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"New Mexico's climate is getting hotter and drier, driven by regional and global warming trends. This means earlier springs, hotter summers, and less predictable winters. Precipitation patterns are also changing, with more intense droughts and a greater proportion of precipitation falling as rain rather than snow." Union of Concerned Scientists

Rising Temperatures, More Heat Extremes

New Mexico is the sixth-fastest-warming state in the nation. The average annual temperature has increased about 0.6°F per decade since 1970 or about 2.7°F over 45 years ( Tebaldi et al).

Reduced SnowPack and Stream Falls

Shrunken snowpacks and earlier snowmelts contribute to lower stream flows at critical times of year when the reduced availability of water has greater economic and environmental consequences.

Low Reservoirs

Elephant Butte Reservoir reached its lowest level in 40 years in 2013-just 3 percent of its storage capacity, compared with a nearly full reservoir in 1994 (left). As a result, farmers received less than 10 percent of their typical irrigation water, forcing them to turn to groundwater and other sources

Low Flow in the Rio Grande

Flow in the Rio Grande, which relates directly to the amount and timing of snow melt in the mountains north of Albuquerque, is one of the best indicators of drought in New Mexico. Every year from 2009 to 2014 was drier than average on New Mexico's portion of the Rio Grande, and the period from 2011 to 2013 was the hottest and driest since recordkeeping began in 1895 (Cart 2013). And in southern New Mexico, the Rio Grande stands dry for up to nine months of the year. ( New Mexico in Depth)

In a 2018 paper from University of New Mexico graduate Shaleene Chavarria and UNM's Earth and Planetary Sciences Professor, New Mexico's leading climate scientist, David Gutzler, show how warming is affecting snowpack and streamflows. New Mexico in Focus PBS Video

Severe Droughts

Rainfall, when it occurs, tends to happen in more extreme deluges, leading to flooding. And the timing of precipitation over the course of the year is shifting, creating mismatches between water supply and water demand, especially for agriculture. Across the Southwest, the capacity of snow to store water is crucial to managing water, and climate change risks disrupting this vital source of New Mexico's water supply.

Increased Wildfires

In recent years, drought, insects, and wildfires have ravaged New Mexico forests at a scale not seen in living memory. Higher temperatures and drought will increase the severity, frequency and the extent of wildfires in New Mexico. These wildfires have the potential to cause destruction to property, livelihoods, and human health. The smoke created by wildfires can reduce air quality and increase medical visits for chest pains, respiratory problems, and heart problems. Los Conchas Fire, Los Alamos, 2011

Cultural Heritage

Extreme precipitation, flooding, and wildfires have affected sites that are central to New Mexico's heritage. The rock carvings and cliff dwellings of Bandelier National Monument tell the story of some of the earliest inhabitants of the Americas, while their descendants live nearby in modern-day pueblos. Protecting the archaeological, ecological, and cultural features of this landscape has become more difficult as drought, large wildfires, and extreme flooding increase the risks to them and the infrastructure they depend upon.

Our Land has weekly episodes on climate issues in New Mexico. There are interviews with leading climate scientists, Rio Grande Water issues, and community gardens. All shows are archived.
Union of Concerned Scientists
New Mexico's climate is getting hotter and drier, driven by regional and global warming trends. This means earlier springs, hotter summers, and less predictable winters. Precipitation patterns are also changing, with more intense droughts and a greater proportion of precipitation falling as rain rather than snow. Shrunken snowpacks and earlier snowmelts contribute to lower stream flows at critical times of the year when the reduced availability of water has greater economic and environmental consequences.

States At Risk Project for visualizing climate change.

Laura Paskus, NM political report 2017

Most New Mexicans know climate change is happening and understand it is human-caused. According to recently-released data, New Mexicans are also more likely than people in about half the country to talk not just about the weather, but climate.

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"New Mexico's climate is getting hotter and drier, driven by regional and global warming trends. This means earlier springs, hotter summers, and less predictable winters. Precipitation patterns are also changing, with more intense droughts and a greater proportion of precipitation falling as rain rather than snow."

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This article was most recently revised and updated by

Golden eagle, ( Aquila chrysaetos), dark brown eagle of the family Accipitridae, characterized by golden lanceolate nape feathers (hackles), dark eyes, yellow cere, gray beak, fully feathered legs, large yellow feet, and great talons. Its wingspread reaches 2.3 metres (almost 8 feet). It is the national bird of Mexico.

© Alan and Sandy Carey

In North America the golden eagle ranges from central Mexico along the Pacific coast and through the Rocky Mountains as far north as Alaska and Newfoundland. Small numbers range through the Appalachian Mountains as far south as North Carolina. The golden eagle is protected by federal law throughout the United States, but special permits for the shooting of eagles are issued in areas where the birds are believed to kill lambs.

Ornithologists estimate that the world's population of golden eagles exceeds 160,000 birds. About 80,000 reside in North America, and about 18,000 occur in Europe. Of the roughly 900 in the United Kingdom, almost all reside in Scotland. The species also occurs in northwestern Africa, but it is more common at higher latitudes and eastward-across Russia, including Siberia, and from Asia Minor through Iran and Pakistan to southern China and Japan.

Golden eagles nest in cliff caves or in lone trees. There are one to four (usually two) eggs, which vary, within the clutch, from all white to brown blotched. Both parents incubate the eggs, for a total of 40 to 45 days. The young (only one or two usually surviving) fledge in approximately three months.

Get exclusive access to content from our 1768 First Edition with your subscription. Subscribe today

Amy Tikkanen, Corrections Manager.

Learn More in these related Britannica articles:

falconry: Hunting and training techniques

...as Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Mongolia, golden eagles are flown at wolves, foxes, and gazelles....

Eagle, any of many large, heavy-beaked, big-footed birds of prey belonging to the family Accipitridae (order Accipitriformes). In general, an eagle is any bird of prey more powerful than a buteo. An eagle may resemble a vulture in build and flight characteristics but has a fully feathered (often crested) head...

Feather, the component structure of the outer covering and flight surfaces of all modern birds. Unique to birds, feathers apparently evolved from the scales of birds' reptilian ancestors. The many different types of feathers are variously specialized for insulation, flight, formation of body contours, display, and sensory reception....

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Golden eagle, (Aquila chrysaetos), dark brown eagle of the family Accipitridae, characterized by golden lanceolate nape feathers (hackles), dark eyes, yellow cere, gray beak, fully feathered legs, large yellow feet, and great talons. Its wingspread reaches 2.3 metres (almost 8 feet). It is the

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New Mexico Wildlife Species Information Learn more about New Mexico's Wildlife Species discussed here in this section with pages devoted to management, recovery plans, reports, and reviews for: Threatened & Endangered Species Amphibians and Reptiles Birds Fish Invertebrates Mammals Nongame

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By Bob Walker

The White-crowned Sparrow ( Zonotrichia leucophrys) is one of the few bird species we see more frequently in the winter months than in the summer months. These medium-sized sparrows spend their summers in the northern Rockies, all the way up to Alaska and northern Canada, and winter in the southern US. They can be seen in the Los Alamos area from October through March, and we have been seeing reports of them for a couple of weeks now. So this makes them fairly common, especially in the canyons and mountains, but they were evading observers at the nature center until recently. Look for the bright yellow bill, unstreaked breast, and the distinctive alternating black-and-white stripes on his head; the White-crowned Sparrow is about the size and shape of a House Sparrow.

Like many other species of birds, there are several subspecies of the White-crowned Sparrow. The most common one seen here is the Gambel's subspecies ( Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelli), which differs visually from the most common eastern species by the color of the feathers between the bill and the eye (the "lores"). The Gambel's White-crowned Sparrow has gray lores, and other subspecies have black lores.

The White-crowned Sparrow's song has fascinated scientists, making this bird the subject of the most thorough studies of any bird. These studies have taught us not only about how young birds learn to sing, but also about geographic variations of a bird's song. The song is reasonably distinctive - listen to it here and then see if you can hear it in open spaces in the county.

You can also find more detailed articles about the White-crowned Sparrow on the web pages at identify.whatbird.com and allaboutbirds.org. Enjoy more beautiful photos of White-crowned Sparrows at the Brian Small and Glenn Bartley web sites.

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Bird of the Week - The White-crowned Sparrow

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By Bob Walker The White-crowned Sparrow ( Zonotrichia leucophrys) is one of the few bird species we see more frequently in the winter months than in the summer months. These medium-sized sparrows spend their summers in the northern Rockies, all the way up to Alaska and northern Canada, and winter in the southern US.

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This guide initially displays all common mammals. Use the selectors below to view mammals of a particular shape, include rare mammals, or search for them by name.

Mammals are defined as warm-blooded vertebrates with hair or fur and sweat glands - in the females mammary glands, modified sweat glands, produce milk to nourish the young. Most mammals develop a placenta which enables the feeding of the fetus during gestation and give birth to live young. In addition, although most mammals walk on land, many have specific adaptations that allow them to swim, fly, leap between tree branches or even dig extensive tunnels. Many wild mammals are used for both food and fur. while other have been domesticated for their agricultural and scientific importance.

New Mexico ranks high for mammalian diversity in the states in the US and the Pajarito Plateau is home to many of these species. This guide describes all of the larger wildlife found in the area as well as the more common smaller animals with the most abundant being rodents. Local species range from carnivores like the mountain lion and bobcat to ruminants like elk and deer to to several varieties of bats.

Mammal References

Biota Information System of New Mexico
Bogen et al. 1998 Continued Studies of Bat Species of Concern in the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico [PDF]
eNature
Frey et al. 2006 Checklist of New Mexico Mammals [PDF]
New Mexico Tech Mammalian Field Guide
Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History North American Mammals
Threatened, Endangered and Sensitive Species Profile - Los Alamos Laboratory Lands [PDF]
Tyrell and Brack 1992 Survey for Bats in the Los Alamos National Environmental Research Park

Subject Area Experts (all guides)

Steve Cary (butterflies)
Beth Cortright (insects)
Terry Foxx (invasive plants)
Leslie Hansen (mammals)
Richard Hansen (fish, mammals)
Dorothy Hoard (butterflies, trees)
Chick Keller (flowers, herbarium)
Shari Kelley (geology)
Kirt Kempter (geology)
Garth Tietjen (reptiles)
David Yeamans (birds)

Web Development and Content Management

Pat Bacha
Jennifer Macke
Graham Mark
Akkana Peck

Contact

Please contact us for local nature questions and sightings. We welcome comments, corrections, and additions to our guides.

For more information about local nature, please visit our Nature Blog or subscribe to PEEC This Week.

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This guide initially displays all common mammals. Use the selectors below to view mammals of a particular shape, include rare mammals, or search for them by name. Mammals are defined as warm-blooded vertebrates with hair or fur and sweat glands - in the females mammary glands, modified sweat glands, produce milk to nourish the young.

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Geographic Range

American pikas can be found throughout the mountainous regions of western North America. Their geographic range extends as far south as New Mexico and California, as far north as British Columbia, and as far east as Colorado. ( Beever and Smith, 2008; Chapman and Flux, 1991; Fitzgerald, et al., 1994; Mains and Pigott, 2008; Smith and Weston, 1990; Wolf, et al., 2007)

Habitat

American pikas inhabit areas of broken rock and talus fields fringed by alpine meadows. They are most common in cool, moist habitats above tree line. In the northern part of their range, they can be found from sea level to 3,000 meters; however, in the southern part of their range, American pikas are rarely found below 2,500 meters.

Range elevation

sea level to 3000 m

to 9842.52 ft

Physical Description

American pikas are intermediate in size when compared to other ochotonids. Their body mass exhibits a great deal of variation and ranges from 121 to 176 grams. In certain parts of their range, males are larger than females, but only slightly. Their body is ovoid, with short ears, long vibrissae (40-77 mm), short limbs, and no visible tail. Their back paws are digitigrade, have four toes (compared to five on the front), and range from 25 to 35 mm in length. Both sexes have a pseudocloacal openings, which must be everted to expose the penis or clitoris. Females have six mammae which do not enlarge during lactation. American pikas have a high body temperature (average of 40.1°C) and relatively low upper lethal temperature (average of 43.1°C). They have a high metabolic rate (1.53 cm^3 oxygen/hour), and thermoregulation is behavioral rather than physiological.

Pelage color of American pikas changes seasonally but maintains an off-white hue on its ventral surface (as opposed to white in Ochotona collaris). On its dorsal surface, pelage ranges from grayish to cinnamon-brown in the summer. In the winter, their dorsal pelage is gray and is twice as long as summer pelage. Their ears are round, covered with dark hair on their internal and external surfaces, and edged in white. Their paws are densely furred, including the soles, with the exception of small black naked pads at the ends of the toes. Their skull is slightly round with a flat, broad interorbital region. Other distinguishing characteristics of the American pika's skull include a slender rostrum, nasals that are widest anteriorly, maxillae with one large fenestration (rather than numerous small fenestrae of Leporidae), an elongated jugal, which forms a prominent projection from the posterior zygomatic arch, and a dental formula of 2/1, 0/0, 3/2, 2/3 totaling 26 teeth.

Range mass

121 to 176 g

4.26 to 6.20 oz

Range length

162 to 216 mm

6.38 to 8.50 in

Average basal metabolic rate

0.932 W

AnAge

Reproduction

American pikas are monogamous, and mate pairs are formed with adults from adjacent territories. When more than one potential mate is available, females may exhibit mate choice. ( Smith and Weston, 1990)

American pikas typically mate as yearlings. Males are considered sexually active when their testes are 11 mm in length or greater (Smith and Weston, 1990). American pikas are reflex ovulators (i.e., ovulation only occurs after breeding) and are seasonally polyestrus. Each female has 2 litters per year, with an average of 3 young per litter. Breeding commences 1 month before snow-melt and gestation last approximately 30 days. At low elevations, parturition occurs as early as March but occurs from April to June at higher elevations. Pups weigh between 10 and 12 g at birth and are weaned by 28 days old. Lactation significantly reduces a female's fat reserves, and although females exhibit postpartum estrus, they only nurse the second litter if the first does not survive. ( Smith and Weston, 1990; Wolf, et al., 2007)

Average number of offspring

3

AnAge

Average gestation period

30 days

AnAge

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female

347 days

AnAge

American pikas are born slightly altrical; they are blind, slightly haired, have fully erupted teeth, and weigh between 10 and 12 grams at birth. For the first 18 days, young are completely dependent on their mothers. Pups open their eyes at 9 days of age. Mothers spend most of their time foraging, but visit the nest once every 2 hours to nurse for an average of 10 minutes. Pups become independent by about 4 weeks old (soon after weening). American pikas exhibit a remarkable growth rates compared to other members of ( Lagomorpha, and can reach adult size after only 3 months. Smith and Weston, 1990; Wolf, et al., 2007)

Lifespan/Longevity

Average annual mortality of American pikas is 37 to 53%, and age-specific mortality is highest for 0 to 1-year-olds and 5 to 7-year-olds. The maximum age of American pikas in the wild and in captivity is 7 years, with an average life expectancy of 3 years in the wild. ( Chapman and Flux, 1991; Fitzgerald, et al., 1994)

Behavior

American pikas are diurnal and active above ground for about 30% of daylight hours. During this time, they may survey for predators, feed or cache food, vocalize, or establish and maintain territories. American pikas do not not burrow but seek shelter in talus interstices; however, they do make tunnels through the snow during the winter to access meadows and haypiles. During fall and winter,they spend more time in its den and less time active. ( Chapman and Flux, 1991; Fitzgerald, et al., 1994; Kawamichi, 1976; Smith and Weston, 1990; Wolf, et al., 2007)

Territories are held by individuals, as they are asocial. Females disperse farther than males, and once dispersed, males gain territories via competition. A juvenile's chances of survival are contingent upon finding a territory to occupy. Territories are primarily defended via aggression, which includes chasing and fighting. Although aggressive interactions are rare (1 per every 10 hours), they typically occur between members of the same sex and unfamiliar adults. Males are generally dominant to females, and adults are dominant to juveniles. Territorial boundaries tend to overlap. On average, inter-territory distance is smallest between mating individuals and largest between members of the same sex. Territorial overlap of mates is greatest in early to mid-summer and reduced in late summer/early autumn, during which time they actively defend their haypiles. Social cohesion between mate pairs is maintained by exhibiting social tolerance and engaging in short call duets. ( Chapman and Flux, 1991; Fitzgerald, et al., 1994; Kawamichi, 1976; Smith and Weston, 1990; Wolf, et al., 2007)

Home Range

American pika breeding territories (410 to 710 m^2) make up about 55% of their home range (816 to 2,182 m^2). ( Smith and Weston, 1990)

Communication and Perception

Food Habits

leaves

wood, bark, or stems

flowers

Predation

American pikas are moderately camouflaged and when a potential predator is detected, they emit an alarm-call informing the rest of the community of its presence. Alarm calls are emitted less frequently for small predators, as small predators may be able to chase them into the talus interstices. Small predators consist of long-tailed weasels ( Mustela frenata) and ermines ( Mustela erminea). Large predators, such as coyotes ( Canis latrans) and American martens ( Martes americana), are especially adept at capturing juveniles who are not quick enough to escape. Golden eagles ( Aquila chrysaetos) also feed on American pikas, but their impact is minimal.

Ecosystem Roles

American pikas are considered allogenic engineers (i.e., altering the environment through their activities). Their large haypiles, containing both plant and fecal matter, are not entirely consumed during the winter, leaving large accumulations of decomposing biomass to act as fertilizer and a potential food source for other animals. As fertilizer, haypiles ultimately increase soil nitrogen, a limiting resource for vegetation at high altitude. Also, American pikas are host to many species of intestinal parasites (Coccidia) and parasitic fleas ( Siphonaptera).

Commensal/Parasitic Species

Eimeria cryptobarretti

Eimeria banffensis

Eimeria calentinei

Eimeria klondikensis

Isospora marquardti

Eimeria barretti

Eimeria princeps

Eimeria worleyi

fleas (Siphonaptera)

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

There are no known positive effects of American pikas on humans.

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

There are no known negative effects of American pikas on humans.

Conservation Status

Due to its abundance and widespread distribution, the IUCN lists Ochotona princeps as a species of least concern. However, of the thirty six recognized subspecies, seven are listed as vulnerable and one, O. p. schisticeps, is listed as near threatened. The seven vulnerable subspecies (O. p. goldmani, O. p. lasalensis, O. p. nevadensis, O. p. nigrescens, O. p. obscura, O. p. sheltoni, and O. p. tutelata) are all found in the Great Basin and are currently experiencing major threats that have resulted in local extirpations. The greatest threat to American pikas, especially those in the Great Basin, is likely global climate change as they are extremely sensitive to high temperatures. American pikas can die within an hour if ambient temperatures rise above 23°C (75°F). Many populations are expected to migrate north or move to higher elevations. Unfortunately, American pikas are very poor dispersers.

Various organizations have suggested placing Ochotona princeps under the protection of the Endangered Species Act. Potential solutions to local population declines may include legislation changes to decrease the amount of global warming stressors, increasing awareness, identification of new protected areas, and re-introductions in areas where they have been extirpated.

Contributors

Alexandra Peri (author), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, Phil Myers (editor, instructor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, John Berini (editor), Animal Diversity Web Staff, Catherine Kent (editor), Special Projects.

Glossary

Nearctic

living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.

diurnal

active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.

References

Aho, K., N. Huntly, J. Moen, T. Oksanen. 1998. Pikas (Ochotona princeps: Lagomorpha) as Allogenic Engineers in an Alpine Ecosystem. Oecologia, 114/3: 405-409. Accessed April 07, 2009 at http://www.jstor.org.proxy.lib.umich.edu/stable/4221946?seq=1.

Beever, E., A. Smith. 2008. "Ocotona princeps" (On-line). 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Accessed March 18, 2009 at http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/41267.

Blakemore, B. 2007. "

Route to Extinction Goes up Mountains, Scientists Say. Global Warming Is Forcing the American Pika up Mountains and Toward Extinction.
" (On-line). Accessed April 01, 2009 at http://abcnews.go.com/WN/story?id=3155909&page=1.
Bossard, R. 2006. Mammal and Flea Relationships in the Great Basin Desert: From H.J. Egoscue's Collections. Journal of Parasitology, 92/2: 260-266. Accessed April 07, 2009 at http://www.bioone.org.proxy.lib.umich.edu/doi/full/10.1645/GE-3545.1.

Chapman, J., J. Flux. 1991. Rabbits, Hares and Pikas: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. United Kingdom: World Conservation Union.

Fitzgerald, J., C. Meaney, D. Armstrong. 1994. Mammals of Colorado. Niwot, Colorado: University Press of Colorado.

Kawamichi, T. 1976. Hay Territory and Dominance Rank of Pikas (Ochotona princeps). Journal of Mammalogy, 57/1: 133-148. Accessed April 07, 2009 at http://www.jstor.org.proxy.lib.umich.edu/stable/1379516?seq=1.

Lynch, A., D. Duszynski, J. Cook. 2007. Species of Coccidia (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) Infecting Pikas From Alaska, U.S.A and Northeastern Siberia, Russia. Journal of Parasitology, 93/5: 1230-1234. Accessed April 07, 2009 at http://www.bioone.org.proxy.lib.umich.edu/doi/full/10.1645/GE-1206R.1.

Mains, J., W. Pigott. 2008. "Life of a Pika" (On-line). Tree of Life web project. Accessed March 10, 2009 at http://www.tolweb.org/treehouses/?treehouse_id=4868.

Smith, A., M. Weston. 1990. "Mammalian Species No.352 - Ochotona princeps" (On-line pdf). Accessed March 10, 2009 at http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/VHAYSSEN/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-352-01-0001.pdf.

Wolf, S., B. Nowicki, K. Siegel. 2007. "Petition to List the American Pika (Ochotona Princeps) as Threatened Under the California Endangered Species Act" (On-line pdf). Accessed March 28, 2009 at http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/species/mammals/American_pika/pdfs/petition_ca-2007.pdf.

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American pikas can be found throughout the mountainous regions of western North America. Their geographic range extends as far south as New Mexico and California, as far north as British Columbia, and as far east as Colorado.

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Symbiosis is a close relationship between two different kinds of organisms, or living things. There are three basic types of symbiotic relationships: mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.

Mutualism is a relationship in which both organisms benefit. For example, bacteria live in the digestive system of cows. The bacteria help the cows by breaking down plants that the cows eat. In turn, the cows provide a place to live and a source of food for the bacteria.

Commensalism is a relationship in which one organism benefits but the other is neither helped nor harmed. Remora fish and sharks have a commensal relationship. Remora fish attach themselves to sharks. The fish eat scraps left over by the sharks. But the fish do not affect the sharks.

Parasitism is a relationship in which one organism benefits but the other is harmed. The organism that benefits is known as a parasite. Parasites live on organisms known as hosts. Hosts are usually larger than their parasites. Ticks and fleas are examples of parasites. They attach themselves to a dog, a cat, or another host and feed off its blood. This can cause itching, pain, or even disease in the host.

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Symbiosis is a close relationship between two different kinds of organisms, or living things. There are three basic types of symbiotic relationships: mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism. Mutualism is a relationship in which both organisms benefit. For example, bacteria live in the digestive system of cows.

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Lichens are made up of two tiny living things: a fungus and an alga. The fungus and the alga benefit from living together. The alga produces food, and the fungus gathers water. In this way a lichen can survive harsh weather that would kill a fungus or an alga growing alone. This type of relationship is called symbiosis.

Lichens grow in most parts of the world. There are about 15,000 different species, or types. Lichens can live where few plants can survive. They are found in deserts, near mountain peaks, and in the frozen Arctic. They grow on stones, tree trunks, dead wood, and on the ground.

Most lichens are barely 0.25 inch (6 millimeters) high, but some can spread out to cover several feet. Many lichens look like flat, crusty blotches. Some look leafy. Some hang down in strands. Others have stalks and resemble miniature forests. Lichens range in color from brown to bright orange or yellow.

Some kinds of lichen are eaten by reindeer and even by humans. Other kinds are used to make dyes, medicines, and other products.

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Lichens are made up of two tiny living things: a fungus and an alga. The fungus and the alga benefit from living together. The alga produces food, and the fungus gathers water. In this way a lichen can survive harsh weather that would kill a fungus or an alga growing alone.

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M. sylvatica / M. scorpioides / M. alpestris

NL: Vergeet-mij-nietje / F: Myosotis

The blue-pinkish flowers of this plant look great in our garden, blooming for up to 5 weeks long.

Its flowers can be added to decorate salads, but as the plant contain varying levels of pyrrolizidine alkaloids, it should be used in small amounts only.

The whole plant is astringent and it has been used in herbal medicine as an effective remedy for several eye conditions, including conjunctivitis. It is also a handy first aid herb to help stop bleeds when applied externally, fresh or in powder (dried).

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M. sylvatica / M. scorpioides / M. alpestris NL: Vergeet-mij-nietje / F: Myosotis The blue-pinkish flowers of this plant look great in our garden, blooming for up to 5 weeks long. Its flowers can be added to decorate salads, but as the plant contain varying levels of pyrrolizidine alkaloids, it should be used in small amounts only.

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Mat-forming cushions of basal leaves covered long, loose hairs have dense clusters of small but eye-catching blue flowers on stems 1/2-4-inches tall. Note the white and yellow throats. These rugged plants with delicate flowers thrive in harsh habitats above timberline, along with other low-profile flowers adapted to bitter winds, snow, and a short growing season.

FLOWER: June-August. Dense clusters of funnel-shaped blue flowers to 3/4-inch wide (20 mm); 5 spreading, rounded petal-like lobes; throat is ringed with white and yellow. The 4-inch tall flower stalk gets the seed head up into the wind to disperse the tiny seeds.

LEAVES: Basal, alternate on short stems. Blades oval, to 3/8-inch long (10 mm), thick; surfaces loose-hairy; tips pointed to blunt, often with a tuft of hair.

HABITAT: Rocky granitic soils; alpine slopes and scree-covered areas above timberline.

ELEVATION: 12,000-13,200 feet.

RANGE: AK, CO, ID, MT, NM, OR, UT, WA, WY; circumboreal from Alaska to Eurasia.

SIMILAR SPECIES: The blue flowers, cushion profile, and alpine habitat help identify this plant. It often grows in association with Primula nanum. Alpine Phlox, Phlox condensata; Moss Campion, Silene acaulis; Rocky Mountain Clover, Trifolium attenuatum; Alpine Sandwort, Minuartia obtusiloba; Alpine Primrose,

NM COUNTIES: Northern NM in high-elevation, rocky habitats above timberline: Colfax, Mora, Rio Arriba, Santa Fe, Taos.

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Mat-forming cushions of basal leaves covered long, loose hairs have dense clusters of small but eye-catching blue flowers on stems 1/2-4-inches tall. Note the white and yellow throats. These rugged plants with delicate flowers thrive in harsh habitats above timberline, along with other low-profile flowers adapted to bitter winds, snow, and a short growing season.

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20. Colorado Plateaus
Rugged tableland topography is typical of the Colorado Plateaus ecoregion. Canyons, mesas, plateaus, and mountains expose a long geologic history of rock formations. Precipitous side-walls mark abrupt changes in local relief, often of 1000 to 2000 feet or more. The region contains more pinyon-juniper and Gambel oak woodlands than the Wyoming Basin (18) to the north. However, the region also has large low-lying areas containing saltbush-greasewood communities, and in Utah, blackbrush communities typical of hotter, drier areas. These communities are generally not found in the higher Arizona/New Mexico Plateau (22) to the south where grasslands were typically more common.

20b. The arid Shale Deserts and Sedimentary Basins ecoregion consists of nearly level basins and valleys, benches, low rounded hills, and badlands. Rock outcrops occur; it is sparsely vegetated with mat saltbush, fourwing saltbush, greasewood, and shadscale. Native [[grass]es] included alkali sacaton, galleta grass, poverty threeawn, sand dropseed, and Indian ricegrass. It is lower in elevation with less pinyon-juniper woodland than the adjacent Semiarid Benchlands and Canyonlands (20c).

20c. Broad, grass-, shrub-, and woodland-covered benches and mesas characterize the Semiarid Benchlands and Canyonlands ecoregion. Areas of high relief alternate with areas of low relief. Bedrock exposures are common along rims, escarpments, and on steep dip slopes. Pinyon and juniper occur on shallow, stony soils with scattered areas of Gambel oak at higher elevations. On deeper soils, warm season grasses, sagebrush, fourwing saltbush, winterfat, and Mormon tea occur. The vegetation (Land-cover) is not as sparse as in drier areas such as Ecoregions 20b and 20d.

20d. Occurring primarily in Utah, the Arid Canyonlands ecoregion includes the inner gorge of the Colorado River and its major tributaries, such as the San Juan River. Much of this ecoregion is bounded by nearly vertical canyon walls that separate it from the adjacent, higher benchlands of Ecoregion 20c. Exposed bedrock is common. The New Mexico portion lacks the relief of most of the region in Utah. Soils are shallower with a drier moisture regime than those of Ecoregion 20c. Shadscale, saltbush, some sand sagebrush, and drought tolerant [[grass]es] including galleta grass and Indian ricegrass occur. This is the driest area of New Mexico, receiving less than 8 inches of annual rainfall.

21. Southern Rockies
The Southern Rockies are composed of high elevation, steep, rugged mountains. Although coniferous forests (Biome) cover much of the region, as in most of the mountainous regions in the western United States, vegetation (Land-cover), as well as soil and land use, follows a pattern of elevational banding. The lowest elevations are generally grass or shrub covered and heavily grazed. Low to middle elevations are also grazed and covered by a variety of vegetation types including juniper-oak woodlands, ponderosa pine, aspen, and Douglas-fir. Middle to high elevations are largely covered by coniferous forests and have little grazing activity. The highest elevations have alpine characteristics. Numerous perennial mountain streams with decidous riparian vegetation support coldwater fisheries (Fisheries and aquaculture) and serve as wildlife corridors.

21a. The Alpine Zone occurs on mountain tops above treeline, beginning at about 11,000 to 11,500 feet in New Mexico. It includes alpine meadows as well as steep, exposed rock, talus, and glaciated peaks. Annual precipitation ranges from 25 to greater than 50 inches, falling mostly as snow. Vegetation includes low shrubs, cushion plants, and wildflowers and sedges in wet meadows. The forest-tundra interface is sparsely colonized by stunted, deformed Englemann spruce, subalpine fir, and sometimes bristlecone pine and snow willow (krummholz vegetation). Ecoregion 21a is snow-free only 8 to 10 weeks annually. Snow cover is a major source of water for lower, more arid ecoregions.

21b. The Crystalline Subalpine Forests ecoregion occupies a narrow elevational band on the steep, forested slopes of the mountains, becoming more extensive on the north slopes. The elevation range in New Mexico is generally 9000 to 11,500 feet, just below the Alpine Zone (21a). Dense forests are dominated by Englemann spruce and subalpine fir; aspen locally dominates some areas. Subalpine meadows also occur. Forest blowdown, insect outbreaks, fire, and avalanches affect the vegetation mosaic. Soils are weathered from a variety of crystalline and metamorphic materials, such as gneiss, schist, and granite, as well as some areas of igneous intrusive rocks. Recreation, logging, mining, and wildlife habitat are the major [[land use]s].

21c. The Crystalline Mid-Elevation Forests are found mostly in the 8000 to 10,000 feet elevation range on crystalline and metamorphic substrates. Natural vegetation includes ponderosa pine, aspen, Douglas-fir, and areas of limber pine. A diverse understory of shrubs, [[grass]es], and wildflowers occurs. The variety of food sources supports a diversity of bird and mammal species. Forest stands have become denser in many areas due to decades of fire suppression. Land use includes wildlife habitat, livestock grazing, logging, mining, and recreation.

21d. The Foothill Woodlands and Shrublands ecoregion is the low elevation portion of the Southern Rockies, and extends from southern Wyoming through Colorado and into New Mexico. In New Mexico, it is a transition area from the higher elevation forests to drier and lower plains (Ecoregion 26) and plateaus (Ecoregions 20, 22). Within the region, some flora and fauna species on the east side (Great Plains) may differ from those found to the west (Great Basin influence). This semiarid region has rolling to irregular terrain of hills, ridges, and footslopes, with elevations mostly 6000 to 8500 feet, and a variety of rock and soil types. In New Mexico, pinyon-juniper and oak woodlands are dominant.

21e. The Sedimentary Subalpine Forests ecoregion occupies much of the western half of the Southern Rockies in Colorado, areas of the Sangre de Cristo Range in Colorado and New Mexico, and the western part of the Tusas Mountains in New Mexico. The region occurs on sandstone, siltstone, shale, and limestone substrates. Stream water quality, water availability, and aquatic biota are affected in places by carbonate substrates that are soluble and nutrient rich. Some streams support the endemic Rio Grande cutthroat trout. Soils are generally finer-textured than those found on crystalline or metamorphic substrates of Ecoregion 21b. Subalpine forests dominated by Englemann spruce and subalpine fir are typical, often interspersed with aspen groves or mountain meadows. Some Douglas-fir forests are at lower elevations.

21f. The Sedimentary Mid-Elevation Forests ecoregion occurs in the western and southern portions of the Southern Rockies in Colorado and in several areas of the Rockies in New Mexico at elevations generally below Ecoregion 21e. The elevation limits and vegetation (Land-cover) of this region are similar to the crystalline (21c) and volcanic (21h) mid-elevation forests; however a larger area of Gambel oak woodlands and forest is found in this region. Carbonate substrates in some areas affect water quality, hydrology, and biota. Abundant aquatic insects support a reproducing trout fishery (Fisheries and aquaculture). Soils are generally finer-textured than those found on crystalline and metamorphic substrates typical of Ecoregion 21c.

21g. The steep, mountainous Volcanic Subalpine Forests ecoregion is composed of Tertiary or Quaternary volcanic rocks, primarily in the southern extension of the San Juan Mountains from Colorado and in parts of the Brazos, Jemez, and Taos mountains of New Mexico. Relatively young geologically, the high, rugged mountains still contain some large areas of intact habitat. Englemann spruce, subalpine fir, and aspen forests support a variety of wildlife.

21h. The Volcanic Mid-Elevation Forests ecoregion occurs at elevations of about 7500 to 10,000 feet and is composed of igneous rocks of andesite and basalt. The majority of the region is found in the Jemez Mountains with smaller, scattered areas to the north and east. Forests of ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and aspen occur. Land use includes wildlife habitat, livestock grazing, logging, and recreation.

21j. The Grassland Parks ecoregion, occurring primarily in Colorado, consists of high intermontane valleys with sufficient water availability to support grasslands and wet meadows. In New Mexico, the ecoregion is found in the Valle Grande/Valle San Antonio area in the Jemez Mountains, in the Moreno Valley and Costilla-Comanche-Valle Vidal areas in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, and on top of Johnson Mesa near Raton. Grasslands with bunchgrasses are dominant, and include Parry's oatgrass, Arizona fescue, Idaho fescue, Thurber fescue, mountain muhly, bluebunch wheatgrass, needle-and-thread grass, Junegrass, and slender wheatgrass. There are only a few trees or shrubs, and if present, they are widely scattered and mature. Some springs and wetlands occur. Large elk herds are found in the valley parklands.

22. Arizona/New Mexico Plateau
The Arizona/New Mexico Plateau represents a large transitional region between the drier shrublands and wooded higher relief tablelands of the Colorado Plateaus (20) in the north, the lower, hotter, less vegetated Mojave Basin and Range (14) in the west, and forested mountain ecoregions that border the region on the northeast (21) and south (23). Local relief in the region varies from a few feet on plains and mesa tops to well over 1000 feet along tableland side slopes. The Continental Divide splits the region, but is not a prominent topographic feature. The region extends across northern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, and into Colorado in the San Luis Valley. Gunnison prairie dogs are a keystone species in many of the sagebrush ecosystems and their burrows provide habitat for other wildlife including burrowing owls, weasels, badgers, and a variety of snakes.

22a. The San Luis Shrublands and Hills ecoregion, occurring mostly in Colorado, includes the higher relief foothill edges and low mountain areas within the San Luis basin. It includes the San Luis Hills in Colorado, a series of low mountains, hills, and tilted mesas. The New Mexico portion includes the area northwest of the Taos Plateau Ecoregion (22f). Big sagebrush, rabbitbrush, and winterfat occur as well as grasslands of western wheatgrass, green needlegrass, blue grama, and needle-and-thread. This region occurs primarily in Colorado, barely extending across the state line into New Mexico.

22b. Although precipitation in the San Luis Alluvial Flats and Wetlands ecoregion is low, water availability from mountain runoff, a high water table, and associated springs and wetlands have made cropland irrigation possible. The ecoregion was once dominated by shadscale, saltbush and greasewood, but most of the native vegetation (Land-cover) has been removed for agriculture. Irrigated cropland is common in the Colorado portion, with barley malt, potatoes, alfalfa, small grains, and hay, and smaller areas of vegetables such as spinach, head lettuce, and carrots. In the New Mexico portion, sagebrush is more common, with some irrigated areas for hay.

22f. The Taos Plateau is a region of mostly Pliocene basaltic lavas with distinct cones of Pliocene composite volcanoes. This region has higher elevation volcanic cones than the San Luis Hills of 22a in Colorado; several cones are over 9000 feet and Ute Mountain is higher than 10,000 feet. The plateau surface has more sagebrush than Ecoregion 22a in Colorado. The plateau surface has only minor dissection, but the Rio Grande is confined to a deep canyon or gorge, 800 to 1000 feet deep in places. The ecoregion extends south to include the basalt-capped Black Mesa.

22g. Once containing a perennially flowing, meandering, braided river, the Rio Grande Floodplain ecoregion has undergone many human alterations to its landscape and hydrology over the past 400 years. The once-shifting Rio Grande had mosaics of riparian woodlands and shrublands along with a variety of wetland meadows, ponds, and marshes. The gallery forest, or bosque, of cottonwood and willow with understories of coyote willow, New Mexico olive, false indigo, and seepwillow depended on this dynamic system. A long history of irrigation and drainage canals, levees and jetty jacks, and upstream dams have altered river flows and narrowed and straightened the stream channel. Conversion to cropland, orchards, small rural farms and ranchos, and urban and suburban uses have also altered the region. Cottonwood and willow, dependent on spring flooding, have been widely replaced by invasive saltcedar and Russian olive.

22h. The North Central New Mexico Valleys and Mesas is an area of mostly pinyon pine and juniper savanna, and mesa and valley topography similar to some other parts of Ecoregion 22. Situated between portions of the Southern Rockies (21) to the east and west, and dominated by young geologic features of the Espanola rift basin and ancestral Rio Grande floodplain, ecological differences are apparent. It has a cooler climate with slightly greater precipitation, streams tend to have more water flow, and there is a different species mix of flora and fauna compared to 22i, 22j, or 22m. It differs from 22f in geology, topography, and vegetation (Land-cover); from 22i and 22m in elevation, climate, and vegetation. It has a mix of geology, mostly Tertiary sedimentary or Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic rocks.

22i. The San Juan/Chaco Tablelands and Mesas ecoregion of plateaus, valleys, and canyons contains a mix of desert scrub, semi-desert shrub-steppe, and semi-desert grasslands. Shadscale, fourwing saltbush, mormon tea, Indian ricegrass, galleta, and blue and black gramas are typical. It is more arid, has generally lower elevations, and less pinyon-juniper than the Semiarid Tablelands (22j) to the south or Ecoregion 22n to the east. It is mostly composed of gently dipping Tertiary and Cretaceous sedimentary rocks. Oil and gas production occurs mostly in the northern part of the region. It contains the upper reaches of the Rio Puerco, an area of severe erosion due to geology, topography, and human influences.

22j. With some similarities to Ecoregion 20c, the Semiarid Tablelands consists of mesas, plateaus, valleys, and canyons formed mostly from flat to gently dipping sedimentary rocks, along with some areas of Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic fields. The region contains areas of high relief and some low relief plains. Bedrock exposures are common. Grass, shrubs, and woodland cover the tablelands. The vegetation (Land-cover) is not as sparse as in Ecoregion 22i to the north or 22m to the east. It lacks the denser pine forests of the higher and more [[mountain]ous] Ecoregion 23. Scattered junipers occur on shallow, stony soils, and are dense in some areas. Pinyon-juniper woodland is also common in some areas. Saltbush species, alkali sacaton, sand dropseed, and mixed grama grasses occur.

22k. Part of the much larger Zuni-Bandera volcanic field, the Lava Malpais covers some of the younger Holocene volcanic flows with the least soil development. The youngest flow, called the McCartys flow, dates from about 3000 years ago. Different types of lava flows are found here, as well as lava tubes and ice caves. Some unique flora and fauna not found in surrounding areas occur here, and some species that are more widespread have made adaptations to survive in the specialized [[habitat]s] here. The lava substrate has the ability in places to trap and retain moisture, allowing for a more mesophytic vegetation, such as stunted Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine, to occur in some areas. The region is an important area for understanding recent ecological successions, as well as longer term climatic changes.

22l. The Plains of San Agustin are mostly a topographically closed basin, with some alluvial fans and piedmont slopes near the surrounding mountains of Ecoregion 23. Beach and lacustrine deposits mark various stages of Pleistocene Lake San Agustin. Clay to fine-grained sand lake bed sediments, linear beach-ridge sand deposits, and some sand sheets and dune sand deposits occur. The sandy areas are mostly stabilized by [[grass]es] and low shrubs. Vegetation of alkali sacaton, fourwing saltbush, and greasewood is found in the low areas. Some western wheatgrass, vine-mesquite, areas of blue grama and sand dropseed occur. Higher elevation slopes have some pinyon-juniper savanna with an understory of blue grama, dropseeds, Indian ricegrass, and bottlebrush squirreltail grasses. Livestock grazing is the predominant land use.

22m. Part of one of the deeper physiographic basins of the Rio Grande rift, the Albuquerque Basin ecoregion is lower in elevation, drier, and warmer than surrounding ecoregions to the north, east, and west. The basin is filled with thick sediments of mostly Quaternary and some Tertiary age, with a few areas of volcanic rocks and lava-capped mesas. Extending from the La Bajada Escarpment on the north to near Socorro in the south, the region contains some diverse features and transitional characteristics. Unlike most of Ecoregion 22 which has mesic soils, 22m has a largely thermic soil temperature regime. There is a mix of sand scrub and desert grassland vegetation. Native vegetation includes black grama, sand dropseed, mesa dropseed, blue grama, galleta, sand sage, alkali sacaton, threeawns, and scattered yucca. Juniper occurs primarily in the north. Urban and suburban land uses are spreading. The Santa Fe Group aquifer, the drinking water source for Albuquerque and most of the Middle Rio Grande Valley, has seen some groundwater declines in recent years, along with increases in contaminants.

22n. Similar to Ecoregion 22h, the Near-Rockies Valleys and Mesas ecoregion is an area of mostly pinyon-juniper woodland, juniper savanna, and mesa and valley topography, with influences of higher elevation vegetation in drainages from the adjacent Southern Rockies (21). Its geology differs from Ecoregion 22h, with older Tertiary and Cretaceous sedimentary rocks. It has generally higher elevations, greater precipitation, and more juniper than Ecoregion 22i to the west. Canyon streams flow intermittently out of the Rockies into the Canon Largo watershed, a tributary to the San Juan River.

23. Arizona/New Mexico Mountains
The Arizona/New Mexico Mountains are distinguished from neighboring [[mountain]ous] ecoregions by their lower elevations and associated vegetation (Land-cover) indicative of drier, warmer environments, due in part to the region's more southerly location. Forests of spruce, fir, and Douglas-fir, common in the Southern Rockies (21) and the Wasatch and Uinta Mountains (19), are only found in limited areas at the highest elevations in this region. Chaparral is common at lower elevations in some areas, pinyon-juniper and oak woodlands are found at lower and middle elevations, and the higher elevations are mostly covered with open to dense ponderosa pine forests. These mountains are the northern extent of some Mexican plant and animal species. Surrounded by deserts or grasslands, these mountains in New Mexico can be considered biogeographical islands.

23a. The Chihuahuan Desert Slopes are found on the Guadalupe and Sacramento mountains. The lower slopes of these mountains represent a continuation of the Chihuahuan Desert ecosystem; soils and vegetation (Land-cover) in much of Ecoregion 23a are similar to those in the Low Mountains and Bajadas (24c) of the Chihuahuan Deserts (24). The lower slopes were once mostly grasslands overgrazed in the late 19th century and subsequently invaded by desert shrubs. Yucca, sotol, lechuguilla, ocotillo, and cacti now dominate the rocky slopes below 5500 feet. Grasslands persist near alluvial fans and on gentle slopes with deeper, sandstone-derived soils. Water is scarce; the few streams that originate from springs at higher elevations do not persist beyond the mouths of major canyons.

23b. The Madrean Lower Montane Woodlands ecoregion covers the slopes of the Guadalupe, Sacramento, Mimbres, Big Burro, and Mogollon mountains, generally between 5500 to 7200 feet, with densities of juniper, pinyon pine, and oak varying according to aspect. There are some similarities to Ecoregion 23e; however, Ecoregion 23b has milder winters, wetter summers, and inclusions of alligator juniper and Madrean evergreen oak species. At middle elevations, dense thickets of shrubs such as desert ceanothus, alderleaf mountain mahogany, and catclaw mimosa form chaparral communities. Other areas are grassy and park-like with scattered trees. A few small areas of ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, or southwestern white pine occur at the highest elevations, outliers of Ecoregions 23c or 23f. In the west, the Gila River and tributaries have many endemic aquatic organisms including fish, amphibians, and insects.

23c. The Montane Conifer Forests are found west of the Rio Grande at elevations from about 7000 to 9500 feet. Ponderosa pine and Gambel oak are common, along with mountain mahogany and serviceberry. Some Douglas-fir, southwestern white pine, and white fir occur in a few areas. Blue spruce may occasionally be found in cool, moist canyons. The influence of the Sierra Madre flora is seen mostly in the southern mountains and diminishes to the north. In the far south, other oaks appear, such as silverleaf oak, netleaf oak, Arizona white oak, and Emory oak. The summer rains are especially important for herbaceous plants. The region is geologically diverse with volcanic, sedimentary, and some intrusive and crystalline rocks. Endemic Gila trout occur in some of the region's streams. Livestock grazing, logging, and recreation are the primary [[land use]s]. Wildfire is an important feature influencing the forested ecosystems in this region.

23d. The Arizona/New Mexico Subalpine Forests occur west of the Rio Grande at the higher elevations, generally above 9500 feet. The region includes parts of the Mogollon Mountains, Black Range, San Mateo Mountains, Magdalena Mountains, and Mount Taylor. The peak elevations are mostly above 10,000 feet. Although there are some vegetational differences from mountain range to mountain range within Ecoregion 23d, the major forest trees include Engelmann spruce, corkbark fir, blue spruce, white fir, and aspen. Some Douglas-fir occurs at lower elevations. Cryic soils developed on the mixed geology of mostly Tertiary volcanics and Tertiary intrusives, with only minor areas of Precambrian rocks in the Black Range.

23e. The Conifer Woodlands and Savannas ecoregion is an area of mostly pinyon-juniper woodlands, with some ponderosa pine at higher elevations. It often intermingles with grasslands and shrublands. Although elevations are higher than surrounding Ecoregion 22 areas, the boundaries tend to be transitional. The region is generally cooler, with more uniform winter and summer seasonal moisture compared to Ecoregion 23b. It lacks the milder winters, wetter summers, chaparral, Madrean oaks, and other species of Ecoregion 23b.

23f. The Rocky Mountain Conifer Forests are found at elevations from about 7000 to 9600 feet in the mountains east of the Rio Grande. With similarities to Ecoregion 23c, ponderosa pine and Gambel oak are common, with mountain mahogany and a dense understory. Some Douglas-fir, southwestern white pine, and white fir occur in a few areas. Blue spruce may occasionally be found in cool, moist canyons. In the Sandia and Manzano mountains, white fir and Douglas-fir are more extensive than in other parts of the region. Current forests have been shaped by fire and fire suppression. It differs from Ecoregion 23c by some of the flora, fauna, and water quality characteristics that more closely resemble the Southern Rockies (21). The region is geologically diverse with volcanic, sedimentary, and some intrusive and crystalline rocks.

23g. The Rocky Mountain Subalpine Forests ecoregion occurs east of the Rio Grande at high elevations, generally above 9500 feet. It includes parts of the Sandia Mountains, Capitan Mountains, and Sierra Blanca. The peak elevations are mostly above 10,000 feet, with Sierra Blanca Peak nearing 12,000 feet. There are some differences in flora, fauna, geology, and water quality from the subalpine ecoregion (23d) to the west. The major forest trees include Engelmann spruce, corkbark fir, blue spruce, white fir, and aspen. Some Douglas-fir occurs at lower elevations. There are a few small inclusions of montane grassland. A mix of geology occurs in the region. Sierra Blanca and the Capitan Mountains are composed of Tertiary volcanics and Tertiary intrusives, while the Sandia Mountains to the north have a core of Precambrian rocks capped by Pennsylvanian sedimentary rocks.

24. Chihuahuan Deserts
This desert ecoregion extends from the Madrean Archipelago (79) in southeast Arizona to the Edwards Plateau (30) in south-central Texas. It is the northern portion of the southernmost desert in North America that extends more than 500 miles south into Mexico. The physiography is generally a continuation of basin and range terrain that is typical of the Mojave Basin and Range (14) and the Central Basin and Range (13) ecoregions to the west and north, although the pattern of alternating mountains and valleys is not as pronounced as it is in Ecoregions 13 and 14. The mountain ranges (sky islands) are a geologic mix of Tertiary volcanic and intrusive granitic rocks, Paleozoic sedimentary layers, and some Precambrian granitic plutonic rocks. Outside the major river drainages, such as the Rio Grande and Pecos River, the landscape is largely internally drained. Vegetative cover is predominantly desert grassland and arid shrubland, except for high elevation islands of oak, juniper, and pinyon pine woodland. The extent of desert shrubland is increasing across lowlands and mountain foothills due to gradual desertification caused in part by historical grazing pressure.

24a. The Chihuahuan Basins and Playas include alluvial fans, internally drained basins, and river valleys mostly below 4500 feet. The major Chihuahuan basins formed during Tertiary Basin and Range tectonism when the Earth's crust stretched and fault collapse resulted in sediment-filled basins. These low elevation areas are some of the hottest and most arid [[habitat]s] in the state. The playas and basin floors have saline or alkaline soils and areas of salt flats, dunes, and windblown sand. The typical desert shrubs and [[grass]es], the dominant creosotebush, along with tarbush, fourwing saltbush, acacias, gyp grama, and alkali sacaton, must withstand large seasonal and diurnal ranges in temperature, low available moisture, and a high evapotranspiration rate. Horse crippler and other cacti are common. Bitter Lake near Roswell is a biologically significant wetland area. It has a high diversity of dragonflies and damselflies, including the continent's largest and smallest dragonfly species.

24b. The Chihuahuan Desert Grasslands occur in areas of fine-textured soils, such as silts and clays, that have a higher water retention capacity than coarse-textured, rocky soil. The grasslands occur in areas of somewhat higher annual precipitation (10 to 15 inches) than the Chihuahuan Basins and Playas (24a), such as elevated basins between [[mountain] ranges], low mountain benches and plateau tops, and north-facing mountain slopes. Grasslands were once more widespread, but heavy grazing in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was unsustainable, and desert shrubs invaded where the grass cover became fragmented (Land-use and land-cover change). In grassland areas with lower rainfall, areal coverage of grasses may be sparse, 10% or less. Some areas are now mostly shrubs as grasslands continue to decline due to erosion, drought, and climatic change. Typical grasses are black, blue, and sideoats grama, dropseeds, bush muhly, and tobosa, with scattered creosotebush, and prickly pear and cholla cacti.

24c. The Low Mountains and Bajadas include several disjunct hilly areas that have a mixed geology. The mountainous terrain has shallow soil, exposed bedrock, and coarse rocky substrates. Alluvial fans of rubble, sand, and gravel build at the base of the mountains and often coalesce to form bajadas. Vegetation (Land-cover) includes mostly desert shrubs, such as sotol, lechuguilla, yucca, ocotillo, lotebush, tarbush, and pricklypear, with a sparse intervening cover of black grama and other grasses. At higher elevations, there may be scattered one-seeded juniper and pinyon pine. Strips of gray oak, velvet ash, and little walnut etch the patterns of intermittent and ephemeral drainages, and oaks may spread up north-facing slopes from the riparian zones. The varied [[habitat]s] provide cover for mule deer, bobcat, javelina, and Montezuma quail.

24d. The Chihuahuan Montane Woodlands ecoregion comprises the higher elevation mountainous areas, generally above 5000 or 6000 feet. These include the Chisos, Davis, Glass, and Apache mountains of Texas and the Organ, Florida, San Andres, and Oscura mountains of New Mexico. Increased precipitation in the mountains supports woodland areas except on sunny, exposed slopes that may have grass and chaparral only. Oaks, junipers, and pinyon pines predominate on all these mountain ranges. At lower elevations they occur in canyons and shaded hollows, and with increasing elevation and moisture levels, form more dense woodlands. Coniferous forests (Forest biome) are limited in extent; some ponderosa pine, southwestern white pine, and relict Douglas-fir grow at the highest elevations in a few areas. In these higher ranges, trees sometimes grow with a grassy understory, or with a brush cover of bigtooth maple, madrone, little walnut, oak chaparral, and grapevines. The higher mountainous areas are a major refuge for larger ungulates, such as mule deer and desert bighorn sheep.

24f. The Chihuahuan Desert portion of the Rio Grande Floodplain has some similarities to Ecoregion 22g upstream. Hydrology has been altered by upstream impoundments, by Elephant Butte and Caballo reservoirs, and by channelization in this region. Annual flooding of terraces and benches has been eliminated. Riparian woodlands and shrublands have been greatly reduced and invasive salt cedar has expanded. Narrow bands of cropland, orchards, vineyards, and small farms occur in portions of Ecoregion 24f. The southern Rio Grande valley in New Mexico is still an important wintering area for sandhill cranes, snow geese, and other migratory waterfowl. Urban [[land use]s] are spreading in the Las Cruces and El Paso areas. Drought, aquifer depletion, and agricultural irrigation create water supply concerns in Texas and Mexico.

24g. The Gypsiferous Dunes ecoregion is one of the largest dune fields in the United States, and is the world's largest expanse of gypsum sand dunes. The gypsum was dissolved in runoff mostly from the San Andres Mountains, carried into the Tularosa Basin, and then crystallized in playa lake deposits. Fine white grains of gypsum are blown by the winds to form a variety of dune types: dome-shaped, barchan, transverse, and parabolic. Several types of small animals have evolved a white coloration to help camouflage them in the dunes. In many areas, the dunes are mostly barren; interdune flats tend to be more vegetated. Soaptree yucca, sand verbena, mormon tea, skunkbush sumac, fourwing saltbush, gyp moonpod, gyp grama, alkali sacaton, sandhill muhly, hoary rosemary mint, and a few Rio Grande cottonwoods occur.

24h. The Lava Malpais region includes three separate areas: the impressively long Carrizozo Lava flow in the northern part of the Tularosa Basin, an area of Quaternary lava in the Jornada del Muerto, and, in the south, the Aden-Afton basalt flow. The Carrizozo lava, one of the younger volcanic features in New Mexico, flowed from a small cinder cone or vent called Little Black Peak, located at the northern end. Pahoehoe lava texture, collapse pits, lava tubes, and other volcanic features are found here. Mixed shrubs and [[grass]es] occur on the lava, taking advantage of available moisture and warmer ground [[temperature]s] created by solar absorption. Similar to Ecoregion 22k, some species of rodents and reptiles found here have developed abnormally dark coloration, called melanism, for camouflage against the dark lava. Several species of bats occupy some of the intact lava tubes. The Jornada del Muerto field formed where a small central volcano produced multiple lava flows. The topography of the combined vent and surrounding lava flows forms a shield-type volcano profile. Large lava tubes occur south of the central vent. These tubes were mined for bat guano early in the century. Aden Crater on the Aden-Afton field is also a well-preserved small shield volcano.

25. High Plains
Higher and drier than the Central Great Plains (27) to the east, and in contrast to the irregular, mostly grassland or grazing land of the Northwestern Great Plains (43) to the north, much of the High Plains is characterized by smooth to slightly irregular plains with a high percentage of cropland. Grama-buffalo grass is the potential natural vegetation (Land-cover) in this region as compared to mostly wheatgrass-needlegrass to the north, Trans-Pecos shrub savanna to the south, and taller grasses to the east. The ecoregion includes the plains area of the Llano Estacado. Thousands of playa lakes (seasonal depressional wetlands) occur in this area, many serving as recharge areas for the important Ogallala Aquifer. These playa lakes are also essential for waterfowl during their yearly migration along the Central Flyway of North America. Oil and gas production occurs in parts of the region.

25b. The Rolling Sand Plains expand northward from the lip of the Canadian River trough, and are composed of flat sandy plains, sand hills, depressions, and mostly stabilized dunes. Soils developed from mostly eolian sand and silt deposits. In northern Texas and New Mexico, the vegetative cover of the Rolling Sand Plains is transitional between the Shinnery Sands (25j) to the south and the sandsage prairies of Oklahoma, Colorado, and Kansas. Havard shin oak, the characteristic shrub cover of the Shinnery Sands, still grows in parts of Ecoregion 25b in Texas, but it is at the northern limit of its distribution. However, both Havard shin oak and sand sagebrush perform the same important function of stabilizing sandy areas subject to wind erosion. The sandsage association includes [[grass]es] such as big sandreed, little bluestem, sand dropseed, and sand bluestem. Other native range plants include sideoats grama, blue grama, buffalograss, switchgrass, yellow Indiangrass, and yucca. Lesser prairie-chickens use shin oak and sandsage prairie [[habitat]s], but are presently imperiled due to agricultural practices as well as intensive grazing. Land use in the New Mexico portion is primarily rangeland, although some areas have irrigated cropland using deep wells.

25c. The Moderate Relief Plains ecoregion is composed of irregular, rolling to broken plains, transitional to Ecoregion 26. Slopes are greater than in the adjacent cropland-dominated flat and rolling plains of Ecoregion 25d in Colorado or Ecoregion 25e in Oklahoma and Texas. Land use is predominantly rangeland, in contrast to the cropland or mosaic of cropland and rangeland of surrounding High Plains (25) ecoregions. Soils formed primarily from loamy eolian sediments. In New Mexico, Ecoregion 25c occurs mostly on the Tertiary Ogallala Formation. Blue grama-buffalograss or blue grama-western wheatgrass was the natural prairie type, different from the sand sagebrush-mixed bluestem prairie of Ecoregion 25b. Soils have a mesic temperature regime, in contrast to the thermic soils to the south in Ecoregion 25.

25e. The Canadian/Cimarron High Plains ecoregion includes the portion of the High Plains north of the Canadian River, primarily in the Texas and Oklahoma panhandles and in southeast Kansas, that has similarities to the Llano Estacado. Only a small portion of the region occurs in New Mexico. Winters are more severe than on the Llano Estacado (25i) to the south; the increased snow accumulation delays summer drought conditions because snowmelt saturates the ground in spring. Although the topography of Ecoregion 25e is just as flat as the Llano Estacado, this northern region has fewer playas and is more deeply dissected by stream channels. There is also more grazing land in Ecoregion 25e compared to 25i; the rougher terrain near the stream incisions tends to be grazed rather than tilled. In cultivated areas, corn, winter wheat, and grain sorghum are the principal crops. Many areas in the New Mexico portion that had cropland decades ago have now reverted to rangeland.

25i. The Llano Estacado ecoregion, translated as the "Staked Plain", is a level, treeless, elevated plain surrounded by escarpments on three sides. Geologically, the Llano Estacado began as an apron of Miocene-Pliocene sediments (Ogallala Formation) eroded from the eastern Rocky Mountains. Several caliche horizons developed in the Ogallala sediments, including a hardened caprock caliche in the uppermost layer. The caprock was eventually covered by Pleistocene wind-borne sand and silt, the Blackwater Draw Formation. The smooth surface of the plain holds seasonal rainfall in numerous playas. The Llano Estacado was once covered with shortgrass prairie, composed of buffalograss, blue and sideoats grama, and little and silver bluestem. Bison were once prominent elements of a prairie ecosystem that no longer functions as an interdependent web of bison, black-tailed prairie dog, black-footed ferret, snake, ferruginous hawk, coyote, swift fox, deer, pronghorn, mountain lion, and gray wolf. About 80-90% of the Llano Estacado in Texas and New Mexico is presently tilled for agriculture, with more rangeland to the west. Farmers produce cotton, corn, and wheat under dryland agriculture or irrigated with water pumped from the Ogallala Aquifer. The capacity of the Ogallala Aquifer is limited, particularly under drought conditions. Withdrawals from the aquifer usually exceed recharge.

25j. The Shinnery Sands ecoregion includes sand hills and dunes as well as flat sandy recharge areas. These sand beds lie at the western edge of the High Plains where rising winds drop heavier sand grains and carry finer material further east onto the flat expanse of the Llano Estacado (25i). The ecoregion is named for the Havard (shin) oak brush that stablizes sandy areas subject to wind erosion. Although the shin oak rarely grows higher than 4 feet, its extensive root system can reach over 50 feet through dune sand to reach water. The largest area of sand dunes, at the southwestern edge of the Llano Estacado (25i), is composed of sands blown out of the Pecos River Basin against the Mescalero Escarpment of the Llano Estacado by prevailing southwesterly winds. These dunes serve as a major recharge area for the Pecos River. While sandsage and prairie [[grass]es] may create a continuous plant cover in portions of Ecoregion 25j, the vegetative cover is vulnerable to overgrazing and subsequent wind blowouts which may begin a cycle of dune formation. In dune areas, anchoring shrubs such as Havard shin oak, fourwing saltbush, and yucca stabilize the dune sand for herbaceous grasses and forbs such as sand verbenas, sunflowers, fringed sagewort, and hoary rosemary-mint. Ephemeral ponds and swales between the dunes support rushes, sedges, and sandbar willow. The shinnery sands are habitat for the lesser prairie-chicken and sanddune lizard, two species that are in serious decline. The shrubs offer cover and shade for nesting prairie-chickens, and shin oak acorns are a staple food source. Parts of the sand plains and dune fields of Ecoregion 25j contain dense arrays of oil fields.

25k. The Arid Llano Estacado ecoregion is drier than the main portion of the Llano Estacado (25i) to the north. Its climate is transitional to the arid Chihuahuan Desert region (24) to the southwest. Across the region in New Mexico and Texas, yearly precipitation is less than that of the Llano Estacado (25i); there is also less winter precipitation and an absence of snow cover to provide soil moisture. This can cause the caliche layer to be closer to the surface in Ecoregion 25k, increasing the general droughty condition of the soil and making tilled agriculture more difficult than in the Llano Estacado (25i). The arid conditions are reflected in the land use, which is dominated by livestock grazing. The shortgrass prairie of grama and buffalo grasses is susceptible to overgrazing, and a broken grass cover allows the invasion of shrubs such as mesquite and lotebush. Oil and gas production activities are widespread.

26. Southwestern Tablelands
The Southwestern Tablelands flank the High Plains (25) with red hued canyons, mesas, badlands, and dissected river breaks. Unlike most adjacent Great Plains ecological regions, little of the Southwestern Tablelands is in cropland. Much of this region is in sub-humid grassland and semiarid rangeland. The eastern boundary represents a transition from the more extensive cropland within the High Plains (25) to the generally more rugged and less arable land within the Southwestern Tablelands (26) ecoregion. The natural vegetation (Land-cover) in this region is mostly grama-buffalograss, with some juniper-scrub oak-grass savanna on escarpment bluffs. Prairie fires were likely important in maintaining the grasslands and suppressing encroachment of shrub and woody species. Pronghorn antelope is the most common large native mammal of the region.

26d. The Semiarid Canadian Breaks ecoregion is similar to the Canadian Breaks (26a) to the east in Texas with its deep valley trough and moderate-relief tablelands, but it is drier. This ecoregion also has large areas of Triassic mudstones and shales exposed, whereas Ecoregion 26a in Texas has a more homogeneous substrate of the Tertiary Ogallala Formation. The mudstones and shales create badlands that are not productive, and plant growth is sparse, increasing the look of aridity to the landscape. Some of the taller [[grass]es] and eastern riparian species found in the Canadian Breaks (26a) also tend to disappear towards the west in Ecoregion 26d as conditions become drier and the soils become less productive. The shrub and midgrass prairie vegetation (Land-cover) includes one-seed juniper, sand sagebrush, skunkbush sumac, and yucca, along with sideoats grama, little bluestem, western wheatgrass, blue grama, buffalograss, galleta, and alkali sacaton.

26f. The Mesa de Maya/Black Mesa ecoregion covers a small portion of southeast Colorado, northeast New Mexico, and northwest Oklahoma. It includes basalt-capped mesas as well as deep canyons, knobs, dissected plains, and breaks that have been cut into sandstone, shale, and limestone. In New Mexico, the valley of the Dry Cimarron River is a canyon of these exposed Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous strata. As Black Mesa extends east into Oklahoma, it supports many end-of-range flora and fauna species. Great Plains vegetation intergrades with foothill flora of the Rocky Mountains. Mesa tops are covered with shortgrass prairie. Shrubs and small trees, mainly pinyon and oneseed juniper, occur in canyons and on north-facing slopes. The vegetation mosaic contrasts with the grassland of adjacent, less rugged plains.

26h. Scattered, dissected areas with pinyon and juniper woodlands on the uplands characterize the Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands and Savannas ecoregion. Occurring in Colorado and New Mexico, the region is a continuation or an outlier of the pinyon-juniper woodlands found in Ecoregion 21d in the Southern Rockies (21). Soils tend to be thin, and for most of the region are formed in materials weathered from limestone, sandstone, and shale. Rock outcrops are common. In central New Mexico, much of the region is often associated with the Paleozoic Glorieta Sandstone and other limestone and shale rocks. In the north, the region includes a few hills and peaks of volcanic or mixed geology that have some small areas of montane coniferous forest. Annual precipitation in the New Mexico portion ranges from 12 to 16 inches, with the highest precipitation found in areas closest to the mountains. Land use is primarily wildlife habitat and rangeland.

26l. The Upper Canadian Plateau is heterogeneous relative to relief, geologic substrates, and vegetation patterns. Parts of the region are influenced by proximity to mountainous regions, and there are other east to west differences within the region. The ecoregion contains mesic soils, higher elevations, and areas of greater relief compared to the thermic soils and lower elevations to the south in Ecoregion 26n. It is underlain mostly by Cretaceous sandstone and shale, with some Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic rocks. It includes parts of the Raton-Clayton and Ocate volcanic fields. Cover types include shortgrass prairie, some midgrass prairie, scattered juniper savanna, and juniper woodland on hills.

26m. The Canadian Canyons ecoregion includes parts of the Canadian Escarpment, Canadian River Gorge, and associated canyons where coniferous and mixed woodland occurs and Jurassic rocks have been exposed by water and wind erosion. Its higher relief and different vegetation distinguishes it from surrounding ecoregions 26l, 26n, and 26d. Vegetation (Land-cover) is dominated by pinyon pine, one-seed juniper, and some ponderosa pine at higher elevations. The Canadian River Gorge is one of the biggest and deepest canyons on the American Great Plains.

26n. Broad, rolling plains, tablelands, and piedmonts characterize the Conchas/Pecos Plains, broken by drainages to the Pecos, Conchas, and a small portion of the Canadian rivers. The region has lower elevations and thermic soils compared to the higher elevations and mix of mesic and thermic soils of Ecoregion 26o to the west. Livestock grazing is the dominant land use. Soils formed in material primarily from Quaternary, Triassic, and Permian sediments. The natural vegetation of these plains included blue grama, galleta, sand dropseed, threeawns, ring muhly, broom snakeweed, cacti, yucca, and cholla. Some areas of sideoats grama and little bluestem, with blue grama, western wheatgrass, galleta, and buffalograss also occurred.

26o. The Central New Mexico Plains are slightly drier than Ecoregion 26n to the east, with more shortgrass steppe and less midgrass prairie. It has generally higher elevations and more mesic soils than the somewhat lower elevations and thermic soils of 26n. The region is composed of mostly Permian rocks compared to the Triassic materials of Ecoregion 26n. Livestock grazing is the dominant land use. Pronghorn antelope are common as well as coyote and a variety of raptors.

26p. The Pluvial Lake Basins ecoregion includes the Estancia, Pinos Wells, and Encino lake basins near the center of the state. Permanent lakes occupied several large closed basins in New Mexico during the last ice age. Today, annual evaporation is greater than the inflow to the basins from rainfall, runoff, and groundwater discharge. Annual precipitation is only 12 to 13 inches. Natural vegetation includes fourwing saltbush and alkali sacaton. The region was an historical trade route for salt between Rio Grande pueblos and Plains tribes. Some agriculture and cropland occurs today in the Estancia basin, irrigated by groundwater.

26q. The Southern New Mexico Dissected Plains is a transitional area between the shortgrass prairies of Ecoregion 26 and the Chihuahuan Desert grasslands of Ecoregion 24. It is also influenced by the proximity to the Sacramento Mountains of Ecoregion 23. Geology is mostly Paleozoic limestone, dolomite, shale, and sandstone. Rock outcrops are common. It is characterized by well-dissected topography with numerous draws and shallow canyons, and a rather sparse vegetative cover. Annual precipitation averages only 12 to 13 inches, lower than most of Ecoregion 26 to the north. The eastern portion has more Chihuahuan scrub, while to the west at higher elevations, some juniper savanna occurs. Native vegetation (Land-cover) is short and mid grasses with some low desert shrubs. Grasses are mainly blue grama, black grama, hairy grama, sideoats grama, triden, or threeawn. Shrubs include juniper, lotebush, yucca, dalea, and a variety of acacias.

79. Madrean Archipelago
Also known as the Sky Islands in the United States, this is a region of basins and ranges with medium to high local relief, typically 3000 to 5000 feet. Native vegetation in the region is mostly grama-tobosa shrubsteppe in the basins and oak-juniper woodlands on the ranges, except at higher elevations where ponderosa pine is predominant. The region has ecological significance as both a barrier and bridge between two major cordilleras of North America: the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Madre Occidental.

79a. With valley plains, alluvial fans, and some low hills, the Apachian Valleys and Low Hills ecoregion is generally similar physiographically to the Chihuahuan Basins and Playas (24a). This region, however, has greater precipitation with more monsoonal influence, and has more grassland than Ecoregion 24a. The present vegetation is mostly sideoats grama, black grama, cane beardgrass, plains lovegrass, blue grama, hairy grama, sand dropseed, vine mesquite, curly mesquite, false mesquite, Mormon-tea, mimosa, yucca, ocotillo, cacti, and agave. Encroachment of honey mesquite has been significant in some areas.

79b. The Lower Madrean Woodlands occur at intermediate elevations, generally above 5000 feet. It is a mild winter-wet summer woodland, shrubby in places. The Madrean encinal, or evergreen oak woodlands, have a mosaic of savannas, denser woodlands, and grassy openings. Emory, silverleaf, Tourney, and Arizona white oaks occur, along with scattered pinyon, juniper, mesquite, and chaparral species. Riparian areas of cottonwood, sycamore, and willow are valuable to neotropical birds and other wildlife of the area.

79c. In contrast to the lower elevation woodlands of Ecoregion 79b, at elevations above about 7000 feet are the Madrean Pine-Oak and Mixed Conifer Forests. These include ponderosa pine-oak forests, ponderosa pine forests, montane fir forests, and mixed conifer forests (Forest biome). Some very small areas of subalpine forest occur in Arizona. Ponderosa pine, southwestern white pine, Apache pine, and Chihuahuan pine are found here, along with some Douglas-fir. Gambel oak and alligator juniper are also components of these pine forests.

Notes

Literature Cited

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20. Colorado PlateausRugged tableland topography is typical of the Colorado Plateaus ecoregion. Canyons, mesas, plateaus, and mountains expose a long geologic history of rock formations. Precipitous side-walls mark abrupt changes in local relief, often of 1000 to 2000 feet or more. The region contains more pinyon-juniper and Gambel oak woodlands than the Wyoming Basin (18) to the north.

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Many animals call the Alpine tundra home and thrive in the rocky rough terrain.

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Since New Mexico is a very dry place it can cause more wildfires around our areas.

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The alpine tundra suffers from wild fires and loss of snowpack causing by the increasing effect of climate change.

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Population 2018 1650

Most heards transplanted from canada to sandias, pecos wilderness, wheeler peak, ect

travel to lower elevation in winter

Eat grass and shrubs are attracted to salt licks

They can be any color from dark to light brown and have a white behind and lines down their legs.

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Pikas have long whiskers, an egg shaped body (ovoid), and short ears

Ranges in size from the smallest being 6.4 in and the largest being 8.5

Pikas communicate by their voices which are referenced as short and long calls

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The golden eagles wingspread is 2.3 meters which is almost 8 feet long

Some of the golden eagles attributes are long claws, fully feathered on the body, dark eyes, gray beak, large yellow colored feet

The golden eagle is the national  bird to Mexico

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Pale gray feathers with black and white stripes on there head with a yellow or pink bill

Between 6-71/2 inches

Migrates Sep 1 - June 1

Seen more in winter

Song is very distinctive and has taught scientist a lot about how birds learn to sing and how there geographic location can affect their song

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American Pika

White-tailed ptarmigan

Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep

Deer mouse

Masked shrew

Northern pocket gopher

Horned lark

White- crowned sparrow

Rosy finch

Golden eagle

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Lichen is made out of two living organisms which are fungus and alga.
Alga = produces foodFungus = gather water
The relationship between the fungus, alga, and lichen is symbiosis Lichen. It grows on tree trunks, stones, dead wood, and on the groundLichen can be found/living where plants can survive.

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Alpine-forget-me-not is a small blue flowers that grows between ½-4 inch. It thrives in harsh conditions and has learned to survive short growing seasons, strong wind, snow and cold temperatures.They are used to help with eyesight It also helps stop bleeding if put on externally

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The Alpine Tundra gets an average of 25-50 inches of precipitation per year most of which comes from Snow run off.

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20. Colorado Plateaus
Rugged tableland topography is typical of the Colorado Plateaus ecoregion. Canyons, mesas, plateaus, and mountains expose a long geologic history of rock formations. Precipitous side-walls mark abrupt changes in local relief, often of 1000 to 2000 feet or more. The region contains more pinyon-juniper and Gambel oak woodlands than the Wyoming Basin (18) to the north. However, the region also has large low-lying areas containing saltbush-greasewood communities, and in Utah, blackbrush communities typical of hotter, drier areas. These communities are generally not found in the higher Arizona/New Mexico Plateau (22) to the south where grasslands were typically more common.

20b. The arid Shale Deserts and Sedimentary Basins ecoregion consists of nearly level basins and valleys, benches, low rounded hills, and badlands. Rock outcrops occur; it is sparsely vegetated with mat saltbush, fourwing saltbush, greasewood, and shadscale. Native [[grass]es] included alkali sacaton, galleta grass, poverty threeawn, sand dropseed, and Indian ricegrass. It is lower in elevation with less pinyon-juniper woodland than the adjacent Semiarid Benchlands and Canyonlands (20c).

20c. Broad, grass-, shrub-, and woodland-covered benches and mesas characterize the Semiarid Benchlands and Canyonlands ecoregion. Areas of high relief alternate with areas of low relief. Bedrock exposures are common along rims, escarpments, and on steep dip slopes. Pinyon and juniper occur on shallow, stony soils with scattered areas of Gambel oak at higher elevations. On deeper soils, warm season grasses, sagebrush, fourwing saltbush, winterfat, and Mormon tea occur. The vegetation (Land-cover) is not as sparse as in drier areas such as Ecoregions 20b and 20d.

20d. Occurring primarily in Utah, the Arid Canyonlands ecoregion includes the inner gorge of the Colorado River and its major tributaries, such as the San Juan River. Much of this ecoregion is bounded by nearly vertical canyon walls that separate it from the adjacent, higher benchlands of Ecoregion 20c. Exposed bedrock is common. The New Mexico portion lacks the relief of most of the region in Utah. Soils are shallower with a drier moisture regime than those of Ecoregion 20c. Shadscale, saltbush, some sand sagebrush, and drought tolerant [[grass]es] including galleta grass and Indian ricegrass occur. This is the driest area of New Mexico, receiving less than 8 inches of annual rainfall.

21. Southern Rockies
The Southern Rockies are composed of high elevation, steep, rugged mountains. Although coniferous forests (Biome) cover much of the region, as in most of the mountainous regions in the western United States, vegetation (Land-cover), as well as soil and land use, follows a pattern of elevational banding. The lowest elevations are generally grass or shrub covered and heavily grazed. Low to middle elevations are also grazed and covered by a variety of vegetation types including juniper-oak woodlands, ponderosa pine, aspen, and Douglas-fir. Middle to high elevations are largely covered by coniferous forests and have little grazing activity. The highest elevations have alpine characteristics. Numerous perennial mountain streams with decidous riparian vegetation support coldwater fisheries (Fisheries and aquaculture) and serve as wildlife corridors.

21a. The Alpine Zone occurs on mountain tops above treeline, beginning at about 11,000 to 11,500 feet in New Mexico. It includes alpine meadows as well as steep, exposed rock, talus, and glaciated peaks. Annual precipitation ranges from 25 to greater than 50 inches, falling mostly as snow. Vegetation includes low shrubs, cushion plants, and wildflowers and sedges in wet meadows. The forest-tundra interface is sparsely colonized by stunted, deformed Englemann spruce, subalpine fir, and sometimes bristlecone pine and snow willow (krummholz vegetation). Ecoregion 21a is snow-free only 8 to 10 weeks annually. Snow cover is a major source of water for lower, more arid ecoregions.

21b. The Crystalline Subalpine Forests ecoregion occupies a narrow elevational band on the steep, forested slopes of the mountains, becoming more extensive on the north slopes. The elevation range in New Mexico is generally 9000 to 11,500 feet, just below the Alpine Zone (21a). Dense forests are dominated by Englemann spruce and subalpine fir; aspen locally dominates some areas. Subalpine meadows also occur. Forest blowdown, insect outbreaks, fire, and avalanches affect the vegetation mosaic. Soils are weathered from a variety of crystalline and metamorphic materials, such as gneiss, schist, and granite, as well as some areas of igneous intrusive rocks. Recreation, logging, mining, and wildlife habitat are the major [[land use]s].

21c. The Crystalline Mid-Elevation Forests are found mostly in the 8000 to 10,000 feet elevation range on crystalline and metamorphic substrates. Natural vegetation includes ponderosa pine, aspen, Douglas-fir, and areas of limber pine. A diverse understory of shrubs, [[grass]es], and wildflowers occurs. The variety of food sources supports a diversity of bird and mammal species. Forest stands have become denser in many areas due to decades of fire suppression. Land use includes wildlife habitat, livestock grazing, logging, mining, and recreation.

21d. The Foothill Woodlands and Shrublands ecoregion is the low elevation portion of the Southern Rockies, and extends from southern Wyoming through Colorado and into New Mexico. In New Mexico, it is a transition area from the higher elevation forests to drier and lower plains (Ecoregion 26) and plateaus (Ecoregions 20, 22). Within the region, some flora and fauna species on the east side (Great Plains) may differ from those found to the west (Great Basin influence). This semiarid region has rolling to irregular terrain of hills, ridges, and footslopes, with elevations mostly 6000 to 8500 feet, and a variety of rock and soil types. In New Mexico, pinyon-juniper and oak woodlands are dominant.

21e. The Sedimentary Subalpine Forests ecoregion occupies much of the western half of the Southern Rockies in Colorado, areas of the Sangre de Cristo Range in Colorado and New Mexico, and the western part of the Tusas Mountains in New Mexico. The region occurs on sandstone, siltstone, shale, and limestone substrates. Stream water quality, water availability, and aquatic biota are affected in places by carbonate substrates that are soluble and nutrient rich. Some streams support the endemic Rio Grande cutthroat trout. Soils are generally finer-textured than those found on crystalline or metamorphic substrates of Ecoregion 21b. Subalpine forests dominated by Englemann spruce and subalpine fir are typical, often interspersed with aspen groves or mountain meadows. Some Douglas-fir forests are at lower elevations.

21f. The Sedimentary Mid-Elevation Forests ecoregion occurs in the western and southern portions of the Southern Rockies in Colorado and in several areas of the Rockies in New Mexico at elevations generally below Ecoregion 21e. The elevation limits and vegetation (Land-cover) of this region are similar to the crystalline (21c) and volcanic (21h) mid-elevation forests; however a larger area of Gambel oak woodlands and forest is found in this region. Carbonate substrates in some areas affect water quality, hydrology, and biota. Abundant aquatic insects support a reproducing trout fishery (Fisheries and aquaculture). Soils are generally finer-textured than those found on crystalline and metamorphic substrates typical of Ecoregion 21c.

21g. The steep, mountainous Volcanic Subalpine Forests ecoregion is composed of Tertiary or Quaternary volcanic rocks, primarily in the southern extension of the San Juan Mountains from Colorado and in parts of the Brazos, Jemez, and Taos mountains of New Mexico. Relatively young geologically, the high, rugged mountains still contain some large areas of intact habitat. Englemann spruce, subalpine fir, and aspen forests support a variety of wildlife.

21h. The Volcanic Mid-Elevation Forests ecoregion occurs at elevations of about 7500 to 10,000 feet and is composed of igneous rocks of andesite and basalt. The majority of the region is found in the Jemez Mountains with smaller, scattered areas to the north and east. Forests of ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and aspen occur. Land use includes wildlife habitat, livestock grazing, logging, and recreation.

21j. The Grassland Parks ecoregion, occurring primarily in Colorado, consists of high intermontane valleys with sufficient water availability to support grasslands and wet meadows. In New Mexico, the ecoregion is found in the Valle Grande/Valle San Antonio area in the Jemez Mountains, in the Moreno Valley and Costilla-Comanche-Valle Vidal areas in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, and on top of Johnson Mesa near Raton. Grasslands with bunchgrasses are dominant, and include Parry's oatgrass, Arizona fescue, Idaho fescue, Thurber fescue, mountain muhly, bluebunch wheatgrass, needle-and-thread grass, Junegrass, and slender wheatgrass. There are only a few trees or shrubs, and if present, they are widely scattered and mature. Some springs and wetlands occur. Large elk herds are found in the valley parklands.

22. Arizona/New Mexico Plateau
The Arizona/New Mexico Plateau represents a large transitional region between the drier shrublands and wooded higher relief tablelands of the Colorado Plateaus (20) in the north, the lower, hotter, less vegetated Mojave Basin and Range (14) in the west, and forested mountain ecoregions that border the region on the northeast (21) and south (23). Local relief in the region varies from a few feet on plains and mesa tops to well over 1000 feet along tableland side slopes. The Continental Divide splits the region, but is not a prominent topographic feature. The region extends across northern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, and into Colorado in the San Luis Valley. Gunnison prairie dogs are a keystone species in many of the sagebrush ecosystems and their burrows provide habitat for other wildlife including burrowing owls, weasels, badgers, and a variety of snakes.

22a. The San Luis Shrublands and Hills ecoregion, occurring mostly in Colorado, includes the higher relief foothill edges and low mountain areas within the San Luis basin. It includes the San Luis Hills in Colorado, a series of low mountains, hills, and tilted mesas. The New Mexico portion includes the area northwest of the Taos Plateau Ecoregion (22f). Big sagebrush, rabbitbrush, and winterfat occur as well as grasslands of western wheatgrass, green needlegrass, blue grama, and needle-and-thread. This region occurs primarily in Colorado, barely extending across the state line into New Mexico.

22b. Although precipitation in the San Luis Alluvial Flats and Wetlands ecoregion is low, water availability from mountain runoff, a high water table, and associated springs and wetlands have made cropland irrigation possible. The ecoregion was once dominated by shadscale, saltbush and greasewood, but most of the native vegetation (Land-cover) has been removed for agriculture. Irrigated cropland is common in the Colorado portion, with barley malt, potatoes, alfalfa, small grains, and hay, and smaller areas of vegetables such as spinach, head lettuce, and carrots. In the New Mexico portion, sagebrush is more common, with some irrigated areas for hay.

22f. The Taos Plateau is a region of mostly Pliocene basaltic lavas with distinct cones of Pliocene composite volcanoes. This region has higher elevation volcanic cones than the San Luis Hills of 22a in Colorado; several cones are over 9000 feet and Ute Mountain is higher than 10,000 feet. The plateau surface has more sagebrush than Ecoregion 22a in Colorado. The plateau surface has only minor dissection, but the Rio Grande is confined to a deep canyon or gorge, 800 to 1000 feet deep in places. The ecoregion extends south to include the basalt-capped Black Mesa.

22g. Once containing a perennially flowing, meandering, braided river, the Rio Grande Floodplain ecoregion has undergone many human alterations to its landscape and hydrology over the past 400 years. The once-shifting Rio Grande had mosaics of riparian woodlands and shrublands along with a variety of wetland meadows, ponds, and marshes. The gallery forest, or bosque, of cottonwood and willow with understories of coyote willow, New Mexico olive, false indigo, and seepwillow depended on this dynamic system. A long history of irrigation and drainage canals, levees and jetty jacks, and upstream dams have altered river flows and narrowed and straightened the stream channel. Conversion to cropland, orchards, small rural farms and ranchos, and urban and suburban uses have also altered the region. Cottonwood and willow, dependent on spring flooding, have been widely replaced by invasive saltcedar and Russian olive.

22h. The North Central New Mexico Valleys and Mesas is an area of mostly pinyon pine and juniper savanna, and mesa and valley topography similar to some other parts of Ecoregion 22. Situated between portions of the Southern Rockies (21) to the east and west, and dominated by young geologic features of the Espanola rift basin and ancestral Rio Grande floodplain, ecological differences are apparent. It has a cooler climate with slightly greater precipitation, streams tend to have more water flow, and there is a different species mix of flora and fauna compared to 22i, 22j, or 22m. It differs from 22f in geology, topography, and vegetation (Land-cover); from 22i and 22m in elevation, climate, and vegetation. It has a mix of geology, mostly Tertiary sedimentary or Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic rocks.

22i. The San Juan/Chaco Tablelands and Mesas ecoregion of plateaus, valleys, and canyons contains a mix of desert scrub, semi-desert shrub-steppe, and semi-desert grasslands. Shadscale, fourwing saltbush, mormon tea, Indian ricegrass, galleta, and blue and black gramas are typical. It is more arid, has generally lower elevations, and less pinyon-juniper than the Semiarid Tablelands (22j) to the south or Ecoregion 22n to the east. It is mostly composed of gently dipping Tertiary and Cretaceous sedimentary rocks. Oil and gas production occurs mostly in the northern part of the region. It contains the upper reaches of the Rio Puerco, an area of severe erosion due to geology, topography, and human influences.

22j. With some similarities to Ecoregion 20c, the Semiarid Tablelands consists of mesas, plateaus, valleys, and canyons formed mostly from flat to gently dipping sedimentary rocks, along with some areas of Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic fields. The region contains areas of high relief and some low relief plains. Bedrock exposures are common. Grass, shrubs, and woodland cover the tablelands. The vegetation (Land-cover) is not as sparse as in Ecoregion 22i to the north or 22m to the east. It lacks the denser pine forests of the higher and more [[mountain]ous] Ecoregion 23. Scattered junipers occur on shallow, stony soils, and are dense in some areas. Pinyon-juniper woodland is also common in some areas. Saltbush species, alkali sacaton, sand dropseed, and mixed grama grasses occur.

22k. Part of the much larger Zuni-Bandera volcanic field, the Lava Malpais covers some of the younger Holocene volcanic flows with the least soil development. The youngest flow, called the McCartys flow, dates from about 3000 years ago. Different types of lava flows are found here, as well as lava tubes and ice caves. Some unique flora and fauna not found in surrounding areas occur here, and some species that are more widespread have made adaptations to survive in the specialized [[habitat]s] here. The lava substrate has the ability in places to trap and retain moisture, allowing for a more mesophytic vegetation, such as stunted Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine, to occur in some areas. The region is an important area for understanding recent ecological successions, as well as longer term climatic changes.

22l. The Plains of San Agustin are mostly a topographically closed basin, with some alluvial fans and piedmont slopes near the surrounding mountains of Ecoregion 23. Beach and lacustrine deposits mark various stages of Pleistocene Lake San Agustin. Clay to fine-grained sand lake bed sediments, linear beach-ridge sand deposits, and some sand sheets and dune sand deposits occur. The sandy areas are mostly stabilized by [[grass]es] and low shrubs. Vegetation of alkali sacaton, fourwing saltbush, and greasewood is found in the low areas. Some western wheatgrass, vine-mesquite, areas of blue grama and sand dropseed occur. Higher elevation slopes have some pinyon-juniper savanna with an understory of blue grama, dropseeds, Indian ricegrass, and bottlebrush squirreltail grasses. Livestock grazing is the predominant land use.

22m. Part of one of the deeper physiographic basins of the Rio Grande rift, the Albuquerque Basin ecoregion is lower in elevation, drier, and warmer than surrounding ecoregions to the north, east, and west. The basin is filled with thick sediments of mostly Quaternary and some Tertiary age, with a few areas of volcanic rocks and lava-capped mesas. Extending from the La Bajada Escarpment on the north to near Socorro in the south, the region contains some diverse features and transitional characteristics. Unlike most of Ecoregion 22 which has mesic soils, 22m has a largely thermic soil temperature regime. There is a mix of sand scrub and desert grassland vegetation. Native vegetation includes black grama, sand dropseed, mesa dropseed, blue grama, galleta, sand sage, alkali sacaton, threeawns, and scattered yucca. Juniper occurs primarily in the north. Urban and suburban land uses are spreading. The Santa Fe Group aquifer, the drinking water source for Albuquerque and most of the Middle Rio Grande Valley, has seen some groundwater declines in recent years, along with increases in contaminants.

22n. Similar to Ecoregion 22h, the Near-Rockies Valleys and Mesas ecoregion is an area of mostly pinyon-juniper woodland, juniper savanna, and mesa and valley topography, with influences of higher elevation vegetation in drainages from the adjacent Southern Rockies (21). Its geology differs from Ecoregion 22h, with older Tertiary and Cretaceous sedimentary rocks. It has generally higher elevations, greater precipitation, and more juniper than Ecoregion 22i to the west. Canyon streams flow intermittently out of the Rockies into the Canon Largo watershed, a tributary to the San Juan River.

23. Arizona/New Mexico Mountains
The Arizona/New Mexico Mountains are distinguished from neighboring [[mountain]ous] ecoregions by their lower elevations and associated vegetation (Land-cover) indicative of drier, warmer environments, due in part to the region's more southerly location. Forests of spruce, fir, and Douglas-fir, common in the Southern Rockies (21) and the Wasatch and Uinta Mountains (19), are only found in limited areas at the highest elevations in this region. Chaparral is common at lower elevations in some areas, pinyon-juniper and oak woodlands are found at lower and middle elevations, and the higher elevations are mostly covered with open to dense ponderosa pine forests. These mountains are the northern extent of some Mexican plant and animal species. Surrounded by deserts or grasslands, these mountains in New Mexico can be considered biogeographical islands.

23a. The Chihuahuan Desert Slopes are found on the Guadalupe and Sacramento mountains. The lower slopes of these mountains represent a continuation of the Chihuahuan Desert ecosystem; soils and vegetation (Land-cover) in much of Ecoregion 23a are similar to those in the Low Mountains and Bajadas (24c) of the Chihuahuan Deserts (24). The lower slopes were once mostly grasslands overgrazed in the late 19th century and subsequently invaded by desert shrubs. Yucca, sotol, lechuguilla, ocotillo, and cacti now dominate the rocky slopes below 5500 feet. Grasslands persist near alluvial fans and on gentle slopes with deeper, sandstone-derived soils. Water is scarce; the few streams that originate from springs at higher elevations do not persist beyond the mouths of major canyons.

23b. The Madrean Lower Montane Woodlands ecoregion covers the slopes of the Guadalupe, Sacramento, Mimbres, Big Burro, and Mogollon mountains, generally between 5500 to 7200 feet, with densities of juniper, pinyon pine, and oak varying according to aspect. There are some similarities to Ecoregion 23e; however, Ecoregion 23b has milder winters, wetter summers, and inclusions of alligator juniper and Madrean evergreen oak species. At middle elevations, dense thickets of shrubs such as desert ceanothus, alderleaf mountain mahogany, and catclaw mimosa form chaparral communities. Other areas are grassy and park-like with scattered trees. A few small areas of ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, or southwestern white pine occur at the highest elevations, outliers of Ecoregions 23c or 23f. In the west, the Gila River and tributaries have many endemic aquatic organisms including fish, amphibians, and insects.

23c. The Montane Conifer Forests are found west of the Rio Grande at elevations from about 7000 to 9500 feet. Ponderosa pine and Gambel oak are common, along with mountain mahogany and serviceberry. Some Douglas-fir, southwestern white pine, and white fir occur in a few areas. Blue spruce may occasionally be found in cool, moist canyons. The influence of the Sierra Madre flora is seen mostly in the southern mountains and diminishes to the north. In the far south, other oaks appear, such as silverleaf oak, netleaf oak, Arizona white oak, and Emory oak. The summer rains are especially important for herbaceous plants. The region is geologically diverse with volcanic, sedimentary, and some intrusive and crystalline rocks. Endemic Gila trout occur in some of the region's streams. Livestock grazing, logging, and recreation are the primary [[land use]s]. Wildfire is an important feature influencing the forested ecosystems in this region.

23d. The Arizona/New Mexico Subalpine Forests occur west of the Rio Grande at the higher elevations, generally above 9500 feet. The region includes parts of the Mogollon Mountains, Black Range, San Mateo Mountains, Magdalena Mountains, and Mount Taylor. The peak elevations are mostly above 10,000 feet. Although there are some vegetational differences from mountain range to mountain range within Ecoregion 23d, the major forest trees include Engelmann spruce, corkbark fir, blue spruce, white fir, and aspen. Some Douglas-fir occurs at lower elevations. Cryic soils developed on the mixed geology of mostly Tertiary volcanics and Tertiary intrusives, with only minor areas of Precambrian rocks in the Black Range.

23e. The Conifer Woodlands and Savannas ecoregion is an area of mostly pinyon-juniper woodlands, with some ponderosa pine at higher elevations. It often intermingles with grasslands and shrublands. Although elevations are higher than surrounding Ecoregion 22 areas, the boundaries tend to be transitional. The region is generally cooler, with more uniform winter and summer seasonal moisture compared to Ecoregion 23b. It lacks the milder winters, wetter summers, chaparral, Madrean oaks, and other species of Ecoregion 23b.

23f. The Rocky Mountain Conifer Forests are found at elevations from about 7000 to 9600 feet in the mountains east of the Rio Grande. With similarities to Ecoregion 23c, ponderosa pine and Gambel oak are common, with mountain mahogany and a dense understory. Some Douglas-fir, southwestern white pine, and white fir occur in a few areas. Blue spruce may occasionally be found in cool, moist canyons. In the Sandia and Manzano mountains, white fir and Douglas-fir are more extensive than in other parts of the region. Current forests have been shaped by fire and fire suppression. It differs from Ecoregion 23c by some of the flora, fauna, and water quality characteristics that more closely resemble the Southern Rockies (21). The region is geologically diverse with volcanic, sedimentary, and some intrusive and crystalline rocks.

23g. The Rocky Mountain Subalpine Forests ecoregion occurs east of the Rio Grande at high elevations, generally above 9500 feet. It includes parts of the Sandia Mountains, Capitan Mountains, and Sierra Blanca. The peak elevations are mostly above 10,000 feet, with Sierra Blanca Peak nearing 12,000 feet. There are some differences in flora, fauna, geology, and water quality from the subalpine ecoregion (23d) to the west. The major forest trees include Engelmann spruce, corkbark fir, blue spruce, white fir, and aspen. Some Douglas-fir occurs at lower elevations. There are a few small inclusions of montane grassland. A mix of geology occurs in the region. Sierra Blanca and the Capitan Mountains are composed of Tertiary volcanics and Tertiary intrusives, while the Sandia Mountains to the north have a core of Precambrian rocks capped by Pennsylvanian sedimentary rocks.

24. Chihuahuan Deserts
This desert ecoregion extends from the Madrean Archipelago (79) in southeast Arizona to the Edwards Plateau (30) in south-central Texas. It is the northern portion of the southernmost desert in North America that extends more than 500 miles south into Mexico. The physiography is generally a continuation of basin and range terrain that is typical of the Mojave Basin and Range (14) and the Central Basin and Range (13) ecoregions to the west and north, although the pattern of alternating mountains and valleys is not as pronounced as it is in Ecoregions 13 and 14. The mountain ranges (sky islands) are a geologic mix of Tertiary volcanic and intrusive granitic rocks, Paleozoic sedimentary layers, and some Precambrian granitic plutonic rocks. Outside the major river drainages, such as the Rio Grande and Pecos River, the landscape is largely internally drained. Vegetative cover is predominantly desert grassland and arid shrubland, except for high elevation islands of oak, juniper, and pinyon pine woodland. The extent of desert shrubland is increasing across lowlands and mountain foothills due to gradual desertification caused in part by historical grazing pressure.

24a. The Chihuahuan Basins and Playas include alluvial fans, internally drained basins, and river valleys mostly below 4500 feet. The major Chihuahuan basins formed during Tertiary Basin and Range tectonism when the Earth's crust stretched and fault collapse resulted in sediment-filled basins. These low elevation areas are some of the hottest and most arid [[habitat]s] in the state. The playas and basin floors have saline or alkaline soils and areas of salt flats, dunes, and windblown sand. The typical desert shrubs and [[grass]es], the dominant creosotebush, along with tarbush, fourwing saltbush, acacias, gyp grama, and alkali sacaton, must withstand large seasonal and diurnal ranges in temperature, low available moisture, and a high evapotranspiration rate. Horse crippler and other cacti are common. Bitter Lake near Roswell is a biologically significant wetland area. It has a high diversity of dragonflies and damselflies, including the continent's largest and smallest dragonfly species.

24b. The Chihuahuan Desert Grasslands occur in areas of fine-textured soils, such as silts and clays, that have a higher water retention capacity than coarse-textured, rocky soil. The grasslands occur in areas of somewhat higher annual precipitation (10 to 15 inches) than the Chihuahuan Basins and Playas (24a), such as elevated basins between [[mountain] ranges], low mountain benches and plateau tops, and north-facing mountain slopes. Grasslands were once more widespread, but heavy grazing in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was unsustainable, and desert shrubs invaded where the grass cover became fragmented (Land-use and land-cover change). In grassland areas with lower rainfall, areal coverage of grasses may be sparse, 10% or less. Some areas are now mostly shrubs as grasslands continue to decline due to erosion, drought, and climatic change. Typical grasses are black, blue, and sideoats grama, dropseeds, bush muhly, and tobosa, with scattered creosotebush, and prickly pear and cholla cacti.

24c. The Low Mountains and Bajadas include several disjunct hilly areas that have a mixed geology. The mountainous terrain has shallow soil, exposed bedrock, and coarse rocky substrates. Alluvial fans of rubble, sand, and gravel build at the base of the mountains and often coalesce to form bajadas. Vegetation (Land-cover) includes mostly desert shrubs, such as sotol, lechuguilla, yucca, ocotillo, lotebush, tarbush, and pricklypear, with a sparse intervening cover of black grama and other grasses. At higher elevations, there may be scattered one-seeded juniper and pinyon pine. Strips of gray oak, velvet ash, and little walnut etch the patterns of intermittent and ephemeral drainages, and oaks may spread up north-facing slopes from the riparian zones. The varied [[habitat]s] provide cover for mule deer, bobcat, javelina, and Montezuma quail.

24d. The Chihuahuan Montane Woodlands ecoregion comprises the higher elevation mountainous areas, generally above 5000 or 6000 feet. These include the Chisos, Davis, Glass, and Apache mountains of Texas and the Organ, Florida, San Andres, and Oscura mountains of New Mexico. Increased precipitation in the mountains supports woodland areas except on sunny, exposed slopes that may have grass and chaparral only. Oaks, junipers, and pinyon pines predominate on all these mountain ranges. At lower elevations they occur in canyons and shaded hollows, and with increasing elevation and moisture levels, form more dense woodlands. Coniferous forests (Forest biome) are limited in extent; some ponderosa pine, southwestern white pine, and relict Douglas-fir grow at the highest elevations in a few areas. In these higher ranges, trees sometimes grow with a grassy understory, or with a brush cover of bigtooth maple, madrone, little walnut, oak chaparral, and grapevines. The higher mountainous areas are a major refuge for larger ungulates, such as mule deer and desert bighorn sheep.

24f. The Chihuahuan Desert portion of the Rio Grande Floodplain has some similarities to Ecoregion 22g upstream. Hydrology has been altered by upstream impoundments, by Elephant Butte and Caballo reservoirs, and by channelization in this region. Annual flooding of terraces and benches has been eliminated. Riparian woodlands and shrublands have been greatly reduced and invasive salt cedar has expanded. Narrow bands of cropland, orchards, vineyards, and small farms occur in portions of Ecoregion 24f. The southern Rio Grande valley in New Mexico is still an important wintering area for sandhill cranes, snow geese, and other migratory waterfowl. Urban [[land use]s] are spreading in the Las Cruces and El Paso areas. Drought, aquifer depletion, and agricultural irrigation create water supply concerns in Texas and Mexico.

24g. The Gypsiferous Dunes ecoregion is one of the largest dune fields in the United States, and is the world's largest expanse of gypsum sand dunes. The gypsum was dissolved in runoff mostly from the San Andres Mountains, carried into the Tularosa Basin, and then crystallized in playa lake deposits. Fine white grains of gypsum are blown by the winds to form a variety of dune types: dome-shaped, barchan, transverse, and parabolic. Several types of small animals have evolved a white coloration to help camouflage them in the dunes. In many areas, the dunes are mostly barren; interdune flats tend to be more vegetated. Soaptree yucca, sand verbena, mormon tea, skunkbush sumac, fourwing saltbush, gyp moonpod, gyp grama, alkali sacaton, sandhill muhly, hoary rosemary mint, and a few Rio Grande cottonwoods occur.

24h. The Lava Malpais region includes three separate areas: the impressively long Carrizozo Lava flow in the northern part of the Tularosa Basin, an area of Quaternary lava in the Jornada del Muerto, and, in the south, the Aden-Afton basalt flow. The Carrizozo lava, one of the younger volcanic features in New Mexico, flowed from a small cinder cone or vent called Little Black Peak, located at the northern end. Pahoehoe lava texture, collapse pits, lava tubes, and other volcanic features are found here. Mixed shrubs and [[grass]es] occur on the lava, taking advantage of available moisture and warmer ground [[temperature]s] created by solar absorption. Similar to Ecoregion 22k, some species of rodents and reptiles found here have developed abnormally dark coloration, called melanism, for camouflage against the dark lava. Several species of bats occupy some of the intact lava tubes. The Jornada del Muerto field formed where a small central volcano produced multiple lava flows. The topography of the combined vent and surrounding lava flows forms a shield-type volcano profile. Large lava tubes occur south of the central vent. These tubes were mined for bat guano early in the century. Aden Crater on the Aden-Afton field is also a well-preserved small shield volcano.

25. High Plains
Higher and drier than the Central Great Plains (27) to the east, and in contrast to the irregular, mostly grassland or grazing land of the Northwestern Great Plains (43) to the north, much of the High Plains is characterized by smooth to slightly irregular plains with a high percentage of cropland. Grama-buffalo grass is the potential natural vegetation (Land-cover) in this region as compared to mostly wheatgrass-needlegrass to the north, Trans-Pecos shrub savanna to the south, and taller grasses to the east. The ecoregion includes the plains area of the Llano Estacado. Thousands of playa lakes (seasonal depressional wetlands) occur in this area, many serving as recharge areas for the important Ogallala Aquifer. These playa lakes are also essential for waterfowl during their yearly migration along the Central Flyway of North America. Oil and gas production occurs in parts of the region.

25b. The Rolling Sand Plains expand northward from the lip of the Canadian River trough, and are composed of flat sandy plains, sand hills, depressions, and mostly stabilized dunes. Soils developed from mostly eolian sand and silt deposits. In northern Texas and New Mexico, the vegetative cover of the Rolling Sand Plains is transitional between the Shinnery Sands (25j) to the south and the sandsage prairies of Oklahoma, Colorado, and Kansas. Havard shin oak, the characteristic shrub cover of the Shinnery Sands, still grows in parts of Ecoregion 25b in Texas, but it is at the northern limit of its distribution. However, both Havard shin oak and sand sagebrush perform the same important function of stabilizing sandy areas subject to wind erosion. The sandsage association includes [[grass]es] such as big sandreed, little bluestem, sand dropseed, and sand bluestem. Other native range plants include sideoats grama, blue grama, buffalograss, switchgrass, yellow Indiangrass, and yucca. Lesser prairie-chickens use shin oak and sandsage prairie [[habitat]s], but are presently imperiled due to agricultural practices as well as intensive grazing. Land use in the New Mexico portion is primarily rangeland, although some areas have irrigated cropland using deep wells.

25c. The Moderate Relief Plains ecoregion is composed of irregular, rolling to broken plains, transitional to Ecoregion 26. Slopes are greater than in the adjacent cropland-dominated flat and rolling plains of Ecoregion 25d in Colorado or Ecoregion 25e in Oklahoma and Texas. Land use is predominantly rangeland, in contrast to the cropland or mosaic of cropland and rangeland of surrounding High Plains (25) ecoregions. Soils formed primarily from loamy eolian sediments. In New Mexico, Ecoregion 25c occurs mostly on the Tertiary Ogallala Formation. Blue grama-buffalograss or blue grama-western wheatgrass was the natural prairie type, different from the sand sagebrush-mixed bluestem prairie of Ecoregion 25b. Soils have a mesic temperature regime, in contrast to the thermic soils to the south in Ecoregion 25.

25e. The Canadian/Cimarron High Plains ecoregion includes the portion of the High Plains north of the Canadian River, primarily in the Texas and Oklahoma panhandles and in southeast Kansas, that has similarities to the Llano Estacado. Only a small portion of the region occurs in New Mexico. Winters are more severe than on the Llano Estacado (25i) to the south; the increased snow accumulation delays summer drought conditions because snowmelt saturates the ground in spring. Although the topography of Ecoregion 25e is just as flat as the Llano Estacado, this northern region has fewer playas and is more deeply dissected by stream channels. There is also more grazing land in Ecoregion 25e compared to 25i; the rougher terrain near the stream incisions tends to be grazed rather than tilled. In cultivated areas, corn, winter wheat, and grain sorghum are the principal crops. Many areas in the New Mexico portion that had cropland decades ago have now reverted to rangeland.

25i. The Llano Estacado ecoregion, translated as the "Staked Plain", is a level, treeless, elevated plain surrounded by escarpments on three sides. Geologically, the Llano Estacado began as an apron of Miocene-Pliocene sediments (Ogallala Formation) eroded from the eastern Rocky Mountains. Several caliche horizons developed in the Ogallala sediments, including a hardened caprock caliche in the uppermost layer. The caprock was eventually covered by Pleistocene wind-borne sand and silt, the Blackwater Draw Formation. The smooth surface of the plain holds seasonal rainfall in numerous playas. The Llano Estacado was once covered with shortgrass prairie, composed of buffalograss, blue and sideoats grama, and little and silver bluestem. Bison were once prominent elements of a prairie ecosystem that no longer functions as an interdependent web of bison, black-tailed prairie dog, black-footed ferret, snake, ferruginous hawk, coyote, swift fox, deer, pronghorn, mountain lion, and gray wolf. About 80-90% of the Llano Estacado in Texas and New Mexico is presently tilled for agriculture, with more rangeland to the west. Farmers produce cotton, corn, and wheat under dryland agriculture or irrigated with water pumped from the Ogallala Aquifer. The capacity of the Ogallala Aquifer is limited, particularly under drought conditions. Withdrawals from the aquifer usually exceed recharge.

25j. The Shinnery Sands ecoregion includes sand hills and dunes as well as flat sandy recharge areas. These sand beds lie at the western edge of the High Plains where rising winds drop heavier sand grains and carry finer material further east onto the flat expanse of the Llano Estacado (25i). The ecoregion is named for the Havard (shin) oak brush that stablizes sandy areas subject to wind erosion. Although the shin oak rarely grows higher than 4 feet, its extensive root system can reach over 50 feet through dune sand to reach water. The largest area of sand dunes, at the southwestern edge of the Llano Estacado (25i), is composed of sands blown out of the Pecos River Basin against the Mescalero Escarpment of the Llano Estacado by prevailing southwesterly winds. These dunes serve as a major recharge area for the Pecos River. While sandsage and prairie [[grass]es] may create a continuous plant cover in portions of Ecoregion 25j, the vegetative cover is vulnerable to overgrazing and subsequent wind blowouts which may begin a cycle of dune formation. In dune areas, anchoring shrubs such as Havard shin oak, fourwing saltbush, and yucca stabilize the dune sand for herbaceous grasses and forbs such as sand verbenas, sunflowers, fringed sagewort, and hoary rosemary-mint. Ephemeral ponds and swales between the dunes support rushes, sedges, and sandbar willow. The shinnery sands are habitat for the lesser prairie-chicken and sanddune lizard, two species that are in serious decline. The shrubs offer cover and shade for nesting prairie-chickens, and shin oak acorns are a staple food source. Parts of the sand plains and dune fields of Ecoregion 25j contain dense arrays of oil fields.

25k. The Arid Llano Estacado ecoregion is drier than the main portion of the Llano Estacado (25i) to the north. Its climate is transitional to the arid Chihuahuan Desert region (24) to the southwest. Across the region in New Mexico and Texas, yearly precipitation is less than that of the Llano Estacado (25i); there is also less winter precipitation and an absence of snow cover to provide soil moisture. This can cause the caliche layer to be closer to the surface in Ecoregion 25k, increasing the general droughty condition of the soil and making tilled agriculture more difficult than in the Llano Estacado (25i). The arid conditions are reflected in the land use, which is dominated by livestock grazing. The shortgrass prairie of grama and buffalo grasses is susceptible to overgrazing, and a broken grass cover allows the invasion of shrubs such as mesquite and lotebush. Oil and gas production activities are widespread.

26. Southwestern Tablelands
The Southwestern Tablelands flank the High Plains (25) with red hued canyons, mesas, badlands, and dissected river breaks. Unlike most adjacent Great Plains ecological regions, little of the Southwestern Tablelands is in cropland. Much of this region is in sub-humid grassland and semiarid rangeland. The eastern boundary represents a transition from the more extensive cropland within the High Plains (25) to the generally more rugged and less arable land within the Southwestern Tablelands (26) ecoregion. The natural vegetation (Land-cover) in this region is mostly grama-buffalograss, with some juniper-scrub oak-grass savanna on escarpment bluffs. Prairie fires were likely important in maintaining the grasslands and suppressing encroachment of shrub and woody species. Pronghorn antelope is the most common large native mammal of the region.

26d. The Semiarid Canadian Breaks ecoregion is similar to the Canadian Breaks (26a) to the east in Texas with its deep valley trough and moderate-relief tablelands, but it is drier. This ecoregion also has large areas of Triassic mudstones and shales exposed, whereas Ecoregion 26a in Texas has a more homogeneous substrate of the Tertiary Ogallala Formation. The mudstones and shales create badlands that are not productive, and plant growth is sparse, increasing the look of aridity to the landscape. Some of the taller [[grass]es] and eastern riparian species found in the Canadian Breaks (26a) also tend to disappear towards the west in Ecoregion 26d as conditions become drier and the soils become less productive. The shrub and midgrass prairie vegetation (Land-cover) includes one-seed juniper, sand sagebrush, skunkbush sumac, and yucca, along with sideoats grama, little bluestem, western wheatgrass, blue grama, buffalograss, galleta, and alkali sacaton.

26f. The Mesa de Maya/Black Mesa ecoregion covers a small portion of southeast Colorado, northeast New Mexico, and northwest Oklahoma. It includes basalt-capped mesas as well as deep canyons, knobs, dissected plains, and breaks that have been cut into sandstone, shale, and limestone. In New Mexico, the valley of the Dry Cimarron River is a canyon of these exposed Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous strata. As Black Mesa extends east into Oklahoma, it supports many end-of-range flora and fauna species. Great Plains vegetation intergrades with foothill flora of the Rocky Mountains. Mesa tops are covered with shortgrass prairie. Shrubs and small trees, mainly pinyon and oneseed juniper, occur in canyons and on north-facing slopes. The vegetation mosaic contrasts with the grassland of adjacent, less rugged plains.

26h. Scattered, dissected areas with pinyon and juniper woodlands on the uplands characterize the Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands and Savannas ecoregion. Occurring in Colorado and New Mexico, the region is a continuation or an outlier of the pinyon-juniper woodlands found in Ecoregion 21d in the Southern Rockies (21). Soils tend to be thin, and for most of the region are formed in materials weathered from limestone, sandstone, and shale. Rock outcrops are common. In central New Mexico, much of the region is often associated with the Paleozoic Glorieta Sandstone and other limestone and shale rocks. In the north, the region includes a few hills and peaks of volcanic or mixed geology that have some small areas of montane coniferous forest. Annual precipitation in the New Mexico portion ranges from 12 to 16 inches, with the highest precipitation found in areas closest to the mountains. Land use is primarily wildlife habitat and rangeland.

26l. The Upper Canadian Plateau is heterogeneous relative to relief, geologic substrates, and vegetation patterns. Parts of the region are influenced by proximity to mountainous regions, and there are other east to west differences within the region. The ecoregion contains mesic soils, higher elevations, and areas of greater relief compared to the thermic soils and lower elevations to the south in Ecoregion 26n. It is underlain mostly by Cretaceous sandstone and shale, with some Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic rocks. It includes parts of the Raton-Clayton and Ocate volcanic fields. Cover types include shortgrass prairie, some midgrass prairie, scattered juniper savanna, and juniper woodland on hills.

26m. The Canadian Canyons ecoregion includes parts of the Canadian Escarpment, Canadian River Gorge, and associated canyons where coniferous and mixed woodland occurs and Jurassic rocks have been exposed by water and wind erosion. Its higher relief and different vegetation distinguishes it from surrounding ecoregions 26l, 26n, and 26d. Vegetation (Land-cover) is dominated by pinyon pine, one-seed juniper, and some ponderosa pine at higher elevations. The Canadian River Gorge is one of the biggest and deepest canyons on the American Great Plains.

26n. Broad, rolling plains, tablelands, and piedmonts characterize the Conchas/Pecos Plains, broken by drainages to the Pecos, Conchas, and a small portion of the Canadian rivers. The region has lower elevations and thermic soils compared to the higher elevations and mix of mesic and thermic soils of Ecoregion 26o to the west. Livestock grazing is the dominant land use. Soils formed in material primarily from Quaternary, Triassic, and Permian sediments. The natural vegetation of these plains included blue grama, galleta, sand dropseed, threeawns, ring muhly, broom snakeweed, cacti, yucca, and cholla. Some areas of sideoats grama and little bluestem, with blue grama, western wheatgrass, galleta, and buffalograss also occurred.

26o. The Central New Mexico Plains are slightly drier than Ecoregion 26n to the east, with more shortgrass steppe and less midgrass prairie. It has generally higher elevations and more mesic soils than the somewhat lower elevations and thermic soils of 26n. The region is composed of mostly Permian rocks compared to the Triassic materials of Ecoregion 26n. Livestock grazing is the dominant land use. Pronghorn antelope are common as well as coyote and a variety of raptors.

26p. The Pluvial Lake Basins ecoregion includes the Estancia, Pinos Wells, and Encino lake basins near the center of the state. Permanent lakes occupied several large closed basins in New Mexico during the last ice age. Today, annual evaporation is greater than the inflow to the basins from rainfall, runoff, and groundwater discharge. Annual precipitation is only 12 to 13 inches. Natural vegetation includes fourwing saltbush and alkali sacaton. The region was an historical trade route for salt between Rio Grande pueblos and Plains tribes. Some agriculture and cropland occurs today in the Estancia basin, irrigated by groundwater.

26q. The Southern New Mexico Dissected Plains is a transitional area between the shortgrass prairies of Ecoregion 26 and the Chihuahuan Desert grasslands of Ecoregion 24. It is also influenced by the proximity to the Sacramento Mountains of Ecoregion 23. Geology is mostly Paleozoic limestone, dolomite, shale, and sandstone. Rock outcrops are common. It is characterized by well-dissected topography with numerous draws and shallow canyons, and a rather sparse vegetative cover. Annual precipitation averages only 12 to 13 inches, lower than most of Ecoregion 26 to the north. The eastern portion has more Chihuahuan scrub, while to the west at higher elevations, some juniper savanna occurs. Native vegetation (Land-cover) is short and mid grasses with some low desert shrubs. Grasses are mainly blue grama, black grama, hairy grama, sideoats grama, triden, or threeawn. Shrubs include juniper, lotebush, yucca, dalea, and a variety of acacias.

79. Madrean Archipelago
Also known as the Sky Islands in the United States, this is a region of basins and ranges with medium to high local relief, typically 3000 to 5000 feet. Native vegetation in the region is mostly grama-tobosa shrubsteppe in the basins and oak-juniper woodlands on the ranges, except at higher elevations where ponderosa pine is predominant. The region has ecological significance as both a barrier and bridge between two major cordilleras of North America: the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Madre Occidental.

79a. With valley plains, alluvial fans, and some low hills, the Apachian Valleys and Low Hills ecoregion is generally similar physiographically to the Chihuahuan Basins and Playas (24a). This region, however, has greater precipitation with more monsoonal influence, and has more grassland than Ecoregion 24a. The present vegetation is mostly sideoats grama, black grama, cane beardgrass, plains lovegrass, blue grama, hairy grama, sand dropseed, vine mesquite, curly mesquite, false mesquite, Mormon-tea, mimosa, yucca, ocotillo, cacti, and agave. Encroachment of honey mesquite has been significant in some areas.

79b. The Lower Madrean Woodlands occur at intermediate elevations, generally above 5000 feet. It is a mild winter-wet summer woodland, shrubby in places. The Madrean encinal, or evergreen oak woodlands, have a mosaic of savannas, denser woodlands, and grassy openings. Emory, silverleaf, Tourney, and Arizona white oaks occur, along with scattered pinyon, juniper, mesquite, and chaparral species. Riparian areas of cottonwood, sycamore, and willow are valuable to neotropical birds and other wildlife of the area.

79c. In contrast to the lower elevation woodlands of Ecoregion 79b, at elevations above about 7000 feet are the Madrean Pine-Oak and Mixed Conifer Forests. These include ponderosa pine-oak forests, ponderosa pine forests, montane fir forests, and mixed conifer forests (Forest biome). Some very small areas of subalpine forest occur in Arizona. Ponderosa pine, southwestern white pine, Apache pine, and Chihuahuan pine are found here, along with some Douglas-fir. Gambel oak and alligator juniper are also components of these pine forests.

Notes

Literature Cited

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20. Colorado PlateausRugged tableland topography is typical of the Colorado Plateaus ecoregion. Canyons, mesas, plateaus, and mountains expose a long geologic history of rock formations. Precipitous side-walls mark abrupt changes in local relief, often of 1000 to 2000 feet or more. The region contains more pinyon-juniper and Gambel oak woodlands than the Wyoming Basin (18) to the north.

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Hair-grass

Alpine Fescue

Golden Avens

Alpine Forget-me-not

Sedges

Spike Woodrush

Lichens

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- The elevation in the Alpine Tundra ranges from 11,500ft to a little above 13,000

- The temperature in the Alpine Tundra is typically cooler and the air is thin

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The Alpine Tundra has a large variety of 

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The Alpine Tundra has a large variety of 

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Plants

Wildlife

From lush forest to rocky cliffs

Meadows

Rocky terrain

Grassy flatlands

Alpine grass