.

Los Taimáscaros of Puerto Plata

Puerto Plata's most popular devil characters are Los Taimáscaros, made of the words Taíno and "mask." A group of young men from Puerto Plata created this identity in 199 to help uplift the community spirit while reinforcing the trio of cultures that represent them as Dominicans: Taíno, African, and European. To date, there are about thirteen active tribes forming the Taimáscaros group. Within that group, the most popular are Tribu Yucahu, who have won multiple awards over the years for their ingenuity in costume and dance, including the highest national Carnival prize. The Taimáscaros' masks reflect the face of a Taíno god or deity, while the costumes incorporate their other heritage.

Los Guloyas of San Pedro de Macorís

A unique Afro-Caribbean group in the Dominican Republic are the Cocolos: the descendants of enslaved Africans who were brought to the DR in the late 19th century from the British islands of the Caribbean. Approximately 6,000 originally came from Anguilla, Barbados, St. Kitts, Nevis, Tortola, Turks and Caicos, and St. Croix, among other places, to work in the DR's sugar industry. Dominicans first gave them the name Tortolo-assumed to have derived from Tortola in the BVIs-which later evolved into Cocolos. Their dancers, known as the Guloyas, participate in the Carnival and wear gorgeous, beaded costumes with feathery hats. They dance to their own drums and twirl happily in the streets in their unique Afro-Caribbean moves. UNESCO classified the Guloyas in 2005 as a masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.

Los Pintaos of Barahona

Some of the comparsas or carnival groups have more recent origins yet carry great cultural significance. The southwest town of Barahona is known for Los Pintaos-the painted-a group created in 1997 by Francisco Suero Medina, locally known as El Gato. They made their debut in the national parade in 2000, and in 2008 were awarded the highest Carnival award granted by the Ministry of Culture: the Premio Nacional de Carnaval Felipe Abreu. The Pintaos represent the Maroons, who rebelled against Spanish colonialism and slavery and took refuge in the mountains of Bahoruco, southwest of the DR, in the early 16th century. Their costume is the intricate paint that covers their naked body, save for a piece of cloth covering their private parts. They dance in the street, sometimes holding sticks, and spread their joy and rebellious nature to the crowds, celebrating the Maroon heritage. They're unmistakable at Carnival and are a cultural icon of Barahona.

Las Cachúas of Cabral

The southwest also has a devilish character inspired from the days of Maroon resistance in the mountains of Barahona: Las Cachúas, from the town of Cabral. The Cachúas make an appearance at the National Parade, but are mostly known to participate in the Carnaval Cimarrón or Maroon Carnival, spanning three days at the end of Holy Week. It's the last of all the carnivals to be celebrated in the country, as it's held during Easter. They wear a mask made out of vibrant papier mâché, as they roam all weekend with whips starting at midnight on Holy Saturday. It all ends with a big, loud folkloric ceremony on Monday after Holy Week, when they burn Judas in effigy in the village cemetery.

Los Indios

In areas such as Santo Domingo, Puerto Plata, and La Vega, you will see various groups representing the Taíno, first inhabitants of the Dominican Republic who were exterminated by the Spaniards through disease and murder. Adults and children dress up in grass skirts and feathers, bodies smeared in brown paint, torsos bare for the men. They carry bows and spears.

Los Brujos of San Juan de La Managua

It was believed that there once were witches living in the southwestern city of San Juan de La Managua. Witchcraft was a common practice, hence the name of one of the Carnival troupes from this region.

Los Chiveros de Dajabón

To showcase the importance of farming in the area and its gastronomy, participants from this border town with Haiti wear masks resembling goats.

El Roba La Gallina: The Hen Robber

It's not all about scary devils and whips in Carnival. Some are fun folkloric characters that are meant to evoke laughter. The most beloved is El Roba la Gallina or the hen robber. This is usually a man dressed up as a woman in an extravagant layered dress, with huge breasts, hips, and elaborate makeup, who goes around the neighborhood colmados or shops begging for food, money, or sweets for her pollitos or children. She carries a big purse, handing out candy to the crowds, while she would later steal chickens and shove them in that emptied bag. Crowds burst into laughter as Roba La Gallina performs at Carnival, dancing and shaking her bottom as she parades down the streets and sings the rhyme, "ti-ti manatí, ton ton, molondrón, roba la gallina, palo con ella!"

The Comparsas

These numerous carnival dance troupes bring a lot of life and fun to Carnival. Each has its theme-often a dramatic, comical representation of political, social, or religious issues. While there's no record of how far back the carnival troupes have existed, they are thought to have come from Cuban influences, during their migration to the DR in the late 19th century. The above is a member of the Comparsas Zoomorfas.

Other groups to look out for at Carnival Dominicano are the Platanuses from Cotui, whose devils cover themselves in plantain leaves, the Toros from Montecristi, with masks representing bulls, and the Travestis (the Transvestites), who are crowd favorites.

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Carnival Dominicano: Masks, Traditions, and Culture

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The single biggest celebration of culture in the Dominican Republic takes place during the month of February. Carnival celebrations unite Dominicans from all walks of life and of all ages as everyone takes to the streets as participant or spectator. Parades kick off in the country's main regions and cities pre-Lent on the first Sunday of February.

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North American Masks

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Masks are highly valued by the Kwakiutl, serving as potent manifestations of ancestral spirits and supernatural beings and offering these supernatural entities temporary embodiment and communication through dance and other kinds of performance (Greenville 1998: 14). Masks also allow the wearer to undergo spiritual and social renewal, and serve as an outward manifestation of inward transformations (Pollock 1995: 588-590). However, Northwest Coast tribes do not all share the same myths or characters, nor do they necessarily use masks in the same way during their ceremonies (Malin 1978: 47). Each mask and accompanying dance are owned by particular families and passed down by elders and chiefs to their immediate and extended families to be used in ceremonies like the potlatch and seasonal festivals. These masks thus accumulate histories that transform and enhance their value (Gosden and Marshall 1999: 172). Oftentimes, people who specialize in carving are commissioned to make these masks several months, even years, in advance for members of the Kwakiutl First Nation as well as for museums and private collectors (Malin 1978:18-19; Ostrowitz and Jonaitis 1991: 251).

MPM # 17348-4615
Sea Anemone mask MPM #17361-4615
Buk'wus mask MPM#17365-4615
Killer whale mask with eagle
and human face
Archaeological evidence for the antiquity of mask-making on the Northwest Coast is scarce, though it is clear that a distinctive Northwest Coast cultural pattern and artistic style emerged over a thousand years ago (Kehoe 1992: 434; Malin 1999: 17). In the late eighteenth through early twentieth centuries, European explorers noted the significance of masks and totem poles to the native communities they encountered on their journeys. Their observations are supported by the masks and other materials they collected and documented while on these expeditions (Siebert and Forman 1967: 9-16).

The ceremonial function and significance of masks for the Kwakiutl seems to have changed significantly as a result of colonization and Christianization over the last century and a half[2]. The style and form of masks changed in tandem with access to iron tools and supplies made available after contact with early Russian explorers and European settlers (Holm 1965: 5; Malin 1978: 13; Jonaitis 1991: 39, 54; Masco 1995: 42). Access to modern equipment and supplies was later increased with the establishment of companies like the Northwest Company and the Hudson Bay Trading Company, which built a trading post near Fort Rupert, BC in 1849. Buttons and foreign fabrics purchased at the Trading Company were quickly implemented into traditional Kwakiutl crafts and regalia, enhancing their prestige. Metal carving tools were sharper and more efficient than their traditional counterparts, and modern synthetic paints allowed for more dramatic and durable coloration than did the plant and mineral based pigments previously used to decorate masks (Jonaitis 1991: 39, 54).

Innovation and adaptation are important parts of the Kwakiutl tradition of mask making. However, modern art markets and museums, which have tended to place great value on contemporary masks that replicate the style of earlier historic masks, have made it difficult for many native artists of the region to freely experiment with their craft. This is in sharp contrast to the kind of experimentation that is normally expected in the work of non-native Western artists (Ostrowitz 1999: 107-108). The influence of earlier generations of carvers like Willie Seaweed, Charlie James, Mungo Martin, Henry Hunt, Bob Harris, Ellen Neel, and Arthur Shaughnessy continues, therefore, to be evident in the works of contemporary Kwakiutl artists and the generation of new carvers they have already begun to train. Well aware of their critics, museums have begun to foster a climate of appreciation for greater innovation and originality among native artists, recognizing artists' right to define the limits of their own creativity and connection with the past. At the same time, the significance of early historic masks should not be underestimated for, as with all artistic traditions, they have provided the foundation upon which contemporary Kwakiutl artists now stand.

Mask Collection

[!KwakiutlCollection!]

2. For discussions on cultural change in Kwakiutl communities, see Irving Goldman's The Mouth of Heaven (1975) and Stanley Walen's Feasting with Cannibals (1982).

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Masks are highly valued by the Kwakiutl, serving as potent manifestations of ancestral spirits and supernatural beings and offering these supernatural entities temporary embodiment and communication through dance and other kinds of performance (Greenville 1998: 14). Masks also allow the wearer to undergo spiritual and social renewal, and serve as an outward manifestation of inward transformations (Pollock 1995: 588-590).

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The Hellish Beauty of Portugal's Festival Masks

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The Hellish Beauty of Portugal's Festival Masks

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European Masks

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It's a sunny afternoon in Lisbon, Portugal, and in the street a young girl is being clutched by the devil. Or a devil, more accurately, and it's her lower leg he has gripped in a pair of long wooden pincers.

The girl shrieks and twists herself free, giggling. The devil-man emits a laugh from behind a wild, wooden mouth and skips off to find his next victim.

The Festival Internacional de Mascara Iberica (Iberian Mask Festival for we English speakers) takes place annually in May. Central to the festival is a huge parade that winds through the streets in a chaos of color and drums. Demons and devils and strange creatures run riot. It's hard to believe that only hours ago they were human.

The costumes and masks gathered together by the festival are from various parts of Portugal and Spain, so the traditions behind them vary. A common theme of many is that of diabo, the devil, whose likeness brings with it the compulsion to mischief.

Most of the mask festivals in Portugal coincide with dates on the Catholic calendar, which themselves stem from ancient Pagan feasts: Christmas, originally the winter solstice, and Easter, the autumn equinox. You'd be hard-pressed to find detailed information on exactly how the traditions began - in short, no-one really knows. But little does it matter: once something has become part of a cultural identity, its origin is largely inconsequential. In fact, it's only been in the last 50 years or so that some of the festivals have been reignited and embraced again with fervour after a period of dormancy.

In the region of Trás-os-Montes between December 25 and 26 you can experience the festas dos rapazes ("festival of the boys"), a coming-of-age ritual where the young, single boys of the villages stir up trouble in a rumpus of costumed wild things. Some say it's a way of exorcising all the mischief from their systems so they can rise the next morning as men. As you might imagine, young girls are encouraged to lock themselves indoors.

Coinciding with the lead up to lent, and also with Portugal's carnival, is another series of weird and wonderful traditional festivals: the Carnaval dos Caretos de Podence, for example, or the Entrudo de Lazarim, both in the country's far north. The costumes at each are unique. A "careto" is a character usually dressed in a suit of shaggy red, yellow and green fringing with a leather or metal mask. In Lazarim a handful of local craftsman are responsible for carving wooden masks, sometimes horned and demonic, sometimes laughing caricatures of public figures. These carefully hand-wrought pieces often become heirlooms passed down from generation to generation.

While there may be no one single meaning or function to the masks, the effect they create is universal. Their wearers - whether lumbering wood-faced through the cobbled streets as great pillars of grass and moss, or maniacally dancing in a cacophony of cowbells - have been granted license to temporarily shelve their identities. They are transformed, their true emotions hidden beneath a frozen expression. For a few days, at least, the masks give them both a cultural heritage to celebrate, and the rampant freedom of anonymity.
Photography by Tania Braukamper.

Tania Braukamper

Tania Braukamper is an Australian-born writer and photographer. She believes in slow travel, kindness, and adventure as a state of mind.

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festival internacional de mascara iberica

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festas dos rapazes (festival of the boys

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Hellish Beauty of Portugal's Festival Masks

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
It's a sunny afternoon in Lisbon, Portugal, and in the street a young girl is being clutched by the devil. Or a devil, more accurately, and it's her lower leg he has gripped in a pair of long wooden pincers. The girl shrieks and twists herself free, giggling.

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Masks: Reflections of Culture and Religion (India)

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Masks: Reflections of Culture and Religion (India)

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Asian Masks

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We wear the mask that grins and lies,
It hides our cheeks and shades our eyes,
This debt we pay to human guile;
With torn and bleeding hearts we smile,
And mouth with myriad subtleties.
--Dunbar

When not trapped in the stereotypes of being "hypocritical guises" or "camouflaged farces", masks reflect the innocence of the primitive people of the world who were the real creators of these aesthetically sublime and culturally functional symbols. The mask is a heritage of this planet and works beyond all stipulated geo-political boundaries of the world.

Masks portray the various moods that get embossed on our faces as reflections of the various emotions and states of mind that an individual goes through. Experiences of emotions - love, anger, hate, fury, joy, fear, disgust, sorrow - transcend castes, creed and nationality and the universal body language depicting these emotions has been sought by man to be given form through masks.

Masks can be thought of as having been created by our ancestors to form a bridge between the outer phenomenal world and the inner person. Though the modern world belittles masks as being tools for cosmetic disguise and are often attached with a negative connotation, the ancient world treated masks as instruments of revelations - a pathway to the world of gods and other invisible powers - by giving form to the formless. This endeavor of our ancestors to know the unknown is given shape by the mask - be it of deities or cult icons or even exorcism and ritual healing. Masks thus became an object of reverence in all ancient cultures and are considered so, even now by aboriginal people around the world.

The ancient Latin word for mask is "persona" which literally indicates "false face", an aspect of the personality shown to or perceived by others. Every person is said to have at least two selves - one without any guise and the other, an 'alternate self' - one which may or may not be a pretension. While it is the field of behavioral psychology that delves into the nuances of multiple selves of a person, for the common man, the search for the 'self' as well as its reflective imaginations has led to the discovery of the Mask - something that could give form to various guises which were far from the conscious self but close to the mind.

While the primitive man, out of fear of the natural power around them, copied the world of animals and birds through symbols, paintings and sketches around him, the fear of the dynamism of nature within and outside, propelled him to create masks as a linkage between his world and the one unknown to him. Rituals built around these masks combined with costumes and music of the people of those times depict the psyche of man during those times, reflecting the natural world through actual imitation or through other representational forms. It was believed that masks linked to natural powers served the community by striking a harmonious balance with the forces of nature and the spirit world.

Masks cannot be thought of as works of art alone - they serve multiple functions, all of which contribute in expressing the human elements and messages, which they personify. These functions, briefly can be indicated as:

to evoke certain reactions in the beholder, for instance, awe of the god represented, fear in an enemy, or ecstasy in possession or trance

to cure disease in men, cattle, and crops by impersonating the supernatural power

to represent religious totems

to emphasize social wrongs by enacting the role of wrongdoer or by satire

As a tool in both popular and sophisticated theatrical forms, the mask helps in portraying various socio-cultural themes through direct or indirect or even satiric depiction of people or various social concepts. Religious rituals of various forms in various cultures also have wide use of masks in initiation rites, life-cycle ceremonies, rites of exorcism and ritual healing, and also in celebration ceremonies like those after crop harvests. All three possible types of masks - ritual masks, war and monstrous masks, and masks for tribal and folk performances at the time of festivals - are ritual in origin.

The origin of the mask has been traced to pre-historic man. Depictions of masks have been found in various rock paintings and cave paintings. Masks were probably used for hunting and taming animals and for their primeval dances. The Mohenjodaro excavations, which brought to light the ancient Indus valley civilization (2500 B.C.), have revealed a Terracotta mask, which is called the Pashupati mask. Interestingly, a similar looking mask, which is said to depict the God Cernunnos, has been found in European excavations of Celtic age artifacts.

MASKS IN INDIA

The traditions of Indian dance and dance dramas are among the most perplexingly complex and varied theatrical cultures of the world. The geographical vastness, different ecological conditions, multiplicity of races and their languages, the complex religious beliefs and ritual practices and equally intricate social structure have all contributed in creating the most colorful panorama of dance and dance drama traditions. India has a huge range of decorative, festive and ceremonial masks related to the vast repertoire of myths, legends and folkore, which revolve around idolized deities, valiant heroes, and fierce demons.

In olden days, masks of Siva and and Shakti were considered extremely powerful iconic masks in India. The three-eyed 'shakti', in the form of Durga and Kali, are very common in the eastern belt of India. A very common use of these masks is found in the mask dances in which narrative plays are staged in which Goddess Durga (or any of her forms of Shakti) kills the evil demon. Along with the power of the deity, masks also depict the pet or "vahana" (vehicle) of the deity. For example, the lion (Goddess Durga's vahana) is shown along with her while the goddess kills the asura (demon). This implies the linkage sought between natural power and ritualistic connotations.

Another extremely popular theme in India is the Hindu epic, Ramayana. Staging of this epic as Ramlila always captures the psyche of people through masked depictions of its characters. Even though now it is non-ritualistic in nature, the enactment of this epic through the Ramlila processions (procession which eulogizes the tale of Lord Rama) or through various theatrical forms. Ramlila masks often see the use of zari (golden glittery thread) and brass. Another very popular figure is that of the Narasimha (one of the incarnations of Lord Vishnu) icon from the Bhagavata-mala, in Andhra Pradesh in south India. The Bhagavat Mela Natakam of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, Prahlada Natakam of Orissa and Bayalatta theatre of Karnataka also use Narasimha masks.

Depiction of animals through masks has been a practice that has survived from prehistoric times. The power and fury of the faces of animals have always enchanted man. Mythological and real animals remain a powerful component of folk-religion and occupy a sacred space in the minds of the natives of any nation. The lion mask of Purulia and the Jackal mask from Gambhira (both in West Bengal in eastern India) with their dull color temperatures, the animal masks of northeastern India and those of Madhya Pradesh in central India are prominent examples of mask depictions of animals. The wooden masks from tribal Madhya Pradesh have carvings of images from the animal world, of snakes, insects and even the cosmos.

The tribal people of Madhya Pradesh wear masks, which they call Mukhada, during festivals and ritual dances. Mukhadas are made using the most inexpensive and readily available material. Pumpkin hollows, waste paper, cardboard and wood is used for these masks. Sometimes, a gourd hollow is also used for masks - in such a case, the mask is elongated in shape as compared to the round shape possible from a pumpkin hollow. A pair of holes is provided in the masks to peep through. However, similar holes are not provided for the nose, mouth and ears. Instead, honey-bee wax is used for the nose, pumpkin seeds or rice seeds are used to depict the teeth, and bangles form the eyes. Hair from goats or bears is used to depict beards, moustaches and hair. Though generally no coloring is externally applied to these masks, some of them do bear a blood-red color. Some tribes decorate their masks with colorful designs and add peacock plumes for added beauty. These people use gloss paper or aluminum foil to add glitter to their masks. However, masks made with perishable items are not long lasting and get destroyed by pests and moisture within a year or two. Since masks are made from readily available material and are unrefined in form, two masks can never be replicas.

The tribal communities of Gonda and Raj-gonds follow several Hindu customs and are great admirers of Lord Krishna. Therefore, their boys and girls wear masks of the Lord and Gopis (Lord Krishna's female companions) while performing group dances. They have the greatest variety of masks amongst the tribal people of Madhya Pradesh.

The Baiga tribe uses wood for their masks and hence they are very heavy. Their youngsters celebrate the "Charata" festival in a big way. Quite ahead of the festival day they commence making their facial masks. On the day of the festival, they dance in groups wearing these masks. The villagers honor them with food and wine. They move from village to village and repeat their performances. The tribals of Bastar District also perform this festival with all pomp and show. Maria tribal youths also wear similar masks while dancing. Their masks have bison horns on them and are smeared with red dye.

On an auspicious day, the Buyya tribals invoke god "Kalyadev." Two unmarried youths sport facial masks and numerous ornaments in order to commence their ritual dance. The audience makes queries about rain fall, prospects of a good harvest, probable date for the commencement of hunting expeditions and who should be its leader. The dancers sway and reach a state of frenzy. The "possessed" persons then suggest remedies to the problems and questions posed by the people. The villagers consider that these are the dictates of their deity and act accordingly.

Animal Mask Dances are prevalent in villages of south Orissa, especially in the district of Ganjam. During the Thankurani Yatra (a religious festival marked by a huge procession), when the idols are taken out on the streets, the animal mask dancers dance in front of the procession. During wedding ceremonies too, they lead the bridegroom's procession all the way to the bride's house. The three animal mask dances typical of the area are the tiger, bull and horse dances. Two persons get into a cane frame and conceal themselves within it. Their legs become the legs of the animals they are representing.

Another such animal dance is the Chaiti Ghoda Dance, which is performed by the people of the Kaibarta caste of Orissa during the month of Chaitra (springtime in India), to honor their deity, Vasuli Devi. A man, riding on a bamboo-horse, dances with a couple (Rauta and Rautani) and is accompanied by a drummer and a piper. The tiger dance called the Bagh Nritya is also popular in Orissa.

Kucchhi Ghodi is a mask dance performed during Holi - the festival of colors - in Braj, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. Men in elaborate costumes ride well-decorated dummy horses, holding naked swords and dance to the rhythm of drumbeats.

The Bhand Pather form of theatre in Shikargah, Kashmir, uses masks for deer, gods and tigers, with a costume incorporating the mask. These deer masks have movable jaws. The Chittoor, Nellore, Prakasam and Guntur districts of Andhra Pradesh boast of the Keelugurram, which is the imitation of the dance movements of a horse by men and women. This entertaining horse is made of thin bamboo-pieces and is covered with paper-paste. Dancers hold the horse with attached sticks and perform to the tunes of musical instruments. The horsemen wear wooden legs and ankle-bells. The horse is also decorated with bells around its neck. Puravai Attam, also known as Poikkal Kuthirai, is a dummy horse show in Tamil Nadu. The horse is made of jute, cardboard, paper and glass. Men as well as women perform the show. Wooden stilts are tied to the dancers' feet. A pair of dancers, impersonating as king and queen, performs this dance. Puli Vesham, or tiger play, is a popular dance form all over Andhra Pradesh and is practised by both Hindus and Muslims. It is performed in open air during the festivals of Dushehra and Muharram. Experts perform the tiger-play with musical instruments, while smearing their whole body with yellow varnish, black spots and stripes, with a snake painted on the stomach. The costume contains a tiger's mask and a tail made of cloth. The performer wears bells on one ankle.

DIVERSE MASKS FROM DIVERSE PARTS OF INDIA

Eastern India boasts of the famous Chhau mask dances. The tribal belt where the tribals and other common people perform Chhau dances is distributed into three adjoining states, West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Etymologically, Chhau is derived from the Sanskrit word 'chhaya', which connotes a mask but some scholars are of opinion that Chhau is an independent colloquial Odissi word, meaning, to attack or hunt stealthily. Chhau is evidently a war dance and has three schools as such, coming from Seraikella in Bihar, Purulia in West Bengal and Mayurbhanj in Orissa. The Mayurbhanj form of Chhau uses no masks while the others do. All the three Chhau dance forms are practised by males.

Purulia Chhau of West Bengal involves the propitiation of the Sun God through masks. It is a vibrant, powerful and ritualistic folk dance form with an inclination towards theatre and is performed during the Chaitra Parva festival or the Gajan festival in mid-April. The themes of this dance are always meant to depict how evil is punished based on mythological stories. Themes from the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas are performed through this dance.

The distinguishing feature of this dance drama is the skillful use of masks and costumes, supplemented by the right tempo of music. The actors are poor and illiterate peasants. The performances are held annually at a festival of the Sun God. It is a heroic dance performance of the males, the females having an insignificant role in it. Moreover, women's roles in the drama are always played by men wearing women's masks.

In the past, the devotees painted their face and body with colors. However, during the Vaishanava period (a period in Indian religious history during the 15th to 17th century A.D., marked by a resurgence of believers in Krishna and Vishnu) , the dance soon evolved to use wooden masks, which are considered sacred in ritualistic performances. Later on, the masks began to be prepared with a mixture of paper, pulp, mud and cloth, which made them lighter than the wooden versions. Nowadays, these facial masks are manufactured mostly in the Purulia district of West Bengal. The making of these masks is an independent art altogether. It needs a gifted artist to visualize the mask and then give shape to it. They are manufactured by artisans, well-versed in Puranas, using simple tools and inexpensive ingredients. A clay model is designed on which paper pieces are pasted and on this layer rag is attached with riverbed clay. Then it is polished with a delicate wooden chisel, followed by removing from the mould and drying in the sun. The actors depicting gods and goddesses wear star-spangled facial masks seated with feathers and jewels while those depicting the demon-king Ravana, Mahishasura (the buffalo headed demon) and other demons and evil spirits wear grotesque masks. The use of masks in Purulia Chhau not only determined the line of its growth, but also remained its focal point even after the form fully crystallized.

The costumes used are made out of locally available inexpensive materials. The actors representing gods wear light colored trousers, whereas deep colored and striped ones are reserved for the demons. The actors who depict Lord Shiva put on a loincloth of a tiger's skin while those depicting his son Ganesh wear a dhoti. Those depicting Goddess Kali have to wear a tight pair of trousers of black cloth. Saffron colored dhotis are meant for those depicting ascetics, sages and brahmins. The main characters wear embroidered jackets manufactured by the local women. They are beautifully designed by using silk thread, tinsels and artificial pearls.

The principle occasion for the performance of Chhau in Seraikella is the Chaitra Parva, which comes about the middle of April every year. The Sareikela style of Chhau was helped in its development by royal patronage in the erstwhile princely states comprising the state of Bihar. The kings of these states with artistic leanings actively participated in dance performances of Chhau. This mask dance form originated in medieval India in Saraikela in southern Bihar. Masks are an essential part of a Chhau performance and mask making has been a hereditary trade. Over the generations the masks have become more stylized. Originally made of wood, then bamboo and pumpkin-shells, at present they are made of papier mache. Sophisticated masks, made of paper-mache with awe-inspiring headgear, add to the folk tune and steps of the dancers. The dance motifs and themes are interrelated with myths and history covering animates and inanimates as well as sentiments. The Seraikella Chau has extended its thematic content by introducing very suggestive and poetic subjects into its repertoire.

The Seraikella Chau is one of the three rare mask traditions, which received royal patronage and active participation by the learned members of the royal family. This has nearly transformed or metamorphosed the form of this dance from the tribal to almost a highly refined 'classical' dance form. One of the royal members with his choreographic genius introduced highly suggestive themes and stylized body language that matched the poet's imagination. Today the repertoire can boast one of the widest range of subjects that may draw inspiration from birds, animals, divine beings or even common people from our daily life like a fisherman or a hunter or a boatman. Remarkably enough it can also depict phenomenon like the night in a most poetic manner. The suggestive narratives with the unique body kinetics convey the deeper allegorical meanings that echo a higher philosophy of life.

Kali Nach is performed in West Bengal, in honor of Goddess Kali. The performer wears a mask, purified by mantras; dances with a sword, and makes prophetic proclamations. Gambhira is a solo mask dance, confined to the district Maldah, West Bengal. The mask, made of a special sacred wood, requires great physical efforts to carry on the face. The characters represent Puranic (from the Puranas - ancient Hindu religious text) deities like lord Shiva, Goddess Parvati and Goddess Kali, with loud beats of drums during the Gajan festival.

Mukha Kheil (mask play) is prevalent in the Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal among local Rajvamshis (royals). The dance is thematic and is based on the Hindu epic, Ramayana. The masks are made of wood in Tibetan style. Some of the best examples of masks from Bengal come from the jungle Rabhas in Jalpaiguri district. There are three types of masks - each has a distinct name, is made of a different material, and represents a particular character: Char-gog, the mask of the goddess Chandi, is made of bamboo strips. The mask is used in the religious dance performed following Kali Puja. After the performance, the mask is cut into pieces and thrown in the river for fear of incurring the displeasure of the goddess. Char-pagal is made of wood in the form of a human face and is also used during Kali Puja. Maper-char is made of gourd shell, with the face of a bear painted on the upper surface.

The Satriya dance, ascribed to the Vaishnava movement in Assam during 15th to 17th century A.D., is one of the most interesting dance forms of India. The Satriya dance is an enduring tradition pursued and preserved in the Satra institutions, another hallmark of the Vaishnava movement. This mask dance drama is mostly based on religious stories related to the life of lord Krishna. Some of the life size Satriya masks measure about ten feet in height. Others represent both head and face masks. The masks have the inner core in bamboo strips covered by threads of cane with the coating of cow dung, clay, cloth and paper. The images are then painted with vegetable pigments.

Ankia Nat is a type of one act folk play of Assam, using big masks of demons, animals, gods and goddesses made of bamboo. Heights of these masks reach up to the waist and can be as tall as 15 feet, and need several actors to manipulate them. Actors enter into the masks and rest the masks on their shoulder. Since the masks are very heavy and not very mobile in nature, the characters that these masks depict are generally demons or snakes, which have very limited movements.

The Shahi Jatra (royal procession) of Orissa presents different episodes from the Ramayana during the spring season, for a week. Actors, wearing huge wooden masks and gorgeous costumes, walk on the streets with stylized gait and mime with accompaniment of loud drumming. Desianata of Koraput, Orissa, also uses masks for representing gods, goddesses, animals, birds and demons. Themes, again, are taken from Ramayana.

Padayani or Padeni, is one of the most colorful and spectacular folk arts associated with the festivals of certain temples in southern Kerala (Aleppy, Quilon, Pathanamthitta, and Kottayam districts). The word Padayani literally means military formations or rows of army, but this folk art mainly involves a series of divine and semi-divine impersonations wearing huge masks or kolams of different shapes, colors and designs, painted on the stalks of areca nut fronds. The most important of the kolams usually presented in a Padayani performance are Bhairavi (Kali), Kalan (god of death), Yakshi (fairy) and Pakshi (bird), among others. The Kolam (mask) consists primarily of a huge headgear with many projections and devices with a mask for the face or a chest piece to cover the breast and abdomen of the performer.

Krishnattam, the ritualistic dance-drama of Kerala, is a cycle of eight plays, depicting the tales of Krishna from his birth to his death. It is performed in the Koothambalam (dance stage of the temple) of the Krishna temple in Guruvayoor, Kerala and involves the use of varied and colorful facial make-up and larger-than-life masks, made of lightwood and cloth padding. This dance form is based on the 17th century Krishnageethi, and is staged for eight nights till dawn.

Kummattikkali is a popular dance form in the northern districts of Kerala. The dancers move from house to house in painted wooden masks and sport springs of leaves and grass. This form has a popular masked character Thulla (witch), besides various Hindu gods and goddesses. The Mannan community of South Malabar, Kerala, propitiates the goddess Kali and performs Poothanam Thirayam. A troupe of dancers dresses up as Kali and the accompanying Poothanams (spirits) for the destruction of the evil Darikan. The dance is staged in front of houses and village shrines, between November and May. The Tirayattam and Bhoota dance forms of Kerala use beautiful wooden masks for deity-characters.

Among the older mask traditions of south India those of the Bhuta tribe of Karnataka are notable. So also is the Kathakali, from Kerala, which, though is not a mask dance, does involve distinctive dramatic facial coloring meant for the transformation of human dancer-actors into suras (gods) and asuras (demons) and other mythological characters. The heavy facial coloring almost makes the performers look as if they are wearing masks.

In Gujarat and Maharashtra, masks are very popular among the Kukana and Warli tribes. They usually portray animals, birds, gods and goddesses, as well as demons and ghosts, and are generally employed in dances and dramas on religious or mythological themes. During the festivals of Holi and Diwali, tribal artists organize mask-shows. The popular mask of Ravana, the demon king and villain in the Ramayana, has an arch-shaped framework of bamboo strips decorated with multicolored paper, with the ten colorful clay or papier mache heads affixed across the bottom of the arch. Painting of the masks is not merely to enrich their appearance but is a means by which the spirit of that character is infused into the mask, bringing it to life.

MASKS FROM BUDDHISM

Masks are studded in the life and rituals of all monasteries in the Himalayan range encompassing Tibet, Ladakh, Bhutan and Sikkim. Mask dances are the part of religious and cultural traditions and the holy scripts, which date back to the 8th century A.D. India's close neighbor, Bhutan, has fearful masks of animal spirits, which are codified, with very high aesthetic connotations of color and shape. The Mahayana tradition of Buddhism survives only in this country.

The Tibetan monks practice the religious Chham dance with great fervor. The Chham dance can take many forms but one of its most popular themes is commemoration of Padmasambhava. The mask dance usually consists of two parts: the first honors and pays homage to the eight aspects of Padmasambhava. The second part of the performance shows Maha Dongcren, a horned masked figure, slaying the demonic force. The Chham Dance is performed in the courtyard of monasteries by the Buddhist Lamas residing in the monasteries of Lahaul and Spiti, Ladakh, and Kinnaur. The main theme of this dance deals with propitiating the deity, killing the evil king and protecting the people from the wrath of natural calamities, diseases and epidemics and ensuring health, happiness and prosperity for the people of the area. The Lamas, dance in slow, circular movements with big, colorful masks and grotesque expressions, in accompaniment with the beats of drums, cymbals and long pipes. The Lamas prepare the masks, made of wood and papier-mâché with a thin coat of plaster. The figures usually portrayed are of Yama (the Lord of death) and his demons, Padmasambhava (the second Buddha), the god of wealth, and the protector of horses and other animals.

The Hemis monastery of Ladakh is home to a number of colorful and beautiful mask dances from the Buddhist culture. Hemis is one of the largest and richest monasteries of Ladakh and is a leading center of Drugpa Buddhism. On the tenth day of the sixth month of the Ladakhi calendar, the monastery turns into a very large stage where monks, tourists and people from all over the world congregate for the famous masked dances. The performers wear elaborate and bizarre costumes and masks and through typically slow dance movements, unfurl a story of the age-old fight between good and evil, ending with the eventual victory of the former. Typical costumes include Gonchas of velvet, elaborately embroidered waistcoats and boots, and gonads or hats.

The various dances performed here have a separate set of colorful masks to depict different figures. The Padmasambhava dance, which shows the conquest of the ruta demons, has among other figures represented in the dance, Yama - the God of death, and the black-hatted sorcerer, Guru Trakpo - the vanquisher of all demons. The brightly colored and beautifully costumed performers dance and leap in a dramatic depiction of the conflict between the evil spirit and the good, religious one. The good spirits bear triangular flags and have bells on their feet. In the course of the long performance, the latter slowly vanquishes the non-believer, converting him to the Tibetan form of Buddhism, thus representing victory. One of the dancers carries a pair of mummified hands, which are supposed to have belonged to a painter who painted the giant Thangka (Tibetan painting), which is displayed once every 12 years, in the Hemis festival.

The Yak Dance portrays the unusual experience of a man driven out of his home by his father, who comes across a yak. Two men holding a yak head with elaborate costumes, act as a yak, while others perform with mask. The dances revolve around other animals, such as deer, lion, peacock and the mock cockfight. The Lion and peacock dances are performed by Monpas, and all the animal dances, depicting a story, capture gait and movements of animals. Two groups perform the cockfight dance with each group having two drummers. They wear masks resembling cock heads.

Among the other dances, which are performed in the Hemis monastery, is the Tse-Chu Dance, to celebrate the birthday of Guru Rimpoche, the founder of Tibetan Buddhism. The Lamas perform sacred masked dances leading to the destruction of the sacrificial offerings. Another festival that is celebrated every year in February with great pomp and fervor is the Dosmoche festival. Masked Lamas from different monasteries perform the sacred dance-drama. Dosmoche celebrations are also held in the Likir (Indus Valley) and Deksit (Nubra valley) monasteries. The Yuru Kabgyat festival is celebrated during July, in the monastery of Lamayuru of Leh. The masks worn by the lamas represent guardian divinities from the Dringungpa pantheon.

Away from Ladakh, the famous mask dances from Sikkim also provide a marvelous spectacle. Performed by lamas in the monastery courtyard to celebrate religious festivals, these dances demonstrate perfect footwork and grace. Costumed lamas with gaily-painted masks, ceremonial swords and sparkling jewels, leap and swing to the rhythm of resounding drums, trumpeting of horns and chanting of monks.

In the Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh in north India, the Lama Devil dance is one of the most attractive mask dances of the Kinnauri tribals. Two of the dancers are dressed as lions. The dance depicts the taming of the lion that represents evil spirits. Perhaps the earliest known masks still in use are the bronze mohras of the northern hills. In Himachal Pradesh the cult of mohras (embosses) is apparently much older than the cult of icons. The casting of these mohras with iconographic and stylistic features was established by the sixth century. Another unique group from this region are the wooden masks from the Kannaur village in Chamba.

In the northeastern states of India too, Buddhist tribes use masks for dance and pantomime. This custom can be traced from about the sixteenth century when monks from the Tawang monastery in present-day Arunachal Pradesh propagated Buddhist philosophy in that region. A number of mask dances in the trans-Himalayan style are regularly performed during Buddhist festivals and ceremonies, as well as for recreation and amusement. Masks are also integral to the magico-religious practices prevalent among the different tribes in this region.

Thutotdam is the dance of the Sherdukpens and the Monpas of Arunachal Pradesh, representing skulls and costumes designed as skeletons. It depicts how the souls after death are received in the other world. Nongkrem Dance is the most important mask dance of the Khasis in Meghalaya and is celebrated during autumn, essentially as a thanks-giving ceremony to God for the harvest and to pray for peace and prosperity.

CONCLUSION

Most nations all over the world have a cultural past, which is inseparably linked to masks making them a universal phenomenon. A notable exception is the Arabic world with its Islamic background, which stays away from deification and iconization of characters. Masks from all over the world converge on the universality of the human mind and the power of the human imagination. The Mask forms a silent language which is universally understood and which defines the essence of human expressions and emotions at various levels - spiritual, religious and material.

The flavor of masks still remains as fresh as ever even though today, the focus of the use of masks has shifted from the performing arts and religious ceremonies, to the handicrafts market. However, whether it is made of wood or metal or fabric - the Mask continues to be a source of mystery and fascination - a mode of escape from the drudgery of everyday life seeped in technology and automation.

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Masks: Reflections of Culture and Religion

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Masks : Reflections of Culture and Religion - Masks depict the alternative self of man and help in projections of cultural, religious and spiritual thinking. This article traces the Indian mask from its origin (Mohenjodaro) to the famous mask dances of Chhau and the popular festivals of Ramleela and various Buddhist dances and festivals including the Chham dance.

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The Noh Mask Effect: A Facial Expression Illusion

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The Noh Mask Effect: A Facial Expression Illusion

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Asian Masks

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Noh Masks & Facial Expression Perception

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The full-face masks worn by skilled actors in Japanese Noh drama can induce a variety of perceived expressions with changes in head orientation. Rotation of the head out of the visual plane changes the two dimensional image characteristics of the mask which viewers may misinterpret as non-rigid changes due facial muscle action.

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European Masks

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Venetian masks are characterised by their ornate design, featuring bright colours such as gold or silver and the use of complex decorations in the style. Many designs of Venetian masks stem from . They can be full-face masks (e.g. the bauta) or eye masks (e.g. the Columbina).

Types of masks

(sometimes referred as baùtta) is a mask which covers the whole face, this was a traditional piece of art, with a stubborn Bauta chin line, no mouth, and lots of gilding. The mask has a square jaw line often pointed and tilted upwards to enable the wearer to talk, eat and drink easily without having to remove the mask thereby preserving their anonymity. The Bauta was often accompanied by a red cape and a tricorn

In 18th century, the Bauta had become a standardized society mask and disguise regulated by the Venetian government.It was obligatory to wear it at certain political decision-making events when all citizens were required to act anonymously as peers. Only citizens had the right to use the Bauta. Its role was similar to the anonymizing processes invented to guarantee general, direct, free, equal and secret ballots in modern democracies.

It was not allowed to wear weapons along with the mask, and police had the right to enforce

The Columbina (also known as Columbine and Columbino) is a half mask often highly decorated with gold, silver, crystals and feathers. It is held up to the face by a baton or tied with ribbon as with most other Venetian masks. The columbine was popularised by an early actress in the Commedia dell'arte of the same name. It is said it was designed for her because she did not wish to have her beautiful face covered completely.
A "plague doctor" mask
The Medico Della Peste with its long beak is one of the most bizarre and recognisable of the Venetian masks. The striking design has a macabre history originating from 17th century French physician Charles de Lorme who adopted the mask together with other sanitary precautions while treating plague

Today, the masks are often more decorative. The doctors who followed de Lorme's example wore the usual black hat and long black cloak as well as the mask, white gloves and a stick (to move patients without having to come into physical contact). They hoped these precautions would prevent them contracting the disease. Those who wear the 'plague doctor' mask often wear the associated clothing of the . The popularity of the Medico della Peste among carnivale celebrants can be seen as a

Popular in Venice as it brought out the beauty of feminine features such as the female head, body and mind. The mask was held in place by the wearer biting on a button or bit and was finished off with a veil. Servetta Muta translates as 'mute maid servant'. This mask has not been widely worn since 1760.

The larva, also called the volto mask, is mainly white, and typically Venetian. It is worn with a tricorn

( French: Arlequin, English: Harlequin) typically depicted in multicoloured costume comprised of diamond shaped patterns.

(related to the Italian: pulcino or chick) is a crooked-nosed hunchback. He was the model for Punch in the English puppet theatre Punch and Judy. He is associated with Naples. Pulcinella

La Ruffiana (Old Woman) is usually a mother or gossipy townswoman who intrudes into the lives of the Lovers

y the eighteenth centaury the wearing of masks by Venetians continued for six months of the year as the original religious association and significance with carnevale diminished. On October 17th, 1797 (26 Vendémiaire, Year VI of the French Republic) Venice became part of the Austrian-held Kingdom of Lombardy- Venetia when Napoleon signed the Treaty of Campo Formio. The Austrians took control of the city on January 18, 1798 and it fell into a decline which also effectively brought carnival celebrations to a halt for many years

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Venetian masks are characterised by their ornate design, featuring bright colours such as gold or silver and the use of complex decorations in the style. Many designs of Venetian masks stem from . They can be full-face masks (e.g. the bauta) or eye masks (e.g. the Columbina).

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European Masks

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[Solon] went to see Thespis himself, as the ancient custom was, act: and after the play was done, he addressed him, and asked him if he was not ashamed to tell so many lies before such a number of people; and Thespis replying that it was no harm to say or do so in play, Solon vehemently struck his staff against the ground: "Ah," said he, "if we honor and commend such play as this, we shall find it some day in our business." Plutarch: The Life of Solon

Mask from the 3rd c. BC

Mask from Piraeus, 4th c. BC National Museum of Athens

The Greeks did, however, develop one acoustical device of considerable value: the masks worn by actors. In addition to providing exaggerated facial expressions appropriate to the various roles, the masks served as megaphones that improved the mechanical coupling between the voice-generating mechanism and the surrounding air. From Architectural Acoustics ,

There were also other methods used to improve the acoustics:

So the vessels called yheia by the Greeks, which are placed in certain recesses under the seats of theatres, are fixed and arranged with a due regard to the laws of harmony and physics, their tones being fourths, fifths, and octaves; so that when the voice of the actor is in unison with the pitch of these instruments, its power is increased and mellowed by impinging thereon. Vitruvius, de Architectura

..It allowed the actors to be seen and have there emotions understood. The subtle gestures of an actors face would little farther than the people in the first two or three rows. The mask was adopted as a tool to help them be more visible to all of the audience From Visibility
Mask African Slave BM 1195
Research on the Ancient Mask
Greek and Roman Mask Timeline
terracotta figurines of New Comedy actors Greek, Myrina; 2nd century BCE
actor playing young man; actor playing young woman
Paris, Louvre Museum. Credits: Barbara McManus, 1999

terracotta figurine of comic actor with tympanos; Greek, 375-350 BCE
Paris, Louvre Museum. Credits: Barbara McManus, 1999

terracotta figurine of young woman holding mask
Greek, Tanagra; 325-300 BCE
other small terracotta masks surround the figure (see below for details)
Paris, Louvre Museum. Credits: Barbara McManus, 1999

terracotta mask of Dionysus Greek, Myrina; second-first century BCE
Paris, Louvre Museum. Credits: Barbara McManus, 1999

terracotta mask of young man Greek, Myrina; second century BCE
Paris, Louvre Museum. Credits: Barbara McManus, 1999

terracotta mask of young man Greek, Tunisia; second-first century BCE
Paris, Louvre Museum. Credits: Barbara McManus, 1999

tiny terracotta mask of bearded man Greek, Tunisia; second-first century BCE
Paris, Louvre Museum. Credits: Barbara McManus, 1999

votive relief of actors celebrating after performance Greek; c. 400 BCE
found in Piraeus; Athens, National Archaeological Museum. Credits: Barbara McManus, 1998

bronze theater tokens stamped with head of Athena or letter of the Greek alphabet
close-up of one token
Athens, fifth century BCE)
London, British Museum. Credits: Barbara McManus, 1999

detail, red-figure vase painting showing tragic performance
possibly Euripides' lost play Oineus
attributed to Python; Greek, Paestum, 340-330 BCE

view of orchestra of Greek theater at Delphi looking down from top rows of cavea; ruins of temple of Apollo in background
Delphi. Credits: John McManus, 1998

view of orchestra of Greek theater at Delphi looking down from side; ruins of temple of Apollo in background
Delphi. Credits: John McManus, 1998

view of cavea and orchestra of Theater of Dionysus looking down from Acropolis
Athens. Credits: Barbara McManus, 1980

view of cavea and orchestra of Theater of Dionysus on ground level
Athens. Credits: Barbara McManus, 1980

stone seat reserved for priest of Dionysus Eleutherios in Theater of Dionysus
Athens. Credits: Barbara McManus, 1980

detail of inscription on stone seat reserved for priest of Dionysus Eleutherios in Theater of Dionysus
Athens. Credits: Barbara McManus, 1980

scene building, orchestra, and cavea of Theater at Epidaurus viewed from ground level
Epidaurus. Credits: Barbara McManus, 1980

black-figure column krater-detail "eye vase" with mask of Dionysus; Athens, late sixth century BCE
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art. Credits: Barbara McManus, 1982

black-figure vase of Dionysus sailing with dolphins; Greek, attributed to Exekias, c. 530 BCE
Munich, Antiken Sammlung. Credits: Barbara McManus, 1988

red-figure vase of Dionysus dancing with torn-apart animal; Greek, 480-460 BCE
London, British Museum. Credits: Barbara McManus, 1986

statue of youthful Dionysus; Roman copy of Greek marble
London, British Museum. Credits: Barbara McManus, 1986

statue of youthful Dionysus; free Roman copy of fourth-century BCE Greek original
Munich, Glyptothek. Credits: Barbara McManus, 1988

terracotta comic figurine; detail of mask, Greek from Myrina, 2nd century BCE
represents a masked actor, possibly the procurer of New Comedy.
London, British Museum. Credits: Barbara McManus, 2001

Alexander, the tyrant of Pherae (this last should be his only appellation; he should not be permitted to disgrace the name of Alexander), as he watched a tragic actor, felt himself much moved to pity through enjoyment of the acting. He jumped up, therefore, and left the theatre at a rapid pace, exclaiming that it would be a dreadful thing, if, when he was slaughtering so many citizens, he should be seen to weep over the sufferings of Hecuba and Polyxena. And he came near visiting punishment upon the actor because the man had softened his heart, as iron in the fire. Plutarch, Moralia: "On the Fortune of Alexander."

Actor playing the role of a slave sitting on an altar and emptying the purse he just stole. Made in Boeotia, ca. 400-375 BC. Height 3,75 inches. Location: Louvre, Department of Greek, Etruscan and Roman Antiquities (CA 265) [ Source]

Woman holding a theatrical mask. Terracotta figurine made in Tanagra, ca. 325--300 BC, Louvre, Department of Greek, Etruscan and Roman Antiquities (MNB 555) [ Source]

The Theatre of Dionysus, The Odeon of Pericles and the Odeon of Agrippa 3D Reconstructions

When I find myself in the shell of an ancient theater I look at the landscape, beyond, always so much well chosen and immediately then I look around the spectators. I try to see their eyes, thousands eyes in line. Looking at a detail, at a a moment which cannot be transmitted to others. Not at a concrete action that I could easily suppose... The eyes extinguish with their emotions, as stars die and what remains is the empty space, so much desertness. G. Seferis ( Γ. Σεφέρης , "Μέρες", Δευτέρα 26 Ιουνίου 1950 Στρατονίκεια Αντιόχου Σωτήρος , from a Greek Website)

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Solon] went to see Thespis himself, as the ancient custom was, act: and after the play was done, he addressed him, and asked him if he was not ashamed to tell so many lies before such a number of people; and Thespis replying that it was no harm to say or do so in play, Solon vehemently struck his staff against the ground: "Ah," said he, "if we honor and commend such play as this, we shall find it some day in our business."

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Musée internationale du Carnaval et du Masque

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Musée internationale du Carnaval et du Masque

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General mask information

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Les expositions à découvrir actuellement au Musée international du Carnaval et du Masque TICUNA - Peuple d'Amazonie - Exposition temporaire : Prolongée jusqu'au 30 août 2020 !Respiro prezioso - Exposition temporaire : Du 27 juin au 16 août 2020 Masques aux 5 coins du Monde - Exposition permanente Centre d'interprétation du Carnaval de Binche - Galerie permanenteCarnavals et folklores de Wallonie - Galerie permanente

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Asian Masks

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As Noh is an art form that utilizes masks, there is a great variety of them. There were originally about 60 basic types of noh masks, but today there are well over 200 different kinds in use.

Covering the face with a mask is much like wearing makeup. However, noh performers feel that the noh mask has a certain power inherent in it which makes it much more spiritual than a prop used to change ones appearance. Taking into account the status of a certain noh, the noh performer will carefully choose a noh mask, known also as a noh-men or omote. In most cases, the exact mask is not predetermined, but depending on which noh is being done, the shite has a variety to choose from. In the end, it is up to the shite to make the final determination as to which mask is chosen.

Origin of the Noh Mask

Exactly when the noh mask came into being is not entirely clear however it is believed that masks, and their names still used today, were developed from the mid to latter part of the Muromachi period (1392-1573). Previous to that time, the mask conventions were not entirely set and masks themselves had stronger religious connotations. It was during the Muromachi period that the religious significance of the masks began to wane and they took on more human characteristics. It is thought that as performers started to think more about the use of yūgen (mysterious beauty) and profundity, they felt they needed to hide the unattractive aspects of their own faces and concentrate on making the beauty of noh stronger.

Between the end of the Muromachi period and the modern age the art of making noh masks was established as a hereditary art with a long lineage. Two examples are the Deme family from Echizen (present day Fukui prefecture) and the Iseki family from Ohmi (present day Shiga prefecture). Following the establishment of noh mask making families, the stylization of noh masks significantly advanced. Even today there are many independent mask makers. While some nohgaku performers still make their own masks, the performance world and the mask-making world are essentially independent of each other.

Noh Mask Expression: Teru and Kumoru

As it is often difficult to tell the actual feelings expressed in a noh mask, it is said to be made with a "neutral" expression. The mask carver tries to instill a variety of emotions in the mask.

It is up to the performer to imbue the mask with emotion. One of the techniques used in this task is to slightly tilt the mask up or down. With terasu (tilting upwards) the mask appears to be slightly smiling or laughing and the expression lightens somewhat. While kumorasu (tilting downwards), produces a slight frown and can express sadness or crying. Basically, by using minute movements, the performer is able to express very fully.

Putting on a Mask

Noh masks, like costumes and props, are extremely valuable heirlooms and handed down from generation to generation.

After having the costume put on, the shite then goes to the kagami no ma (mirror room) where in front of a mirror, the shite faces the mask. In putting the mask on, the word kaburu (putting on clothing) is not used. Instead the word kakeru (to hang) or tsukeru (to attach) is used. In this way, it is implying that the performer is "becoming" the mask, and its emotions, in order to better express the characters feelings.

In reality, a noh mask does not entirely cover a noh performer's face when it is being worn. In fact, it is thought best if some part of the chin and/or jowls show.

Also, as the eye holes of the mask are very small, the field of vision of the performer is very limited when wearing the mask. Consequently the simple design of the stage and the use of hashira (pillars) assists in helping the performer know their location during a performance.

Hitamen

Not all the main performers on stage wear masks in noh. Usually the shite and the tsure wear masks and occasionally there are instances where the ai will as well. The waki as a rule, playing a character who is living in the present, does not wear a mask. This is called hitamen or a "direct mask."

However, even without wearing a mask, the performer is meant to "make their face a mask." The performer must inject power and emotion into their performance while not using their face to express. In some genzai noh the shite or tsure do not wear masks.

Types of Noh Masks

Okina (Old man masks)

This type of mask originated from sarugaku, the predecessor of noh, in the latter part of the Heian period. This is the oldest type of noh mask.

Jō (Elders masks)

Examples of this type are the Kojō, Asakurajō, Sankōjō and Waraijō masks. These masks are often used in the first half of first or second category noh when the shite is portraying a spirit.

Onna-men (Woman masks)

When most people think of noh these are the masks that come to mind. That being the case, these tend to be the most varied and popular masks. These masks are categorized by age and character.
Examples of beautiful young women masks are the:ko-omote, wakaonna, zō and magojirō. The ōmiona mask also portrays a young woman, but with more of a working class background. Fukai and shakumi masks are both used to play mature, middle-aged woman of elegance and grace however the latter displays a stronger character. The deigan mask has gold rimmed eyes which implies that the character is otherworldly. Examples of masks for playing old women are rōjo and uba.

Otoko-men (Man masks)

Heida, chūjō, jūroku, hatachi-amari, dōji, kasshiki, and yase-otoko are all examples of masks in this category which are classified according to social class and character.

Kishin (Demons)

These masks were developed early in noh's history and are used for portraying demons, goblins or other worldly creatures. This category is divided into two main parts, tobide (fierce gods or demonic spirits) and beshimi (goblins and other creatures).

Onryō (Ghosts and Spirits)

These masks are used for spirits of the dead who have regrets of some kind. In this category there are both male and female masks. Examples of male types are ayakashi, yase-otoko and kawazu. Examples of female types are yamamba, deigan and the famous hannya masks.
For more on noh masks, including pictures and summaries, please go to the Noh Mask Database

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As Noh is an art form that utilizes masks, there is a great variety of them. There were originally about 60 basic types of noh masks, but today there are well over 200 different kinds in use. Covering the face with a mask is much like wearing makeup.

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For many centuries African Tribal masks, played a major role in rituals, celebrations, ceremonial and tribal initiations. Masking rituals are normally accompanied with prayer, music, song and or dance. Before the sculpting start, the artisan purifies himself and performs a prayer, consulting the divine forces and the spirits of his ancestor's for guidance. The divine force will be transferred to the mask during the sculpting process. The carver also offers a sacrifice to the spirit of the tree. Once the tree is felled the sculptor leaves it for a day or two, so that the spirit of the tree can find a "new home", thereafter he brings the tree to his workshop to starts the process of carving the mask.

Some masks are used as Icons of power to ward off evil spirits and some are used to celebrate and thank the ancestors during crop harvesting. Rainmakers, traditional healers and even the young men that graduate from initiation school wear masks and full tribal clothing during rituals or ceremonies. Over the last few decades there has been a sharp decline in masking rituals.

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Tikar Masks

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Masks displayed in museums or art galleries are but one component of the cultural ethos as a whole. Masks in Africa have an original setting and atmosphere. Men and or women that wear masks are fully dressed in traditional tribal attire or in accordance with the theme or significance of the event. Song, dance, music and or prayer accompany masking ceremonies, along with the entire village folk that participate in the ceremony or festival.

The masks displayed in our catalog come from various countries and tribes on the continent. Similar masks were used during rituals, ceremonies and or initiations. Each piece in our collection has been hand selected and is of the finest quality available. We here at Rebirth sincerely hope you find the pieces displayed in our catalog just as exciting and intriguing as we do.

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For many centuries African Tribal masks, played a major role in rituals, celebrations, ceremonial and tribal initiations. Masking rituals are normally accompanied with prayer, music, song and or dance. Before the sculpting start, the artisan purifies himself and performs a prayer, consulting the divine forces and the spirits of his ancestor's for guidance.

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North American Masks

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Native American Masks of the Northwest Coast and Alaska

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Native American Masks of the Northwest Coast and Alaska

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North American Masks

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For Native peoples of the Pacific Northwest, winter is a time of dance and performance. Among Northwest Coast peoples, including the Kwakwaka'wakw, Makah, and Nuu-chah-nulth represented here, masks are an essential part of important winter ceremonials, which reenact the adventures of hero-ancestors and spirit beings in the mythological past. The rights to these ritual dances have been passed down in families as treasured privileges, and while the themes are similar, the ceremonies vary in detail from region to region.

In Alaska, Yup'ik and Inupiaq peoples honor animals in a variety of ceremonies, the most important of which are the great midwinter hunting festivals. Historically, masks carved by shamans or under their supervision were worn in special dances to please the spirits. As intermediaries between people and spirits, shamans learned the wishes of game animals from visions and trips to the spirit world. Masks could also represent the shaman's spiritual helpers, which he would try to influence in times of need. Sometimes hung in houses to ward off harmful spirits, masks were also occasionally placed with the dead or used in non-spiritual contexts for popular entertainment. The Yup'ik and Inupiaq masks shown here were made primarily for sale to non-Native customers.

Images © UO Museum of Natural and Cultural History. Production of this gallery was generously supported by The Ford Family Foundation.

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Native American Masks of the Northwest Coast and Alaska

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For Native peoples of the Pacific Northwest, winter is a time of dance and performance. Among Northwest Coast peoples, including the Kwakwaka'wakw, Makah, and Nuu-chah-nulth represented here, masks are an essential part of important winter ceremonials, which reenact the adventures of hero-ancestors and spirit beings in the mythological past.