# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Why Our Brains Want to Be Addicted | The Chemistry of Addiction

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How stress affects your body - Sharon Horesh Bergquist

# data[].attributes.headline
Endocrine Cells in the brain optimize behavior

# data[].attributes.subject
Endocrine Cells in the brain optimize behavior

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
A person exposed to stress can usually rapidly adapt the own behavior to the specific situation. Biochemical messenger substances in the brain or so-called neurotransmitters play a central role in this rapid transformation process. We know that hormones also have a stress-regulating function, but that their effects are more slowly apparent. However, recent findings reported by the team under Professor Soojin Ryu, leading researcher at the German Resilience Center of Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (JGU) in Germany, indicate that this may not actually be the case. Using a combination of genetic and optical techniques, the research team has been able to demonstrate that corticotrophs, the cell populations that stimulate the adrenal cortex and produce the stress hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, can rapidly influence avoidance behavior immediately after the onset of a stress situation. This insight may contribute to the development of effective treatments that can facilitate the management of acute stress-induced reactions or might even be able to alleviate acute stress-related conditions. The findings have recently been published in the eminent journal Nature Communications.

The human body is controlled by two well-orchestrated systems, i.e., the hormonal system and the nervous system. The hypothalamus located in the middle of the basis of the brain has a key role here providing the link between the body and the other regions of the brain as well as directly and indirectly controlling a series of essential physiological vegetative functions. In addition, it is the most important control organ of the human endocrine system (hormonal system), because it regulates when and how much of a hormone is produced. Both the hypothalamus and its production of hormone are also subject to the influences of emotional stress. The pituitary gland or hypophysis is connected to the hypothalamus and together they form a single functional unit called the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis.

Hormones secreted by the hypothalamus include the so-called releasing hormones, such as the corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). This stimulates the production of the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTCH) in the pituitary gland. ACTH is a hormone secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary and it regulates the production of other hormones, such as the stress hormone cortisol (hydrocortisone).

It can be basically assumed that the neurotransmitters of the central nervous system rapidly determine whether fight or flight behavior is to develop in a given situation. To date, medical science has conjectured that the stress-regulating effects of the hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis come into play far more slowly. Stress researchers found it very problematic to establish the concrete role of the HPA axis in the rapid adaptation of behavior in a stress situation in more detail in standard animal models. This is because the location of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in mammals makes them difficult to access. To overcome these obstacles, Professor Soojin Ryu's work group at the German Resilience Center at Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz decided to create an innovative optogenetic research technique. They managed to develop a genetically modified zebrafish larva in which they were able to manipulate the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis using light and thus observe the resultant changes to the reactions of the modified cells.

Two original concepts have been brought together in the new technique of Professor Soojin Ryu's group: On the one hand, it employs optogenetic methods, i.e., a combination of optical and genetic techniques. This makes it possible to precisely control, in a targeted and extremely rapid manner, the functional reactions of genetically modified cells. The process first involves the modification of light-sensitive proteins using genetic techniques. These are then introduced into specific target cells or tissues. The functioning of these proteins can then be regulated using light and the reaction of the modified cells can be controlled. In addition, Ryu's approach also pioneers the use of a new animal model in stress research, here the zebrafish. The advantage of the zebrafish, especially the transparent larvae of these small tropical fish of the group of teleosts, is that their development in the embryonic phase is similar to that in humans. They also mature very rapidly and are thus ideal for the purposes of genetic research. Moreover, the transparency of the larvae makes it easy to observe the tissue sections of their bodies.

The researchers at the German Resilience Center in Mainz introduced a synthetic enzyme into their animal model that elevates the levels of the intracellular messenger substance cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) only in the corticotropic cells of the HPA axis. Their elevation is important for the release of hormones in the corticotropic cells of the anterior pituitary. The levels of the resulting so-called transgenetic animal stress hormones can be increased by means of exposure to light. This means the researchers can thus observe the accompanying changes to behavior.

The newly published research results of Professor Soojin Ryu and her team at the German Resilience Center show that the corticotropic cells in the pituitary become directly active on the onset of a stress situation that is perceived as distressing. These then influence both locomotion and avoidance behavior as well as the sensitivity to the stimulus. The researchers interpret this as evidence that the corticotropic cells in the pituitary play a significant role in the rapid adaptation of behavior to local environments perceived as antagonistic.

Journal Reference:

Rodrigo J. De Marco, Theresa Thiemann, Antonia H. Groneberg, Ulrich Herget, Soojin Ryu. Optogenetically enhanced pituitary corticotroph cell activity post-stress onset causes rapid organizing effects on behaviour. Nature Communications, 2016; 7: 12620 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms12620

Cite This Page:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
hormone disorders; psychology research; nervous system; mental health research; stress; neuroscience; mental health; depression

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Endocrine cells in the brain influence the optimization of behavior

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A person exposed to stress can usually rapidly adapt the own behavior to the specific situation. Biochemical messenger substances in the brain or so-called neurotransmitters play a central role in this rapid transformation process. We know that hormones also have a stress-regulating function, but that their effects are more slowly apparent.

# data[].attributes.body
What is the difference between hormones and neurotransmitters, and how are they both important in

understanding that there is a physical, biological aspect to stress and addiction whether or not there is a

pathogen.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Spring has sprung earlier than ever before this year, accompanied by temperatures more typical of early summertime. Many plants were already in full bloom by mid-April, about three to four weeks earlier than normal. These types of seasonal anomalies are becoming increasingly frequent due to climate change, and the resulting uncertainty threatens to disrupt the timing of mutualistic relationships between plants and their insect pollinators.

A research team led by ETH Professors Consuelo De Moraes and Mark Mescher has now discovered that one peculiar bumblebee behaviour may help to overcome such challenges by facilitating coordination between the bees and the plants they pollinate. The group has found that bumblebee workers use their mouth parts to pinch into the leaves of plants that haven't flowered yet, and that the resulting damage stimulates the production of new flowers that bloom earlier than those on plants that haven't been given this "nudge."

Their study has just been published in the journal Science. "Previous work has shown that various kinds of stress can induce plants to flower, but the role of bee-inflicted damage in accelerating flower production was unexpected," Mescher says.
Surprising behaviour from bumblebees
The researchers first noticed the behaviour during other experiments being undertaken by one of the authors, Foteini Pashalidou: pollinators were biting the leaves of test plants in the greenhouse. "On further investigation, we found that others had also observed such behaviours, but no one had explored what the bees were doing to the plants or reported an effect on flower production," Mescher explains.

Following up on their observations, the ETH researchers devised several new laboratory experiments, and also conducted outdoor studies using commercially available bumblebee colonies -- typically sold for the pollination of agricultural crops -- and a variety of plant species.

Based on their lab studies, the researchers were able to show that the bumblebees' propensity to damage leaves has a strong correlation with the amount of pollen they can obtain: Bees damage leaves much more frequently when there is little or no pollen available to them. They also found that damage inflicted on plant leaves had dramatic effects on flowering time in two different plant species. Tomato plants subjected to bumblebee biting flowered up to 30 days earlier than those that hadn't been targeted, while mustard plants flowered about 14 days earlier when damaged by the bees.

"The bee damage had a dramatic influence on the flowering of the plants -- one that has never been described before," De Moraes says. She also suggests that the developmental stage of the plant when it is bitten by bumblebees may influence the degree to which flowering is accelerated, a factor the investigators plan to explore in future work.

The researchers tried to manually replicate the damage patterns caused by bees to see if they could reproduce the effect on flowering time. But, while this manipulation did lead to somewhat earlier flowering in both plant species, the effect was not nearly as strong as that caused by the bees themselves. This leads De Moraes to suggest that some chemical or other cue may also be involved. "Either that or our manual imitation of the damage wasn't accurate enough," she says. Her team is currently trying to identify the precise cues responsible for inducing flowering and characterising the molecular mechanisms involved in the plant response to bee damage.
Phenomenon also observed in the field
The ETH research team was also able to observe the bees' damaging behaviour under more natural conditions, with doctoral student Harriet Lambert leading follow-up studies on the rooftops of two ETH buildings in central Zurich. In these experiments, the researchers again observed that hungry bumblebees with insufficient pollen supplies frequently damaged the leaves of non-blooming plants. But the damaging behaviour was consistently reduced when the researchers made more flowers available to the bees.

Furthermore, it was not only captive-bred bumblebees from the researchers' experimental colonies that damaged plant leaves. The investigators also observed wild bees from at least two additional bumblebee species biting the leaves of plants in their experimental plots. Other pollinating insects, such as honeybees, did not exhibit such behaviour, however: they seemed to ignore the non-flowering plants entirely, despite being frequent visitors to nearby patches of flowering plants.
Delicate balance starting to tip
"Bumblebees may have found an effective method of mitigating local shortages of pollen," De Moraes says. "Our open fields are abuzz with other pollinators, too, which may also benefit from the bumblebees' efforts." But it remains to be seen whether this mechanism is sufficient to overcome the challenges of changing climate. Insects and flowering plants have evolved together, sharing a long history that strikes a delicate balance between efflorescence and pollinator development.

However, global warming and other anthropogenic environmental changes have the potential to disrupt the timing of these and other ecologically important interactions among species. Such rapid environmental change could result in insects and plants becoming increasingly out of sync in their development, for example. "And that's something from which both sides stand to lose," Mescher says.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
endangered plants; nature; botany; agriculture and food; global warming; grassland; environmental issues; rainforests

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Spring has sprung earlier than ever before this year, accompanied by temperatures more typical of early summertime. Many plants were already in full bloom by mid-April, about three to four weeks earlier than normal. These types of seasonal anomalies are becoming increasingly frequent due to climate change, and the resulting uncertainty threatens to disrupt the timing of mutualistic relationships between plants and their insect pollinators.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Bees are flying insects, closely related to wasps and ants.

There are approximately 20,000 species of bees, and they may be found on every continent except Antarctica.

Bees are adapted for feeding on nectar and pollen, the former primarily as an energy source, and the latter primarily for protein and other nutrients.

Most pollen is used as food for larvae.

Bees are extremely important as pollinators in agriculture.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
insects (including butterflies); agriculture and food; mating and breeding; animals; life sciences; zoology

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Bees are flying insects, closely related to wasps and ants. There are approximately 20,000 species of bees, and they may be found on every continent except Antarctica. Bees are adapted for feeding on nectar and pollen, the former primarily as an energy source, and the latter primarily for protein and other nutrients.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Flowers are the reproductive part of a flowering plant. They are the most colorful and attractive organ of a plant body.

What are the Different Parts of a Flower

A typical diagram of a flower is divided into four main parts: 1) sepals, 2) petals, 3) stamen and, 4) carpel, each of them performing distinct functions.

When a flower has all the four floral parts, it is called a complete flower. A flower missing any one of them is called an incomplete flower.

1. Sepals

They are modified leaves that enclose the developing flower. Sepals are the first essential part that grows in a flower, arising from the top of the stem.
Functions

Providing protection to the young flower buds from an injury by forming a tightly closed area

Giving structural support to a flower

2. Petals

They are modified leaf-like parts that surround the reproductive organs of a flower. Petals are the brightest and colorful parts of a flower that distinguish them from other parts.
Functions

Protecting the reproductive structures in flowers

Attracting pollinators like insects (e.g., bees, wasps, and butterflies), birds and other small mammals to transfer pollen from male to female reproductive part of a flower

3. Stamen

It is the male reproductive part of a flower. It consists of two main parts:

a) Anther - Yellowish sac-like structure present at the head of the stamen.

b) Filament - Slender stalk-like structure present at the tail of the stamen.
Functions

Anther helps in producing and storing pollen grains

Filament holds the anther and attaches it to the flower

4. Carpel

Female reproductive part of a flower that forms pistil. A pistil may contain a single carpel or multiple carpels fused together. It contains three parts:

a) Stigma - Head of the pistil that catches pollen grains.

b) Style - The stalk of the pistil. When pollen grains reach stigma, a tube-like structure grows through the style called pollen tube, which reaches the ovary.

c) Ovary - The base of the pistil that holds the eggs or ovules. The ovary later becomes the seed when the male and female reproductive cells fuse together, thereby forming the embryo, a process called fertilization.
Functions

Stigma helps in receiving pollen grains and also in their germination

Style supports the stigma and connects it to the ovary

Ovary helps in developing, distributing, and nourishing the embryo

FAQs
Q.1. What are androecium and gynoecium?
Ans. The androecium is the male reproductive part of a flowering plant, which is composed of one or more stamens.

The gynoecium is the female reproductive part of a flowering plant, which is composed of one or more carpels.
Q.2. What is a unisexual flower?
Ans. When a flower has either stamens or carpels, but not both of them, it is called a unisexual flower. Example: papaya and watermelon.
Q.3. What is a bisexual flower?
Ans. When a flower has both stamens and carpels, it is called a bisexual flower. Example: rose and mustard flower.
Q.4. Which part of a flower contains the ovary?
Ans. The ovary is the enlarged basal portion of the pistil where ovules are formed.

Article was last reviewed on Friday, July 3, 2020

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Parts of a Flower, Their Structure and Functions With Diagram

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Flowers are the reproductive part of a flowering plant. They are the most colorful and attractive organ of a plant body. A typical diagram of a flower is divided into four main parts: 1) sepals, 2) petals, 3) stamen and, 4) carpel, each of them performing distinct functions.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.entities[].name
Bee Pollinators of Southwest Virginia Crops

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
People, Plants and Pollinators | Nat Geo Live

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Emerging Explorer Dino Martins says that from long-tongued bees to hawk moths, pollinators are the hidden workers that keep the planet running. ➡ Subscribe: http://bit.ly/NatGeoSubscribe ➡ Get More Nat Geo Live: http://bit.ly/MoreNatGeoLive About Nat Geo Live (National Geographic Live): Thought-provoking presentations by today's leading explorers, scientists, and photographers.

# data[].attributes.body
(Photo I took on campus)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Content on this website is for information only. It is not intended to provide medical or other professional advice.

Views expressed here do not necessarily reflect those of ScienceDaily, its staff, its contributors, or its partners.

Financial support for ScienceDaily comes from advertisements and referral programs, where indicated.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
human biology; cell biology; biology; molecular biology

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Content on this website is for information only. It is not intended to provide medical or other professional advice. Views expressed here do not necessarily reflect those of ScienceDaily, its staff, its contributors, or its partners. Financial support for ScienceDaily comes from advertisements and referral programs, where indicated.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
In biology, meiosis is the process by which one diploid eukaryotic cell divides to generate four haploid cells often called gametes.

Meiosis is essential for sexual reproduction and therefore occurs in all eukaryotes (including single-celled organisms) that reproduce sexually.

A few eukaryotes, notably the Bdelloid rotifers, have lost the ability to carry out meiosis and have acquired the ability to reproduce by parthenogenesis.

Meiosis does not occur in archaea or bacteria, which reproduce via asexual processes such as mitosis or binary fission.

During meiosis, the genome of a diploid germ cell, which is composed of long segments of DNA packaged into chromosomes, undergoes DNA replication followed by two rounds of division, resulting in haploid cells called gametes.

Each gamete contains one complete set of chromosomes, or half of the genetic content of the original cell.

These resultant haploid cells can fuse with other haploid cells of the opposite sex or mating type during fertilization to create a new diploid cell, or zygote.

Thus, the division mechanism of meiosis is a reciprocal process to the joining of two genomes that occurs at fertilization.

Because the chromosomes of each parent undergo genetic recombination during meiosis, each gamete, and thus each zygote, will have a unique genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA.

In other words, meiosis and sexual reproduction produce genetic variation.

Meiosis uses many of the same biochemical mechanisms employed during mitosis to accomplish the redistribution of chromosomes.

There are several features unique to meiosis, most importantly the pairing and genetic recombination between homologous chromosomes.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
genes; human biology; personalized medicine; developmental biology; genetics; biology

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In biology, meiosis is the process by which one diploid eukaryotic cell divides to generate four haploid cells often called gametes. Meiosis is essential for sexual reproduction and therefore occurs in all eukaryotes (including single-celled organisms) that reproduce sexually.

# data[].attributes.body
What is special about the angiosperms (flowering plants) and why is this group of plants of such critical

importance to humans? What is one of your favorite angiosperms and what are its pollinators? Give some

details about the lifestyle of the pollinator and the angiosperm and how they work together postively.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Scientists at Hollings Cancer Center at the Medical University of South Carolina have found that some cells can divide without a molecule that was previously thought necessary. Their results, published online in the July 2018 issue of Genes and Development, explain how liver cells can regenerate after injury and may help us understand how cancer arises and how cancer cells evolve to have additional mutations, which accelerates growth and spread.

Authors on the paper included Gustavo Leone, Ph.D., director of Hollings Cancer Center and a Grace E. DeWolff Endowed Chair in Medical Oncology, and Takayuki Okano-Uchida, Ph.D. One of the areas of focus in Leone's lab is studying how normal cells divide to better understand the process in cancer cells, which can divide rapidly and spread.

Uchida explained that cell division is necessary during periods of growth, such as embryonic development, and to replace dead or damaged cells. A key component of cell division is to accurately copy each chromosome providing identical DNA to each cell produced, termed DNA replication. Errors that occur during this process can result in cells with abnormal copies of chromosomes or deleterious mutations which can lead to cancer.

"We are multicellular organisms," said Uchida. "To make multicellular organisms, it is important to copy cells, so DNA replication is very important to us."

To divide properly and ensure accurate DNA replication, the cell must start this process at a specific location on each chromosome, called the 'origin of replication'. The entire process of firing these origins to start DNA replication, like the starting up of engines at the beginning of a car race, is highly regulated by a group of molecules called the 'origin replication complex' that binds to a certain place on the DNA within each chromosome and helps the cell recognize where to start DNA replication. This complex helps each cell make a precise copy of its DNA before it divides, and thus ensures that all cells have a perfect genome.

Uchida and colleagues found while the majority of cells need a part of the origin recognition complex, called ORC1, to copy their DNA, cells of the liver and placenta do not need ORC1. These cells are a rare type that routinely copy their DNA but do not divide, resulting in a larger cell with twice the normal amount of DNA. This process, termed an endocycle, can occur multiple times creating a cell with many times the normal amount of DNA.

The researchers found that in the liver, ORC1 is expressed at high levels in dividing cells. However, researchers found as the animal model ages and more liver cells start to endocycle, ORC1 levels drop indicating that ORC1 may not be needed to replicate DNA in endocycling cells. In order to test this idea, ORC1 was deleted in liver cells, and it was found that without OCR1, liver cells started to endocycle much sooner.

"This finding is extremely relevant because it is generally accepted that ORC1 is essential for all forms of DNA replication," Uchida said.

In their future research, Leone and Uchida are focusing on the role of ORC1 and abnormal DNA replication in cancer cells. Cancer cells use processes similar to the endocycle to grow rapidly and become resistant to therapy, according to Uchida. In fact, certain cancers have very low levels of ORC1 but are able to grow rapidly without it. "The catch is, that we think that by replicating DNA without ORC1, cells accumulate more mutations than normal, which could of course fuel cancer growth and progression."

Uchida acknowledges that these results in mice may not extend to humans, and that question is also behind the team's next steps, which is testing their results in human liver cell lines.

"In this paper, we show that ORC1 is essential for mouse development," said Uchida. "It should be the same in human development, but we really do not know yet."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
stem cells; lymphoma; brain tumor; cancer; lung cancer; genes; liver disease; prostate cancer

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Unlocking the secrets of cell division in cancer

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Scientists have found that some cells can divide without a molecule that was previously thought necessary. Their results explain how liver cells can regenerate after injury and may help us understand how cancer arises and how cancer cells evolve to have additional mutations, which accelerates growth and spread.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Mitosis vs. Meiosis: Side by Side Comparison

# data[].attributes.body
What is the difference between Mitosis and Meiosis?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Carbon dioxide (CO ₂) is an important heat-trapping gas, also known as a greenhouse gas, that comes from the extraction and burning of fossil fuels (such as coal, oil, and natural gas), from wildfires, and natural processes like volcanic eruptions. The first graph shows atmospheric CO ₂ levels measured by NOAA at Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii, since 1958. The second graph shows CO ₂ levels during Earth's last three glacial cycles, as captured by air bubbles trapped in ice sheets and glaciers.

Since the onset of industrial times in the 18th century, human activities have raised atmospheric CO ₂ by 50% - meaning the amount of CO ₂ is now 150% of its value in 1750. This human-induced rise is greater than the natural increase observed at the end of the last ice age 20,000 years ago.

The animated map shows how the historical changes in global carbon dioxide over time. Note the colors change as the amount of CO ₂ rises from 365 parts per million (ppm) in 2002 to over 420 ppm currently. It's important to understand that "parts per million" refers to the number of carbon dioxide molecules per million molecules of dry air. These measurements are from the mid-troposphere, the layer of Earth's atmosphere that is 8 to 12 kilometers (about 5 to 7 miles) above the ground. This data provides insights into the significant rise in atmospheric CO2 concentrations, highlighting the impact of human activities on Earth's climate.

CO₂ Through the Seasons

A closer look at the carbon dioxide measurements at Mauna Loa shows a series of wiggles in the data. Although total CO ₂ is increasing each year, there is also a short-term cycle visible within the larger trend.

This annual rise and fall of CO ₂ levels is caused by seasonal cycles in photosynthesis on a massive scale. In Northern Hemisphere spring, plants come to life and draw in CO ₂ to fuel their growth. This begins the process of lowering the amount of CO ₂ in the atmosphere. In northern autumn, plant growth stops or slows down, and the whole process reverses itself. Much of the plant matter decomposes, releasing CO ₂ back to the atmosphere.

A similar but less intense pattern repeats in the Southern Hemisphere in opposite seasons. Spring growth starts in September and winter decomposition begins in March, so CO ₂ records in the Southern Hemisphere show the opposite pattern of that seen in Mauna Loa. However, because there is a lot more land and vegetation in the Northern Hemisphere than the southern, the global seasonal cycle more closely aligns with the northern pattern.

See the cycle in action in the visualization Watching Earth Breathe: The Seasonal Vegetation Cycle and Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide.

This boom-and-bust cycle of plant growth gives the graph of CO ₂ a sawtooth pattern of ups and downs from year to year. At a larger scale, the upward climb of the trend line over the decades is caused by CO ₂ emissions, primarily from burning fossil fuels. Thus, the data illustrate both natural factors and human additions of CO ₂.

Learn more:

NASA's Climate Kids: Why is Carbon Important?

Missions That Observe CO₂
Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO-2) Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO-3)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Carbon Dioxide Concentration | NASA Global Climate Change

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Vital Signs of the Planet: Global Climate Change and Global Warming. Current news and data streams about global warming and climate change from NASA.

# data[].attributes.headline
Who does climate change affect the most?

# data[].attributes.subject
Who does climate change affect the most?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Around the world, people are experiencing both the subtle and stark effects of climate change. Gradually shifting weather patterns, rising sea levels and more extreme weather events are devastating evidence of both a rapidly changing climate and an urgent need for solutions.

While the impacts of climate change affect every country on every continent, they don't do it equally. People already burdened by poverty and oppression often suffer the harshest consequences, while having the least ability to cope. Their struggle to earn a living, feed their families and create stable homes is made more difficult every day the climate crisis continues.

The increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events like hurricanes, wildfires and droughts threaten lives in these front-line communities, driving people from their homes and jeopardizing food sources and livelihoods. All these effects increase the likelihood of more conflict, hunger and poverty.

Still, the people most at risk are persisting despite it, fighting to grow food, maximize dwindling resources and withstand recurring disasters. The actions people in hard-hit regions are taking every day to overcome the burdens of the climate crisis are just as vital as widespread solutions. And the steps we take now as a global community, including supporting those on the front lines who are braving the challenge, will determine our resilience for the future.

The time for this action is now, with the U.N. secretary-general naming 2021 a "make or break" year to address the climate emergency.

The climate crisis discriminates, but the efforts to fight it cannot. Mercy Corps partners with people and communities facing the starkest effects of climate change, connecting them to information and tools to protect themselves, overcome challenges and thrive in the changing environment.

Read on to learn more about how climate change triggers conflict and exacerbates hunger and poverty for these communities, as well as what Mercy Corps is doing to help them become stronger and more resilient in the face of change.

What are the biggest effects of climate change?

Climate change places compounded stress on our environment, as well as the economic, social and political systems people depend on for food, safety and income. Whether it comes in the form of unbearable heat waves, harsh winters or extreme weather events like the recent hurricanes in Puerto Rico and The Bahamas, climate change puts people's lives at risk by undermining development and creating shortages of basic necessities, like food and water.

Climate change threatens the cleanliness of our air, depletes our water sources and limits food supply. It disrupts livelihoods, forces families from their homes and pushes people into poverty.

Research from 2015 revealed the planet had lost around one-third of its arable land in the previous 40 years, in large part due to climate disasters and poor conservation. And every year more trees and soil are lost. More than 1.3 billion people live on weakening agricultural land, putting them at risk of depleted harvests that can cause hunger, poverty and displacement. Soil, which is essential for healthy crops and ecosystems, is being lost between 10 and 100 times faster than it is forming, though recent research suggests conservation measures can help substantially.

Meanwhile, natural disasters have become more frequent and destructive. In 2019, 396 events - more than the annual average over the previous decade - affected 95 million people globally and caused $103 billion in economic losses. These damages can be nearly impossible for families living in poverty to overcome.

As climate events worsen, people are also threatened by more gradual changes, such as climbing temperatures and declining rainfall.

Droughts alone impact around 55 million people every year , and the damage hits the agriculture industry - the primary source of food and income for many people in developing countries - particularly hard. Between 2008 and 2018, more than 80% of drought damage was absorbed by agriculture in low- and lower-middle-income countries, and the crop and livestock losses caused by all natural disasters in these countries during the same timeframe equated to enough calories to feed 7 million people per year.

As these situations grow more desperate, food shortages can force families to leave their homes and migrate to other countries.

"When there is no rain, like now, we get big challenges. There are no yields, and when you go to the shops you find that food prices have gone up, yet you are still jobless."

- Simon, a farmer in drought-stricken Kenya

Climate change is also one of many root causes of conflict around the world: it leads to food shortages, threatens people's livelihoods and displaces entire populations. Where institutions and governments are unable to manage the stress or absorb the shocks of a changing climate, instability will remain an ongoing threat.

Who is most affected by climate change?

While everyone around the world feels the effects of climate change, the most vulnerable are people living in the world's poorest countries, like Haiti and Timor-Leste, who have limited financial resources to cope with disasters, as well as the world's 2.5 billion smallholder farmers, herders and fisheries who depend on the climate and natural resources for food and income.

Increasingly unpredictable weather patterns, shifting seasons and natural disasters disproportionately threaten these populations, endangering their livelihoods and increasing their risk of poverty and hunger.

The majority of people living in poverty rely on agriculture and natural resources to survive. For these people, the effects of climate change - shifting weather, limited water sources and increased competition for resources - are a real matter of life and death. Climate change has turned their lives into a desperate guessing game.

As the effects of climate change increase for these populations, so must the ingenuity of our response.

How does climate change increase conflict?

Conflict is the primary cause of poverty and suffering in the world today. And it's exacerbated by climate change.

By amplifying existing environmental, social, political and economic challenges, climate change increases the likelihood of competition and conflict over resources. It can also intensify existing conflicts and tensions.

In the Democratic Republic of Congo, shifts in the timing and magnitude of rainfall undermine food production and increase competition for remaining arable land, contributing to ethnic tensions and conflict.

And in places like central Nigeria and Karamoja, Uganda, where resource scarcity has been a long-standing challenge, climate change has further reduced pasture and water sources and resulted in increased competition and violence.

"The land is insufficient. ... The relationship [between people] is no longer that good. Take farms and cattle for instance. Since the land is not enough, cattle tend to encroach into farmers' crops. It brings about trouble, crises and the involvement of law enforcement agents." - Habibu, pastoralist in resource-scarce central Nigeria

But while climate change can lead to conflict, it can also provide an opportunity for collaboration. These challenges present a unique opportunity for collective action and partnership in order to mitigate the impacts, and the security of front-line communities will depend on cooperation over conflict.

"The community feels anxious because the flooding is quite disruptive of our daily activities, so we try to always communicate and coordinate to find solutions when flooding happens in our neighborhood. ... I am happy to live in my current neighborhood because we handle the flooding issue together as a community." - Sagiman, community member in flood-prone Indonesia
In Uganda, Mercy Corps is helping one South Sudanese refugee form a friendship without borders ▸
What's the relationship between hunger and climate change?

Climate change threatens the world's food supply.

Floods and droughts brought on by climate change make it harder to produce food. As a result, the price of food increases, and access becomes more and more limited, putting many at higher risk of hunger.

Undernutrition is the largest health impact of climate change in the 21st century. The number of undernourished people in the world has been increasing since 2014, reaching nearly 690 million - almost 9% of the global population - in 2019. The vast majority live in low- and middle-income countries - research shows hunger to be most prevalent in Africa and rising fastest in Latin America and the Caribbean. The number of undernourished people in the Latin America and Caribbean region increased by 9 million between 2015 and 2019.

Much of the increase is linked to progressively extreme weather and the growing number of conflicts, which can be driven or exacerbated by climate-related stresses. The 2020 Global Report on Food Crises recently reported its highest number of acutely food insecure people on record, some 135 million people across 55 countries and territories, in part due to climate shocks and natural disasters such as flooding, erratic rain, climate-induced displacement and the devastating locust invasion in East Africa.

How does climate change create climate refugees?

Rising sea levels, extreme weather events and prolonged drought force millions of people to lose or move away from their homes every year in search of food, water, shelter or jobs.

Nearly 70% of all new displacements in the first six months of last year were the result of weather-related disasters, with a total of 9.8 million people around the world driven from their homes by shocks like drought, hurricanes and landslides - around 50,000 people every day.

Meanwhile, gradual changes brought on by deforestation, overgrazing and decreased rainfall slowly transform pastures to dust, destroy crops and kill livestock, effectively challenging the livelihoods of millions of farmers. Many of these families are forced to leave their homes behind in search of basic necessities and new work.

And if sea levels continue to rise without intervention, many of those living near the ocean - about 40 percent of the world's population - will be at risk of losing their homes.

Almost all of these displacements are occurring in low- and middle-income countries, where people have fewer options to cope with progressive shifts or sudden disasters.

What's the forecast for the future and climate change?

The negative impacts of climate change continue to worsen and multiply at dramatic rates, and more ambitious global efforts are necessary to cut emissions and limit the effect of climate change on the planet.

Access to clean water is likely to become even more limited, and the risk of hunger and famine will become even greater than it is today. By 2050, climate change reportedly has the potential to increase the number of people at risk of hunger by as much as 20%. The majority of those at risk live in Africa.

Tens of millions of people are expected to be forced from their homes in the next decade as a result of climate change. This would be the biggest refugee crisis the world has ever seen.

In 2017, the World Health Organization reported climate change is expected to kill an additional 250,000 people every year between 2030 and 2050, from climate-linked malnutrition, malaria, diarrhea and heat stress, all while continuing to jeopardize clean air, safe drinking water and sufficient food supply.

A crisis of this scale demands a united, immediate response of an even greater magnitude: one in which we work together to help communities worldwide confront the challenges of today while developing solutions for a safer, more stable future.

How is Mercy Corps helping?

Mercy Corps is helping people around the world adapt to climate change.

In places as diverse as Puerto Rico, Ethiopia, Mongolia and Indonesia, we listen to the climate challenges each community is facing and collaborate with them to develop solutions that will make the biggest impact. This work aims to remove barriers so communities can adapt, innovate and thrive amidst the impacts of climate change, particularly in three areas: disappearing livelihoods and rising hunger, increasing disaster and escalating violence.
Read more about our approach to climate-resilient development ▸
1. Building climate-resilient livelihoods and food sources

We support farmers and communities to better manage unpredictable weather patterns and maximize the resources they do have by connecting them with information, tools and services for growing hardier yields and raising livestock.

This includes helping farmers diversify their crops and redesign their farmland to improve their productivity and protect the soil, so they are better equipped to continue growing food and earning income in the face of drought. We also train herders on how to keep their animals healthy in drier conditions.

We link farmers and herders with banking services, such as loans and savings, as well as insurance products, that can help them protect their work and build a financial safety net. And we use mobile technology to connect them to critical information - weather updates, crop prices, e-learning - they can leverage to make informed choices on when to plant and sell and how to treat their crops and animals.
REPORT: How investing in resilience helps fight drought ▸
We also work with communities to strengthen and adapt their local market systems and secure economies that can thrive in a changing climate.

This includes introducing new, locally-produced agricultural supplies, such as drought-resistant seeds and drip irrigation, which helps farmers in places like water-scarce Jordan use limited resources more efficiently. We also link farmers in Afghanistan and other farming communities with new buyers, enabling individuals to increase their income and encouraging job creation in rural economies.
How we're helping herders build resilience in rural Ethiopia ▸
2. Helping communities prepare for worsening disasters

We help communities rebound from disasters while strengthening them to be more resilient for the future. We do this by partnering with them to decrease the risk of damage while equipping themselves to respond in the event of another disaster.

In flood-prone places, like Tajikistan and Indonesia, we've worked with communities to reinforce river embankments and prepare for future flooding by developing early warning systems and evacuation routes.

In Puerto Rico, where hurricanes are an annual threat, we've collaborated with existing community centers to create resilience hubs supplied with solar power, water and emergency essentials, so community members won't be dependent on external aid to survive in the event of a future disaster.

Around the world, we teach students and community members about climate impact, risk management and disaster preparedness so they're better prepared for emergencies. And we collaborate with local and national governments to strengthen their communities' resilience to weather-related risks, including improving the way water and land is managed, building disaster response plans and developing policies that reduce vulnerability to climate change.
CASE STUDY: A governance approach to building climate resilience in Indonesia ▸
3. Addressing conflict caused by climate change

To resolve climate-related tension and stop violence before it starts, we help communities and their governments build an environment in which people work together to protect and share natural resources.

We provide opportunities for people to overcome their differences and collectively manage resources, like training community leaders to build conflict management skills and helping people identify shared concerns and solutions.

"If we work as a team in unity then all work will be easy, but if we keep fighting within each other then we can do nothing." - Gayadin, farmer in flood-prone rural Nepal

In Uganda, for example, we facilitate resource-sharing agreements and promote cooperation between communities to reduce conflict. In Nigeria, we teach farmers and herders how to peacefully resolve disagreements over land and water that could otherwise spiral into violence.

Just as the fight against climate change is a collective effort, we see the shared experience of its local impacts as an opportunity for cooperation and collaboration that can reduce the risk of conflict and foster a better future.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The facts: How climate change affects people living in poverty

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Climate change is affecting every country on every continent. But for the people living in the world's poorest countries, the effects of climate change - limited water and food sources and increased competition for them - are a matter of life and death.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Causes and Effects of Climate Change | National Geographic

# data[].attributes.body
What is causing Climate Change, why is it important, and what is something you and/or society can do to

impact this? What are socioeconomic implications of climate change—who is most affected by climate

change?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How does your immune system work? - Emma Bryce

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How do vaccines work? - Kelwalin Dhanasarnsombut

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The immune system is the system of specialized cells and organs that protect an organism from outside biological influences. (Though in a broad sense, almost every organ has a protective function - for example, the tight seal of the skin or the acidic environment of the stomach.) When the immune system is functioning properly, it protects the body against bacteria and viral infections, destroying cancer cells and foreign substances.

If the immune system weakens, its ability to defend the body also weakens, allowing pathogens, including viruses that cause common colds and flu, to grow and flourish in the body.

The immune system also performs surveillance of tumor cells, and immune suppression has been reported to increase the risk of certain types of cancer.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
immune system; lymphoma; medical topics; developmental biology; virology; biotechnology

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The immune system is the system of specialized cells and organs that protect an organism from outside biological influences. (Though in a broad sense, almost every organ has a protective function - for example, the tight seal of the skin or the acidic environment of the stomach.)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Vaccination is the process of administering weakened or dead pathogens to a healthy person or animal, with the intent of conferring immunity against a targeted form of a related disease agent.

It succeeded and is distinct from inoculation.

In common speech, 'vaccination' and 'immunization' generally have the same colloquial meaning.

Vaccination efforts have been met with some resistance since its inception.

Early success and compulsion brought widespread acceptance and mass vaccination campaigns were undertaken which have greatly reduced the incidence of many diseases in many areas.

The eradication of smallpox, which was last seen in a natural case in 1977, is considered the most spectacular success of vaccination.

Some people assert that childhood vaccination plays a role in autoimmune disease and autism though large-scale scientific studies have not shown a link.

Some major contemporary research in vaccination focuses on development of vaccinations for diseases including HIV and malaria.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
vaccines; immune system; healthy aging; pests and parasites; extinction; biochemistry research

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Vaccination is the process of administering weakened or dead pathogens to a healthy person or animal, with the intent of conferring immunity against a targeted form of a related disease agent. It succeeded and is distinct from inoculation. In common speech, 'vaccination' and 'immunization' generally have the same colloquial meaning.

# data[].attributes.body
1. What is the immune response, and how does a vaccine function in this regard?