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Aus dem Griechischen "Syn", zusammen, und "Chonos", Zeit. Eine Lernsession oder eine Kommunikation, die nicht in Echtzeit und nicht gleichzeitig stattfindet, z.B. eine Videowiedergabe, ein E-Mail. Wenn du diese Definition liest, nachdem sie geschrieben wurde, sprechen wir von asynchronen Lernen.

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Die Bandbreite ist der Frequenzbereich, der zur Übertragung eines Signals verwendet wird. Für ein Video-Streaming wird eine große Brandbreite benötigt.

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Sammelbegriff für alle Ansätze zur Vorbereitung, Unterstützung und Hilfe von Einzelpersonen, Teams und Organisationen bei der Durchführung organisatorischer Veränderungen.

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Ist der Prozess der Umwandlung von analoger in digitale Formate. Beispiel: Ein Buch kann sowohl in der Papier- als auch in der digitalen Version existieren.

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Standardisiertes Format, das die Erstellung von digitalen Büchern ermöglicht, auch eBooks genannt und dessen Erweiterung ".epub" ist.

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In e-Books mit einem fixen Layout, werden Bilder und Texte an bestimmten Positionen fixiert, so dass der Inhalt beim Lesen auf jedem Medium gleich bleibt.

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HD (High Definition) bezieht sich auf einen Bildschirm, der entweder 720 oder 1080 Scanlinien pro Rahmen und ein Breitbildformat hat.

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Erzeugt ein tiefes Gefühl des Eintauchen in eine Aktivität oder ein Umfeld. Immersiv heißt im Video, dass der Betrachter das Video aus allen Blickwinkeln sehen kann, genauso wie in der Realität.

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Ein Keyframe in einer Animation und einem Film, ist eine Zeichnung, die den Anfangs- und Endpunkt eines jeden fließenden Übergangs definiert. Die Zeichnungen werden "Frames" genannt, weil ihre zeitliche Position in Einzelbildern auf einem Filmstreifen gemessen wird. Eine Folge von Keyframes definiert, welche Bewegung der Betrachter sieht, während die Position der Keyframes auf dem Film, dem Video oder der Animation den Zeitpunkt der Bewegung definiert.

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A keyframe in animation and filmmaking is a drawing that defines the starting and ending points of any smooth transition. The drawings are called "" because their position in time is measured in frames on a strip of film. A sequence of keyframes defines which movement the viewer will see, whereas the position of the keyframes on the film, video, or animation defines the timing of the movement. Because only two or three keyframes over the span of a second do not create the illusion of movement, the remaining frames are filled with inbetweens.

In software packages that support animation, especially 3D graphics, there are many parameters that can be changed for any one object. One example of such an object is a light (In 3D graphics, lights function similarly to real-world lights. They cause illumination, cast shadows, and create specular highlights). Lights have many parameters including light intensity, beam size, light color, and the texture cast by the light. Supposing that an animator wants the beam size to change smoothly from one value to another within a predefined period of time, that could be achieved by using keyframes. At the start of the animation, a beam size value is set. Another value is set for the end of the animation. Thus, the software program automatically interpolates the two values, creating a smooth transition.

In non-linear digital video editing, as well as in video compositing software, a keyframe is a frame used to indicate the beginning or end of a change made to a parameter. For example, a keyframe could be set to indicate the point at which audio will have faded up or down to a certain level.

In video compression, a keyframe, also known as an " intra-frame", is a frame in which a complete image is stored in the data stream. In video compression, only changes that occur from one frame to the next are stored in the data stream, in order to greatly reduce the amount of information that must be stored. This technique capitalizes on the fact that most video sources (such as a typical movie) have only small changes in the image from one frame to the next. Whenever a drastic change to the image occurs, such as when switching from one camera shot to another, or at a scene change, a keyframe must be created. The entire image for the frame must be output when the visual difference between the two frames is so great that representing the new image incrementally from the previous frame would require more data than recreating the whole image.

Because video compression only stores incremental changes between frames (except for keyframes), it is not possible to fast forward or rewind to any arbitrary spot in the video stream. That is because the data for a given frame only represents how that frame was different from the preceding one. For that reason, it is beneficial to include keyframes at arbitrary intervals while encoding video. For example, a keyframe may be output once for each 10 seconds of video, even though the video image does not change enough visually to warrant the automatic creation of the keyframe. That would allow seeking within the video stream at a minimum of 10-second intervals. The down side is that the resulting video stream will be larger in size because many keyframes are added when they are not necessary for the frame's visual representation. This drawback, however, does not produce significant compression loss when the bitrate is already set at a high value for better quality (as in the DVD MPEG-2 format).

This article is based on material taken from the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008 and incorporated under the "relicensing" terms of the GFDL, version 1.3 or later.

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A keyframe in animation and filmmaking is a drawing that defines the starting and ending points of any smooth transition. The drawings are called "" because their position in time is measured in frames on a strip of film.

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Live-Streaming ist eine Übertragung über das Internet in Echtzeit. Bei einem 36ß°-Video-Live-Streaming werden Bilder real gesendet während das Ereignis stattfindet. Im Gegensatz dazu wird bei einem Download die gesamte Veranstaltungsdatei in einem Durchgang übertragen.

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Massive Open Online Course: Online-Kurs, der für alle Interessierten offen steht. MOOC´s sind in der Regel kostenlos, aber es kann sein dass unter bestimmten Umständen für die Zertifizierung bezahlt werden muss.

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Verschiedene Programme, die unterschiedliche Komponenten eines Computers steuern und die Funktionsfähigkeit ermöglichen. Es ist die Schnittstelle zwischen Benutzer und Computerhardware.

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Der Teil des Films oder der Videoproduktion, der nach dem Drehen der Szenen stattfindet, d.h. es bezeichnet den Abschnitt der Erstellung einer endgültigen Fassung eines Films; den Filmschnitt, dem Soundtrack und das Hinzufügen von Spezialeffekten.

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In movies and television, postproduction is the work such as editing that takes place after the movie has been shot.

The film's postproduction will be completed early next year.

...a film postproduction company.

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Postproduction definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary

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In movies and television, postproduction is the work such as editing that takes place after the movie has been shot. The film's postproduction will be completed early next year. ...a film postproduction company.

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Ein QR Code (abgekürzt Quick Response Code) ist eine Art Matrix-Strichcode (oder zweidimensionaler Strichcode), der erstmals 1994 entworfen wurde. Es handelt sich um ein maschinenlesbares optisches Etikett, das Informationen über den Gegenstand enthält, an dem es angebracht ist. In der Praxis enthalten QR-Codes oft Daten für einen Tracker oder Locator, der auf eine Webseite oder Anwendung verweist.
QR Codes werden in einigen AR-Systemen verwendet, um die Positionen von Objekten im Dreidimensionalen Raum zu bestimmen. QR-Codes werden auch verwendet, um AR-Erfahrungen zu liefern.

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Die Darstellung des Dokuments wird dem Ausgabegerät (Computer, Tablet, Telefon) angepasst.

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kommt aus dem Griechischen "Syn" zusammen und "Chronos" Zeit. Ein Lernereignis, das sich in Echtzeit abspielt, z. B. wenn im Klassenzimmer oder in einem virtuellen Raum etwas erklärt wird, oder die Konversation im Chat stattfindet (siehe auch Asynchron).

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Zeitraffer Photografie ist eine Technik, bei der die Frequenz, mit der Filmbilder aufgenommen werden (die Bildfrequenz), viel stärker gestreut als die Frequenz, mit der sie betrachtet wird. Wird die Aufnahme dann mit normaler Geschwindigkeit abgespielt, scheint der aufgenommene Vorgang schneller abzulaufen. Dadurch werden Änderungen sichtbar, die in Echtzeit aufgrund ihrer langsamen Natur vom Menschen nicht oder nur schwer wahrnehmbar sind. Beispielsweise kann ein Bild einer Szene mit 1 Bild pro Sekunde aufgenommen, dann aber mit 30 Bildern pro Sekunde wiedergegeben werden; das Ergebnis ist eine scheinbare 30-fache Geschwindigkeitssteigerung. Auf ähnliche Weise kann ein Film auch mit einer viel niedrigeren Geschwindigkeit abgespielt werden, als er aufgenommen wurde.

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3D simulierte Umgebung, die auf drei wesentlichen Säulen beruht: Immersion, virtuelle Welt und Interaktion. Es handelt sich um ein realistisches Erlebnis, das mit einigen speziellen Technologien über Körper- oder Kopfbewegungen geschaffen werden kann

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Eine private gemeinnützige Organisation, die die Webstandardisierung durch ihre Empfehlungen beaufsichtigt und ein Normierungsgremium für Standard Computersprachen wie HTML, XHTML und XML, ist.

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das Objektiv einer Kamera einzustellen oder ihr Objektiv so einstellen, dass das Bild größer und näher erscheint - oftmals + ON

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: (of a person) to adjust the lens of a camera or (of a camera) to adjust its lens so that the image seems to be bigger and closer

May 2020 Words of the Day Quiz

Which is a synonym of exiguous?

TAKE THE QUIZ

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Zoom in definition is - (of a person) to adjust the lens of a camera or (of a camera) to adjust its lens so that the image seems to be bigger and closer -often + on -often used figuratively. How to use zoom in in a sentence.

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Eine Collage aus Texten, Skizzen, Bildern und anderen Medien, die als Anhaltspunkt für eine Designrichtung dienen können.

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Googles Werbeargentur nutzt Webseiten oder YouTube Videos als Medium für die Werbeanzeigen.

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Bullet time (bekannt als eingefrorener Moment, Totzeit, Fließbewegung oder Zeitscheibe)  ist ein visueller Effekt oder visueller Eindruck der Loslösung von Raum und Zeit einer Kamera (oder eines Betrachters) von einem Subjekt. Es handelt sich um eine in der Tiefe verbesserten Simulation von Handlungen und Aktionen (mit variabler Geschwindigkeit), wie sie in Filmen, Fernsehwerbung, Videospielen und anderem Medien zu finden sind. Sie zeichnet sich durch Transformation von Zeit (langsam genug, um normalerweise nicht wahrnehmbare und nicht filmbare Ereignisse, wie z. B. fliegende Kugeln) und dem Raum (möglich über Kamerawinkel) aus. Dadurch kann sich - aus dem Blickwinkel des Publikums - die Kugel verlangsamt wahrgenommen werden.

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Bullet time (also known as frozen moment, dead time, flow motion or time slice) is a visual effect or visual impression of detaching the time and space of a camera (or viewer) from those of its visible subject. It is a depth enhanced simulation of variable-speed action and performance found in films, broadcast advertisements, and realtime graphics within video games and other special media. It is characterized both by its extreme transformation of time (slow enough to show normally imperceptible and unfilmable events, such as flying bullets) and space (by way of the ability of the camera angle-the audience's point-of-view-to move around the scene at a normal speed while events are slowed). This is almost impossible with conventional slow motion, as the physical camera would have to move implausibly fast; the concept implies that only a " virtual camera", often illustrated within the confines of a computer-generated environment such as a virtual world or virtual reality, would be capable of "filming" bullet-time types of moments. Technical and historical variations of this effect have been referred to as time slicing, view morphing, temps mort (French: "dead time") and virtual cinematography.

The term "bullet time" had first been used within the original script of the 1999 film , and later in reference to the slow motion effects in the 2001 video game . In the years since the introduction of the term via the Matrix films it has become a commonly applied expression in popular culture.

The technique of using a group of still cameras to freeze motion occurred before the invention of cinema itself with preliminary work by Etienne Jules Marey on chronophotography, later experimented by Eadweard Muybridge. In Sallie Gardner at a Gallop (1878), Muybridge analyzed the motion of a galloping horse by using a line of cameras to photograph the animal as it ran past. Eadweard Muybridge used still cameras placed along a racetrack, and each camera was actuated by a taut string stretched across the track; as the horse galloped past, the camera shutters snapped, taking one frame at a time. The original intent was to settle a debate Leland Stanford had engaged in, as to whether all four of the animal's legs would leave the ground when galloping. Muybridge later assembled the pictures into a rudimentary animation, by placing them on a glass disk which he spun in front of a light source. His zoopraxiscope may have been an inspiration for Thomas Edison to explore the idea of motion pictures.

Muybridge also took photos of actions from many angles at the same instant in time, to study how the human body went up stairs, for example. In effect, however, Muybridge had achieved the aesthetic opposite to modern bullet-time sequences, since his studies lacked the dimensionality of the later developments. A debt may also be owed to MIT professor Harold Edgerton, who, in the 1940s, captured now-iconic photos of bullets using xenon strobe lights to "freeze" motion.

Bullet-time as a concept was frequently developed in cel animation. One of the earliest examples is the shot at the end of the title sequence for the 1966 Japanese anime series Speed Racer: as Speed leaps from the Mach Five, he freezes in mid-jump, and then the camera does an arc shot from front to sideways.

In 1980, Tim Macmillan started producing pioneering film and later, video, in this field while studying for a BA at the (then named) Bath Academy of Art using 16mm film arranged in a progressing circular arrangement of pinhole cameras. They were the first iteration of the "'Time-Slice' Motion-Picture Array Cameras" which he developed in the early 1990s when still cameras for the array capable of high image quality for broadcast and movie applications became available. In 1997 he founded Time-Slice Films Ltd. (UK). He applied the technique to his artistic practice in a video projection, titled Dead Horse in an ironic reference to Muybridge, that was exhibited at the London Electronic Arts Gallery in 1998 and in 2000 was nominated for the Citibank Prize for photography.

The first music video to use aspects of bullet-time was "Midnight Mover", a 1985 Accept video. In the 1990s, a morphing-based variation on time-slicing was employed by director Michel Gondry and the visual effects company BUF Compagnie in the music video for The Rolling Stones' " Like A Rolling Stone", and in a 1996 Smirnoff commercial the effect was used to depict slow-motion bullets being dodged. Similar time-slice effects were also featured in commercials for The Gap (which was directed by M. Rolston and again produced by BUF), and in feature films such as Lost in Space (1998) and (1998) and the television program The Human Body.

It is well-established for feature films' action scenes to be depicted using slow-motion footage, for example the gunfights in The Wild Bunch (directed by Sam Peckinpah) and the heroic bloodshed films of John Woo. Subsequently, the 1998 film featured a scene that used computer generated bullets and slow-motion footage to illustrate characters' superhuman bullet-dodging reflexes. The 1999 film The Matrix combined these elements (gunfight action scenes, superhuman bullet-dodging, and time-slice effects), popularizing both the effect and the term "bullet-time". The Matrix's version of the effect was created by John Gaeta and Manex Visual Effects. Rigs of still cameras were set up in patterns determined by simulations, and then shot either simultaneously (producing an effect similar to previous time-slice scenes) or sequentially (which added a temporal element to the effect). Interpolation effects, digital compositing, and computer generated "virtual" scenery were used to improve the fluidity of the apparent camera motion. Gaeta said of The Matrix's use of the effect:

For artistic inspiration for bullet time, I would credit Otomo Katsuhiro, who co-wrote and directed , which definitely blew me away, along with director Michel Gondry. His music videos experimented with a different type of technique called view-morphing and it was just part of the beginning of uncovering the creative approaches toward using still cameras for special effects. Our technique was significantly different because we built it to move around objects that were themselves in motion, and we were also able to create slow-motion events that 'virtual cameras' could move around - rather than the static action in Gondry's music videos with limited camera moves.

Following The Matrix, bullet time and other slow-motion effects were featured as key gameplay mechanics in various video games. While some games like Cyclone Studios' Requiem: Avenging Angel, released in March 1999, featured slow-motion effects, Remedy Entertainment's 2001 video game is considered to be the first true implementation of a bullet-time effect that enables the player to have added limited control (such as aiming and shooting) during the slow-motion mechanic; this mechanic was explicitly called "Bullet Time" in the game. The mechanic is also used extensively in the series, combining it with squad-based enemy design encouraging the player to use bullet time to avoid being overwhelmed.

Bullet time was used for the first time in a live music environment in October 2009 for Creed's live DVD .

The bullet time effect was originally achieved photographically by a set of still cameras surrounding the subject. The cameras are fired sequentially, or all at the same time, depending on the desired effect. Single frames from each camera are then arranged and displayed consecutively to produce an orbiting viewpoint of an action frozen in time or as hyper- slow-motion. This technique suggests the limitless perspectives and variable frame rates possible with a virtual camera. However, if the still array process is done with real cameras, it is often limited to assigned paths.

In , the camera path was pre-designed using computer-generated visualizations as a guide. Cameras were arranged, behind a green or blue screen, on a track and aligned through a laser targeting system, forming a complex curve through space. The cameras were then triggered at extremely close intervals, so the action continued to unfold, in extreme slow-motion, while the viewpoint moved. Additionally, the individual frames were scanned for computer processing. Using sophisticated interpolation software, extra frames could be inserted to slow down the action further and improve the fluidity of the movement (especially the frame rate of the images); frames could also be dropped to speed up the action. This approach provides greater flexibility than a purely photographic one. The same effect can also be simulated using pure CGI, motion capture and other approaches.

Bullet time evolved further through The Matrix series (1999-2003) with the introduction of high-definition computer-generated approaches like virtual cinematography and universal capture. Universal capture, a machine vision guided system, was the first ever motion picture deployment of an array of high definition cameras focused on a common human subject (actor, Neo) in order to create volumetric photography. Like the concept of bullet time, the subject could be viewed from any angle yet, at the same time, the depth based media could be recomposed as well as spatially integrated within computer generated constructs. It moved past a visual concept of a virtual camera to becoming an actual virtual camera. Virtual elements within the Matrix Trilogy utilized state-of-the-art image-based computer rendering techniques pioneered in Paul Debevec's 1997 film The Campanile and custom evolved for by George Borshukov, an early collaborator of Debevec. Inspiration aside, virtual camera methodologies pioneered within the Matrix trilogy have been often credited as fundamentally contributing to capture approaches required for emergent virtual reality and other immersive experience platforms.

For many years, it has been possible to use computer vision techniques to capture scenes and render images of novel viewpoints sufficient for bullet time type effects. More recently, these have been formalized into what is becoming known as free viewpoint television (FTV). At the time of The Matrix, FTV was not a fully mature technology. FTV is effectively the live action version of bullet time, without the slow motion.

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Bullet time (also known as frozen moment, dead time, flow motion or time slice) is a visual effect or visual impression of detaching the time and space of a camera (or viewer) from those of its visible subject.

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Ein Codec ist ein Software- oder Hardwarprogramm, das in der Lage ist, ein digitales Signal, Video oder Audio, zur Übertragung oder Speicherung in einem Dateiformat zu dekomprimieren oder zu komprimieren.

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Strukturierter Prozess zur Verwaltung von Online Projekten (vom Konzept bis zum Abschluss innerhalb eines Budgets und einer bestimmten Menge an Ressourcen). Es beinhaltet Planung, Verfolgen, Überprüfen, Evaluieren, Maßnahmen setzen, Ergebnisbewertung etc. All das geschieht unter Verwendung von Projektmanagementsoftware.

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Titel des Buches, Name des Autors, ISBN, Sprache des Buches, Name des Verlages, Datum der Veröffentlichung, Beschreibung des Buches, etc.

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sind zwischen Computer und Tablet angesiedelt. Es ist dazu abnehmbare, aufsteckbare, ausziehbare oder magnetische Tastaturen. So entstehen Notizbücher, die sich in Tablets mit Tastatur umwandeln lassen.

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Als Interoperabilität bezeichnet man die Fähigkeit zur Zusammenarbeit von verschiedenen Systemen, Techniken oder Organisationen. Dazu ist in der Regel die Einhaltung gemeinsamer Standards (Formate) notwendig. Zum Beispiel PDF ist ein universelles Format, das auf jedem digitalen Medium (Reader, Tablet, Smartphone, PC) gelesen werden kann, während beim epub spezielle Reader heruntergeladen werden müssen.

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ist ein digitaler Entwurf einer Webseite oder einer App. Er bietet zusätzliche Informationen wie Farben, Typografien etc. Damit kann mithilfe von Mock-ups Ideen und Konzepte hinsichtlich Webdesigns im Verlauf der Konzipierung des Projekts visualisiert und evaluiert werden.

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In einem interaktiven Video sind Overlays Elemente, die im Video eingeblendet werden und die du klicken kannst um eine Aktion auszulösen.

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How to Create Amazing Interactive Videos (In 2020)

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Bei der digitalen Bildverarbeitung ist ein Pixel oder ein Bildelement ein physikalischer Punkt in einem Rasterbild.

Jedes Pixel ist ein Muster eines Originalbildes; mehr Muster ergeben in der Regel genauere Darstellungen des Originals. Die Intensität jedes Pixels ist variabel. In Farbbildsystemen wird eine Farbe typischerweise durch drei oder vier Farbintensitäten wie Rot, Grün und Blau oder Cyan, Magenta, Gelb und Schwarz dargestellt.

In einigen Kontexten (wie z.B. Beschreibungen von Kamerasensoren) bezieht sich Pixel auf ein einzelnes skalares Element einer Mehrkomponentendarstellung (im Kontext des Kamerasensors sprechen wir von Photosite), während es sich in anderen Kontexten auf die Menge der Intensitäten für eine räumliche Position beziehen kann.

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The word "pixel" was first published in 1965 by Frederic C. Billingsley of JPL, to describe the picture elements of video images from space probes to the Moon and Mars. Billingsley had learned the word from Keith E. McFarland, at the Link Division of General Precision in Palo Alto, who in turn said he did not know where it originated.

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Return on investment

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Small Private Online Course: Im Gegensatz zum MOOC richtet sich der SPOC an kleine Gruppen von Lernenden, und die Anzahl kann eingeschränkt sein (kostenpflichtiger Kurs, Voraussetzung, vorheriger Abschluss oder Zertifizierung erforderlich, etc.)

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Ein Bild, dass sich aus kleineren geometrischen Figuren zusammensetzt. Es kann fast unbegrenzt vergrößert oder verkleinert werden und es behält seine Dimension und wird nicht verzerrt (siehe auch: Bitmap, Raster).

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Program das für den Zugriff auf und die Nutzung von Webseites erforderlich ist. Es stellt somit eine Verbindung zum WWW (World Wide Web) dar. Mit dem Webbrowser können auch verschiedene Aktionen durchgeführt werden, wie z.B. das Öffnen verschiedener Homepages, die Anzeige von Bildern oder Dokumenten etc. Google Chrome, Safari und Microsoft Edge sind beispielsweise Webbrowser.

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das Objektiv einer Kamera so einstellen, dass das Bild kleiner wird und weiter entfernt zu sein scheint.

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Zoom out definition is - (of a person) to adjust the lens of a camera or (of a camera) to adjust its lens so that the image seems to be smaller and farther away. How to use zoom out in a sentence.

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Ist ein sozialwissenschaftliche Forschungsmethode, entstanden aus der Qualitativen Forschung und steht für ein Untersuchungskonzept, das auf subjektive Wissensbestände zurückzugreifen versucht. Es beschreibt das Erleben eines Feldes, die Erkundung eines realen Kontextes mittels Selbstdokumentation (anhand von Notizen, Aufzeichnungen, Bildern und alles was dazu relevant sein kann).

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Technologie bei der die reale Umgebung mit virtuellen Elementen (Grafiken, Bilder, 3D-Modellen, Video, Ton) überlagert wird.

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Bluetooth ist ein drahtloser Technologiestandard, der für den Datenaustausch zwischen festen und mobilen Geräten über kurze Entfernungen unter Verwendung von kurzweiligen UHF-Funkwellen (industrielle, wissenschaftliche und medizinische Funkbänder) von 2.402 GHz bis 2,480 GHz sowie für den Aufbau von PANs (Personal Area Networks) verwendet wird.

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Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology standard that is used for exchanging data between fixed and mobile devices over short distances and building personal area networks (PANs). In the most widely used mode, transmission power is limited to 2.5 milliwatts, giving it a very short range of up to 10 metres (33 ft). It employs UHF radio waves in the ISM bands, from 2.402 GHz to 2.48GHz. It is mainly used as an alternative to wire connections, to exchange files between nearby portable devices and connect cell phones and music players with wireless headphones.

Bluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), which has more than 35,000 member companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, and consumer electronics. The IEEE standardized Bluetooth as IEEE 802.15.1, but no longer maintains the standard. The Bluetooth SIG oversees development of the specification, manages the qualification program, and protects the trademarks. A manufacturer must meet Bluetooth SIG standards to market it as a Bluetooth device. A network of patents apply to the technology, which are licensed to individual qualifying devices. As of 2021, 4.7 billion Bluetooth integrated circuit chips are shipped annually.

The name "Bluetooth" was proposed in 1997 by Jim Kardach of Intel, one of the founders of the Bluetooth SIG. The name was inspired by a conversation with Sven Mattisson who related Scandinavian history through tales from Frans G. Bengtsson's The Long Ships, a historical novel about Vikings and the 10th-century Danish king Harald Bluetooth. Upon discovering a picture of the runestone of Harald Bluetooth in the book A History of the Vikings by Gwyn Jones, Kardach proposed Bluetooth as the codename for the short-range wireless program which is now called Bluetooth.

According to Bluetooth's official website,

Bluetooth was only intended as a placeholder until marketing could come up with something really cool.

Later, when it came time to select a serious name, Bluetooth was to be replaced with either RadioWire or PAN (Personal Area Networking). PAN was the front runner, but an exhaustive search discovered it already had tens of thousands of hits throughout the internet.

A full trademark search on RadioWire couldn't be completed in time for launch, making Bluetooth the only choice. The name caught on fast and before it could be changed, it spread throughout the industry, becoming synonymous with short-range wireless technology.

Bluetooth is the Anglicised version of the Scandinavian Blåtand/ Blåtann (or in Old Norse blátǫnn). It was the epithet of King Harald Bluetooth, who united the disparate Danish tribes into a single kingdom; Kardach chose the name to imply that Bluetooth similarly unites communication protocols.

The Bluetooth logo is a bind rune merging the Younger Futhark runes (ᚼ, Hagall) and (ᛒ, Bjarkan), Harald's initials.[13][14]

Ericsson Bluetooth module PBA 313 01/2S R2A, manufactured in week 22 of 2001

The development of the "short-link" radio technology, later named Bluetooth, was initiated in 1989 by Nils Rydbeck, CTO at Ericsson Mobile in Lund, Sweden. The purpose was to develop wireless headsets, according to two inventions by Johan Ullman, SE 8902098-6, issued 1989-06-12 and SE 9202239, issued 1992-07-24. Nils Rydbeck tasked Tord Wingren with specifying and Dutchman Jaap Haartsen and Sven Mattisson with developing. Both were working for Ericsson in Lund. Principal design and development began in 1994 and by 1997 the team had a workable solution. From 1997 Örjan Johansson became the project leader and propelled the technology and standardization.

In 1997, Adalio Sanchez, then head of IBM ThinkPad product R&D, approached Nils Rydbeck about collaborating on integrating a mobile phone into a ThinkPad notebook. The two assigned engineers from Ericsson and IBM studied the idea. The conclusion was that power consumption on cellphone technology at that time was too high to allow viable integration into a notebook and still achieve adequate battery life. Instead, the two companies agreed to integrate Ericsson's short-link technology on both a ThinkPad notebook and an Ericsson phone to accomplish the goal.

Since neither IBM ThinkPad notebooks nor Ericsson phones were the market share leaders in their respective markets at that time, Adalio Sanchez and Nils Rydbeck agreed to make the short-link technology an open industry standard to permit each player maximum market access. Ericsson contributed the short-link radio technology, and IBM contributed patents around the logical layer. Adalio Sanchez of IBM then recruited Stephen Nachtsheim of Intel to join and then Intel also recruited Toshiba and Nokia. In May 1998, the Bluetooth SIG was launched with IBM and Ericsson as the founding signatories and a total of five members: Ericsson, Intel, Nokia, Toshiba, and IBM.

The first Bluetooth device was revealed in 1999. It was a hands-free mobile headset that earned the "Best of show Technology Award" at COMDEX. The first Bluetooth mobile phone was the Ericsson T36, but it was the revised Ericsson model T39 that actually made it to store shelves in 2001. In parallel, IBM introduced the IBM ThinkPad A30 in October 2001 which was the first notebook with integrated Bluetooth.

Bluetooth's early incorporation into consumer electronics products continued at Vosi Technologies in Costa Mesa, California, initially overseen by founding members Bejan Amini and Tom Davidson. Vosi Technologies had been created by real estate developer Ivano Stegmenga, with United States Patent 608507, for communication between a cellular phone and a vehicle's audio system. At the time, Sony/Ericsson had only a minor market share in the cellular phone market, which was dominated in the US by Nokia and Motorola. Due to ongoing negotiations for an intended licensing agreement with Motorola beginning in the late 1990s, Vosi could not publicly disclose the intention, integration, and initial development of other enabled devices which were to be the first " Smart Home" internet connected devices.

Vosi needed a means for the system to communicate without a wired connection from the vehicle to the other devices in the network. Bluetooth was chosen, since Wi-Fi was not yet readily available or supported in the public market. Vosi had begun to develop the Vosi Cello integrated vehicular system and some other internet connected devices, one of which was intended to be a table-top device named the Vosi Symphony, networked with Bluetooth. Through the negotiations with Motorola, Vosi introduced and disclosed its intent to integrate Bluetooth in its devices. In the early 2000s a legal battle ensued between Vosi and Motorola, which indefinitely suspended release of the devices. Later, Motorola implemented it in their devices which initiated the significant propagation of Bluetooth in the public market due to its large market share at the time.

In 2012, Jaap Haartsen was nominated by the European Patent Office for the European Inventor Award.

Bluetooth operates at frequencies between 2.402 and 2.480GHz, or 2.400 and 2.4835GHz, including guard bands 2MHz wide at the bottom end and 3.5MHz wide at the top. This is in the globally unlicensed (but not unregulated) industrial, scientific and medical ( ISM) 2.4GHz short-range radio frequency band. Bluetooth uses a radio technology called frequency-hopping spread spectrum. Bluetooth divides transmitted data into packets, and transmits each packet on one of 79 designated Bluetooth channels. Each channel has a bandwidth of 1MHz. It usually performs 1600hops per second, with adaptive frequency-hopping (AFH) enabled. Bluetooth Low Energy uses 2MHz spacing, which accommodates 40 channels.

Originally, Gaussian frequency-shift keying (GFSK) modulation was the only modulation scheme available. Since the introduction of Bluetooth 2.0+EDR, π/4- DQPSK (differential quadrature phase-shift keying) and 8-DPSK modulation may also be used between compatible devices. Devices functioning with GFSK are said to be operating in basic rate (BR) mode, where an instantaneous bit rate of 1 Mbit/s is possible. The term Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) is used to describe π/4-DPSK (EDR2) and 8-DPSK (EDR3) schemes, each giving 2 and 3Mbit/s respectively. The combination of these (BR and EDR) modes in Bluetooth radio technology is classified as a BR/EDR radio.

Bluetooth is a packet-based protocol with a master/slave architecture. One master may communicate with up to seven slaves in a piconet. All devices within a given piconet use the clock provided by the master as the base for packet exchange. The master clock ticks with a period of 312.5 μs, two clock ticks then make up a slot of 625µs, and two slots make up a slot pair of 1250µs. In the simple case of single-slot packets, the master transmits in even slots and receives in odd slots. The slave, conversely, receives in even slots and transmits in odd slots. Packets may be 1, 3, or 5 slots long, but in all cases, the master's transmission begins in even slots and the slave's in odd slots.

The above excludes Bluetooth Low Energy, introduced in the 4.0 specification, which uses the same spectrum but somewhat differently.

A master BR/EDR Bluetooth device can communicate with a maximum of seven devices in a piconet (an ad hoc computer network using Bluetooth technology), though not all devices reach this maximum. The devices can switch roles, by agreement, and the slave can become the master (for example, a headset initiating a connection to a phone necessarily begins as master-as an initiator of the connection-but may subsequently operate as the slave).

The Bluetooth Core Specification provides for the connection of two or more piconets to form a scatternet, in which certain devices simultaneously play the master/leader role in one piconet and the slave role in another.

Bluetooth is a standard wire-replacement communications protocol primarily designed for low power consumption, with a short range based on low-cost transceiver microchips in each device. Because the devices use a radio (broadcast) communications system, they do not have to be in visual line of sight of each other; however, a quasi optical wireless path must be viable.

Historically, the Bluetooth range was defined by the radio class, with a lower class (and higher output power) having larger range. The actual range achieved by a given link will depend on the qualities of the devices at both ends of the link, as well as the air and obstacles in between. The primary hardware attributes affecting range are the data rate, protocol (Bluetooth Classic or Bluetooth Low Energy), the transmitter power, the receiver sensitivity, and the gain of both antennas.

The effective range varies depending on propagation conditions, material coverage, production sample variations, antenna configurations and battery conditions. Most Bluetooth applications are for indoor conditions, where attenuation of walls and signal fading due to signal reflections make the range far lower than specified line-of-sight ranges of the Bluetooth products.

Most Bluetooth applications are battery-powered Class 2 devices, with little difference in range whether the other end of the link is a Class 1 or Class 2 device as the lower-powered device tends to set the range limit. In some cases the effective range of the data link can be extended when a Class 2 device is connecting to a Class 1 transceiver with both higher sensitivity and transmission power than a typical Class 2 device. Mostly, however, the Class 1 devices have a similar sensitivity to Class 2 devices. Connecting two Class 1 devices with both high sensitivity and high power can allow ranges far in excess of the typical 100m, depending on the throughput required by the application. Some such devices allow open field ranges of up to 1 km and beyond between two similar devices without exceeding legal emission limits.

To use Bluetooth wireless technology, a device must be able to interpret certain Bluetooth profiles. For example,

Profiles are definitions of possible applications and specify general behaviors that Bluetooth-enabled devices use to communicate with other Bluetooth devices. These profiles include settings to parameterize and to control the communication from the start. Adherence to profiles saves the time for transmitting the parameters anew before the bi-directional link becomes effective. There are a wide range of Bluetooth profiles that describe many different types of applications or use cases for devices.

A typical Bluetooth mobile phone headset from early 2000's

A handheld, waterproof JBL Bluetooth speaker with a rechargeable battery, made in the late 2010s

Wireless control and communication between a mobile phone and a handsfree headset. This was one of the earliest applications to become popular.[36]

Wireless control of audio and communication functions between a mobile phone and a Bluetooth compatible car stereo system (and sometimes between the SIM card and the car phone[37][38]).

Wireless communication between a smartphone and a smart lock for unlocking doors.

Wireless control of and communication with iOS and Android device phones, tablets and portable wireless speakers.[39]

Wireless Bluetooth headset and intercom. Idiomatically, a headset is sometimes called "a Bluetooth".

Wireless streaming of audio to headphones with or without communication capabilities.

Wireless streaming of data collected by Bluetooth-enabled fitness devices to phone or PC.[40]

Wireless networking between PCs in a confined space and where little bandwidth is required.[41]

Wireless communication with PC input and output devices, the most common being the mouse, keyboard and printer.

Transfer of files, contact details, calendar appointments, and reminders between devices with OBEX[a] and sharing directories via FTP.[42]

Triggering the camera shutter of a smartphone using a Bluetooth controlled selfie stick.[43]

Replacement of previous wired RS-232 serial communications in test equipment, GPS receivers, medical equipment, bar code scanners, and traffic control devices.

For controls where infrared was often used.

For low bandwidth applications where higher USB bandwidth is not required and cable-free connection desired.

Sending small advertisements from Bluetooth-enabled advertising hoardings to other, discoverable, Bluetooth devices.[44]

Wireless bridge between two Industrial Ethernet (e.g., PROFINET) networks.

Game consoles have been using Bluetooth as a wireless communications protocol for peripherals since the seventh generation, including Nintendo's Wii[45] and Sony's PlayStation 3 which use Bluetooth for their respective controllers.

Dial-up internet access on personal computers or PDAs using a data-capable mobile phone as a wireless modem.

Short-range transmission of health sensor data from medical devices to mobile phone, set-top box or dedicated telehealth devices.[46][47]

Allowing a DECT phone to ring and answer calls on behalf of a nearby mobile phone.

Real-time location systems (RTLS) are used to track and identify the location of objects in real time using "Nodes" or "tags" attached to, or embedded in, the objects tracked, and "Readers" that receive and process the wireless signals from these tags to determine their locations.[48]

Personal security application on mobile phones for prevention of theft or loss of items. The protected item has a Bluetooth marker (e.g., a tag) that is in constant communication with the phone. If the connection is broken (the marker is out of range of the phone) then an alarm is raised. This can also be used as a man overboard alarm.

Calgary, Alberta, Canada's Roads Traffic division uses data collected from travelers' Bluetooth devices to predict travel times and road congestion for motorists.[49]

Wireless transmission of audio (a more reliable alternative to FM transmitters)

Live video streaming to the visual cortical implant device by Nabeel Fattah in Newcastle university 2017.[50]

Connection of motion controllers to a PC when using VR headsets

Bluetooth and Wi-Fi (Wi-Fi is the brand name for products using IEEE 802.11 standards) have some similar applications: setting up networks, printing, or transferring files. Wi-Fi is intended as a replacement for high-speed cabling for general local area network access in work areas or home. This category of applications is sometimes called wireless local area networks (WLAN). Bluetooth was intended for portable equipment and its applications. The category of applications is outlined as the wireless personal area network (WPAN). Bluetooth is a replacement for cabling in various personally carried applications in any setting and also works for fixed location applications such as smart energy functionality in the home (thermostats, etc.).

Wi-Fi and Bluetooth are to some extent complementary in their applications and usage. Wi-Fi is usually access point-centered, with an asymmetrical client-server connection with all traffic routed through the access point, while Bluetooth is usually symmetrical, between two Bluetooth devices. Bluetooth serves well in simple applications where two devices need to connect with a minimal configuration like a button press, as in headsets and speakers.

A Bluetooth USB dongle with a 100 m (330 ft) range

Bluetooth exists in numerous products such as telephones, speakers, tablets, media players, robotics systems, laptops, and game console equipment as well as some high definition headsets, modems, hearing aids and even watches. Given the variety of devices which use Bluetooth, coupled with the contemporary deprecation of headphone jacks by Apple, Google, and other companies, and the lack of regulation by the FCC, the technology is prone to interference. Nonetheless, Bluetooth is useful when transferring information between two or more devices that are near each other in low-bandwidth situations. Bluetooth is commonly used to transfer sound data with telephones (i.e., with a Bluetooth headset) or byte data with hand-held computers (transferring files).

Bluetooth protocols simplify the discovery and setup of services between devices. Bluetooth devices can advertise all of the services they provide. This makes using services easier, because more of the security, network address and permission configuration can be automated than with many other network types.

A typical Bluetooth USB dongle

An internal notebook Bluetooth card (14×36×4mm)

A personal computer that does not have embedded Bluetooth can use a Bluetooth adapter that enables the PC to communicate with Bluetooth devices. While some desktop computers and most recent laptops come with a built-in Bluetooth radio, others require an external adapter, typically in the form of a small USB " dongle."

For Microsoft platforms, Windows XP Service Pack 2 and SP3 releases work natively with Bluetooth v1.1, v2.0 and v2.0+EDR. Previous versions required users to install their Bluetooth adapter's own drivers, which were not directly supported by Microsoft. Microsoft's own Bluetooth dongles (packaged with their Bluetooth computer devices) have no external drivers and thus require at least Windows XP Service Pack 2. Windows Vista RTM/SP1 with the Feature Pack for Wireless or Windows Vista SP2 work with Bluetooth v2.1+EDR. Windows 7 works with Bluetooth v2.1+EDR and Extended Inquiry Response (EIR). The Windows XP and Windows Vista/Windows 7 Bluetooth stacks support the following Bluetooth profiles natively: PAN, SPP, DUN, HID, HCRP. The Windows XP stack can be replaced by a third party stack that supports more profiles or newer Bluetooth versions. The Windows Vista/Windows 7 Bluetooth stack supports vendor-supplied additional profiles without requiring that the Microsoft stack be replaced. Windows 8 and later support Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE). It is generally recommended to install the latest vendor driver and its associated stack to be able to use the Bluetooth device at its fullest extent.

Apple products have worked with Bluetooth since Mac OSX v10.2, which was released in 2002.

Linux has two popular Bluetooth stacks, BlueZ and Fluoride. The BlueZ stack is included with most Linux kernels and was originally developed by Qualcomm. Fluoride, earlier known as Bluedroid is included in Android OS and was originally developed by Broadcom. There is also Affix stack, developed by Nokia. It was once popular, but has not been updated since 2005.

FreeBSD has included Bluetooth since its v5.0 release, implemented through netgraph.

NetBSD has included Bluetooth since its v4.0 release. Its Bluetooth stack was ported to OpenBSD as well, however OpenBSD later removed it as unmaintained.

DragonFly BSD has had NetBSD's Bluetooth implementation since 1.11 (2008). A netgraph-based implementation from FreeBSD has also been available in the tree, possibly disabled until 2014-11-15, and may require more work.

The specifications were formalized by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) and formally announced on 20 May 1998. In 2014 it had a membership of over 30,000 companies worldwide. It was established by Ericsson, IBM, Intel, Nokia and Toshiba, and later joined by many other companies.

The Bluetooth Core Specification Working Group (CSWG) produces mainly 4 kinds of specifications:

The Bluetooth Core Specification, release cycle is typically a few years in between

Core Specification Addendum (CSA), release cycle can be as tight as a few times per year

Core Specification Supplements (CSS), can be released very quickly

Errata (Available with a user account: Errata login)

Products were not interoperable

Anonymity was not possible, preventing certain services from using Bluetooth environments

Major enhancements include:

Faster connection and discovery

Adaptive frequency-hopping spread spectrum (AFH), which improves resistance to radio frequency interference by avoiding the use of crowded frequencies in the hopping sequence.

Higher transmission speeds in practice than in v1.1, up to 721 kbit/s.

Extended Synchronous Connections (eSCO), which improve voice quality of audio links by allowing retransmissions of corrupted packets, and may optionally increase audio latency to provide better concurrent data transfer.

Host Controller Interface (HCI) operation with three-wire UART.

Ratified as IEEE Standard 802.15.1-2005

Introduced flow control and retransmission modes for L2CAP.

This version of the Bluetooth Core Specification was released before 2005. The main difference is the introduction of an Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) for faster data transfer. The bit rate of EDR is 3Mbit/s, although the maximum data transfer rate (allowing for inter-packet time and acknowledgements) is 2.1Mbit/s. EDR uses a combination of GFSK and phase-shift keying modulation (PSK) with two variants, π/4- DQPSK and 8- DPSK. EDR can provide a lower power consumption through a reduced duty cycle.

The specification is published as Bluetooth v2.0 + EDR, which implies that EDR is an optional feature. Aside from EDR, the v2.0 specification contains other minor improvements, and products may claim compliance to "Bluetooth v2.0" without supporting the higher data rate. At least one commercial device states "Bluetooth v2.0 without EDR" on its data sheet.

Bluetooth Core Specification version 2.1 + EDR was adopted by the Bluetooth SIG on 26 July 2007.

Version 2.1 allows various other improvements, including extended inquiry response (EIR), which provides more information during the inquiry procedure to allow better filtering of devices before connection; and sniff subrating, which reduces the power consumption in low-power mode.

Version 3.0 + HS of the Bluetooth Core Specification was adopted by the Bluetooth SIG on 21 April 2009. Bluetooth v3.0 + HS provides theoretical data transfer speeds of up to 24 Mbit/s, though not over the Bluetooth link itself. Instead, the Bluetooth link is used for negotiation and establishment, and the high data rate traffic is carried over a colocated 802.11 link.

The main new feature is AMP (Alternative MAC/PHY), the addition of 802.11 as a high-speed transport. The high-speed part of the specification is not mandatory, and hence only devices that display the "+HS" logo actually support Bluetooth over 802.11 high-speed data transfer. A Bluetooth v3.0 device without the "+HS" suffix is only required to support features introduced in Core Specification version 3.0 or earlier Core Specification Addendum 1.

L2CAP Enhanced modes

Enhanced Retransmission Mode (ERTM) implements reliable L2CAP channel, while Streaming Mode (SM) implements unreliable channel with no retransmission or flow control. Introduced in Core Specification Addendum 1.

Alternative MAC/PHY

Enables the use of alternative MAC and PHYs for transporting Bluetooth profile data. The Bluetooth radio is still used for device discovery, initial connection and profile configuration. However, when large quantities of data must be sent, the high-speed alternative MAC PHY 802.11 (typically associated with Wi-Fi) transports the data. This means that Bluetooth uses proven low power connection models when the system is idle, and the faster radio when it must send large quantities of data. AMP links require enhanced L2CAP modes.

Unicast Connectionless Data

Permits sending service data without establishing an explicit L2CAP channel. It is intended for use by applications that require low latency between user action and reconnection/transmission of data. This is only appropriate for small amounts of data.

Enhanced Power Control

Updates the power control feature to remove the open loop power control, and also to clarify ambiguities in power control introduced by the new modulation schemes added for EDR. Enhanced power control removes the ambiguities by specifying the behavior that is expected. The feature also adds closed loop power control, meaning RSSI filtering can start as the response is received. Additionally, a "go straight to maximum power" request has been introduced. This is expected to deal with the headset link loss issue typically observed when a user puts their phone into a pocket on the opposite side to the headset.

On 16 March 2009, the WiMedia Alliance announced it was entering into technology transfer agreements for the WiMedia Ultra-wideband (UWB) specifications. WiMedia has transferred all current and future specifications, including work on future high-speed and power-optimized implementations, to the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), Wireless USB Promoter Group and the USB Implementers Forum. After successful completion of the technology transfer, marketing, and related administrative items, the WiMedia Alliance ceased operations.

In October 2009, the Bluetooth Special Interest Group suspended development of UWB as part of the alternative MAC/PHY, Bluetooth v3.0 + HS solution. A small, but significant, number of former WiMedia members had not and would not sign up to the necessary agreements for the IP transfer. As of 2009, the Bluetooth SIG was in the process of evaluating other options for its longer term roadmap.

The Bluetooth SIG completed the Bluetooth Core Specification version 4.0 (called Bluetooth Smart) and has been adopted as of 30 June 2010. It includes Classic Bluetooth, Bluetooth high speed and Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) protocols. Bluetooth high speed is based on Wi-Fi, and Classic Bluetooth consists of legacy Bluetooth protocols.

Bluetooth Low Energy, previously known as Wibree, is a subset of Bluetooth v4.0 with an entirely new protocol stack for rapid build-up of simple links. As an alternative to the Bluetooth standard protocols that were introduced in Bluetooth v1.0 to v3.0, it is aimed at very low power applications powered by a coin cell. Chip designs allow for two types of implementation, dual-mode, single-mode and enhanced past versions. The provisional names Wibree and Bluetooth ULP (Ultra Low Power) were abandoned and the BLE name was used for a while. In late 2011, new logos "Bluetooth Smart Ready" for hosts and "Bluetooth Smart" for sensors were introduced as the general-public face of BLE.

Compared to Classic Bluetooth, Bluetooth Low Energy is intended to provide considerably reduced power consumption and cost while maintaining a similar communication range. In terms of lengthening the battery life of Bluetooth devices, BLE represents a significant progression.

Cost-reduced single-mode chips, which enable highly integrated and compact devices, feature a lightweight Link Layer providing ultra-low power idle mode operation, simple device discovery, and reliable point-to-multipoint data transfer with advanced power-save and secure encrypted connections at the lowest possible cost.

General improvements in version 4.0 include the changes necessary to facilitate BLE modes, as well the Generic Attribute Profile (GATT) and Security Manager (SM) services with AES Encryption.

Core Specification Addendum 2 was unveiled in December 2011; it contains improvements to the audio Host Controller Interface and to the High Speed (802.11) Protocol Adaptation Layer.

Core Specification Addendum 3 revision 2 has an adoption date of 24 July 2012.

Core Specification Addendum 4 has an adoption date of 12 February 2013.

The Bluetooth SIG announced formal adoption of the Bluetooth v4.1 specification on 4 December 2013. This specification is an incremental software update to Bluetooth Specification v4.0, and not a hardware update. The update incorporates Bluetooth Core Specification Addenda (CSA 1, 2, 3 & 4) and adds new features that improve consumer usability. These include increased co-existence support for LTE, bulk data exchange rates-and aid developer innovation by allowing devices to support multiple roles simultaneously.

New features of this specification include:

Mobile wireless service coexistence signaling

Train nudging and generalized interlaced scanning

Low Duty Cycle Directed Advertising

L2CAP connection-oriented and dedicated channels with credit-based flow control

Dual Mode and Topology

LE Link Layer Topology

802.11n PAL

Audio architecture updates for Wide Band Speech

Fast data advertising interval

Limited discovery time

Some features were already available in a Core Specification Addendum (CSA) before the release of v4.1.

Released on 2 December 2014, it introduces features for the Internet of things.

The major areas of improvement are:

Older Bluetooth hardware may receive 4.2 features such as Data Packet Length Extension and improved privacy via firmware updates.

The Bluetooth SIG released Bluetooth 5 on 6 December 2016. Its new features are mainly focused on new Internet of Things technology. Sony was the first to announce Bluetooth 5.0 support with its Xperia XZ Premium in Feb 2017 during the Mobile World Congress 2017. The Samsung Galaxy S8 launched with Bluetooth 5 support in April 2017. In September 2017, the iPhone 8, 8 Plus and iPhone X launched with Bluetooth 5 support as well. Apple also integrated Bluetooth 5 in its new HomePod offering released on 9 February 2018. Marketing drops the point number; so that it is just "Bluetooth 5" (unlike Bluetooth 4.0); the change is for the sake of "Simplifying our marketing, communicating user benefits more effectively and making it easier to signal significant technology updates to the market."

Bluetooth 5 provides, for BLE, options that can double the speed (2Mbit/s burst) at the expense of range, or provide up to four times the range at the expense of data rate. The increase in transmissions could be important for Internet of Things devices, where many nodes connect throughout a whole house. Bluetooth 5 increases capacity of connectionless services such as location-relevant navigation of low-energy Bluetooth connections.

The major areas of improvement are:

Slot Availability Mask (SAM)

2 Mbit/s PHY for LE

LE Long Range

High Duty Cycle Non-Connectable Advertising

LE Advertising Extensions

LE Channel Selection Algorithm #2

Features Added in CSA5 - Integrated in v5.0:

The following features were removed in this version of the specification:

The Bluetooth SIG presented Bluetooth 5.1 on 21 January 2019.

The major areas of improvement are:

Angle of Arrival (AoA) and Angle of Departure (AoD) which are used for locating and tracking of devices

Advertising Channel Index

GATT caching

Minor Enhancements batch 1:

HCI support for debug keys in LE Secure Connections

Sleep clock accuracy update mechanism

ADI field in scan response data

Interaction between QoS and Flow Specification

Block Host channel classification for secondary advertising

Allow the SID to appear in scan response reports

Specify the behavior when rules are violated

Periodic Advertising Sync Transfer

Features Added in Core Specification Addendum (CSA) 6 - Integrated in v5.1:

The following features were removed in this version of the specification:

On 31 December 2019, the Bluetooth SIG published the Bluetooth Core Specification Version 5.2. The new specification adds new features:

Enhanced Attribute Protocol (EATT), an improved version of the Attribute Protocol (ATT)

LE Power Control

LE Isochronous Channels

LE Audio that is built on top of the new 5.2 features. BT LE Audio was announced in January 2020 at CES by the Bluetooth SIG. Compared to regular Bluetooth Audio, Bluetooth Low Energy Audio makes lower battery consumption possible and creates a standardized way of transmitting audio over BT LE. Bluetooth LE Audio also allows one-to-many and many-to-one transmission, allowing multiple receivers from one source or one receiver for multiple sources, known as Auracast. It uses a new LC3 codec. BLE Audio will also add support for hearing aids. On 12 July 2022, the Bluetooth SIG announced the completion of Bluetooth LE Audio. The standard has a lower minimum latency claim of 20-30 ms vs Bluetooth Classic audio of 100-200 ms. At IFA in August 2023 Samsung announced support for Auracast through a software update for their Galaxy Buds2 Pro and two of their TV's. In October users started getting updates for the earbuds.

The Bluetooth SIG published the Bluetooth Core Specification Version 5.3 on 13 July 2021. The feature enhancements of Bluetooth 5.3 are:

Connection Subrating

Periodic Advertisement Interval

Channel Classification Enhancement

Encryption key size control enhancements

The following features were removed in this version of the specification:

Alternate MAC and PHY (AMP) Extension

The Bluetooth SIG released the Bluetooth Core Specification Version 5.4 on 7 February 2023. This new version adds the following features:

Periodic Advertising with Responses (PAwR)

Encrypted Advertising Data

LE GATT Security Levels Characteristic

Advertising Coding Selection

Seeking to extend the compatibility of Bluetooth devices, the devices that adhere to the standard use an interface called HCI (Host Controller Interface) between the host and the controller.

High-level protocols such as the SDP (Protocol used to find other Bluetooth devices within the communication range, also responsible for detecting the function of devices in range), RFCOMM (Protocol used to emulate serial port connections) and TCS (Telephony control protocol) interact with the baseband controller through the L2CAP (Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol). The L2CAP protocol is responsible for the segmentation and reassembly of the packets.

The hardware that makes up the Bluetooth device is made up of, logically, two parts; which may or may not be physically separate. A radio device, responsible for modulating and transmitting the signal; and a digital controller. The digital controller is likely a CPU, one of whose functions is to run a Link Controller; and interfaces with the host device; but some functions may be delegated to hardware. The Link Controller is responsible for the processing of the baseband and the management of ARQ and physical layer FEC protocols. In addition, it handles the transfer functions (both asynchronous and synchronous), audio coding (e.g. SBC (codec)) and data encryption. The CPU of the device is responsible for attending the instructions related to Bluetooth of the host device, in order to simplify its operation. To do this, the CPU runs software called Link Manager that has the function of communicating with other devices through the LMP protocol.

A Bluetooth device is a short-range wireless device. Bluetooth devices are fabricated on RF CMOS integrated circuit ( RF circuit) chips.

Bluetooth Protocol Stack

Bluetooth is defined as a layer protocol architecture consisting of core protocols, cable replacement protocols, telephony control protocols, and adopted protocols. Mandatory protocols for all Bluetooth stacks are LMP, L2CAP and SDP. In addition, devices that communicate with Bluetooth almost universally can use these protocols: HCI and RFCOMM.[citation needed ]

The Link Manager (LM) is the system that manages establishing the connection between devices. It is responsible for the establishment, authentication and configuration of the link. The Link Manager locates other managers and communicates with them via the management protocol of the LMP link. To perform its function as a service provider, the LM uses the services included in the Link Controller (LC). The Link Manager Protocol basically consists of several PDUs (Protocol Data Units) that are sent from one device to another. The following is a list of supported services:

Transmission and reception of data.

Name request

Request of the link addresses.

Establishment of the connection.

Authentication.

Negotiation of link mode and connection establishment.

The Host Controller Interface provides a command interface between the controller and the host.

The Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP) is used to multiplex multiple logical connections between two devices using different higher level protocols. Provides segmentation and reassembly of on-air packets.

In Basic mode, L2CAP provides packets with a payload configurable up to 64 kB, with 672 bytes as the default MTU, and 48 bytes as the minimum mandatory supported MTU.

In Retransmission and Flow Control modes, L2CAP can be configured either for isochronous data or reliable data per channel by performing retransmissions and CRC checks.

Bluetooth Core Specification Addendum 1 adds two additional L2CAP modes to the core specification. These modes effectively deprecate original Retransmission and Flow Control modes:

Enhanced Retransmission Mode (ERTM)

This mode is an improved version of the original retransmission mode. This mode provides a reliable L2CAP channel.

Streaming Mode (SM)

This is a very simple mode, with no retransmission or flow control. This mode provides an unreliable L2CAP channel.

Reliability in any of these modes is optionally and/or additionally guaranteed by the lower layer Bluetooth BDR/EDR air interface by configuring the number of retransmissions and flush timeout (time after which the radio flushes packets). In-order sequencing is guaranteed by the lower layer.

Only L2CAP channels configured in ERTM or SM may be operated over AMP logical links.

The Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) allows a device to discover services offered by other devices, and their associated parameters. For example, when you use a mobile phone with a Bluetooth headset, the phone uses SDP to determine which Bluetooth profiles the headset can use (Headset Profile, Hands Free Profile (HFP), Advanced Audio Distribution Profile (A2DP) etc.) and the protocol multiplexer settings needed for the phone to connect to the headset using each of them. Each service is identified by a Universally Unique Identifier (UUID), with official services (Bluetooth profiles) assigned a short form UUID (16 bits rather than the full 128).

Radio Frequency Communications (RFCOMM) is a cable replacement protocol used for generating a virtual serial data stream. RFCOMM provides for binary data transport and emulates [[EIA-1325 ]] (formerly RS-232) control signals over the Bluetooth baseband layer, i.e., it is a serial port emulation.

RFCOMM provides a simple, reliable, data stream to the user, similar to TCP. It is used directly by many telephony related profiles as a carrier for AT commands, as well as being a transport layer for OBEX over Bluetooth.

Many Bluetooth applications use RFCOMM because of its widespread support and publicly available API on most operating systems. Additionally, applications that used a serial port to communicate can be quickly ported to use RFCOMM.

The Bluetooth Network Encapsulation Protocol (BNEP) is used for transferring another protocol stack's data via an L2CAP channel. Its main purpose is the transmission of IP packets in the Personal Area Networking Profile. BNEP performs a similar function to SNAP in Wireless LAN.

Audio/Video Control Transport Protocol

The Audio/Video Control Transport Protocol (AVCTP) is used by the remote control profile to transfer AV/C commands over an L2CAP channel. The music control buttons on a stereo headset use this protocol to control the music player.

Audio/Video Distribution Transport Protocol

The Audio/Video Distribution Transport Protocol (AVDTP) is used by the advanced audio distribution ( A2DP) profile to stream music to stereo headsets over an L2CAP channel intended for video distribution profile in the Bluetooth transmission.

The Telephony Control Protocol- Binary (TCS BIN) is the bit-oriented protocol that defines the call control signaling for the establishment of voice and data calls between Bluetooth devices. Additionally, "TCS BIN defines mobility management procedures for handling groups of Bluetooth TCS devices."

TCS-BIN is only used by the cordless telephony profile, which failed to attract implementers. As such it is only of historical interest.

Adopted protocols are defined by other standards-making organizations and incorporated into Bluetooth's protocol stack, allowing Bluetooth to code protocols only when necessary. The adopted protocols include:

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)

Internet standard protocol for transporting IP datagrams over a point-to-point link.

Foundation Protocols for TCP/IP protocol suite

Object Exchange Protocol (OBEX)

Session-layer protocol for the exchange of objects, providing a model for object and operation representation

Wireless Application Environment/Wireless Application Protocol (WAE/WAP)

WAE specifies an application framework for wireless devices and WAP is an open standard to provide mobile users access to telephony and information services.

Depending on packet type, individual packets may be protected by error correction, either 1/3 rate forward error correction (FEC) or 2/3 rate. In addition, packets with CRC will be retransmitted until acknowledged by automatic repeat request (ARQ).

Any Bluetooth device in discoverable mode transmits the following information on demand:

Device name

Device class

List of services

Technical information (for example: device features, manufacturer, Bluetooth specification used, clock offset)

Any device may perform an inquiry to find other devices to connect to, and any device can be configured to respond to such inquiries. However, if the device trying to connect knows the address of the device, it always responds to direct connection requests and transmits the information shown in the list above if requested. Use of a device's services may require pairing or acceptance by its owner, but the connection itself can be initiated by any device and held until it goes out of range. Some devices can be connected to only one device at a time, and connecting to them prevents them from connecting to other devices and appearing in inquiries until they disconnect from the other device.

Every device has a unique 48-bit address. However, these addresses are generally not shown in inquiries. Instead, friendly Bluetooth names are used, which can be set by the user. This name appears when another user scans for devices and in lists of paired devices.

Most cellular phones have the Bluetooth name set to the manufacturer and model of the phone by default. Most cellular phones and laptops show only the Bluetooth names and special programs are required to get additional information about remote devices. This can be confusing as, for example, there could be several cellular phones in range named T610 (see Bluejacking).

Many services offered over Bluetooth can expose private data or let a connecting party control the Bluetooth device. Security reasons make it necessary to recognize specific devices, and thus enable control over which devices can connect to a given Bluetooth device. At the same time, it is useful for Bluetooth devices to be able to establish a connection without user intervention (for example, as soon as in range).

To resolve this conflict, Bluetooth uses a process called bonding, and a bond is generated through a process called pairing. The pairing process is triggered either by a specific request from a user to generate a bond (for example, the user explicitly requests to "Add a Bluetooth device"), or it is triggered automatically when connecting to a service where (for the first time) the identity of a device is required for security purposes. These two cases are referred to as dedicated bonding and general bonding respectively.

Pairing often involves some level of user interaction. This user interaction confirms the identity of the devices. When pairing completes, a bond forms between the two devices, enabling those two devices to connect in the future without repeating the pairing process to confirm device identities. When desired, the user can remove the bonding relationship.

During pairing, the two devices establish a relationship by creating a shared secret known as a link key. If both devices store the same link key, they are said to be paired or bonded. A device that wants to communicate only with a bonded device can cryptographically authenticate the identity of the other device, ensuring it is the same device it previously paired with. Once a link key is generated, an authenticated ACL link between the devices may be encrypted to protect exchanged data against eavesdropping. Users can delete link keys from either device, which removes the bond between the devices-so it is possible for one device to have a stored link key for a device it is no longer paired with.

Bluetooth services generally require either encryption or authentication and as such require pairing before they let a remote device connect. Some services, such as the Object Push Profile, elect not to explicitly require authentication or encryption so that pairing does not interfere with the user experience associated with the service use-cases.

Pairing mechanisms changed significantly with the introduction of Secure Simple Pairing in Bluetooth v2.1. The following summarizes the pairing mechanisms:

Legacy pairing: This is the only method available in Bluetooth v2.0 and before. Each device must enter a PIN code; pairing is only successful if both devices enter the same PIN code. Any 16-byte UTF-8 string may be used as a PIN code; however, not all devices may be capable of entering all possible PIN codes.

Limited input devices: The obvious example of this class of device is a Bluetooth Hands-free headset, which generally have few inputs. These devices usually have a fixed PIN, for example "0000" or "1234", that are hard-coded into the device.

Numeric input devices: Mobile phones are classic examples of these devices. They allow a user to enter a numeric value up to 16 digits in length.

Alpha-numeric input devices: PCs and smartphones are examples of these devices. They allow a user to enter full UTF-8 text as a PIN code. If pairing with a less capable device the user must be aware of the input limitations on the other device; there is no mechanism available for a capable device to determine how it should limit the available input a user may use.

Secure Simple Pairing (SSP): This is required by Bluetooth v2.1, although a Bluetooth v2.1 device may only use legacy pairing to interoperate with a v2.0 or earlier device. Secure Simple Pairing uses a form of public-key cryptography, and some types can help protect against man in the middle, or MITM attacks. SSP has the following authentication mechanisms:

Just works: As the name implies, this method just works, with no user interaction. However, a device may prompt the user to confirm the pairing process. This method is typically used by headsets with minimal IO capabilities, and is more secure than the fixed PIN mechanism this limited set of devices uses for legacy pairing. This method provides no man-in-the-middle (MITM) protection.

Numeric comparison: If both devices have a display, and at least one can accept a binary yes/no user input, they may use Numeric Comparison. This method displays a 6-digit numeric code on each device. The user should compare the numbers to ensure they are identical. If the comparison succeeds, the user(s) should confirm pairing on the device(s) that can accept an input. This method provides MITM protection, assuming the user confirms on both devices and actually performs the comparison properly.

Passkey Entry: This method may be used between a device with a display and a device with numeric keypad entry (such as a keyboard), or two devices with numeric keypad entry. In the first case, the display presents a 6-digit numeric code to the user, who then enters the code on the keypad. In the second case, the user of each device enters the same 6-digit number. Both of these cases provide MITM protection.

Out of band (OOB): This method uses an external means of communication, such as near-field communication (NFC) to exchange some information used in the pairing process. Pairing is completed using the Bluetooth radio, but requires information from the OOB mechanism. This provides only the level of MITM protection that is present in the OOB mechanism.

SSP is considered simple for the following reasons:

In most cases, it does not require a user to generate a passkey.

For use cases not requiring MITM protection, user interaction can be eliminated.

For numeric comparison, MITM protection can be achieved with a simple equality comparison by the user.

Using OOB with NFC enables pairing when devices simply get close, rather than requiring a lengthy discovery process.

Prior to Bluetooth v2.1, encryption is not required and can be turned off at any time. Moreover, the encryption key is only good for approximately 23.5 hours; using a single encryption key longer than this time allows simple XOR attacks to retrieve the encryption key.

Turning off encryption is required for several normal operations, so it is problematic to detect if encryption is disabled for a valid reason or a security attack.

Bluetooth v2.1 addresses this in the following ways:

Encryption is required for all non-SDP (Service Discovery Protocol) connections

A new Encryption Pause and Resume feature is used for all normal operations that require that encryption be disabled. This enables easy identification of normal operation from security attacks.

The encryption key must be refreshed before it expires.

Link keys may be stored on the device file system, not on the Bluetooth chip itself. Many Bluetooth chip manufacturers let link keys be stored on the device-however, if the device is removable, this means that the link key moves with the device.

Bluetooth implements confidentiality, authentication and key derivation with custom algorithms based on the SAFER+ block cipher. Bluetooth key generation is generally based on a Bluetooth PIN, which must be entered into both devices. This procedure might be modified if one of the devices has a fixed PIN (e.g., for headsets or similar devices with a restricted user interface). During pairing, an initialization key or master key is generated, using the E22 algorithm. The E0 stream cipher is used for encrypting packets, granting confidentiality, and is based on a shared cryptographic secret, namely a previously generated link key or master key. Those keys, used for subsequent encryption of data sent via the air interface, rely on the Bluetooth PIN, which has been entered into one or both devices.

An overview of Bluetooth vulnerabilities exploits was published in 2007 by Andreas Becker.

Bluetooth v2.1 - finalized in 2007 with consumer devices first appearing in 2009 - makes significant changes to Bluetooth's security, including pairing. See the pairing mechanisms section for more about these changes.

Bluejacking is the sending of either a picture or a message from one user to an unsuspecting user through Bluetooth wireless technology. Common applications include short messages, e.g., "You've just been bluejacked!" Bluejacking does not involve the removal or alteration of any data from the device.[citation needed ]

Some form of DoS is also possible, even in modern devices, by sending unsolicited pairing requests in rapid succession; this becomes disruptive because most systems display a full screen notification for every connection request, interrupting every other activity, especially on less powerful devices.

In 2001, Jakobsson and Wetzel from Bell Laboratories discovered flaws in the Bluetooth pairing protocol and also pointed to vulnerabilities in the encryption scheme. In 2003, Ben and Adam Laurie from A.L. Digital Ltd. discovered that serious flaws in some poor implementations of Bluetooth security may lead to disclosure of personal data. In a subsequent experiment, Martin Herfurt from the trifinite.group was able to do a field-trial at the CeBIT fairgrounds, showing the importance of the problem to the world. A new attack called BlueBug was used for this experiment. In 2004 the first purported virus using Bluetooth to spread itself among mobile phones appeared on the Symbian OS. The virus was first described by Kaspersky Lab and requires users to confirm the installation of unknown software before it can propagate. The virus was written as a proof-of-concept by a group of virus writers known as "29A" and sent to anti-virus groups. Thus, it should be regarded as a potential (but not real) security threat to Bluetooth technology or Symbian OS since the virus has never spread outside of this system. In August 2004, a world-record-setting experiment (see also Bluetooth sniping) showed that the range of Class 2 Bluetooth radios could be extended to 1.78 km (1.11 mi) with directional antennas and signal amplifiers. This poses a potential security threat because it enables attackers to access vulnerable Bluetooth devices from a distance beyond expectation. The attacker must also be able to receive information from the victim to set up a connection. No attack can be made against a Bluetooth device unless the attacker knows its Bluetooth address and which channels to transmit on, although these can be deduced within a few minutes if the device is in use.

In January 2005, a mobile malware worm known as Lasco surfaced. The worm began targeting mobile phones using Symbian OS ( Series 60 platform) using Bluetooth enabled devices to replicate itself and spread to other devices. The worm is self-installing and begins once the mobile user approves the transfer of the file (Velasco.sis) from another device. Once installed, the worm begins looking for other Bluetooth enabled devices to infect. Additionally, the worm infects other .SIS files on the device, allowing replication to another device through the use of removable media ( Secure Digital, CompactFlash, etc.). The worm can render the mobile device unstable.

In April 2005, Cambridge University security researchers published results of their actual implementation of passive attacks against the PIN-based pairing between commercial Bluetooth devices. They confirmed that attacks are practicably fast, and the Bluetooth symmetric key establishment method is vulnerable. To rectify this vulnerability, they designed an implementation that showed that stronger, asymmetric key establishment is feasible for certain classes of devices, such as mobile phones.

In June 2005, Yaniv Shaked and Avishai Wool published a paper describing both passive and active methods for obtaining the PIN for a Bluetooth link. The passive attack allows a suitably equipped attacker to eavesdrop on communications and spoof if the attacker was present at the time of initial pairing. The active method makes use of a specially constructed message that must be inserted at a specific point in the protocol, to make the master and slave repeat the pairing process. After that, the first method can be used to crack the PIN. This attack's major weakness is that it requires the user of the devices under attack to re-enter the PIN during the attack when the device prompts them to. Also, this active attack probably requires custom hardware, since most commercially available Bluetooth devices are not capable of the timing necessary.

In April 2006, researchers from Secure Network and F-Secure published a report that warns of the large number of devices left in a visible state, and issued statistics on the spread of various Bluetooth services and the ease of spread of an eventual Bluetooth worm.

In October 2006, at the Luxemburgish Hack.lu Security Conference, Kevin Finistere and Thierry Zoller demonstrated and released a remote root shell via Bluetooth on Mac OS X v10.3.9 and v10.4. They also demonstrated the first Bluetooth PIN and Linkkeys cracker, which is based on the research of Wool and Shaked.

In April 2017, security researchers at Armis discovered multiple exploits in the Bluetooth software in various platforms, including Microsoft Windows, Linux, Apple iOS, and Google Android. These vulnerabilities are collectively called " BlueBorne". The exploits allow an attacker to connect to devices or systems without authentication and can give them "virtually full control over the device". Armis contacted Google, Microsoft, Apple, Samsung and Linux developers allowing them to patch their software before the coordinated announcement of the vulnerabilities on 12 September 2017.

In July 2018, Lior Neumann and Eli Biham, researchers at the Technion - Israel Institute of Technology identified a security vulnerability in the latest Bluetooth pairing procedures: Secure Simple Pairing and LE Secure Connections.

Also, in October 2018, Karim Lounis, a network security researcher at Queen's University, identified a security vulnerability, called CDV (Connection Dumping Vulnerability), on various Bluetooth devices that allows an attacker to tear down an existing Bluetooth connection and cause the deauthentication and disconnection of the involved devices. The researcher demonstrated the attack on various devices of different categories and from different manufacturers.

In August 2019, security researchers at the Singapore University of Technology and Design, Helmholtz Center for Information Security, and University of Oxford discovered a vulnerability, called KNOB (Key Negotiation Of Bluetooth) in the key negotiation that would "brute force the negotiated encryption keys, decrypt the eavesdropped ciphertext, and inject valid encrypted messages (in real-time)". Google released an Android security patch on 5 August 2019, which removed this vulnerability.

Bluetooth uses the radio frequency spectrum in the 2.402GHz to 2.480GHz range, which is non-ionizing radiation, of similar bandwidth to that used by wireless and mobile phones. No specific harm has been demonstrated, even though wireless transmission has been included by IARC in the possible carcinogen list. Maximum power output from a Bluetooth radio is 100 mW for class 1, 2.5mW for class 2, and 1mW for class 3 devices. Even the maximum power output of class1 is a lower level than the lowest-powered mobile phones. UMTS and W-CDMA output 250mW, GSM1800/1900 outputs 1000mW, and GSM850/900 outputs 2000mW.

The Bluetooth Innovation World Cup, a marketing initiative of the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), was an international competition that encouraged the development of innovations for applications leveraging Bluetooth technology in sports, fitness and health care products. The competition aimed to stimulate new markets.

The Bluetooth Innovation World Cup morphed into the Bluetooth Breakthrough Awards in 2013. Bluetooth SIG subsequently launched the Imagine Blue Award in 2016 at Bluetooth World. The Bluetooth Breakthrough Awards program highlights the most innovative products and applications available today, prototypes coming soon, and student-led projects in the making.

1. ^ "Bluetooth Experience Icons" (PDF). Bluetooth Special Interest Group. Archived from the original on 23 December 2018. Bluetooth Experience Icons borrow two of these three features: the blue color and the rune-inspired symbol.

2. ^ Gomez, Carles; Oller, Joaquim; Paradells, Josep (29 August 2012). "Overview and Evaluation of Bluetooth Low Energy: An Emerging Low-Power Wireless Technology". Sensors. 12 (9): 11734-11753. Bibcode:2012Senso..1211734G. doi:10.3390/s120911734. ISSN 1424-8220. PMC .

3. ^ Kurawar, Arwa; Koul, Ayushi; Patil, Viki Tukaram (August 2014). "Survey of Bluetooth and Applications". International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Engineering & Technology. 3: 2832-2837. ISSN 2278-1323.

4. ^ "Samsung Omnia II: How to Transfer Files with Bluetooth FTP". . 11 December 2009. Archived from the original on 23 November 2021.

5. ^ Fattah, Nabeel; Laha, Soumyasanta; Sokolov, Danil; Chester, Graeme; Degenaar, Patrick (2015). "Wireless data and power transfer of an optogenetic implantable visual cortex stimulator". 2015 37th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC). Vol. 2015. pp. 8006-8009. doi:10.1109/EMBC.2015.7320250. ISBN 978-1-4244-9271-8. PMID 26738150. S2CID 4575272.

6. ^ "Bluetooth Wireless Technology FAQ- 2010". Archived from the original on 23 December 2018.

7. ^ Ted Unangst (11 July 2014). "CVS: cvs.openbsd.org: src". source-changes@cvs (Mailing list). OpenBSD. Archived from the original on 19 January 2019. bluetooth support doesn't work and isn't going anywhere.

8. ^ tbert, ed. (29 July 2014). "g2k14: Ted Unangst on the Art of the Tedu". OpenBSD Journal. Archived from the original on 24 March 2019. Of these, you may possibly miss bluetooth support. Unfortunately, the current code doesn't work and isn't structured properly to encourage much future development.

9. ^ Sascha Wildner (15 November 2014). "kernel/netgraph7: Port the kernel part of the netgraph7 bluetooth stack". DragonFly BSD. Archived from the original on 30 April 2019.

10. ^ IEEE Standard for Telecommunications and Information Exchange Between Systems - LAN/MAN - Specific Requirements - Part 15: Wireless Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specifications for Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs). 2002. doi:10.1109/IEEESTD.2002.93621. ISBN 978-0-7381-3335-5.

11. ^ IEEE Standard for Information technology-- Local and metropolitan area networks-- Specific requirements-- Part 15.1a: Wireless Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) specifications for Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPAN). doi:10.1109/IEEESTD.2005.96290. ISBN 978-0-7381-4708-6.

12. ^ Woolley, Martin (26 October 2017). "Bluetooth® Core Specification Version 5.0 Feature Enhancements" (PDF). bluetooth.com (1.1.0 ed.).

13. ^ "Bluetooth Core Specification v5.0" (PDF download). www.bluetooth.org. Archived from the original on 23 December 2018.

14. ^ "The New Version of Bluetooth Is Here to Fix Your Headphones". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Archived from the original on 26 April 2020.

15. Stallings, William (2005). Wireless communications & networks. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 9788132231561.

16. ^ "Security Weaknesses in Bluetooth". RSA Security Conf. - Cryptographer's Track. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.23.7357.

17. ^ Neumann, Lior; Biham, Eli (2020). "Breaking the Bluetooth Pairing - the Fixed Coordinate Invalid Curve Attack". Selected Areas in Cryptography - SAC 2019. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 11959. Technion - Israel Institute of Technology. pp. 250-273. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-38471-5_11. ISBN 978-3-030-38470-8. S2CID 51757249. Archived from the original on 18 September 2019.

18. ^ Lounis, Karim; Zulkernine, Mohammad (2019). "Connection Dumping Vulnerability Affecting Bluetooth Availability". 13th International Conference on Risks and Security of Internet and Systems - CRiSIS 2018. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 11391. Springer. pp. 188-204. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-12143-3_16. ISBN 978-3-030-12142-6. S2CID 59248863. Archived from the original on 30 August 2021.

19. ^ Antonioli, Daniele; Tippenhauer, Nils Ole; Rasmussen, Kasper B. (15 August 2019). The KNOB is Broken: Exploiting Low Entropy in the Encryption Key Negotiation Of Bluetooth BR/EDR (PDF). Santa Clara: University of Oxford. ISBN 9781939133069. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 April 2021.

20. ^ D. Chomienne; M. Eftimakis (20 October 2010). "Bluetooth Tutorial". Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 December 2016.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology standard that is used for exchanging data between fixed and mobile devices over short distances and building personal area networks (PANs). In the most widely used mode, transmission power is limited to 2.5 milliwatts, giving it a very short range of up to 10 metres (33 ft).

# data[].attributes.body
Die Kosten pro Klick (CPC) stellen den Betrag dar, den ein Inserat an eine Suchmaschine für jeden Klick eines Internetznutzers auf einen Werbelink (Text, Bild, Video) zahlt, der ihn auf die Webseite des Inserenten führt.

# data[].attributes.body
(auch digitaler Wandel) bezeichnet einen fortlaufenden, in digitalen Technologien begründeten Änderungsprozesse.

# data[].attributes.body
ist ein Prozess, wo ein Projekt kritisch untersucht wird. Dazu gehört das Sammeln und Analysieren von Informationen über die Aktivitäten, Merkmale und Ergebnisse eines Projekts. Sein Zweck ist es, Urteile über ein Projekt zu fällen, seine Wirksamkeit zu verbessern und oder Gegenmaßnahmen zu treffen.

# data[].attributes.body
Hyperlapse or bewegtes Zeitraffer (auch Stop-Motion Zeitraffer, Walklapse, Spacelapse) ist eine Technik in der Zeitrafferfotografie zur Erstellung von Bewegungsbildern. In seiner einfachsten Form wird ein Hyperlapse durch Bewegen der Kamera um eine kurze Distanz zwischen den Aufnahmen, erzeugt. Der erste Film, der diese Technik verwendete, stammte aus dem Jahr 1995.

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Hyperlapse or moving time-lapse (also stop-motion time-lapse, walklapse, spacelapse) is a technique in time-lapse photography for creating motion shots. In its simplest form, a hyperlapse is achieved by moving the camera a short distance between each shot. The first film using the hyperlapse technique dates to 1995.

Regular time-lapse involves taking photos at a regular interval with a camera mounted on a tripod or using a motorized dolly and/or pan-and-tilt head to add limited motion to the shot. Hyperlapse relies on the time-lapse principle, but adds movement over much longer distances. This technique allows to use long exposures to create motion blur. The resulting image sequence is stabilized in post-production. The camera can also be mounted on a hand-held gimbal to achieve smooth motion while walking.

The first film using the hyperlapse technique seems to have been Pacer, shot on Super 8 film in Montreal in 1995 by Guy Roland, after experiments during the 1980s and 1990s. It has been suggested that the term "hyper-lapse" itself was first used in 2011 by American filmmaker Dan Eckert, and sustainably coined by Shahab Gabriel Behzumi´s Berlin Hyperlapse in 2012.

Films made from images derived from Google Street View and Google Maps have also been called hyperlapse videos. Software that can help produce hyperlapse-style videos include Hyperlapse from Instagram and a similarly named program from Microsoft.

Unmanned aerial vehicles have been used to create aerial hyperlapses since at least 2015.

Subgenres of hyperlapse are flowmotion and hyperzoom. Flowmotion was developed in the 2010s by British filmmaker Rob Whitworth. It combines hyperlapse, timelapse and regular film shots to create the suggestion of a story proceeding in one long, almost uninterrupted take. Hyperzoom was developed by Geoff Tompkinson and uses film and post-production techniques to create a seamless flight through diverse locations.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Hyperlapse or moving time-lapse (also stop-motion time-lapse, walklapse, spacelapse) is a technique in time-lapse photography for creating motion shots. In its simplest form, a hyperlapse is achieved by moving the camera a short distance between each shot. The first film using the hyperlapse technique dates to 1995.

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ist eine einzigartige 13-stellige Nummer, die jede Ausgabe eines weltweit veröffentlichten Buches identifiziert.

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Wenn du ein *Raster- oder *Bitmap-Bild verwendest, kannst du es nicht unbegrenzt vergrößern oder verkleinern. Es verzerrt sich dann: den Pixeln. (siehe auch Vektorbild)

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Oder *bitmap: ist ein Bildformat, das nicht unbegrenzt vergrößert oder verkleinert werden kann. (siehe auch Vektorbild)

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Slow motion (allgmein abgekürzt mit slo-mo oder slow-mo) ist ein Effekt beim Filmemachen, durch den die Zeit verlangsamt zu werden scheint. Er wurde vom österreichischen Priester August Musger anfang des 20ten Jahrhunderts erfunden. Dies kann durch die Verwendung von bestimmten Kameras erreicht werden. Es ist zu beachten, dass dieses - von diesen Hochgeschwindigkeitskameras - produzierte Filmmaterial dann mit einer normalen Geschwindigkeit von etwa 30 fps abgespielt wird.

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Slow motion (commonly abbreviated as slo-mo or slow-mo) is an effect in film-making whereby time appears to be slowed down. It was invented by the Austrian priest August Musger in the early 20th century. This can be accomplished through the use of high-speed cameras and then playing the footage produced by such cameras at a normal rate like 30 fps, or in post production through the use of software add-ons such as Twixtor.

Typically this style is achieved when each film frame is captured at a rate much faster than it will be played back. When replayed at normal speed, time appears to be moving more slowly. A term for creating slow motion film is overcranking which refers to hand cranking an early camera at a faster rate than normal (i.e. faster than 24 frames per second). Slow motion can also be achieved by playing normally recorded footage at a slower speed. This technique is more often applied to video subjected to instant replay than to film. A third technique that is becoming common using current computer software post-processing (with programs like Twixtor) is to fabricate digitally interpolated frames to smoothly transition between the frames that were actually shot. Motion can be slowed further by combining techniques, interpolating between overcranked frames. The traditional method for achieving super-slow motion is through high-speed photography, a more sophisticated technique that uses specialized equipment to record fast phenomena, usually for scientific applications.

Slow motion is ubiquitous in modern filmmaking. It is used by a diverse range of directors to achieve diverse effects. Some classic subjects of slow-motion include:

Athletic activities of all kinds, to demonstrate skill and style.

To recapture a key moment in an athletic game, typically shown as a replay.

Natural phenomena, such as a drop of water hitting a glass.

Slow motion can also be used for artistic effect, to create a romantic or suspenseful aura or to stress a moment in time. Vsevolod Pudovkin, for instance, used slow motion in a suicide scene in The Deserter, in which a man jumping into a river seems sucked down by the slowly splashing waves. Another example is , in which John Woo used the same technique in the movements of a flock of flying pigeons. made a distinct success in applying the effect into action scenes through the use of multiple cameras, as well as mixing slow-motion with live action in other scenes. Japanese director Akira Kurosawa was a pioneer using this technique in his 1954 movie Seven Samurai. American director Sam Peckinpah was another classic lover of the use of slow motion. The technique is especially associated with explosion effect shots and underwater footage.[citation needed ]

The opposite of slow motion is fast motion. Cinematographers refer to fast motion as undercranking since it was originally achieved by cranking a handcranked camera slower than normal. It is often used for comic, or occasional stylistic effect. Extreme fast motion is known as time lapse photography; a frame of, say, a growing plant is taken every few hours; when the frames are played back at normal speed, the plant is seen to grow before the viewer's eyes.

The concept of slow motion may have existed before the invention of the motion picture: the Japanese theatrical form Noh employs very slow movements.

There are two ways in which slow motion can be achieved in modern cinematography. Both involve a camera and a projector. A projector refers to a classical film projector in a movie theater, but the same basic rules apply to a television screen and any other device that displays consecutive images at a constant frame rate.

For the purposes of making the above illustration readable a projection speed of 10 frames per second (frame/s) has been selected, in fact film is usually projected at 24 frame/s making the equivalent slow overcranking rare, but available on professional equipment.

The second type of slow motion is achieved during post production. This is known as time-stretching or digital slow motion. This type of slow motion is achieved by inserting new frames in between frames that have actually been photographed. The effect is similar to overcranking as the actual motion occurs over a longer time.

Since the necessary frames were never photographed, new frames must be fabricated. Sometimes the new frames are simply repeats of the preceding frames but more often they are created by interpolating between frames. (Often this motion interpolation is, effectively, a short dissolve between still frames). Many complicated algorithms exist that can track motion between frames and generate intermediate frames within that scene. It is similar to half-speed, and is not true slow-motion, but merely longer display of each frame.

Slow motion is used widely in action films for dramatic effect, as well as the famous bullet-dodging effect, popularized by The Matrix. Formally, this effect is referred to as speed ramping and is a process whereby the capture frame rate of the camera changes over time. For example, if in the course of 10 seconds of capture, the capture frame rate is adjusted from 60 frames per second to 24 frames per second, when played back at the standard film rate of 24 frames per second, a unique time-manipulation effect is achieved. For example, someone pushing a door open and walking out into the street would appear to start off in slow motion, but in a few seconds later within the same shot the person would appear to walk in "realtime" (everyday speed). The opposite speed-ramping is done in The Matrix when Neo re-enters the Matrix for the first time to see the Oracle. As he comes out of the warehouse "load-point", the camera zooms into Neo at normal speed but as it gets closer to Neo's face, time seems to slow down, perhaps visually accentuating Neo pausing and reflecting a moment, and perhaps alluding to future manipulation of time itself within the Matrix later on in the movie.

Slow-motion is widely used in sport broadcasting and its origins in this domain extend right back to the earliest days of television, one example being the European Heavyweight Title in 1939 where Max Schmeling knocked out Adolf Heuser in 71 seconds.

In instant replays, slow motion reviews are now commonly used to show in detail some action ( photo finish, goal, ...). Generally, they are made with video servers and special controllers. The first TV slo-mo was the Ampex HS-100 disk record-player. After the HS-100, Type C videotape VTRs with a slow-motion option were used. There were a few special high frame rate TV systems (300 fps) made to give higher quality slow-motion for TV. 300 FPS can be converted to both 50 and 60 FPS transmission formats without major issues.

In scientific and technical applications it is often necessary to slow motion by a very large factor, for example to examine the details of a nuclear explosion. Examples are sometimes published showing, for example, a bullet bursting a balloon.

Usually, digital camcorders (including: bridge cameras, DSLM, higher-end compact cameras and mobile phones) historically had two ways of storing slow motion video (or: high framerate video) into the video file: The real-time method and the menial method.

The real time method treats the video as a normal video while encoding it. The output video file contains the same framerate as the image sensor output framerate. The duration of the video in the output file also matches the real-life recording duration. And the output video also contains an audio track, like usual videos.

This method is used by all GoPro cameras, Sony RX10/RX100 series cameras (except in the time-limited "super-slow-motion" High Frame Rate (HFR) mode), Apple iPhones with high framerate (slow motion) video recording functionality (starting with the iPhone 5s in late 2013), Sony Xperia flagships since 2014 ( Xperia Z2, first Sony flagship with precluded 120fps video recording), LG V series mobile phones and every Samsung Galaxy flagship phone since 2015 ( Galaxy S6) for videos with 120fps or higher.

Every video camera that is able to record at 60fps (e.g. Asus PadFone 2 (late 2012: 720p@60fps) and Samsung Mobile starting at the Galaxy Note 3 (late 2013) with 1080p at 60fps, labelled "smooth motion"), recorded it using the real-time method.

Advantages

Video editing software (e.g. Sony Vegas, Kdenlive and included software in mobile phones) and video playback software (e.g. VLC media player) allow treating such videos as both usual videos and slow-motion videos.

During video editing and video playback, the indicated playback speed matches real life.

Metadata viewing software (e.g. MediaInfo) shows a framerate and a time that matches the real-life conditions during the video recording progression.

Video framerate and duration matches real life.

Includes audio track, like normal framerate videos.

These advantages make the real-time method the more useful method for power users.

The menial method saves recorded video files in a stretched way, and also without audio track. The framerate in the output file does not match the original sensor output framerate, but the former is lower. The real-life timespan of the recording (while holding the camera) does not match the length of the video in the output file, but the latter is longer. The opposite is the case for time-lapse videos, where the effectively saved framerate is lower than for normal videos

This means that the action visible inside the video runs at slower speeds than in real life, despite the indicated playback speed of ×1.

This encoding method is used by the camera software of the following devices (incomplete list):

Advantages

The output video file is directly playable as slow motion in video players that do not support adjusting the playback speed (e.g. on a Galaxy S3 Mini).

The output video file is directly playable in video players and/or on devices that can only handle limited framerates (e.g. on a Galaxy S3 Mini).

An video whose real-life recording duration is 00h:00m:10s can be encoded in the following methods seen in the table on the Samsung Galaxy Note 2, S4, Note 3, S5 and Note 4 (example devices that use the menial method for 120fps video recording).

In this example, the real-time-method recording device can be an iPhone 5s, a Galaxy S6 (including variants), a Galaxy Note 5, a Sony Xperia Z2, Xperia Z3 or Xperia Z5.

This table also includes references from other video recording types (normal, low-framerate, time-lapse) to facilitate understanding for novice people.

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Slow motion (commonly abbreviated as slo-mo or slow-mo) is an effect in film-making whereby time appears to be slowed down. It was invented by the Austrian priest August Musger in the early 20th century.

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Die Person, die für die Webseite verantwortlich ist, von ihrer Erstellung bis zu ihrer Wartung.

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ist ein Art interaktives Video, bei dem der Benutzer zwischen verschiedenen Zweigen (Branching) wählen kann. Am Ende einer Szene kann der Benutzer aus mehreren Optionen wählen. Basierend auf dieser Wahl geht das Video auf unterschiedliche Weise weiter und kann ein ganz anderes Ergebnis und Ende haben. Es kann mit YouTube oder H5P (oder einer anderen Software) erstellt werden.

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Die Kosten pro Aktion ist eine Maßeinheit, ermöglicht es, die Kosten für den Kauf von Werbeflächen auf einer Webseite auf der Grundlage der Anzahl der von den Internetnutzern durchgeführten Aktionen (Online-Käufe, Newsletter-Abbonnements etc.), die durch Werbung erzielt wurden, zu bestimmen.

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Die DUNS-Nummer ist eine Registrierungserkennung, die von der Firma DUN und Bradstreet initiiert wurde. Die DUNS-Nummer ist also eine Identifikationsnummer, die aus 9 Ziffern besteht und allen Unternehmen, die sie beantragen, zugewiesen wird.

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In der Fotografie ist die Verschlussgeschwindigkeit oder Belichtungszeit in der ein Film oder der digitale Sensor in der Kamera belichtet wird bzw. wenn der Verschluss der Kamera bei der Aufnahme geöffnet wird, ausschlaggebend. Die Lichtmenge, die den Film oder den Bildsensor erreicht, ist proportional zu Belichtungszeit. 1/500 einer Sekunde lässt nur halb so viel Licht ein wie ​¹⁄₂₅₀.

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This is the hyperlapse technique, but realised with a 360° video recording device. It gives the viewer the impression of moving in a 3D environment at high speed.

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Interaktives Video (auch IV genannt) ist ein Video wo Benutzerinteraktionen integriert sind. Es enthält anklickbare Bereiche oder "Hotspots", die eine Aktion ausführen, wenn sie angeklickt werden. Hinter einem Hotspot können beispielsweise Informationen über das angeklickte Objekt angezeigt werden, oder du kannst zu einem anderen Teil im Video springen oder es kann eine andere Videodatei geöffnet werden.

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Interactive video (also known as "IV") is a type of digital video that supports user interaction. These videos play like regular video files, but include clickable areas, or "hotspots," that perform an action when you click on them. For example, when you click on a hotspot, the video may display information about the object you clicked on, jump to a different part of the video, or open another video file.

Interactive videos are common on YouTube, a popular video sharing website. They allow you to select one or more options while the video is playing. For example, towards the end of a video, you may be asked to select which character in the video you liked best. Once you make your choice, a new video will open and may provide more information about the character you selected. Other examples of interactive videos include card tricks, choose your own adventure videos, and interactive tutorials.

You can create an interactive video in YouTube by using YouTube's "Annotations" feature. This tool allows you to overlay content on top of the video and create clickable hotspots. If you add interactive content to your video, it is helpful to include a few extra seconds of "decision time" that allows the user to make his or her selection. It is also important to make sure each clickable option links to another live video file on YouTube.

NOTE: While clickable advertisements are sometimes overlaid on YouTube videos and other video files, these are not considered interactive videos.

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Interactive video (also known as "IV") is a type of digital video that supports user interaction. These videos play like regular video files, but include clickable areas, or "hotspots," that perform an action when you click on them.

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Bei einem 360°-Video handelt es sich um ein Gerät, dass sich auf ein sich bewegendes Objekt oder eine Person konzentriert, um sicherzustellen, dass es sich immer im Zentrum des Videos befindet und den Eindruck vermittelt, dass die Kamera es verfolgt.

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Nichtgrafische Schema eines Layouts von digitalen Schnittstellen, die Naviationsstrukturen und Inhaltselemente enthalten. Diese sind für Webseiten, Software- und Anwendungsschnittstellen wichtig, um die Software dahinter zu verstehen.

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Das ist die bekannteste Methode, Ideen zu generieren, ist eine spezielle Gruppenübung, die mit einfachen Regeln den Teilmenden hilft, aktiv zu bleiben: (a) keine Kritik übern, (b) für wilde oder ungewöhnliche Ideen offen sein, (c) sich auf die Menge der Ideen konzentrieren und (d) auf den Ideen anderer aufbauen.

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Advertising and Branding agency | Digital marketing services | Litmus Branding Pvt. Ltd.

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Turn your firm into a brand with creative branding solutions from Litmus, a leading advertising & branding agency in India. Contact us for holistic branding solutions.

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Creative Commons (CC) ist eine gemeinnützige Vereinigung mit dem Ziel, das Bewusstsein für das Urheberrecht zu schärfen und die Verbreitung und den Austausch von Werken zu erleichtern.

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DRMs (Digital Rights Management) sind digitale Sperren, die die Verwendung von Dateien einschränken, um ihre Verbreitung über ihre rechtmäßigen Eigentümer hinaus zu begrenzen.

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The equirectangular format is one single stitched image of 360° horizontally and 180° vertically.  It is the most popular and widespread format of 360° image.

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In 3D Videos braucht es Stabilisation des Bildes und um Verzerrungen der Objekte zu vermeiden, wenn der Betrachter durch das Video navigiert.

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Bildformat das im Druck verwendet wird. Es kann nicht unbegrenzt vergrößert werden, da es sonst mit kleinen Quadraten (den Pixeln) verzerrt wirkt. (siehe auch. Raster, Vektorbild).

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Bei 360° Bildern besteht das Cubic Panorama Format aus 6 unverzerrten, perspektivischen Bildern: Oben, unten, links, rechts, vorwärts und rückwärts. Das Cubic Format ist weniger verzerrt als das Equirektanguläre (sphärische) Format.  Siehe auch Equirectanguläres Format.

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Ist die grafische Darstellung des Projektes und hilft die Inhalte zu organisieren. Es kann eine Kombination aus Video, Text, Grafik, Foto, Audio und alles was sonst noch bei der Projektorganisation und -produktion hilft, sein.

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Single sign-on (SSO) ist ein Authenifizierungsschema, das es einem User ermöglicht sich mit einer einzigen ID und einem einzigen Passwort bei einem von mehreren Systemen (die verwandt aber trotzdem unabhängig sind) sich anzumelden. Dies wird oft durch die Verwendung des Ligthweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) und gespeicherter LDAP-Datenbank auf Servern erreicht. Eine einfache Version von Single Sign-On kann über IP-Netzwerke unter Verwendung von Cookies erreicht werden (aber nur wenn die Sites eine gemeinsame DNS-Domäne teilen).

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Single sign-on ( SSO) is an authentication scheme that allows a user to log in with a single ID and password to any of several related, yet independent, software systems. It is often accomplished by using the Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) and stored LDAP databases on (directory) servers. A simple version of single sign-on can be achieved over IP networks using cookies but only if the sites share a common DNS parent domain.

For clarity, a distinction should be made between Directory Server Authentication and single sign-on: Directory Server Authentication refers to systems requiring authentication for each application but using the same credentials from a directory server, whereas single sign-on refers to systems where a single authentication provides access to multiple applications by passing the authentication token seamlessly to configured applications.

Conversely, single sign-off or single log-out ( SLO) is the property whereby a single action of signing out terminates access to multiple software systems.

As different applications and resources support different authentication mechanisms, single sign-on must internally store the credentials used for initial authentication and translate them to the credentials required for the different mechanisms.

Other shared authentication schemes, such as OpenID and OpenID Connect, offer other services that may require users to make choices during a sign-on to a resource, but can be configured for single sign-on if those other services (such as user consent) are disabled. An increasing number of federated social logons, like Facebook Connect, do require the user to enter consent choices upon first registration with a new resource, and so are not always single sign-on in the strictest sense.

Benefits of using single sign-on include:

Mitigate risk for access to 3rd-party sites (user passwords not stored or managed externally)

Reduce password fatigue from different username and password combinations

Reduce time spent re-entering passwords for the same identity

Reduce IT costs due to lower number of IT help desk calls about passwords

SSO shares centralized authentication servers that all other applications and systems use for authentication purposes and combines this with techniques to ensure that users do not have to actively enter their credentials more than once.

The term reduced sign-on (RSO) has been used by some to reflect the fact that single sign-on is impractical in addressing the need for different levels of secure access in the enterprise, and as such more than one authentication server may be necessary.

As single sign-on provides access to many resources once the user is initially authenticated ("keys to the castle"), it increases the negative impact in case the credentials are available to other people and misused. Therefore, single sign-on requires an increased focus on the protection of the user credentials, and should ideally be combined with strong authentication methods like smart cards and one-time password tokens.

Single sign-on also makes the authentication systems highly critical; a loss of their availability can result in denial of access to all systems unified under the SSO. SSO can be configured with session failover capabilities in order to maintain the system operation. Nonetheless, the risk of system failure may make single sign-on undesirable for systems to which access must be guaranteed at all times, such as security or plant-floor systems.

Furthermore, the use of single-sign-on techniques utilizing social networking services such as Facebook may render third party websites unusable within libraries, schools, or workplaces that block social media sites for productivity reasons. It can also cause difficulties in countries with active censorship regimes, such as China and its " Golden Shield Project," where the third party website may not be actively censored, but is effectively blocked if a user's social login is blocked.

In March, 2012, a research paper reported an extensive study on the security of social login mechanisms. The authors found 8 serious logic flaws in high-profile ID providers and relying party websites, such as OpenID (including Google ID and PayPal Access), Facebook, Janrain, Freelancer, FarmVille, and Sears.com. Because the researchers informed ID providers and relying party websites prior to public announcement of the discovery of the flaws, the vulnerabilities were corrected, and there have been no security breaches reported.

In May 2014, a vulnerability named Covert Redirect was disclosed. It was first reported "Covert Redirect Vulnerability Related to OAuth 2.0 and OpenID" by its discoverer Wang Jing, a Mathematical PhD student from Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. In fact, almost all Single sign-on protocols are affected. Covert Redirect takes advantage of third-party clients susceptible to an XSS or Open Redirect.

As originally implemented in Kerberos and SAML, single sign-on did not give users any choices about releasing their personal information to each new resource that the user visited. This worked well enough within a single enterprise, like MIT where Kerberos was invented, or major corporations where all of the resources were internal sites. However, as federated services like Active Directory Federation Services proliferated, the user's private information was sent out to affiliated sites not under control of the enterprise that collected the data from the user. Since privacy regulations are now tightening with legislation like the GDPR, the newer methods like OpenID Connect have started to become more attractive; for example MIT, the originator of Kerberos, now supports OpenID Connect.

Email address

Single sign-on in theory can work without revealing identifying information like email address to the relying party (credential consumer), but many credential providers do not allow users to configure what information is passed on to the credential consumer. As of 2019, Google and Facebook sign-in do not require users to share email address with the credential consumer. ' Sign in with Apple' introduced in iOS 13 allows user to request a unique relay email each time the user signs up for a new service, thus reducing the likelihood of account linking by the credential consumer.

Initial sign-on prompts the user for credentials, and gets a Kerberos ticket-granting ticket (TGT).

Additional software applications requiring authentication, such as email clients, wikis, and revision-control systems, use the ticket-granting ticket to acquire service tickets, proving the user's identity to the mailserver / wiki server / etc. without prompting the user to re-enter credentials.

Windows environment - Windows login fetches TGT. Active Directory-aware applications fetch service tickets, so the user is not prompted to re-authenticate.

Unix/ Linux environment - Log in via Kerberos PAM modules fetches TGT. Kerberized client applications such as Evolution, Firefox, and SVN use service tickets, so the user is not prompted to re-authenticate.

Initial sign-on prompts the user for the smart card. Additional software applications also use the smart card, without prompting the user to re-enter credentials. Smart-card-based single sign-on can either use certificates or passwords stored on the smart card.

Integrated Windows Authentication is a term associated with Microsoft products and refers to the SPNEGO, Kerberos, and NTLMSSP authentication protocols with respect to SSPI functionality introduced with Microsoft Windows 2000 and included with later Windows NT-based operating systems. The term is most commonly used to refer to the automatically authenticated connections between Microsoft Internet Information Services and Internet Explorer. Cross-platform Active Directory integration vendors have extended the Integrated Windows Authentication paradigm to Unix (including Mac) and GNU/Linux systems.

Security Assertion Markup Language (SAML) is an XML-based method for exchanging user security information between an SAML identity provider and a SAML service provider. SAML 2.0 supports W3C XML encryption and service provider initiated web browser single sign-on exchanges. A user wielding a user agent (usually a web browser) is called the subject in SAML-based single sign-on. The user requests a web resource protected by a SAML service provider. The service provider, wishing to know the identity of the user, issues an authentication request to a SAML identity provider through the user agent. The identity provider is the one that provides the user credentials. The service provider trusts the user information from the identity provider to provide access to its services or resources.

A newer variation of single-sign-on authentication has been developed using mobile devices as access credentials. Users' mobile devices can be used to automatically log them onto multiple systems, such as building-access-control systems and computer systems, through the use of authentication methods which include OpenID Connect and SAML, in conjunction with an X.509 ITU-T cryptography certificate used to identify the mobile device to an access server.

A mobile device is "something you have", as opposed to a password which is "something you know", or biometrics (fingerprint, retinal scan, facial recognition,...) which is "something you are". Security experts recommend using at least two out of these three factors ( multi-factor authentication) for best protection.

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Single sign-on ( SSO) is an authentication scheme that allows a user to log in with a single ID and password to any of several related, yet independent, software systems. It is often accomplished by using the Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) and stored LDAP databases on (directory) servers.

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'Choose-your-own-Adventure'  ist gleichbedeutend mit einem Branching-Szenario. Die User entscheiden am Ende einer Szene, wie das Video weitergeht.

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Mobiltelefon mit starker Hardware und einem Betriebssystem, das neben den Kernfunktion eines Telefons auch umfassende Software, Internet- und Multimediafunktionen ermöglicht.