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Most of the churches were constructed atop hills or on the banks of rivers in large areas and always faced east. Around the churches, secured by huge walls, markets also came up in different parts of the State. Churches were identified by the huge stone crosses, which were known as 'Nasrani Pillar.' They were in vogue even before the arrival of the Portuguese. They resembled the obelisks which were seen in Rome and different parts of Europe. They had nothing to do with the huge stone pillars in the temples. A horizontal granite piece added to a pillar carved out of a single stone gives them the shape of a cross. Stone crosses of up to 40 feet height still exist without any damage. Pictures of angels, the lotus, mermen, as well as Syriac language can be seen engraved on some of them. Such crosses could be seen in Kanjoor, Chathannoor, Muthalakkodam, Thumbamon, Angamaly, Akaparambu, Koratty, Ollur, Arthattu, Malayattoor, Changanassery, Muttuchira, Chengannur, Kayamkulam, Kothamangalam, Moozhikkulam, Mylakombu, Kaduthuruthy, Kadamattom, Edapally, and Ramapuram. The highest among them, measuring 39 ft, is at the St.Mary's Church at Kaduthuruthy.

Stone cross at St Joseph's Church at Veroor near Changanassery

The most beautiful part of such a cross is its base where all the engravings are. The stone crosses at the churches at Chengannur and Changanassery are distinct for the decorations on them. The cross at St. George's Church, Angamaly is also a piece of beautiful art. It was the model for the one found at St. Thomas Museum, Kakkanad, with the carvings of St. Thomas cross and of an angel. Near it, there is a decorated boundary stone also. It is believed that crosses evolved from the obelisks with the Assyrian background.

Flag masts:
To find out the oldest churches in Kerala one only needs to get the details of the churches that participated in the Synod of Diamper. There were then, only 106 churches in Kerala. Many of them had a flag mast with the stone cross in front of them.

Flag masts were for hoisting the flag to start off festivals. They were made of teak wood with a cover of copper or iron, unlike the recent ones made of steel or bronze. This might have been adopted from temples. The copper flag mast at Cheppad church is similar to those seen in temples. Stone masts could be seen at Kura, Kallooppara, Chengannur, and Niranam.

The stone fonts for baptism:
Baptism is one of the main rituals of Christians. Many old churches have baptismal fonts made out of a single stone, for the ritual. Some fonts are beautiful with carvings on them. The Synod of Diamper insisted that churches should provide the facility for conducting baptism. Priests failing to oblige will be punished, says an ecclesiastical order issued by Paramekkal in 1791. Huge fonts with carvings could be seen at Kanjoor, Edapally, Mylakombu, Muthalakodam, Kaduthuruthy, Kothamangalam, Kadamattom and Changanassery churches. Those seen at Angamaly Jacobite church and Kalloopara are small, but very old ones.

Fonts with carvings are there at Edappally and Kanjoor. The one at Edappally is modelled on 'Asoka Sthambha' with pictures of lions on it. Below the lions there are figures of the lotus. The one at Kanjoor has carvings of angels and various ornaments. The influence of Buddhist sculpture is evident in these. Christian artists of Kerala do not seem to have played a major role in sculpting the fonts. Neither do the fonts show any influence of foreign styles. They might have been made by artists from Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.

Pulpits:
Pulpits were made compulsory in churches by the Synod of Diamper. Pulpits, called 'Flowers,' made of wood and showing the influence of Persian sculpture, were there in all the old churches. They were in the shape of flowers emerging from the mouth of an elephant or lion and were made before the 16th century. Such pulpits have been conserved in Ollur, Kanjoor, Thrissur Marthamariam Church, Mattom, Pala, and Chungam. Once the microphones became popular, the pulpits became useless. The pulpit at St.Thomas Church, Koratty, was demolished while renovating the church, whereas a few churches still retain them. The best of them is the one at Ollur. It has sculptures at three levels.

The Altar:
There are four parts for a church, namely, the entrance, the foyer, the hall for prayer, and the inner sanctum or Madbaha. The Altar located in the Madbaha has the significance of a sanctum sanctorum in a temple. It is made of wood. It symbolises heaven. The word altar also means throne. During the olden days, churches had three altars, which were also known as Thronos. The Sakrari that stores the holy wares would be placed on the altar. The cross, candle stand and the Remshenthi will be decked with carvings of vines, flowers, the phoenix, angels and fish.

The churches in Koratty and Chalakkudy were renovated but the pulpits have been retained. The altars in Ollur, Arthungal, Kanjoor, Alangad, Koratty, Chengannur, Thumbamon, Pazhuvil, Kottayam, Pala, Kaduthuruthy and Mulanthuruthy have pulpits decorated with sculptures. The sculptures of the angel Raphel in Ollur, and that of St. Sebastian and Koratty Muthy at Kanjoor and Arthungal reflect the spirit of devotion and belong to a rich tradition.

Sculptures and idols:
Huge logs with images of the elephant, the tiger, the snake, the dragon, and the Lion were used as support for the roofs of churches. Instead of the koorodu, Basel Mission company popularised tiles. There still remain old churches with tiled roof. But it was not permitted to cover the roof with copper as in the case of temples.

During the early years, churches had no idols, except the cross. It was the advent of the Portuguese that led to the system of idol worship. They were instrumental in popularising the image of Christ on the cross and introduced statues of saints like St. Sebastian, St. George and St. James. Idols were placed on the wall of the St. Mary's Jacobite Church, Angamaly, constructed by Arch Deacon Gheevarghese in 1565 and in the foyer of St. Hormis Church, Angamaly constructed by Mar Abraham in 1570. When the Jacobites took over the Arch Deacon's church, they removed the idols, leaving the cabins, occupied by them, vacant. The idols were reinstated after renovating the St. Hormis Church.

Holy images are quite common in Catholic churches. These are modelled on the figures of Michael Angelo, Leonardo Da Vinci and Raphael. The idol of the sorrowing Mother reminds one of Michael Angelo's Pieta, carved in white marble. The image of Virgin Mary with baby Jesus, is modelled on Michael Angelo's Madonna. The image of Christ on the mother's lap at Martha Mariam Church, Kuravilangad, the picture of the Holy Mother at St. Mary's Church, Manarkad, and that of the Mother of Vallarpadam are noteworthy. A Hindu mother and her child could be seen in the picture of Holy Mary, at Vallarpadam, which is the result of a local legend being woven into the picture.

Some of the popular idols of the early times were those of St. George and St. Sebastian. It is believed that the idols of St. George at Edapally, Aruvithara, Edathua and Angamaly and of St. Sebastian at Kanjoor and Arthungal were brought from Portugal. Statues belonging to the 15th century could still be found in certain churches. A holy image of Koratty Muthy is there at Koratty. The Catholic Art Museum at Ernakulam has in its holdings, a statue of Christ which resembles Lord Buddha, and one of the Mother holding baby Jesus. The idol of St. George at the museum, thought to be of the 15th century, is modelled on Pallava sculpture. The images of St. George in armour, of the princess kneeling on a rock in prayer, and of the dragon, are almost lifelike. The statues of other saints like St. Antony and St. Jude, found a place in Catholic churches only quite recently. Angamaly church has the pictures of St. George and Mar Bahanan. In Jacobite churches pictures are given priority. The statue of St. James at the St. Louis Church, Mundamveli is very attractive. Here St. James is presented as riding a horse, wielding a sword and a shield, and holding high a flag with the images of the Cross and the sceptre. The story behind it, is that a carpenter found a log of the Kumul tree in his pond. He recovered it, chopped its branches and there emerged the figure of St. James. He then installed the statue at the church built in 1868.

Nagarikanikkal:
Catholic churches in Kerala had the system of taking out the idol of Christ in a procession on Good Friday, which was given up in the 70s. One such idol is kept at the St. Mary's Church Museum at Koratty.

Church bells:
Old Testament of the Bible has many references to church bells. There are hints that when Noah made his ark, he made a wooden bell to help the workers to know time. It is also believed that a wooden bell is a reminder of the death of Christ on the wooden cross. The following is the observation of Musheber Keepa: the bugle is sounded to bring together soldiers for a war. A bell is rung for bringing together the faithful to fight the devil. The sound of a bugle is also a call inviting the winners to receive their honours. Similarly, the chiming of a bell, invites those who repent, and through faith defeat the world, the Devil and the sensual, to be honoured with the boons such as forgiveness of their sins and eternal life. The wooden bell is still used in churches during the holy week.

Church bell of St. Dominics Cathedral at Kanjirappally

Bells were made out of horns and glass in different shapes, till casting bells in bronze was started in the Bronze Age. It was believed that the chiming of the bell would start off rain and bring down the intensity of the wind. It was also believed that it would protect the church from danger. Christians consider the church bell as a symbol of heaven and its sound as the voice of the Almighty.

Bells were first made by the residents of Ashrams and hence the symbols and chants of Christianity were inscribed on the bells. The technique was popularised throughout the world by the missionaries. Bells cast in metal were compulsory in churches. The use of brass and bronze were quite prevalent here, but the metal for making bells was mostly imported. The bells were hung on tall bell towers so that the chiming would be heard far and wide.

The canons of the Synod of Diamper points out that that most of the churches of Malankara did not have bells and those having them hung them inside the church, which was not advisable.

A tower was constructed at Paravur Church for installing a bell that was brought by Francis Ross who stayed at Paravur. The biggest church bell in Asia belongs to Marthamariam Church, Kuravilangad. The church has three bells imported from Germany.

The bell at Mylakombu:
There is a famous bell at the Mylakombu church. It is the oldest bell found in Kerala. The inscriptions on it in the Sanam Mônam script are of great significance. It describes the bell as having been cast for the Mylakombu Mar Thoma Church, on Sunday, 5th of the month Meenam, 606 years after the birth of Christ ("Deepika," March 11, 1973). The inscriptions were made during the evolution of Malayalam language and are perhaps the oldest such found in Kerala. The alphabets used here do not belong to any of the scripts popular at the time, such as Kolezhuthu, Kursone, Vattezhuthu, Malayanma, and Arya. This shows that the Christians promoted Malayalam. The bell also shows that the using of bell metal, an alloy of copper, bronze and silver, was known in Kerala at that time. The calculation of the date here from the birth of Christ, dismisses the argument that it was after the arrival of the Portuguese that the concept of AD came to be used in Kerala. On the other hand it proves that it was practised in Kerala 9 centuries before their arrival (Christava Vignana Kosham). The date of the casting of the bell at Kaduthuruthi made of five metals is 1647.

Wooden roof supporting at Kudamaloor Church

Indian influence in sculpture and painting
The St. Thomas Church at Mylapore is replete with idols, said Hiathonus in 1300. These could have been similar to the sculptures or idols seen in temples, following the principles of Indian sculpture (Fr.Placid, Nammude Wreath). All the churches and other artefacts made famous by the sculptures and paintings of the characters of the Christian religion, originated in the Western European countries like Italy, France, Portugal, Spain etc. In the renaissance paintings of Italy, Virgin Mary is depicted as an extraordinarily beautiful woman. Though what you find in the sculpture and painting of Kerala is an imitation of this, one can also find highly individualistic creations showing the local flavour. The influence of Indian style of painting could be discerned in the works of the artists who reproduced Byzantine Madonna and Sistine Madonna. A Dravidian touch is evident in the expression, make up and style of dressing of the statues of St. George, Christ, and Holy Mary at the Catholic Art Museum at Ernakulam (Pictures in Payyappilly, Ignatius, Dux Ad Historian).

The churches in Goa were constructed after the advent of the Portuguese, but the expressions and the ornaments of the idol of Christ as a boy at the Basilica of Born Jesus, Old Goa, are typically Indian. The plaited hair of the statue of Holy Mary at the Church of our Lady of the Sea in Daman is an example of Indian influence. The statue of Virgin Mary at Oralokamatha Church, Kamanayakanpatti near Tuticorin is like a Hindu goddess in the form of a Dravidian woman. The picture of Madonna and child at the Virgin Mary Church at St. Thomas Mount in Chennai is believed to have been drawn by Luke the evangelist. The pictures of Virgin Mary at the pligrim centres at Manarkad, Kuravilangad, Vallarpadom, Pallipuram and Nagappuzha are believed to have been inspired by this picture.

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indian influence in sculpture and painting of church

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Architecture of Churches in Kerala | Christianity in Kerala | Kerala Tourism

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Most of the churches were constructed atop hills or on the banks of rivers in large areas and always faced east. Around the churches, secured by huge walls, markets also came up in different parts of the State. Churches were identified by the huge stone crosses, which were known as 'Nasrani Pillar.'

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For Kerala Christians, the church remains at the heart of their gregarious lifestyle, a place to recall the spirit in the hurly-burly of life. It is also an intensely experienced way of life for many.

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 both believers and church leadership seem to favor new flamboyant megastructures that exude power, and many of the heritage churches have been torn down.

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18th-century St. Thomas Cathedral at Pala

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Introduction dwelling into the relationship of the Catholic Church with Light

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Light, Divinity And Church Architecture: A comparative study Of Orthodox Churches in Travancore based on elements influenced by the divinity of light

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Light, Divinity And Church Architecture: A comparative study Of Catholic Churches in Travancore based on elements influenced by the divinity of light

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Light, Divinity And Church Architecture: A comparative study Of Catholic Churches in Travancore based on elements influenced by the divinity of light

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The use of light in the liturgy is derived from four main sources: Jewish custom, pagan and civil ceremonial, practical necessity or convenience, and symbolism, both natural and Christian. This article treats biblical usage, pagan and civil ceremonial, Christian significance, and liturgical use.

Biblical Usage. The Mosaic Law prescribed that a seven-branched lampstand, made of the finest gold, be erected in the temple (Ex 25.31-40). It was also customary for Jews to keep a light burning perpetually in the sanctuary (Ex 27.20-21; Lv 24.2-4). The significance originally attached to this perpetual light is obscure, but the later Talmudists interpreted its burning as an act of reverence for the Torah kept in the Ark of the Covenant.

The custom of burning lights before the tombs of the Prophets was not unknown in Judaism; it was a practice common to all Mediterranean religions to light torches at funerals. A great many lights were used in some of the Jewish festivals as well, notably the Feast of Tabernacles and the Feast of the dedication of the temple, called by Hanukkah or Feast of Lights by modern Jews. The chaburah usually called for a ceremony in which a lamp was brought in and blessed with a formula such as: "Blessed art Thou, O Lord our God, eternal King who createst the lamps of fire." This ceremony marked the beginning and the end of the Sabbath and was connected with several Jewish feasts.

Pagan and Civil Ceremonial. It was a popular pagan custom to light lamps and candles both in the sanctuaries and about the doorways of homes on religious festivals. Lights were burned before idols and statues of emperors. Although torches were used to kindle the funeral pyre, they had additional significance. Offering lights to the dead was regarded as a religious act; it was a means of honoring the dead who were thought to be living in the tomb. State functionaries were also honored with lights; for example, Roman consuls had the privilege of being preceded by torches or a thick candle. This was especially the right of the Roman emperors, particularly in the court ceremonial, and the custom was continued into the Middle Ages, both in the imperial court at Byzantium and in the palaces of Western kings.

Christian Significance of Light. Apart from any religious association, light conveys to the human mind a sense of joy, optimism, goodness, purity, beauty, festiveness, dignity, and life, while darkness signifies ignorance, error, sadness, gloom, desolation, death, and evil in general. This is why lights are used so profusely by all peoples in their celebrations, whether civil or religious. Moreover, all religions, using natural symbolism, associate light with goodness and the divinity, darkness with wickedness and the evil spirits. Christianity has special reason to associate light with God, for it would be difficult to find a theme more strongly emphasized by Scripture than God as light.

In the Old Testament, light has already become part of the figurative language used to describe God. His interventions in human history are surrounded by light, fire, and lightning (Ex 3.2; 19.16; Dt 33.2; Is 30.27; 66.15; Hb3.11; Za 14.7). Yahweh's glory shines with a brilliant light (Bar 5.9; Ez 10.4); He is robed in light (Ps 104.1-2). Thus, light is a symbol of His presence (Ex 13.21; 2 Chr4.7; 13.11). Indeed His nature is compared to light: "Thou shalt no more have the sun for thy light by day, neither shall the brightness of the moon enlighten thee; but the Lord shall be unto thee for an everlasting light" (Is 60.19). When Yahweh shows His favor to the Israelites, He is said to let His countenance shine upon them (Nm 6.25; Ps 4.7; 89.16). As light is the symbol of devine protection (Jb 22.28; Ps 27.1; Mi 7.8), it is one of the blessings of Messianic salvation (Is 9.1; 58.8). The Servant of Yahweh himself is called a light (Is 42.6; 49.6; cf. Dn 12.3).

It is only natural for this symbolic language to be continued in the New Testament. God is called "the Father of lights (Jas 1.17); He "dwells in light inaccessible" (1 Tm 6.16). In fact, St. John says: "God is light and in Him there is no darkness" (1 Jn 1.5). Thus the Word, who before His Incarnation had engaged in a victorious struggle with darkness (Jn 1.5), is presented as the light-bringer (Lk 1.79; 2.32; Acts 26.23; 2 Cor 4.6), "the light of the world" (Jn 8.12; 9.5; 12.46), "the true light that enlightens every man who comes into the world" (Jn1.9); His life is the light of men (Jn 1.4). This divine prerogative finally shines through the glorified humanity of Christ (Mt 17.2-5; 28.3; Acts 9.3; 22.6-11; 26.13). Those who believe in Him become the children of light opposed to the children of darkness (Mt 5.14-16; Lk 16.8; Jn 3.19;5.35; 12.36; Acts 13.47; 2 Cor 3.18; Eph 5.8; 1 Thes 5.5; 1 Jn 1.6-7). Indeed Christ is the light of the heavenly Jerusalem (Rev 21.23-24).

While in theology the logos as light of the Father is explained by way of intellectual generation or procession (see processions, trinitarian), the Nicene Creed professes faith in Christ as "light from light."

Liturgical Use. The importance of this light theme in the Christian life is shown in the numerous references to light in the Divine Office, particularly in the hymns of the various hours, which compares the permanence of the Christ-light to the rise and decline of the natural light of day. Vespers, named after the evening star, Vesper, developed out of a combination of the prayer service at the twelveth hour and the Lucernarium, the blessing of the evening lamp.

Christmas. The whole of the Christmas liturgy is centered upon the coming of the divine light into the world, of the light shining in the darkness. The Word, born in light from the womb of the Father, is born again in the obscurity of this world, in the darkness of the fleshly womb of Mary; His human birth is accompanied by the splendor of the heavenly bodies manifested to the sheperds (Lk 2.9) and the Magi (Mt 2.2, 9). There are deeper theological implications than usual behind the profuse display of lights commonly seen in Christmas decorations.

Candlemas. The Feast of Candlemas (Feb. 2) brings a fitting climax to the light theme of the Christmas cycle with the blessing and procession of lighted candles. The original reason behind this feast appears to be the meeting in the temple between the Holy Family and Simeon, who proclaimed the Infant to be "a light of revelation to the gentiles and a glory to the people of Israel" (Lk 2.32). Although a procession at Jerusalem is already mentioned in the fourth-century diary of egeria [26; H. Pétré, Journal de voyage 21 (Paris 1948) 208], there is no indication that lights were used in it. A procession with lighted candles is certainly attested to in Palestine by Cyril of Scythopolis (d. 565) in his life of St. Theodosius [E. Schwartz, Kyrillos von Skytopolis (Leipzig 1939) 236,24].

Easter. The Easter season, on the other hand, portrays the slow conquest of the darkness of sin by "the light of the world." During Lent He is seen to struggle with the powers of darkness that seem to triumph on Good Friday, but Christ rises from the darkness of the tomb with greater radiance and splendor than ever: "His countenance was like lightning and His raiment like snow" (Mt 28.3). This glorious victory of light over darkness is brought out dramatically in the ceremonies of the Easter Vigil: the striking of the new fire in utter darkness; the lighting of the paschal candle and its gradual dispelling of the darkness of the church building as its flame is extended to the smaller candles of the participants, accompanied by shouts of "Lumen Christi"; the magnificent strains of the Exsultet in praise of the paschal candle, symbol of Christ, the new "pillar of fire" (Ex 13.21-22) who leads redeemed Israel out of the shadow of death.

The fact that the life of the Christian is a life in the Christ-light is brought out most pointedly by the celebration within the Easter Vigil of Baptism, the paschal sacrament par excellence. In Patristic times, catechumens were called illuminandi (those to be enlightened) and the newly baptized illuminati (the enlightened). It is in this context that we must place the use of light in every baptismal ceremony. The newly baptized is given a candle with the exhortation: "Receive this burning light." After the initiation of the neophyte, the faithful participating in the Easter Vigil renew their baptismal vows, holding their candles, which have been lighted from the flame of the paschal candle. Because the religious life has traditionally been considered a king of second Baptism, it has become common in ceremonies of reception of the habit and profession for the candidate to receive a lighted candle.

Symbols of Honor and Solemnity. The ancient civil custom of honoring state officials with torches and candles was taken over by the Church [T. Klauser, Der Ursprung der bischöflichen Insignien und Ehrenrechte (Krefeld 1953) 18]. Candles and torches were carried before popes, and later bishops; by the seventh century, seven candles were carried before such dignitaries and then placed on the pavement about the altar ( Ordo Rom. 1.46, 52; 2.7; 4.7-8; M. Andrieu, Les 'Ordines Romani' du haut moyen-âge [Louvain 1931-61] 2:82, 84, 158). Much later candles were placed on the altar; Innocent III (d. 1216) states that two candles were used for papal Masses ( De sacro altaris mysterio 2.21; Patrologia Latina, ed. J. P. Migne [Paris 1878-90] 217:811). This number mounted to seven by 1254 [E. Bishop, Liturgica Historica (Oxford 1918) 310-311]. In the High Middle Ages, the quantity of candles on the altar emphasizes the solemnity of the occasion: seven for solemn pontifical Mass, six for high Mass, and two for low Mass.

It is in this context that we must place the carrying of lighted candles for the proclamation of the Gospel at solemn Mass. The Gospel Book, containing the Word of God, came to be considered as a symbol of Christ Himself and hence was honored with lights of joy (Jerome, Contra Vigilantium 7; Patrologia Latina 23:345).

Ceremonies Connected with the Dead. At first the Church inveighed against burning lights before the tombs of the dead (Council of Elvira from 301-303, c.34; J. D. Mansi, Sacrorum Conciliorum nova et amplissima collectio [Florence-Venice 1757-98] 2:11); in fact Lactantius spoke out against any use of lights in worship because of their pagan implications ( Divinae institutiones 6.2; Patrologia Latina 6:637-639). However, when the pagan and superstitious connotations were no longer a danger, the Church adopted lamps and torches as a popular means of showing respect for martyrs (Jerome, Contra Vigilantium 7; Patrologia Latina 23:345) and other deceased Christians [see inscriptions in T. Klauser, Die Cathedra im Totenkult der heidnischen und christlichen Antike (Münster 1927) 127]. Lights were also carried in the funeral cortege [A. Rush, Death and Burial in Christian Antiquity (Washington 1941) 226-227]. It is from this early Christian custom that we derive the practice of burning candles around the coffin during the burial rites in church.

It is obvious that this Christian use of light for the dead has a much deeper significance than in pagan practice. The body of the deceased Christian has been a temple of the Holy Trinity, a tabernacle of the Light that is God; it awaits the day of the resurrection when in its glorified state it will share in "the splendor of the saints." The use of lights recalls the sacredness of the body, the immortality of the soul, and the Beatific Vision to which both are destined and for which the Church prays: "Let perpetual light shine upon him." In this same spirit of respect are lights burned before images of the Blessed Virgin Mary and the saints.

Other Uses. Not every use of lights in worship bears a special significance. Without doubt torches, lamps, and candles were often used to provide the light necessary for functions celebrated at night or in dark churches. Apart from certain solemnizing extras, the ordinary lights in a church serve a purely utilitarian purpose. Nonetheless in some circumstances lights, once needed for functional reasons, have in time taken on symbolic meanings. A typical example of this sort of development is the bishop's bugia, a candle held or placed near the book the bishop reads from in pontifical services. The lack of adequate lighting, together with the difficulty of reading the contracted spelling of ancient manuscripts, once made this candle a practical necessity. When the original utilitarian reason no longer existed, the bugia evolved into a mark of honor for the bishop.

Bibliography: g. dix, The Shape of the Liturgy (2d ed. London 1945). f. j. dÖlger, Sol Salutis: Gebet und Gesang im christlichen Altertum (2d ed. Münster 1925); "Lumen Christi," Antike und Christentum 5 (1936) 1-43; Die Sonne der Gerechtigkeit und der Schwarze (Münster 1918). a. g. martimort, (Tournai 1961).

[b. i. mullahy/eds.]

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liturgical use of
the use of light in the liturgy is derived from four main sources: jewish custom

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both natural and christian. this article treats biblical usage

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LIGHT, LITURGICAL USE OF The use of light in the liturgy is derived from four main sources: Jewish custom, pagan and civil ceremonial, practical necessity or convenience, and symbolism, both natural and Christian. This article treats biblical usage, pagan and civil ceremonial, Christian significance, and liturgical use.

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TRAVANCORE CHURCHES

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The Spirituality And Architecture Theology Religion Essay

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The Spirituality And Architecture Theology Religion Essay

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Spirituality is an ultimate or an alleged immaterial reality. The essence of spirituality is the search to know our true selves, to discover the real nature of consciousness. In other words, it is a constant discovery of the incredible, our real self, and a quest of our true being, why we are, who we are and where we belong. This has been a part of the eternal quest of man from times immemorial. These questions have been answered differently by many but are subject to one's own belief interpretation and perception.

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Sri Aurobindo in "Indian Spirituality and Life (1919)"says "Man does not arrive immediately at the highest inner elevation and if it were demanded of him at once, he would never arrive there. At first he needs lower supports and stages of ascent, he asks for some line of thought, dogma, worship, image, sign, and symbols, some indulgence and permission of mixed half natural motive on which he can stand while he builds up in him the temple of spirit."(Sri Aurobindo, Indian Spirituality and Life, 1919) Man's quest of truth, reality and peace has been unending. Overawed with the infinite nature, whatever he could not comprehend he attributed that to the glory of nature. Man's intellect cannot accept anything that is unknown, unseen and has no fixed shape or form. Thus to satisfy his intellectual curiosity man gave physical form to the divine being.

Spirituality is our attempt to become aware of our spirit. "Spiritual architecture' refers to any building system that facilitates this awareness. It is, an act of highlighting or bringing forth the self, not by rejecting matter but by manifesting it in matter, at various levels and in multiple forms. E.V. Walter in Placeways, defines spiritual space as â€¦ "a specific environment of phenomena that are expected to support the imagination, nourish spiritual experience, and convey spiritual truth" (Walter,E.V., Placeways: A Theory of the Human Environment, 75).

Spiritual spaces can be found in nature or they can be a constructed space. A spiritual space found in nature is a place designated by individuals or groups as such a place. It is a distinct space, a place whose character sets it apart from its surroundings. They are distinct from typical or commonly found places. The designation of a place as spiritual comes from the human need to establish a connection with inner truth. A place that is spiritual to one person or group of people may not be spiritual to others.

Architecture of a space can invoke all the senses, help one concentrate one's positive energies to calm a disturbed mind and take a peaceful stable mind beyond the physical. It is an inevitable part of life. It attempts to reflect man's source and the reason of being in several varied ways. Architecture is more than mere physical shelter or symbolic artefacts. They are catalyst towards our "dwelling", between our being and the world. Architecture, together with the other arts, has, since time immemorial, been one of the most powerful means to pursue and realize this quest and give it physical-symbolic expression: how to create an identity and a place for our being from within the vast, shapeless and infinite extent of time and space; how to affirm our presences and gain a foothold, in the universe. (Gunter Dittmar, Upon the Earth, Beneath the Sky: The Architecture of Being, Dwelling & Building, 2001)

Successful architectural expression is one, which is able to do both; provide an enriching experience and an unforgettable image. It becomes more important while expressing spirituality in material to provide for an experience of, both the form and the formless, one perceptible by the senses and other beyond senses.

Since sacred spaces are separate from everyday places in a designated precinct, value is placed on the journey and arriving at the sacred place. The path and the ritual journey are part of the sacred experience.

It is a universal goal of mankind to seek or to create spiritual spaces. What is a spiritual space, and what are the qualities which describe that space? What defines spirituality and the space it makes and how does this form relate to us today?

RESEARCH QUESTION

What are the attributes of spiritual spaces?

1.2 NEED FOR JUSTIFICATION

The current crisis of environmental degradation is also a crisis of places. People are systematically building meaningless places. We must develop a way of understanding the built environment and the natural landscape. True renewal, will require a change in the way we structure experience for understanding both the natural land and the constructed world.

Since, the spiritual dimension and moral obligation have been discarded by the modern. Materialism divorced from ethics has corrupted the society. Therefore, more and more people are turning to Spirituality, Yoga and Meditation. Religious people are searching for the lost grid of spirituality in religion. Thus, there is a growing need of buildings to cater this need of people.

There are spatial qualities and architectural elements based on experiential background and emotional attachments.

To identify and define these connections, one has to go beyond the basic observation of signs and symbols, and analyse the spatial qualities and architectural elements which stimulate senses.

1.3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

A brief study of design tools, which are capable of making the experience soul stirring. These include - form, space, volume, geometry, scale and proportions, light and colour.

Historical and symbolic aspects of spiritual spaces have already been discussed. (Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Vol. 2; Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture, Sir Banister Fletcher, Dan Cruickshank; Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Period), Percy Brown) Thus this study will be focused towards the very fundamental architectural criterion and spatial impression on individual's mind.

The study does not discuss in detail many issues, like evolution, construction, etc. But focuses on the internal design aspects, concerning the designing of a spiritual space, which are known and acknowledged.

Study should avoid commenting on the beliefs and rituals of various religions, but should debate towards the evolution and change of spatial qualities and form.

1.4 LIMITATION FOR THE RESEARCH

Study of sacred spaces of all faiths is not possible within the limited time frame.

A study of the built environment shall be undertaken which shall include only the spiritual aspect, the qualitative parameters and not the technical evaluation of the built form.

Considering the time frame provided for the completion of the study, primary case studies taken are done from Delhi only.

It would have been desirable to study how sacred can be woven into the everyday as well.

1.5 METHODOLOGY

The study is intended to be broken into subheads that will make it easier to understand the topic that talks about spiritual dimensions in sacred spaces and architectural qualities influencing human behaviour.

STAGE 1

IDENTIFYING NEED FOR THE STUDY

Trying to find the objectives of study.

Setting up the scope and limitations.

STAGE 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

Through the survey of all possible data related to the topic or on architecture and human behaviour. This stage of the research includes collecting data that is directly or indirectly related to spiritual aspect of architectural spaces. This has been done through the printed form or from the internet, articles and discussions of peoples relating to the study.

Literature survey aims at sorting out case studies both inside and outside India and also at getting an review of what are the recent developments and events that are taking place in the field of spiritual architecture.

STAGE 3

LITERATURE SURVEY 2

A study has been undertaken to understand the mental conditions of a man in different spaces and its relation with the creator. Through this the topic got defined and the question got framed.

STAGE 4

INTERRELATING DIFFERENT SACRED STRUCTURES

As our concern is on human being, the structures affecting human mind around the world should have similarities. Search for the overlapping of spatial qualities in sacred structures around the world.

STAGE 5

FRAME WORK

To make a framework of different issues and principles studied which can be applied on case studies. List of issues formulate questionnaire for the case studies and interviews.

List of issues:

Open and closed space

Portal or entrance

Path and surrounding landscape

Destination point

Form, geometry, proportion and scale

Articulation and symbolism

Light, colour and sound

Touch, smell and taste

STAGE 6

Fig 1.1 ISKCON Temple, New Delhi

Fig 1.2 Cathedral Church of Redemption, New Delhi

Fig 1.3 Jama Masjid, New DelhiCASE STUDIES

ISKCON TEMPLE, NEW DELHI

CATHEDRAL CHURCH OF REDEMPTION, NEW DELHI

JAMA MASJID,NEW DELHI

Case studies are selected to understand the sacredness and the spiritual consciousness through the built, the purpose behind it. Case studies will throw some light on the spatial qualities of spiritual spaces. Suitable case studies will be undertaken to examine the need of the topic and its negligence in present day scenario.

STAGE 7

CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF CASE STUDY

All the information collected so far was then analysed thoroughly. An analysis of experiencing the sacred buildings to out the design tools that an architect can employ to create the desired spiritual experience.

STAGE 8

DESIGN IDEA FORMULATION

After assimilation of all matter and analysis of material collected, conclusions are derived, as to, how an architect can use design tools to stimulate all the senses and make the experience of a spiritual space spiritual.

CHAPTER 2: SPIRITUAL ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN BEHAVIOR

2.1 SPATIAL QUALITIES AND HUMAN MIND

The sacred is never intentionally chosen, but in some way or the other revels itself.

-Eliade (1963)

The meaning of structured space, a meaning which we believe lies in its dynamic relationship to its human personality and to our mental health.

Fig 2.1 The self- Hindu thought (Source: Prof. H.D. Chayya)The environment in which humans operate has an important influence on their wellbeing and performance. Our structured environment is so important and, influence direct or indirect, on the shaping of personality and the choice as well as the attainment of goals. Emotional design and tangible interaction are compelling forms of enhancing user engagement. The combination of these modes of interaction can create a new dimension of human experience when physical movement in space or the manipulation of objects triggers emotions within an individual. By seamlessly integrating expressive tangible interaction techniques with ambient intelligence, that is, by creating environments that are sensitive and responsive to human gestures, meaningful experiences can be constructed.

Leon Festinger, Stanley Schachter and Krik Bach found in their detailed studies of one urban situation, that physical spaces play a very large part in the formation of community relationships â€¦and even minor architectural feature, such as the position of staircase and mailboxes, had important effects on the social life of people. "The architect who builds a house or who designs a site plan, who decides which direction the houses will face and how close together they will be, also is, to a great extent, deciding the pattern of social life among the people who will live in those houses."(Strengthening Weak Ties: Social Networks and Student Housing, Thesis, B. Design in Architecture, University of Florida, 2011)

Geoffrey Scott's book "The Architecture of Humanism", 1914, he said," The architect models in space as a sculptor in clay. He designs the space as a work of art; that is, he attempts through his means to excite a certain mood in those who enter it."

The view has been elaborated by others, among them Bruno Zevi, Architecture as Space, 1957: "the facade and walls of house. Church, or palace, no matter how beautiful they may be, is only the container, the boxâ€¦; the content is the internal space.'

As Geoffrey Scott suggests," Space itself is not obvious, cannot be visually perceived; one sees only objects in space; or the structural members that encloses the space. Space itself can only be sensed- that is, felt; its quality is apprehended by means of the senses, but its effect is upon the emotions, and cannot readily be rationalized, measured or depicted.

One can only gauge and describe accurately enough the adequacy or structural soundness, its provision for warmth, ventilation, sanitation, light, and other physical factors.

One can criticize its components in terms of proportion, texture, colour and other aesthetic considerations.

Fig. 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4 (Source: F.D.K.Ching, Architecture - Form, Space and Order 3rd edition)

Fig. 2.5 Non-sign II-art installation by Annie Hans and Daniel Mihalyo But beyond all of these, there is an overall effect exerted upon one's consciousness by architectural space which defies precise definition."(Scott, Geoffrey, The Architecture of Humanism, 1914)

Architecture truly conceived, is nothing less than the conscious and careful determination of our whole structured environment and leaves an impression on individual's mind, which can be controlled. Like a stage setting that controls the movements of actors and defines where and under what circumstances they can meet, our habitat channels our movements and influence our contacts. If we think of buildings at all, it is usually when we are jolted by some outrage, such as a stalled elevator or a leaky roof, long columned corridor, a double height space. (Walter, E.V., 1988, Placeways: A Theory of the Human Environment)

Table 2.1 The concept of the spirit of a space (Source: Author)Some of the architectural integrant which affect human psychology are:

Five senses

Hearing

Touch

Sight

Taste

Smell

The basic elements

Space

Air

Fire

Water

Earth

Instruments of perception (to acquire inward)

Ear

Skin

Eyes

Tongue

Nose

Work organs

(to act outwards)

Speech communication (exit)

Hands work (finger)

Feet mobility

Anus discard

Genitals procreate

Control centre force

Mind (flow of thoughts and emotions)

Intellect (power of discrimination)

The presiding force ("PRANA" or the life force)

The cosmos consciousness or the supreme energy

Architecture

Silence

Climate

Light

-

Plumbing

Landscape transformation

Acoustics

Weather

Colour

-

Cooling

Related technological fields

Vibrations

Texture surfaces

Texture forms

-

Repose odour

Emotional Design

Emotion is a fundamental aspect of what makes us human; it shapes our cognition, perception, memory, and learning and it colours our past, present, and future experiences. Emotional value is important in design for enhancing user experience as Donald Norman explains: "Our attachment is really not to the thing, it is to the relationship, to the meanings and feelings the thing represents." Emotional design then, provides an aesthetic interaction that engages users on an emotional, meaningful, and psychological level. Whereas affective computing focuses on the system recognizing and adjusting to what it believes the user is feeling, emotional design focuses on the emotional experience.

Physical and Tangible Interfaces

Human movement is often spurred by intention and motivation within people. Tangible user interfaces allow users to interact with virtual information by sensing and manipulating physical environments through objects, surfaces, and spaces.

Relation of architecture and human psychology is far interrelated. Appropriate use of various architectural components has the capacity of enlightening the atmosphere whereas inappropriate use does the opposite. The building forms, the functions incorporated in it, colours, negative and positive spaces in and around it may be the few points but architecture is directly attached with human psychology from conscious to subconscious level.

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2.2 PLACEBO EFFECT: SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION

For decades, scientists have tried to understand the mysterious power of what is called the "placebo effect." Placebo studies prove how powerfully we are influenced - not just emotionally but physiologically - by how we perceive the world around us.

Articulation and architectural conditions in homes can have powerful and long-lasting psychological impact. The placebo effect offers a clue that points to how we might create curative environments.

The placebo effect as a therapy, the fact that believers in a wide variety of ancient "faith" systems also claim similar effects, as have modern scientists who study mind/body medicine.

Fig 2.6 Illustration of the interrelationship of stress, belief and how they may impact on the placebo effect and the relaxation response. (Source: http://www.sciencedirect.com)In other words, it impacts an ancient part of our brain which we share with many other species. Endogenous opioids, which are naturally produced by the brain in small amounts and play a key role in the relief of pain and anxiety, have been implicated in placebo analgesia.

CHAPTER 3: SACRED SPACE AND SPIRITUALITY

3.1 OPEN SPACES: AS SACRED SPACES

Does spirituality needs sacred spaces and vice versa? Does spirituality really is incomplete without architecture? Is it not the quality of the inner life, open to a virtual dimension that transcends the sensible, that matters?

Fig 3.1 Lodhi Garden, New Delhi (Source: Author)Open space has two different meanings that work together to create sacred places that are inclusive and aware of many elements that may be exclusive to any potential user of the space. An open space is open to the public, meaning anyone of any race, faith, culture, or belief is able to enter the space. The space is for the whole community of different people rather than just one particular group. Or, an open space is one that feels welcoming and non-threatening to those that spend time in it; it feels like home for the soul. The design of the space and the placement of features such as portals, paths, universal symbols that have meaning across all religions, nations and ethnic groups, lend to the openness of the space by inviting those outside of the space to enter it. The combination of a space being open on both a physical and spiritual level is what makes up "Open Spaces, Sacred Places."

3.2 ATTRIBUTES OF A SPIRITUAL SPACE

Architecture is the first pioneer on the highway toward the adequate realization of inner self. For this means it levels space for self-realization, informs his external environment, and builds a fit place for the aggregation of those assembled having similar faith, as a defence against the threatening of tempest, against rain, and savage animals.

Besides the variety of buildings and design approaches in the effort to create a space where man can feel spirituality, there can be found some common design tools that help to create the soul stirring experience. The following discuss some of these parameters.

The portal or threshold is the entryway into the sacred space, which helps to separate the space from the greater surrounding space and invites you to step inside. A portal can be created with a hardscape such as a gate or a portico, or with simple planting.

Fig 3.2 Portal to Garden, (Source: http://www.luminous-landscape.com)

Fig 3.4 Open space, (Source: http://www.luminous-landscape.com)

Fig 3.3 Pathway in a Garden, (Source: http://www.luminous-landscape.com)The path invites exploration and discovery along the route. It meanders through spaces, fuels the imagination and entices one to see where it may lead.

The destination point is an end point within a space that inexplicably draws visitors. It may be a resting place, such as a bench, or a beautiful natural feature, such as a gurgling fountain or rain curtain. It is a point within the sacred space where those who visit always end up. Sacred spaces may have more than one destination point.

Space and Volume

Fig. 3.5 Space defining elements, Source: F.D.K.Ching, Architecture - Form, Space and Order 3rd edition) Space, whether of the individual or the universal, possesses a unique quality of experiencing. It is hyper sensitive, besides being super potential. Sense of surround defines the space as separate and apart from the overall outdoor environment. Visitors who enter the space feel as though they are entering into a room. There are natural or man-made boundaries (or a combination of both) that delineate the space within the greater environment. These boundaries provide a subtle feeling of shelter, enabling people to feel safe and enjoy their time spent in the space. (Nicolas, W. Robert Leo A Daly, 2004, building Type Basics for Places of Worship)

By generating a continuous flow of spaces, each act movement becomes an experience. Each component of architecture becomes important and provides for this linkage. It can be by repetition of elements, alteration in scale and proportion, staggering, light, texture, and colour and also by using perspective as a device to accentuate the drama. (Robinson,J., 1979, Religious Buildings)

Fig. 3.6 Form and Space, Source: F.D.K.Ching, Architecture - Form, Space and Order 3rd edition) Form and Geometry

Architectural form is the point of contact between mass and space "Architectural Form required to fulfil its functional requirements for that is the reason for its being - both physical and spiritual." (Saarinen, E., op.cit. pg 14)Every form conveys a meaning. It is important to understand how form can transmit a spiritual meaning. Certain shapes and forms are conventional associated with certain meanings.

Scale and Proportion

Fig. 3.7 Vastupurusa (Source: Charles Correa, Vistara; Architecture of India)

Fig. 3.8 Vitruvius Man (Source: Leonardo Da vinci.stanford.edu)Scale refers to the size of something compared to reference standard or size of something else. Deciding the scale of a sacred space is a common design concern. Some blend into the fabric of the neighbouring community and landscape; others stands out as landmarks, easily recognized for their special purpose. Generally the sacred spaces take monumental scale to create an atmosphere of awe, mystery and magnificence. The scale of the interior spaces, the size and weight of doors, and the exposed structural columns and beams all serve to denote the special quality of the sacred space.

Fig. 3.9 LeCorbusier modular Man (Source: Corbusier, The modulor)Proportion refers to the proper or harmonious relation of one part to another or to the whole. While the designer usually has a range of choices when determining the proportions of things, some are given to us by the nature and the man himself.

Human body proportions are used not merely as numbers with an inherent harmony, but as a system of measurements that could govern lengths, surfaces, and volumes. It can lend itself to an infinity of combination; it ensures unity with diversity; the miracle of numbers.

Proportional buildings and scale link spiritual architecture to the mathematical structure of the cosmos. The building should relate well not only to the human scale but also the psyche.

Light and Colour

Fig. 3.12 Khajuraho Temple (Source: Kota Kesava Karthik)

Fig. 3.11 Prayer at Church (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org)Light is regarded to be the most important component in definition of space or the manifestation of form in an architectural space; it not only defines the space but also gives meaning to it. In this study one looks at how light can create a place of worship; how to make a quiet, enclosed, isolated space, space full of activities, filled with vitality.

Fig. 3.10 Khirki Masjid (Source: Jegmet Wangchuk)

Colour is the attribute that most clearly distinguishes a form from its environment. We respond to bright colours, for instance red, with the emotional part of our brain. First, our muscles get tense, and then we lean towards the colour. Our respiration and heart rate goes up and the blood pressure starts rising. The opposite reactions occur when we see light colours such as blue. Our muscles relax, the heart and respiration rate drops and the blood pressure lowers.

It also affects the visual weight of a form. Gradation of colour exist; from pale to brilliant; from cold to warm. Thus colour expression is also full of meaning.

Texture is an important asset of colour. It is the visual and especially tactile quality given to a surface by shape and arrangement, and the proportions of the parts. Texture also determines to which the surfaces of a form reflect or absorb incident light. It gives an expression to the surface, thereby contributing to the overall impression.

Color

Colors Characteristics

Color's Actions

Red

Stimulating, exciting, provocative, dynamic

Increased enthusiasm, interest, and energy

Pink

Happy, sweet, spirited, romantic, youthful

Calm and relaxing feelings

Brown

Wholesome, rich, durable, rustic, sheltering

A connection with the natural earth and the stability this brings

Orange

Friendly, vital, tangy, energizing, inviting

Increases creativity and gives relief from things becoming too serious

Blue

Dependable, cool, serene, constant, quiet

Broadens your perspective in learning new information

Green

Refreshing, healing, fresh, soothing, nature

Gives freedom to pursue new ideas

Purple

Sensual, elegant, mysterious, regal, spiritual

Calms over activity or energizes from depression

Black

Strong, classic, elegant, powerful, mysterious

Opens the door to mystery and prepares for the unknown

Yellow

Warming, sunny, cheerful, luminous, enlightening

Gives clarity for decision making and sharper memory and concentration skills

white

Pure, bright, innocent, lightweight, pristine

Starts a fresh beginning

Fig. 3.13 Colours in Culture (Source: www.informationisbeautiful.net)

Table. 3.1 Concept of Colours (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org)Symbolism

Symbolism

We can identify iconography depicted in architecture of these buildings as the signs and symbols and the inspirations taken directly from some other structure or theories and thoughts spread across the world.

A symbol is the juxtaposition that is, a co-optation of visible forms brought forth to demonstrate some invisible matter. One needs to identify with one's religion that is where symbols play an important role.( Jose'Pereira, 2004, The Sacred Architecture of Islam)

Table. 3.2 Iconography in major religions (Source: Jose'Pereira, The Sacred Architecture of Islam, 2004)Sacred symbolism is considered to be present in every major religious building, around the world. Iconography of sacred geography in three major religions of the world:

TEMPLE

MOSQUE

CHURCH

MOUNTAIN

Shikhara

Minaret

Lofty towers

STONE

Idol

One that in Kabba

Altar

TREE

Present in courtyard

Cross

WATER

Sarovar

Ritual ablutions in courtyard

Place of Baptism

But is it signs and symbolism only which draw an impact on our behaviour. When we get in to some space, is the aesthetical and visual perception only gets conceived in our mind.

Fig. 3.15 Temple Bells (Source: Author)

Fig. 3.14 Prayer at church (Source: http://www.mlive.com)

Fig. 3.16 Reciting Quran in Mardrsa (Source: http://www.mlive.com)SOUND

The reverberant sound quality created by the proportions and the materials of sacred spaces set them apart from the ordinary. Sacred music, singing, chanting, the ringing of temple and church bells and intoning of prayers characterize specific rituals. The change in sound quality from the cacophony of the street to the harmony resonant silence signifies entry into a sacred space.

TOUCH

The experience of touch identifies a sacred space; the weight of the door handle, the textures of materials on walls and seating, and the hardness of stone underfoot. A change in temperature, such as the transition from the blazing heat of a busy city street into the cool and solitude of an interior can also denote a sacred space.

Most of the textures are touched by vision, iconography, formed an integral part of a temple and a church architecture to convey the complete narrative.

Though the following two are not translated into architectural terms, but they form an indispensable part of a complete spiritual experience.

SMELL

Fig. 3.20 Garlands for devotees (Source: Author)

Fig. 3.18 IItr, scented oil

Fig. 3.19 Votive Candles (Source: Author)

Fig. 3.17 Agarbatti (Source: http://www.mlive.com)Incense is used extensively in the Roman Catholic and Buddhist traditions as a symbol of prayers going up to the deity. The smell of agarbatti and the flowers offered to deity are indispensable parts of the rituals for Hindu as well as many other faiths. The incense sticks are used even in meditation centers as the intoxicating smell stimulates your senses to the positive and calms you down.

TASTE

Fig. 3.23 Christmas cake (Source: www.google.com)

Fig. 3.22 Korma (Source: Author)

Fig. 3.21 Laddo (Source: Kota Kesava Karthik)Though this sensory experience is missing in many of the architecture, it still is an integral part of many religious experiences. All the Hindu temples have Prasad and Chanramrit (sweet water) as an indispensable part of the worshipping ritual. Some believe that this custom of sharing sweets is a memorial of the sweetness of the deities. Christians offer holy water in a similar manner. The prasad is obligatory in the Gurudwara too.

3.3 SPIRITUAL DIMENSION IN EXISTING BUILDING TYPOLOGY

3.3.1 THE HINDU TEMPLE

The Hindu temple is essentially the "House Of God". It is not a place for congregational worship. Though congregation for religious ceremonies do take place, but the worshipper's communication with the divine is his own personal experience. The worshipper goes individually to the house of God and invokes his blessings. Stella Kramisch, in her book, "The Hindu Temple" says," the intellect of the age, absorbed largely in divine contemplation, is reflected in the temple idol

Spirituality is an ultimate or an alleged immaterial reality. The essence of spirituality is the search to know our true selves, to discover the real nature of consciousness. In other words, it is a constant discovery of the incredible, our real self, and a quest of our true being, why we are, who we are and where we belong. This has been a part of the eternal quest of man from times immemorial. These questions have been answered differently by many but are subject to one's own belief interpretation and perception.

Sri Aurobindo in "Indian Spirituality and Life (1919)"says "Man does not arrive immediately at the highest inner elevation and if it were demanded of him at once, he would never arrive there. At first he needs lower supports and stages of ascent, he asks for some line of thought, dogma, worship, image, sign, and symbols, some indulgence and permission of mixed half natural motive on which he can stand while he builds up in him the temple of spirit."(Sri Aurobindo, Indian Spirituality and Life, 1919) Man's quest of truth, reality and peace has been unending. Overawed with the infinite nature, whatever he could not comprehend he attributed that to the glory of nature. Man's intellect cannot accept anything that is unknown, unseen and has no fixed shape or form. Thus to satisfy his intellectual curiosity man gave physical form to the divine being.

Spirituality is our attempt to become aware of our spirit. "Spiritual architecture' refers to any building system that facilitates this awareness. It is, an act of highlighting or bringing forth the self, not by rejecting matter but by manifesting it in matter, at various levels and in multiple forms. E.V. Walter in Placeways, defines spiritual space as â€¦ "a specific environment of phenomena that are expected to support the imagination, nourish spiritual experience, and convey spiritual truth" (Walter,E.V., Placeways: A Theory of the Human Environment, 75).

Spiritual spaces can be found in nature or they can be a constructed space. A spiritual space found in nature is a place designated by individuals or groups as such a place. It is a distinct space, a place whose character sets it apart from its surroundings. They are distinct from typical or commonly found places. The designation of a place as spiritual comes from the human need to establish a connection with inner truth. A place that is spiritual to one person or group of people may not be spiritual to others.

Architecture of a space can invoke all the senses, help one concentrate one's positive energies to calm a disturbed mind and take a peaceful stable mind beyond the physical. It is an inevitable part of life. It attempts to reflect man's source and the reason of being in several varied ways. Architecture is more than mere physical shelter or symbolic artefacts. They are catalyst towards our "dwelling", between our being and the world. Architecture, together with the other arts, has, since time immemorial, been one of the most powerful means to pursue and realize this quest and give it physical-symbolic expression: how to create an identity and a place for our being from within the vast, shapeless and infinite extent of time and space; how to affirm our presences and gain a foothold, in the universe. (Gunter Dittmar, Upon the Earth, Beneath the Sky: The Architecture of Being, Dwelling & Building, 2001)

Successful architectural expression is one, which is able to do both; provide an enriching experience and an unforgettable image. It becomes more important while expressing spirituality in material to provide for an experience of, both the form and the formless, one perceptible by the senses and other beyond senses.

Since sacred spaces are separate from everyday places in a designated precinct, value is placed on the journey and arriving at the sacred place. The path and the ritual journey are part of the sacred experience.

It is a universal goal of mankind to seek or to create spiritual spaces. What is a spiritual space, and what are the qualities which describe that space? What defines spirituality and the space it makes and how does this form relate to us today?

RESEARCH QUESTION

What are the attributes of spiritual spaces?

1.2 NEED FOR JUSTIFICATION

The current crisis of environmental degradation is also a crisis of places. People are systematically building meaningless places. We must develop a way of understanding the built environment and the natural landscape. True renewal, will require a change in the way we structure experience for understanding both the natural land and the constructed world.

Since, the spiritual dimension and moral obligation have been discarded by the modern. Materialism divorced from ethics has corrupted the society. Therefore, more and more people are turning to Spirituality, Yoga and Meditation. Religious people are searching for the lost grid of spirituality in religion. Thus, there is a growing need of buildings to cater this need of people.

There are spatial qualities and architectural elements based on experiential background and emotional attachments.

To identify and define these connections, one has to go beyond the basic observation of signs and symbols, and analyse the spatial qualities and architectural elements which stimulate senses.

1.3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

A brief study of design tools, which are capable of making the experience soul stirring. These include - form, space, volume, geometry, scale and proportions, light and colour.

Historical and symbolic aspects of spiritual spaces have already been discussed. (Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Vol. 2; Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture, Sir Banister Fletcher, Dan Cruickshank; Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Period), Percy Brown) Thus this study will be focused towards the very fundamental architectural criterion and spatial impression on individual's mind.

The study does not discuss in detail many issues, like evolution, construction, etc. But focuses on the internal design aspects, concerning the designing of a spiritual space, which are known and acknowledged.

Study should avoid commenting on the beliefs and rituals of various religions, but should debate towards the evolution and change of spatial qualities and form.

1.4 LIMITATION FOR THE RESEARCH

Study of sacred spaces of all faiths is not possible within the limited time frame.

A study of the built environment shall be undertaken which shall include only the spiritual aspect, the qualitative parameters and not the technical evaluation of the built form.

Considering the time frame provided for the completion of the study, primary case studies taken are done from Delhi only.

It would have been desirable to study how sacred can be woven into the everyday as well.

1.5 METHODOLOGY

The study is intended to be broken into subheads that will make it easier to understand the topic that talks about spiritual dimensions in sacred spaces and architectural qualities influencing human behaviour.

STAGE 1

IDENTIFYING NEED FOR THE STUDY

Trying to find the objectives of study.

Setting up the scope and limitations.

STAGE 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

Through the survey of all possible data related to the topic or on architecture and human behaviour. This stage of the research includes collecting data that is directly or indirectly related to spiritual aspect of architectural spaces. This has been done through the printed form or from the internet, articles and discussions of peoples relating to the study.

Literature survey aims at sorting out case studies both inside and outside India and also at getting an review of what are the recent developments and events that are taking place in the field of spiritual architecture.

STAGE 3

LITERATURE SURVEY 2

A study has been undertaken to understand the mental conditions of a man in different spaces and its relation with the creator. Through this the topic got defined and the question got framed.

STAGE 4

INTERRELATING DIFFERENT SACRED STRUCTURES

As our concern is on human being, the structures affecting human mind around the world should have similarities. Search for the overlapping of spatial qualities in sacred structures around the world.

STAGE 5

FRAME WORK

To make a framework of different issues and principles studied which can be applied on case studies. List of issues formulate questionnaire for the case studies and interviews.

List of issues:

Open and closed space

Portal or entrance

Path and surrounding landscape

Destination point

Form, geometry, proportion and scale

Articulation and symbolism

Light, colour and sound

Touch, smell and taste

STAGE 6

Fig 1.1 ISKCON Temple, New Delhi

Fig 1.2 Cathedral Church of Redemption, New Delhi

Fig 1.3 Jama Masjid, New DelhiCASE STUDIES

ISKCON TEMPLE, NEW DELHI

CATHEDRAL CHURCH OF REDEMPTION, NEW DELHI

JAMA MASJID,NEW DELHI

Case studies are selected to understand the sacredness and the spiritual consciousness through the built, the purpose behind it. Case studies will throw some light on the spatial qualities of spiritual spaces. Suitable case studies will be undertaken to examine the need of the topic and its negligence in present day scenario.

STAGE 7

CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF CASE STUDY

All the information collected so far was then analysed thoroughly. An analysis of experiencing the sacred buildings to out the design tools that an architect can employ to create the desired spiritual experience.

STAGE 8

DESIGN IDEA FORMULATION

After assimilation of all matter and analysis of material collected, conclusions are derived, as to, how an architect can use design tools to stimulate all the senses and make the experience of a spiritual space spiritual.

CHAPTER 2: SPIRITUAL ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN BEHAVIOR

2.1 SPATIAL QUALITIES AND HUMAN MIND

The sacred is never intentionally chosen, but in some way or the other revels itself.

-Eliade (1963)

The meaning of structured space, a meaning which we believe lies in its dynamic relationship to its human personality and to our mental health.

Fig 2.1 The self- Hindu thought (Source: Prof. H.D. Chayya)The environment in which humans operate has an important influence on their wellbeing and performance. Our structured environment is so important and, influence direct or indirect, on the shaping of personality and the choice as well as the attainment of goals. Emotional design and tangible interaction are compelling forms of enhancing user engagement. The combination of these modes of interaction can create a new dimension of human experience when physical movement in space or the manipulation of objects triggers emotions within an individual. By seamlessly integrating expressive tangible interaction techniques with ambient intelligence, that is, by creating environments that are sensitive and responsive to human gestures, meaningful experiences can be constructed.

Leon Festinger, Stanley Schachter and Krik Bach found in their detailed studies of one urban situation, that physical spaces play a very large part in the formation of community relationships â€¦and even minor architectural feature, such as the position of staircase and mailboxes, had important effects on the social life of people. "The architect who builds a house or who designs a site plan, who decides which direction the houses will face and how close together they will be, also is, to a great extent, deciding the pattern of social life among the people who will live in those houses."(Strengthening Weak Ties: Social Networks and Student Housing, Thesis, B. Design in Architecture, University of Florida, 2011)

Geoffrey Scott's book "The Architecture of Humanism", 1914, he said," The architect models in space as a sculptor in clay. He designs the space as a work of art; that is, he attempts through his means to excite a certain mood in those who enter it."

The view has been elaborated by others, among them Bruno Zevi, Architecture as Space, 1957: "the facade and walls of house. Church, or palace, no matter how beautiful they may be, is only the container, the boxâ€¦; the content is the internal space.'

As Geoffrey Scott suggests," Space itself is not obvious, cannot be visually perceived; one sees only objects in space; or the structural members that encloses the space. Space itself can only be sensed- that is, felt; its quality is apprehended by means of the senses, but its effect is upon the emotions, and cannot readily be rationalized, measured or depicted.

One can only gauge and describe accurately enough the adequacy or structural soundness, its provision for warmth, ventilation, sanitation, light, and other physical factors.

One can criticize its components in terms of proportion, texture, colour and other aesthetic considerations.

Fig. 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4 (Source: F.D.K.Ching, Architecture - Form, Space and Order 3rd edition)

Fig. 2.5 Non-sign II-art installation by Annie Hans and Daniel Mihalyo But beyond all of these, there is an overall effect exerted upon one's consciousness by architectural space which defies precise definition."(Scott, Geoffrey, The Architecture of Humanism, 1914)

Architecture truly conceived, is nothing less than the conscious and careful determination of our whole structured environment and leaves an impression on individual's mind, which can be controlled. Like a stage setting that controls the movements of actors and defines where and under what circumstances they can meet, our habitat channels our movements and influence our contacts. If we think of buildings at all, it is usually when we are jolted by some outrage, such as a stalled elevator or a leaky roof, long columned corridor, a double height space. (Walter, E.V., 1988, Placeways: A Theory of the Human Environment)

Table 2.1 The concept of the spirit of a space (Source: Author)Some of the architectural integrant which affect human psychology are:

Five senses

Hearing

Touch

Sight

Taste

Smell

The basic elements

Space

Air

Fire

Water

Earth

Instruments of perception (to acquire inward)

Ear

Skin

Eyes

Tongue

Nose

Work organs

(to act outwards)

Speech communication (exit)

Hands work (finger)

Feet mobility

Anus discard

Genitals procreate

Control centre force

Mind (flow of thoughts and emotions)

Intellect (power of discrimination)

The presiding force ("PRANA" or the life force)

The cosmos consciousness or the supreme energy

Architecture

Silence

Climate

Light

-

Plumbing

Landscape transformation

Acoustics

Weather

Colour

-

Cooling

Related technological fields

Vibrations

Texture surfaces

Texture forms

-

Repose odour

Emotional Design

Emotion is a fundamental aspect of what makes us human; it shapes our cognition, perception, memory, and learning and it colours our past, present, and future experiences. Emotional value is important in design for enhancing user experience as Donald Norman explains: "Our attachment is really not to the thing, it is to the relationship, to the meanings and feelings the thing represents." Emotional design then, provides an aesthetic interaction that engages users on an emotional, meaningful, and psychological level. Whereas affective computing focuses on the system recognizing and adjusting to what it believes the user is feeling, emotional design focuses on the emotional experience.

Physical and Tangible Interfaces

Human movement is often spurred by intention and motivation within people. Tangible user interfaces allow users to interact with virtual information by sensing and manipulating physical environments through objects, surfaces, and spaces.

Relation of architecture and human psychology is far interrelated. Appropriate use of various architectural components has the capacity of enlightening the atmosphere whereas inappropriate use does the opposite. The building forms, the functions incorporated in it, colours, negative and positive spaces in and around it may be the few points but architecture is directly attached with human psychology from conscious to subconscious level.

2.2 PLACEBO EFFECT: SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION

For decades, scientists have tried to understand the mysterious power of what is called the "placebo effect." Placebo studies prove how powerfully we are influenced - not just emotionally but physiologically - by how we perceive the world around us.

Articulation and architectural conditions in homes can have powerful and long-lasting psychological impact. The placebo effect offers a clue that points to how we might create curative environments.

The placebo effect as a therapy, the fact that believers in a wide variety of ancient "faith" systems also claim similar effects, as have modern scientists who study mind/body medicine.

Fig 2.6 Illustration of the interrelationship of stress, belief and how they may impact on the placebo effect and the relaxation response. (Source: http://www.sciencedirect.com)In other words, it impacts an ancient part of our brain which we share with many other species. Endogenous opioids, which are naturally produced by the brain in small amounts and play a key role in the relief of pain and anxiety, have been implicated in placebo analgesia.

CHAPTER 3: SACRED SPACE AND SPIRITUALITY

3.1 OPEN SPACES: AS SACRED SPACES

Does spirituality needs sacred spaces and vice versa? Does spirituality really is incomplete without architecture? Is it not the quality of the inner life, open to a virtual dimension that transcends the sensible, that matters?

Fig 3.1 Lodhi Garden, New Delhi (Source: Author)Open space has two different meanings that work together to create sacred places that are inclusive and aware of many elements that may be exclusive to any potential user of the space. An open space is open to the public, meaning anyone of any race, faith, culture, or belief is able to enter the space. The space is for the whole community of different people rather than just one particular group. Or, an open space is one that feels welcoming and non-threatening to those that spend time in it; it feels like home for the soul. The design of the space and the placement of features such as portals, paths, universal symbols that have meaning across all religions, nations and ethnic groups, lend to the openness of the space by inviting those outside of the space to enter it. The combination of a space being open on both a physical and spiritual level is what makes up "Open Spaces, Sacred Places."

3.2 ATTRIBUTES OF A SPIRITUAL SPACE

Architecture is the first pioneer on the highway toward the adequate realization of inner self. For this means it levels space for self-realization, informs his external environment, and builds a fit place for the aggregation of those assembled having similar faith, as a defence against the threatening of tempest, against rain, and savage animals.

Besides the variety of buildings and design approaches in the effort to create a space where man can feel spirituality, there can be found some common design tools that help to create the soul stirring experience. The following discuss some of these parameters.

The portal or threshold is the entryway into the sacred space, which helps to separate the space from the greater surrounding space and invites you to step inside. A portal can be created with a hardscape such as a gate or a portico, or with simple planting.

Fig 3.2 Portal to Garden, (Source: http://www.luminous-landscape.com)

Fig 3.4 Open space, (Source: http://www.luminous-landscape.com)

Fig 3.3 Pathway in a Garden, (Source: http://www.luminous-landscape.com)The path invites exploration and discovery along the route. It meanders through spaces, fuels the imagination and entices one to see where it may lead.

The destination point is an end point within a space that inexplicably draws visitors. It may be a resting place, such as a bench, or a beautiful natural feature, such as a gurgling fountain or rain curtain. It is a point within the sacred space where those who visit always end up. Sacred spaces may have more than one destination point.

Space and Volume

Fig. 3.5 Space defining elements, Source: F.D.K.Ching, Architecture - Form, Space and Order 3rd edition) Space, whether of the individual or the universal, possesses a unique quality of experiencing. It is hyper sensitive, besides being super potential. Sense of surround defines the space as separate and apart from the overall outdoor environment. Visitors who enter the space feel as though they are entering into a room. There are natural or man-made boundaries (or a combination of both) that delineate the space within the greater environment. These boundaries provide a subtle feeling of shelter, enabling people to feel safe and enjoy their time spent in the space. (Nicolas, W. Robert Leo A Daly, 2004, building Type Basics for Places of Worship)

By generating a continuous flow of spaces, each act movement becomes an experience. Each component of architecture becomes important and provides for this linkage. It can be by repetition of elements, alteration in scale and proportion, staggering, light, texture, and colour and also by using perspective as a device to accentuate the drama. (Robinson,J., 1979, Religious Buildings)

Fig. 3.6 Form and Space, Source: F.D.K.Ching, Architecture - Form, Space and Order 3rd edition) Form and Geometry

Architectural form is the point of contact between mass and space "Architectural Form required to fulfil its functional requirements for that is the reason for its being - both physical and spiritual." (Saarinen, E., op.cit. pg 14)Every form conveys a meaning. It is important to understand how form can transmit a spiritual meaning. Certain shapes and forms are conventional associated with certain meanings.

Scale and Proportion

Fig. 3.7 Vastupurusa (Source: Charles Correa, Vistara; Architecture of India)

Fig. 3.8 Vitruvius Man (Source: Leonardo Da vinci.stanford.edu)Scale refers to the size of something compared to reference standard or size of something else. Deciding the scale of a sacred space is a common design concern. Some blend into the fabric of the neighbouring community and landscape; others stands out as landmarks, easily recognized for their special purpose. Generally the sacred spaces take monumental scale to create an atmosphere of awe, mystery and magnificence. The scale of the interior spaces, the size and weight of doors, and the exposed structural columns and beams all serve to denote the special quality of the sacred space.

Fig. 3.9 LeCorbusier modular Man (Source: Corbusier, The modulor)Proportion refers to the proper or harmonious relation of one part to another or to the whole. While the designer usually has a range of choices when determining the proportions of things, some are given to us by the nature and the man himself.

Human body proportions are used not merely as numbers with an inherent harmony, but as a system of measurements that could govern lengths, surfaces, and volumes. It can lend itself to an infinity of combination; it ensures unity with diversity; the miracle of numbers.

Proportional buildings and scale link spiritual architecture to the mathematical structure of the cosmos. The building should relate well not only to the human scale but also the psyche.

Light and Colour

Fig. 3.12 Khajuraho Temple (Source: Kota Kesava Karthik)

Fig. 3.11 Prayer at Church (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org)Light is regarded to be the most important component in definition of space or the manifestation of form in an architectural space; it not only defines the space but also gives meaning to it. In this study one looks at how light can create a place of worship; how to make a quiet, enclosed, isolated space, space full of activities, filled with vitality.

Fig. 3.10 Khirki Masjid (Source: Jegmet Wangchuk)

Colour is the attribute that most clearly distinguishes a form from its environment. We respond to bright colours, for instance red, with the emotional part of our brain. First, our muscles get tense, and then we lean towards the colour. Our respiration and heart rate goes up and the blood pressure starts rising. The opposite reactions occur when we see light colours such as blue. Our muscles relax, the heart and respiration rate drops and the blood pressure lowers.

It also affects the visual weight of a form. Gradation of colour exist; from pale to brilliant; from cold to warm. Thus colour expression is also full of meaning.

Texture is an important asset of colour. It is the visual and especially tactile quality given to a surface by shape and arrangement, and the proportions of the parts. Texture also determines to which the surfaces of a form reflect or absorb incident light. It gives an expression to the surface, thereby contributing to the overall impression.

Color

Colors Characteristics

Color's Actions

Red

Stimulating, exciting, provocative, dynamic

Increased enthusiasm, interest, and energy

Pink

Happy, sweet, spirited, romantic, youthful

Calm and relaxing feelings

Brown

Wholesome, rich, durable, rustic, sheltering

A connection with the natural earth and the stability this brings

Orange

Friendly, vital, tangy, energizing, inviting

Increases creativity and gives relief from things becoming too serious

Blue

Dependable, cool, serene, constant, quiet

Broadens your perspective in learning new information

Green

Refreshing, healing, fresh, soothing, nature

Gives freedom to pursue new ideas

Purple

Sensual, elegant, mysterious, regal, spiritual

Calms over activity or energizes from depression

Black

Strong, classic, elegant, powerful, mysterious

Opens the door to mystery and prepares for the unknown

Yellow

Warming, sunny, cheerful, luminous, enlightening

Gives clarity for decision making and sharper memory and concentration skills

white

Pure, bright, innocent, lightweight, pristine

Starts a fresh beginning

Fig. 3.13 Colours in Culture (Source: www.informationisbeautiful.net)

Table. 3.1 Concept of Colours (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org)Symbolism

Symbolism

We can identify iconography depicted in architecture of these buildings as the signs and symbols and the inspirations taken directly from some other structure or theories and thoughts spread across the world.

A symbol is the juxtaposition that is, a co-optation of visible forms brought forth to demonstrate some invisible matter. One needs to identify with one's religion that is where symbols play an important role.( Jose'Pereira, 2004, The Sacred Architecture of Islam)

Table. 3.2 Iconography in major religions (Source: Jose'Pereira, The Sacred Architecture of Islam, 2004)Sacred symbolism is considered to be present in every major religious building, around the world. Iconography of sacred geography in three major religions of the world:

TEMPLE

MOSQUE

CHURCH

MOUNTAIN

Shikhara

Minaret

Lofty towers

STONE

Idol

One that in Kabba

Altar

TREE

Present in courtyard

Cross

WATER

Sarovar

Ritual ablutions in courtyard

Place of Baptism

But is it signs and symbolism only which draw an impact on our behaviour. When we get in to some space, is the aesthetical and visual perception only gets conceived in our mind.

Fig. 3.15 Temple Bells (Source: Author)

Fig. 3.14 Prayer at church (Source: http://www.mlive.com)

Fig. 3.16 Reciting Quran in Mardrsa (Source: http://www.mlive.com)SOUND

The reverberant sound quality created by the proportions and the materials of sacred spaces set them apart from the ordinary. Sacred music, singing, chanting, the ringing of temple and church bells and intoning of prayers characterize specific rituals. The change in sound quality from the cacophony of the street to the harmony resonant silence signifies entry into a sacred space.

TOUCH

The experience of touch identifies a sacred space; the weight of the door handle, the textures of materials on walls and seating, and the hardness of stone underfoot. A change in temperature, such as the transition from the blazing heat of a busy city street into the cool and solitude of an interior can also denote a sacred space.

Most of the textures are touched by vision, iconography, formed an integral part of a temple and a church architecture to convey the complete narrative.

Though the following two are not translated into architectural terms, but they form an indispensable part of a complete spiritual experience.

SMELL

Fig. 3.20 Garlands for devotees (Source: Author)

Fig. 3.18 IItr, scented oil

Fig. 3.19 Votive Candles (Source: Author)

Fig. 3.17 Agarbatti (Source: http://www.mlive.com)Incense is used extensively in the Roman Catholic and Buddhist traditions as a symbol of prayers going up to the deity. The smell of agarbatti and the flowers offered to deity are indispensable parts of the rituals for Hindu as well as many other faiths. The incense sticks are used even in meditation centers as the intoxicating smell stimulates your senses to the positive and calms you down.

TASTE

Fig. 3.23 Christmas cake (Source: www.google.com)

Fig. 3.22 Korma (Source: Author)

Fig. 3.21 Laddo (Source: Kota Kesava Karthik)Though this sensory experience is missing in many of the architecture, it still is an integral part of many religious experiences. All the Hindu temples have Prasad and Chanramrit (sweet water) as an indispensable part of the worshipping ritual. Some believe that this custom of sharing sweets is a memorial of the sweetness of the deities. Christians offer holy water in a similar manner. The prasad is obligatory in the Gurudwara too.

3.3 SPIRITUAL DIMENSION IN EXISTING BUILDING TYPOLOGY

3.3.1 THE HINDU TEMPLE

The Hindu temple is essentially the "House Of God". It is not a place for congregational worship. Though congregation for religious ceremonies do take place, but the worshipper's communication with the divine is his own personal experience. The worshipper goes individually to the house of God and invokes his blessings. Stella Kramisch, in her book, "The Hindu Temple" says," the intellect of the age, absorbed largely in divine contemplation, is reflected in the temple idol

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The Spirituality And Architecture Theology Religion Essay

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Spirituality is an ultimate or an alleged immaterial reality. The essence of spirituality is the search to know our true selves, to discover the real nature of consciousness. In other words, it is a constant discovery of the incredible, our real self, and a quest of our true being, why we are, who we are and where we belong.

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Theory, meaning and experience in church architecture : an investigation into the influences of buildings upon worship and spirituality and their implications for the design and ordering of churches.

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Theory, meaning and experience in church architecture : an investigation into the influences of buildings upon worship and spirituality and their implications for the design and ordering of churches.

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Thomas, John Alfred (1994) Theory, meaning and experience in church architecture : an investigation into the influences of buildings upon worship and spirituality and their implications for the design and ordering of churches. PhD thesis, University of Sheffield.

Abstract

This work attempts to study the relationship between buildings - principally churches - and religion, "religion" meaning worship and spirituality. It aims to study church architecture from a variety of different angles or viewpoints, contrasting with many previous studies, which tend to employ only one approach. Three basic concepts are defined - Theory, Meaning, and Experience - which, while interrelated in practice, are ultimately separate things. Section 1 is a condensed account of three basic religious architectural theories, or ways in which architecture and places are understood in specifically religious/theological terms. Section 2 applies the study of architectural meaning to churches, proceeding from a chronological resume of church architectural meaning in history. It applies the concepts of semiology or semiotics to church architectural meaning, and distinguishes between specific systems of architectural meaning, and loose connotation and association. Section 3 outlines various ways in which religion and spirituality maybe affected by buildings, including the effects of aesthetic factors such as design rules, proportion, light and darkness, etc., and examines reported instances of religious/spiritual experience from the point of view of place(s) and aesthetics. By way of these studies, it is suggested that experience of space and spiritual experience may be intimately linked, but that experience(s) of, and in, buildings can in no way necessarily be determined, anticipated, or found to be constant. Section 4 argues that church buildings have to be made, and regarded, as places that are by nature special and of special significance, and suggests that architects, in creating new churches (or re-ordering existing buildings) take account of the factors discussed in sections 2 and 3, in an attempt, wherever possible, to enrich the experience of worship and spirituality by means of making places which provide more than the essential requirements of liturgy.

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Theory, meaning and experience in church architecture : an investigation into the influences of buildings upon worship and spirituality and their implications for the design and ordering of churches.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Thomas, John Alfred (1994) Theory, meaning and experience in church architecture : an investigation into the influences of buildings upon worship and spirituality and their implications for the design and ordering of churches. PhD thesis, University of Sheffield. This work attempts to study the relationship between buildings - principally churches - and religion, "religion" meaning worship and spirituality.

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THE ROLE AND IMPACT OF RELIGION ON THE ARCHITECTUREOF MOSQUES AND CHURCHES

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THE ROLE AND IMPACT OF RELIGION ON THE ARCHITECTUREOF MOSQUES AND CHURCHES

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An Evaluation of Spatial Organization of the Church Architecture of Kerala during the Sixteenth to Seventeenth Centuries

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An Evaluation of Spatial Organization of the Church Architecture of Kerala during the Sixteenth to Seventeenth Centuries

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Journal of The Institution of Engineers (India): Series A

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Human mind basically works by trying to impose meaning on the world he sees. As one move into an officer's cabin, with heavy curtains, chandeliers and carpeted floor, the furniture layout and spatial quality explicitly explains to him the status and position of the officer. Dusky and crowded office rooms stacked with file cabinets suggests a different meaning to the spectator. Similarly even an empty courtroom gives cues on the relative position and status of the various officers of the justice system.

Built forms of a region represent the culture of the region of that period. Social, political, economic or religious influence on a region at any period in history is also reflected in the built environment of that period. According to Rapoport, space organization is central in understanding, analyzing and comparing the built environment. Space organization is primarily the organization of the fixed feature elements [ 6, 7], which helps to analyze the meaning of the built environment based on fixed elements, semi-fixed elements and non-fixed elements, present in the environment.

Fixed feature elements are those elements of the built environment that are basically fixed. The way in which these elements are organized or the spatial organization of these elements communicates meaning. This is true especially for traditional settings. Fixed elements also represent the cultural state at the time of construction of the environment, as they are relatively static [ 6].

Semi-fixed elements range from the arrangement and type of furniture, curtains, furnishings etc. These elements become more important while analyzing the environmental meaning of a familiar context where the semi-fixed elements tend to communicate more than the fixed elements. They are less static than the fixed elements.

Non-fixed elements are related to the human occupants or inhabitants of settings, their body positions and postures, hand and arm gestures, facial expression, head, nodding, eye contact, speech rate, volume and pauses. Non-verbal communication studies are mainly based on non-fixed elements.

Identification of Variables

Meaning in traditional settings is mainly based on fixed feature elements [ 8]. Churches of the sixteenth century in Kerala, being a traditional setting, fixed and semi-fixed feature elements are more expressive than non-fixed elements in communicating meaning. Therefore non-fixed elements are eliminated from the present study. The fixed and semi-fixed elements are identified based on secondary data and preliminary surveys. The fixed feature elements can be classified into indigenous fixed feature elements and imported fixed feature elements. The imported fixed feature elements are those elements that were imported from the West in the sixteenth century. Similarly semi fixed elements can also identified and grouped into indigenous semi fixed elements and imported semi fixed elements (refer Table 2).

Table 2 Classification of variables, into indigenous elements and imported elements

The churches that existed during the sixteenth to seventeenth centuries were classified based on the year of construction. Those churches constructed prior to and after the advent of Portuguese in 1500 AD were classified into separate groups. The presence or absence of indigenous or imported, fixed and semi-fixed elements was identified for churches in each group. A comparative study on the spatial organization between the two groups helped to identify the changes brought out in the sixteenth to seventeenth centuries. A few of the inferences are discussed here.

More than hundred churches that existed at the time of the advent of Portuguese were enriched in church interiors with embellishments from the West. Except for the addition of the Western façade no changes in plan or built form were made in churches such as St. Dominic's church, Kanjirapally and Holy cross church, Cherpungal (refer Fig. 5).

Certain churches such as the St. Mary's Forane Church, Champakulam and St. Mary's Catholic Church, Kanjoor were enriched not only in the interior embellishments but also in spatial planning. Baptismal room, Priest's room, Sacristy and space for choir were added to the church plan. The conversion of the whole of Syrian Christians to follow Latin liturgy necessitated the addition of functional spaces in churches. The church interiors were enriched by Baptismal fonts, Altar Backdrop, Pulpits, Wooden Statues, Frescos and Paintings. Further, the church layout was enriched with Belfry, Open air Granite cross, Cemetery and cemetery churches.

While all the churches established prior to 16 th century are oriented in the East-West axis with the altar positioned in the East, the churches established after the advent of the Europeans, do not strictly follow this. The influence of the West on the church Architecture of Kerala is confirmed from this result.

All the churches of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries have an imposing front façade which is undoubtedly an imported element supplied to all the churches. A well-proportioned façade became the integral part of Kerala churches after the arrival of the Portuguese.

Sculptured granite Baptismal fonts carved out of a single granite and carvings in granite are more profuse and beautiful in the Baptismal fonts of Group A churches compared to the Group B Churches. The pedestal of Baptismal font of St. Mary's Church, Kanjoor, (Group A) have carvings of lion heads which carry the font on their head The Baptismal font of St. Mary's Jacobite church, Nadamel, Thripunithura has the date 722 AD inscribed on it, this proves that, Baptismal fonts existed in churches of Kerala long before the arrival of Europeans. In Group B churches, Baptismal fonts of such materials other than granite like laterite is also seen, which is then finished, plastered and painted. The Baptismal font of 'Our lady of Life-Mattancherry' Church is a lotus flower as such replicated in color and form (refer Fig. 6).

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An Evaluation of Spatial Organization of the Church Architecture of Kerala during the Sixteenth to Seventeenth Centuries

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The churches of Kerala of the sixteenth to seventeenth centuries exhibits an architectural character which is different from that of the indigenous Church Architecture of Kerala. Preliminary studies show that the spatial organization of these churches also varied from that of the indigenous churches of Kerala.

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Light
In the Word frequent mention is made of light, and by this in the internal sense is signified the truth which is from good but in the supreme internal sense there is signified the Lord Himself, because He is good and truth itself. Moreover there actually is light in heaven, but infinitely brighter than the light on earth (AC 1053, 1117, 1521- 1533, 1619- 1632); and in this light spirits and angels see one another, and by means of it is displayed all the glory which is in heaven. In regard to its lucidity, this light does indeed appear like the light in the world; but still it is not like it, for it is not natural, but spiritual, having in it wisdom; so that it is nothing else than wisdom which so shines before the eyes of the angels; and therefore the wiser the angels are, the brighter is the light in which they are (AC 2776). Moreover this light illumines the understanding of man, especially that of a regenerate man; but it is not perceived by man so long as he is in the life of the body, because of the light of the world, which then is regnant. Moreover the evil spirits in the other life see one another, and also see many representatives which exist in the world of spirits, and this indeed they do from the light of heaven; but their lumen is such as proceeds from a fire of coals, for the light of heaven is changed into such a lumen when it comes to them.

[3] As regards the very origin of light, this has been from eternity from the Lord alone; for Divine good itself and Divine truth, from which light comes, is the Lord. The Divine Human, which was from eternity ( John 17:5), was this light itself. And whereas this light could no longer affect the human race, which had removed itself so far from good and truth, thus from light, and had cast itself into darkness, therefore the Lord willed to put on by birth the human itself; for thus He could illumine not only the rational but also the natural things of man; for He made both the rational and the natural in Himself Divine, in order that He might also he a light to those who were in such gross darkness.

[4] That the Lord is light, that is, good itself and truth itself, and that thus from Him is all intelligence and wisdom, consequently all salvation, is evident from many passages in the Word, as in John:--

In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and God was the Word; in Him was life, and the life was the light of men. John came to bear witness of the light; he was not that light, but came that he might bear witness of the light. That was the true light which enlighteneth every man that cometh into the world ( John 1:1, 4, 7-9).

The Word was the Divine truth, thus the Lord Himself as to the Divine Human, concerning which it is said that that Word was with God, and God was the Word.

[5] In the same Evangelist:--

This is the judgment, that light is come into the world, but men loved the darkness rather than the light ( John 3:19)

where light denotes the Divine truth. Again:--

Jesus said, I am the light of the world he that followeth Me shall not walk in darkness, but shall have the light of life ( John 8:12).

Again:--

Yet a little while is the light with you walk while ye have the light, lest darkness seize upon you; while ye have the light, believe in the light, that ye may be sons of light ( John 12:35, 36).

Again:--

He that seeth Me seeth Him that sent me I am come a light into the world, that whosoever believeth in Me may not abide in the darkness ( John 12:46, 46).

Mine eyes have seen Thy salvation, which Thou hast prepared before the face of all peoples, a light for revelation to the Gentiles, and the glory of Thy people Israel ( Luke 2:30-32).

This is the prophecy of Simeon concerning the Lord when He' was born.

[6] In Matthew:--

The people that sat in darkness saw a great light, and to them that sat in the region and shadow of death, did light spring up ( Matthew 4:16; Isa. 9:2);

from which passages it is very plain that the Lord as to the Divine good and truth in the Divine Human, is called light. Also in the prophecies of the Old Testament, as in Isaiah:--

The light of Israel shall be for a fire, and his Holy One for a flame ( Isa. 10:17).

Again:--

I Jehovah have called thee in righteousness, and I will give thee for a Covenant of the people, for a light of the Gentiles ( Isa. 42:6).

Again:--

I have given thee for a light of the Gentiles, that thou mayest be My salvation, unto the end of the earth ( Isa. 49:6).

Again:--

Arise, shine, for thy light is come, and the glory of Jehovah is risen upon thee. The Gentiles shall walk to thy light, and kings to the brightness of thy rising ( Isa. 60:1, 3).

[7] That all the light of heaven, consequently wisdom and intelligence, is from the Lord, is thus taught in John:--

The holy city New Jerusalem, descending from God out of heaven, prepared as a bride adorned for her husband, hath no need of the sun, neither of the moon, to shine in it the glory of God will enlighten it, and the Lamb is the lamp thereof ( Rev. 21:2, 23).

Again, speaking of the same:--

There shall be no night there, and they need no lamp, neither light of the sun, for the Lord God giveth them light ( Rev. 22:5).

[8] Again in Isaiah:--

The sun shall be no more thy light by day, neither for brightness shall the moon give light unto thee but Jehovah shall be unto thee an everlasting light, and thy God thy glory thy sun shall no more go down, neither shall thy moon withdraw itself, for Jehovah shall be thine everlasting light ( Isaiah 60:19, 20).

The sun shall be no more thy light by day, neither for brightness shall the moon give light unto thee, denotes that this will be the case with the things not of natural, but of spiritual light, which is signified by Jehovah being an everlasting light. That Jehovah," as mentioned here and elsewhere in the Old Testament, is the Lord, may be seen above (AC 1343, 1736, 2156, 2329, 2921, 3023, 3035).

[9] And that He is the light of heaven He also manifested to the three disciples, Peter, James, and John, at His transfiguration, when His face did shine as the sun, and His raiment became as the light ( Matt. 17:2). His face as the sun was the Divine good; His raiment as the light was the Divine truth. Hence it may be known what is meant by the expression in the benediction:--

Jehovah make His faces shine upon thee, and be merciful unto thee ( Num. 6:25)

that the faces of Jehovah are mercy, peace, and good, may be seen above (AC 222, 223); and that the sun is the Divine love; thus that it is the Divine love of the Lord which appears as a sun in the heaven of angels, may also be seen above (AC 30- 38, 1053, 1521, 1529- 1531, 2441, 2495).

Back to Words index, Back to Natural words index

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Light In the Word frequent mention is made of light, and by this in the internal sense is signified the truth which is from good but in the supreme internal sense there is signified the Lord Himself, because He is good and truth itself.

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Space Light & Beliefs: The Use of Daylighting in Churches and Mosques

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Space Light & Beliefs: The Use of Daylighting in Churches and Mosques

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What about churches give it a feeling of scaredness or a sense of spirituality?

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Concern for the SpiritA HISTORY OF MODERN CHURCH ARCHITECTURE

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Concern for the SpiritA HISTORY OF MODERN CHURCH ARCHITECTURE

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A History of Modern Church Architecture

"People will again go up to the religious community building, whose architectural prominence will command respect, and which can only be approached along a triumphal axis. Its great internal space will inspire us again, not because of a sacredly mystic devotion that makes us long for a transcendental world, but because of a devotion characterized by a reborn Dionysian joy. Yet it will be essentially different from the small classical temple space, which was only intended to be used by the deity. For this new space will have to contain thousands of people who will approach the earthly god in a totally different way, and the god will be present again in this space, but only in a spiritual form . . ."

-Hendrik Petrus Berlage, "Art and Society" (1909)

What are the recent important accounts of the history of twentieth-century church architecture? One or two come to mind: Wolfgang Stock's two-volume History of European Religious Architecture, or Edwin Heathcote's extensive introduction to Contemporary Church Architecture, as well as some studies of the history of modern churches in individual countries. Yet overall the history of modern religious architecture in the twentieth century is a relatively unexplored field. Hence this essay, which sets out to call attention to this area of study by sketching three identifiable historical narratives in the history of modern church architecture. Avoiding a strictly chronological definition, this essay focuses on mapping these interlocking narratives through an emphasis on prominent features of representative work. Less emphasis is placed here on the subjective experience of individual buildings, their interiority, and how they manifest important influences of the liturgical movement, than on a consideration of how these larger narratives represented by the modern church have been received within the history of early twentieth-century architecture. In this sense the wider reception of methods and ideas presented through the design of new church buildings often helped to redefine the professional identities of prominent architects, far beyond the circle of the faith traditions that their church buildings were intended to serve.
'A town in 1840' contrasted with 'a Catholic town in 1440', from Augustus Welby Pugin's Contrasts, Second Edition, 1841. Photo: New York Public Library Digital Gallery Innovation within a Cultural Continuity
Augustus Welby Pugin, in his Contrasts of 1840, dramatically conveys his vision of the moralizing force of church architecture by aligning it with the ethical and aesthetic composition of society. Pugin's famous comparison of an idealized fifteenth-century English town with its numerous Gothic steeples, is contrasted with the industrial city of his day where the steeples have been replaced by factory chimneys. Whereas in Pugin's vision the fabric of the fifteenth-century town is fully integrated and comprehensible through its relationship to the church buildings themselves, the industrial town is depicted as disjointed and devoid of a directional and moral presence. Pugin's point is that the cohesion of the medieval city around its religious edifices-manifested in the architecture of the Christian Gothic-has been undone by the technological advances of the Industrial Revolution.

Such a starting point for a discussion of the early modern church building forms an ironic counterpoint to what many modern architects themselves did with religious buildings, namely, using them as loci for experimentation with the intent of giving expression to the new urban realities, materials, and technologies. For many of the founders of modern architecture, the church building was not so much a distinctive presence outside of industrial society but an integral expression of it.
The church of Notre Dame du Raincy by Auguste Perret, 1923. Photo: flickr.com/ooni.k
This move, for instance, is surely the context for the authoritative position achieved by Auguste Perret in his execution of the Church of Notre Dame du Raincy (1923). The church is a pivotal moment in the evolution of modern church architecture in part because its reinforced concrete structure elevates the material of concrete from a maligned building material used only in industrial projects to a medium that could be handled with the care and craftsmanship of precious stone or wood. Perret was an entrepreneurial innovator in the use of reinforced concrete construction and the church in Le Raincy fully explored the new treatment of reinforced concrete as a particularly appropriate and rational means of renewing the religious building type. The building's rationality comes not only from its economy and functionality, but also in that it was derived from nineteenth-century structural rationalist teachings of such important French figures who helped to formalize architecture as a discipline-Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc, Auguste Choisy, Henri Labrouste, and Julian Gaudet. As historians have pointed out, the church combines both the solidity and rational geometry of Classicism and the daring structural lightness of the Gothic, so that Perret's use of concrete draws the history of the French Greek and Gothic building traditions into itself.

While Perret showed little overt interest in questions of faith or theology, he was nonetheless deeply aware of the powerful place that the discipline of architecture-and, by extension, the church as a monument-held within French cultural tradition. He likewise possessed a deep understanding of his own role within the history of French architectural building and thought, an understanding that is accumulated in the aphorisms published near the end of his life in the Contribution to a Theory of Architecture (1952) in which he places his understanding of architecture as a sovereign shelter within a history of building stretching back to the ancients.

The Church of Notre Dame du Raincy may thus be seen symbolically to set in motion a number of ideals that run through the successive evolution of the history of the church building in the early twentieth century: a continued concern for the hierarchical relation of architectural space to the urban fabric; the construction of the church building with an attention to new materials and technology; and a determination to continue to evolve a new language of monumentality within the constraints of a particular religious tradition. The innovations evident in the church of Le Raincy thus served as a fountainhead for a whole tradition of church construction in the first half of the twentieth century. Ferdinand Pfammatter in his 1948 study, Betonkirche, calls the church an "astonishing phenomenon" ( überraschende Erscheinung), emphasizing its structural clarity as a model for the renewal of religious architecture through a reworking of the typology of the church. As examples of its influence, he points to such churches as Jean Combaz's Sainte Suzanne in Brussels (1928); Saint-Pierre à Roye, Somme (1931) by Duval & Gonse; and the University Chapel, Fribourg (1941) by Dumas & Honegger. Others have noted Perret's influence in such works as Cecil Burns' Christian Science Church, Turnbridge Wells (1933). Yet it was Karl Moser's Saint Antonius in Basel (1927) that extended the concern for materiality and structure into what Peter Hammond called "the full accomplishment of the technical revolution that was begun at Le Raincy."
Derivation and the Spirit
If some architects used church buildings as an opportunity to innovate within a cultural tradition, for others contemplation of the human spirit in the face of modernization played a stronger role as a derivative source for thinking about architecture. It has been persuasively argued, for example, that the origin of Mies van der Rohe's concern for "the building art" as a spatial expression of spiritual decisions was informed by the Catholic Reform Movement in Germany during the Weimar Republic. This movement was given inspiration by the priest, philosopher, and theologian Romano Guardini, as well as the church architect, theorist, and urban planner Rudolph Schwarz. Thus, aside from Mies's contribution to the building methods that became characteristic of his work and was often duplicated by others, he held a strong philosophical concern for the spiritual foundations of architecture in an age of technology, arguing that building could not be viewed as merely a matter of function and technology.
Fronleichnamskirche, Aachen by Rudolf Schwarz, 1930. Photo: Moritz Bernoully
Schwarz' 1938 book, Vom Bau der Kirche (On the Building of Churches), exerted a profound influence on Mies' sense of the spiritual dimension of all architecture. Intended by Schwarz to be "a primer for church building-no more but also no less," the book was translated into English in 1958 with the suggestive title The Church Incarnate. At the most obvious level, Schwarz's book is a re-thinking of the typological organization of the Christian church. The book's underlying structure is based upon his system of seven "plans" or diagrams, outlining various patterns for the arrangement of sacred space and the symbolic and metaphysical manifestations that lie behind this spatial ordering. Given the book's theological focus, it is striking that the English translation included a foreword presenting a surprisingly strong endorsement from Mies-an endorsement that was largely responsible for bringing the book to the attention of English-speaking audiences: "It is not only a great book on architecture, indeed, it is one of the truly great books-one of those which have the power to transform our thinking."
German Pavilion by Mies van der Rohe, International Exhibition of Barcelona, 1929. Photo: wikimedia.org
What Mies shared in particular with the reform-minded Schwarz and Guardini was a deep metaphysical and even religious concern for the problem of the spirit, especially in regard to harnessing the drive of technology and science in the modern era. For him, the key question was one of value, through which one could fix ultimate goals in order to establish effective standards. As the historian Fritz Neumeyer observes, what Mies, Schwarz, and Guardini shared in common was a search for the means of "building" as a reality that could come to terms with the salient technical phenomena of the modern epoch, with all its consequences. ¹ In this respect, the spatial effect created through the primary features of Mies' Barcelona Pavilion of 1929-the building's steel skeleton placed on a grid, the experience of the body progressing through the configuration of interlocking planes and free-standing screens-has been read as a synthesis in material form of a new understanding of the body and space. In light of Mies' own written statements on the reevaluation of space, building, and its connections to the spirit, the pavilion may be seen as a symbolic expression of the possibility for material to give shape to a deep understanding of human existence. As Mies himself expressed this ultimate concern in spiritual terms: "For the meaning and justification of each epoch, even the new one, lies only in providing conditions under which the spirit can exist."
The model of Roberto Matta's League of Religions thesis project. Photo: flickr.com/Lola McDowell
Against the highly refined Miesian vision, one may set as a contrast the trans-national influences on the exploration of the spirit in architecture as evidenced by the 1932 "League of Religions" project, carried out by an obscure but telling figure, the young Chilean Surrealist Robert Matta. As his thesis project at the School of Architecture and Urbanism at the Catholic University of Chile, this project was not directly focused on the church building type, but is indicative in its intellectual guises of a similar concern for the spirit as Mies, yet in this case through a concern for the organic rather than technological. Because of its interfaith approach, Matta's League of Religions project suggests a search on his part for a means of expressing a universal spirituality. In making this exploration, Matta appeals to the use of natural, biomorphic forms rather than traditional historical precedent as an inspiration for spiritual design. This turn to the organic and away from the prevailing rationalism of European modernism reflects skepticism toward traditional religious beliefs as Matta had encountered them through his rigorous classical Jesuit training. One might observe, therefore, that between the two architectural trends toward "the rational and the geometrical, [and] the irrational and the organic" (to borrow Giedion's dichotomy), the League of Religions project is self-consciously situated toward the organic end of the spectrum. Moreover, this early experimentation with biomorphic form seems to anticipate Matta's embrace of the Surrealist impulse that he encountered in Paris later in the 1930s.

One might situate these concerns with the spirituality of architecture within an intellectual matrix (following from an observation suggested by Kenneth Frampton) that is rooted in two seemingly interrelated factors in European architectural culture prior to the Second World War. ² The first turns on how the work of a number of architects may be read in the vein of the "avatars" of an emergent modernity who felt the need throughout the last quarter of the nineteenth century to develop a new anthropocentric, universal religion in order to compensate for the loss of traditional faith. The second factor then concerns the ways in which the loss of traditional faith was accompanied not so incidentally by the dissolution of the rationalist form most commonly associated with Modernism, towards more organic expressions.
Goetheanum, Dornach, Switzerland, by Rudolf Steiner, 1924. Photo: wikimedia.org
In the first instance-the move toward a more anthropocentric, universal spirituality-one could cite such phenomena as Rudolf Steiner's anthroposophical movement, which resulted in the construction of the "Goetheanum" in Dornach, Switzerland dating from 1908, with a second larger building begun in 1924. Intended as a Gesammtkünstwerk, the Goetheanum is a strong statement of German expressionism, relying on spiritually expressive forms even while experimenting with modern concrete construction. A related strain within the culture of the German architectural avant-garde between the turbulent years of 1914-19 is evidenced by the more familiar Bauhaus Proclamation of 1919, given behind the woodcut image of Lionel Feiniger's Cathedral of the Future, which was also identified at the time as the Cathedral of Socialism. This proclamation called for the creation of a utopian craft guild that would make a unified creative expression of the plastic arts, with an emphasis on "creative artists as the spiritual counterpoints to the practical technicians." In both cases, the search for a universal, secular spirituality is the dominant motif.
Templo de la Sagrada Familia, by Antonio Gaudí, begun 1882. Photo: flickr.com/AK@goalchasers.com
In the second instance-the dissolution of rationalist form in favor of organic expressions-one could contrast the overt rationalism of such pioneering projects as Perret's Notre Dame du Raincy with the organicism of the Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí's La Sagrada Família in Barcelona (begun in 1882). In contrast to the rationalism and structural logic of Le Raincy, as discussed above, Gaudí's La Sagrada Família embraces a formal exaggeration and natural form related to the Art Nouveau movement, that also evokes the later Surrealism of Salvador Dalí, Marcel Duchamp, and André Breton (with whom Matta was to become familiar). It was Breton who noted that the architecture of the Art Nouveau movement was the first among all the arts to move towards surrealism by excluding the external world and turning toward the inner consciousness of expressing the internal world visually. In La Sagrada Família, Gaudí draws upon influences ranging from Gothic to Moorish, creating what might be characterized as evoking "another" Modernism lying outside the traditional constructional logic of modern architecture-a prime expression of the strain of a derivative use of religious ideas which contributed to shaping any number of architectural work that share the concern for developing a new more universal spirituality of building.
Aesthetic Summation
A third trajectory within modern religious architecture is the summational aspect which some such buildings had within the corpus of certain architects who were eminent teachers and representatives of new architectural languages: this would include, for example, among others, Theodore Fischer and Dominikus Bohm and the Catholic reform architecture in Germany, Otto Wagner in Austria, Hendrik Petrus Berlage in the Netherlands, and Karl Moser in Switzerland. These figures often turned to the religious building as a culmination of their inventiveness with new structures, or as an expression of a complete vocabulary drawn from numerous architectural languages: classical, modernist, and vernacular. In such cases, the church building had the effect of freeing the imagination of the architect from all stylistic conventions, and allowed for a freer association with forms.
Saint Leopold am Steinhof, Vienna, by Otto Wagner, 1907. Photo: flickr.com/ceka01
By way of example, Wagner's Saint Leopold am Steinhof in Vienna of 1907 provides a fresh reading of materials, ornamentation, and their relationship to structure. Above all, the church presented a new interpretation of ornament in relation to metalwork, the radial ribwork, the thin sheets of Sterzig marble, and the gold and copperwork which stress the salient features of the building's structure. In turn, Wagner's church had a notable impact on the work of his prize student, Joze Plecnik, who himself was raised in a deeply religious family. This formation, combined with his early tutelage by Wagner and the influence of the texts of Gottfried Semper, shaped Plecnik's belief in material as the basis of architectural form. Plecnik's Church of the Most Sacred Heart in Prague (1928-31) openly demonstrates how he adapted elements derived from numerous architectural traditions-from the trabeated forms of Classicism, to vernacular construction methods and regional building traditions.
Most Sacred Heart Church, Prague, by Joze Plecnik, 1928. Photo: flickr.com/aguyiusedtoknow
In the United States, Frank Lloyd Wright's Unity Temple in Oak Park (1907) might in one sense be said to be analogous to Perret's Notre Dame du Raincy in terms of its innovation with concrete construction, the strength of the influence of its forms, and the ways in which the building helped to provide an essential foundation for a "new architecture" with wider implications for the field extending well beyond the programmatic need for providing space for religious worship. Yet the building also summarizes Wright's own utilitarian and transcendentalist background by giving full expression to his aesthetic and philosophical stance. Wright's intention for Unity Temple to be "a modern meeting house" underscores the importance of the seated congregation within the three sides of a square room and its galleries with the focus on the central pulpit at the front. Here the building is understood in relation to Wright's concept of architecture as a place of gathering rather than architecture as a sanctuary. Wright's radical approach to the temple-so unlike traditional church architecture at the time-was set out in a lecture he gave at the Art Institute of Chicago in 1931, in which he said of the Unity Temple that it represented:
Unity Temple, Oak Park, IL by Frank Lloyd Wright, 1907. Photo: flickr.com/matt72

An entirely new sense of architecture, a higher conception of architecture; architecture not alone as form following function, but conceived as space enclosed. The enclosed space itself might now be seen as the reality of the building. The sense of the "within" or of the room itself, or the rooms themselves, I now saw as the great thing to be expressed as architecture. ³

Similarly, Bernard Maybeck's First Church of Christ, Scientist in Berkeley, California (1910-12) is in many ways as expressive of a particular tradition as Wright's Unity Temple. Maybeck's building does not appear in a traditional church form on the exterior; its scale combined with its wooden trellises and wisteria vines and concrete tracery create a space that is more intimate than imposing. Of Maybeck's work Paul Goldberger has written:

Maybeck was interested in the way buildings made people feel; he cared about the auras his buildings possessed, about the emotions they inspired, about the thoughts they brought forth. [. . . ] He knew that there is no such thing as the completely new; he also knew that no work of art worth anything can be made entirely from things that have come before. He felt no conflict, and his work was proof that total originality need not demand total rejection of what is familiar and comfortable. In the end, he takes his place not only among the greatest of California architects, but also among the select group of architects throughout history who, like Hawksmoor, Soane, and Lutyens, pushed and pulled traditional languages in ways that others could not imagine, and in so doing made poetry. ⁴

Conclusion
Recognizing that the critical assessment of the religious building in modern and contemporary architecture is an often ignored subject within most schools of architecture, the Yale School of Architecture organized an interdisciplinary symposium on the topic "Constructing the Ineffable" in 2007 with architects, theologians, philosophers, and historians. Since many new contemporary religious buildings built over the last two decades have received substantial attention within the popular press, it seemed like an opportune moment to explore the subject, especially as many prominent working architects on the current scene have in fact engaged it in their own work. The symposium set out to examine this large corpus of contemporary sacred architecture and the cultural attitudes that give it shape. In this sense, the speakers at the conference in effect addressed two foundational questions posed by Vincent Scully in his keynote address: What do we consider sacred today? And how is that expressed in built form?
Design for the Metropolitan Cathedral of Christ the King, Liverpool, by Sir Edwin Lutyens, 1930. Photo: andrewcusack.com
What emerged from this dialogue was a confirmation that a broad audience is eager to address the ideas that have shaped attitudes to sacred space within the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Many participants came to this discussion with a belief that the topic of the religious building, especially in the historiography of twentieth century architecture, has been unfairly ignored. Indeed, some leading architect-scholars asserted that in comparison with the past, the twentieth century lacked a compelling religious building tradition (with the exception of a few outstanding examples such as Le Corbusier's chapel at Ronchamp)-presumably thereby accounting for why modern religious architecture has not caught on within professional schools as a topic for in-depth historical and critical inquiry.

From the symposium, there emerged a sense of the need for a more nuanced historical perspective that could reassess contemporary religious architecture's modernist roots. Contrary to assumptions, the relation between modern architecture and religion is emerging as a more complex and often contradictory relationship than previously assumed. The significance of the pursuit of the "rational" for modern architects-in relation to the lucidity of construction, structural logic, and economy-is not in doubt. On the other hand, one could argue that there has been relatively less emphasis placed by modern architects on a search for a search on the relationship of the built environment to patterns of myth, ritual, and the archetypal aspirations of the human spirit. Yet as this essay has reasserted, the place of spirit in leading innovative approaches, sustaining derivative appropriations, and offering summational exemplars of modern architecture cannot be overlooked.

Most of the great modernist architects in fact displayed a real interest in, and sensitivity towards building religious work. Although the religious building has perhaps been the most problematic architectural type of the twentieth century, it has never ceased to challenge the architect. In a century when building types were expanding to keep up with meeting the requirements of a modernist mass society-including such varied forms as the shopping center, the factory, the airport, and hydro-electric dams-the religious building type persisted as an indication of human presence, symbolic myths, and archetypal bonds in the midst of radical and absolute change. If we follow this thread, there emerges a more nuanced picture of the narrative of modern architecture that brings forward the very serious ideas on the relationship between the spirit and the formation of new materials and technologies. These achievements suggest that there is a stronger narrative of concern for the spirit to be traced within the history of modern architecture than many critics have observed.

Karla Britton is a Professor of Art History at Diné College in Tsaile, Arizona. She wrote Auguste Perret, the first monograph in English on the French architect, and edited Constructing the Ineffable: Contemporary Sacred Architecture.

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"People will again go up to the religious community building, whose architectural prominence will command respect, and which can only be approached along a triumphal axis. Its great internal space will inspire us again, not because of a sacredly mystic devotion that makes us long for a transcendental world, but because of a devotion characterized by a reborn Dionysian joy.

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7 radical spiritual spaces that rethink the traditional church

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7 radical spiritual spaces that rethink the traditional church

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Architecture has always been a powerful way of helping worshippers connect with their faith - with churches and cathedrals often extravagant manifestations of these beliefs. While opulent interiors and intricate exteriors have traditionally been de rigueur for houses of prayer, contemporary architects are helping to push forward a new visual language for religion.

We've picked seven churches that are designed to exalt the soul and soothe the spirit in an increasingly secular age.

Church of St Wenceslas by Atelier Stepan, Sazovice, Czech Republic

'I believe there is something or better Somebody behind the material world. In Sazovice I tried to find it through the volume and defined space,' says architect Marek Jan Štěpán, of his cylindrical Church of St Wenceslas. The rotunda harnesses the power of the circle as a 'divine symbol', rather than the 'worldly rectangle', and has a strictly minimal interior. Churchgoers looking to bask in the grace of god can experience a direct connection, through a pyramid-shaped aperture in the ceiling that bathes worshippers in light.

Church of Santa Monica, by Vicens + Ramos, Madrid, Spain

Vicens + Ramos took a sculptural approach to this bright orange house of prayer in Madrid. Constructed from Corten steel, and dotted with windows of different shapes and sizes, the Church of Santa Monica wouldn't look out of place on a sci-fi film set. The studio describes it as 'an explosion, frozen in an instant after detonation', with its irregular exterior jutting out at all angles and creating shafts of light inside the building.

Reading Between the Lines, by Gijs van Vaerenbergh, Limburg, Belgium

This barely-there chapel by Belgian studio Gijs van Vaerenbergh questions just how tangible a church needs to be. Although it has the classic cross and spire structure, the 10m-high building melts away when seen from certain angles - becoming almost transparent, despite its substantial 30 tons of steel and 2,000 columns.

Autobahn Church by Schneider Schumacher, Siegerland, Germany

Schneider Schumacher's Autobahn Church is an architectural version of the white church symbol found on German road signs. Located on one of the country's busiest motorways, this house of prayer is designed for those that want to practice their faith on the go. Once inside, worshippers are wrapped in wooden lattice work and warm natural light. 'The exterior is abstract; the interior is warm, friendly, magical and sacred, transporting you to a different world,' architect Michael Schumacher told Dezeen.

St Luke the Evangelist Catholic Church by Neumann Monson Architects, Iowa, United States

Neumann Monson Architects didn't need to reach for the heavens with this long, low Iowa church, choosing instead to blend agrarian architectural vernacular with typical church features - including east-facing, gothic arched windows. 'The building honours Catholic traditions through the use of light, procession, form, and materiality,' explains the studio. Church-goers are surrounded by weathering steel and local limestone, with walls designed to 'embrace the congregation' and fill the space with daylight.

St Moritz by John Pawson, Augsburg, Germany

St Moritz has weathered a thousand years of history, including surviving fire and wartime bombs. John Pawson's minimalist reinvention brought its church back to life, using translucent white stone over windows to bathe the space in what the architect calls 'a haze of diffused luminescence'. Its bright white interior is punctuated by dark wooden pews, and effortlessly incorporates its existing historic elements.

Church of Seed by O Studio Architects, Guangzhou, China

This stark concrete structure blends the natural and handmade, retaining the marks of the bamboo formworks used to construct it and designed to resemble the curving form of a seed. Its roof terrace allows church-goers to look out across the nearby mountains, while inside the congregation sits on bamboo furniture constructed by local farmers.

Read next:
The dark allure of France's subterranean churches
Bavaria's surprisingly beautiful church organs

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7 radical spiritual spaces that rethink the traditional church

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Architecture has always been a powerful way of helping worshippers connect with their faith - with churches and cathedrals often extravagant manifestations of these beliefs. While opulent interiors and intricate exteriors have traditionally been de rigueur for houses of prayer, contemporary architects are helping to push forward a new visual language for religion.

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The Evolution of Spiritual Architecture in the last 60 Years

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The Evolution of Spiritual Architecture in the last 60 Years

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 Spirituality in Place: Building Connections Between Architecture, Design, and Spiritual Experience 

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 Spirituality in Place: Building Connections Between Architecture, Design, and Spiritual Experience 

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OFFICE OF THE METROPOLITAN

Moran Mor Athanasius Yohan Metropolitan I dedicated his life to God at a young age to serve the needy and downtrodden. He prayed, "Oh my Lord, let my heart break with the things that break Your heart" and his life was never the same.

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Believers Eastern Church has its faith and practice rooted in God's Word, the apostolic doctrines, Nicene Creed and holy traditions of the ancient church. We are thoroughly evangelical in nature, eastern in worship, democratic in function and episcopal in governance.

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St Pauls Marthoma Church Othera. 779 likes · 4 talking about this. Religious Organization

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St. Andrew's Basilica, Arthunkal is one of the famous pilgrim centres in South India. Though the Church is named after St. Andrew the Apostle, it is the feast of St. Sebastian that has brought fame to Arthunkal. The Christian presence in Arthunkal dates back to a very early period, to 7th Century or earlier. After the arrival of the Portuguese in Kerala Jesuit missionaries turned their attention to Arthunkal. They under¬took missionary work in Arthunkal from 1530 onwards. As there was a ban on Christian conversion till 1560 per mission to put up churches was hard to obtain. When Fr. Gasper Pious s was appointed the first Vicar of Arthunkal he managed to get permission to construct a Church.

In 1581 the King of Cochin, Veera Kerala Varma, gave permission to build a Church in wood. It was the second Vicar, Fr. Giacomo Fenicio S.J. who managed to obtain permission from the King to renovate the wooden church in stone in 1602. He had spent 33 years in Arthunkal in two terms and is rightfully called the Apostle of Arthunkal. Read More...

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ST. ANDREW'S BASILICA, ARTHUNKAL ST. SEBASTIAN'S INTERNATIONAL PILGRIM CENTRE

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St. Andrew's Basilica, Arthunkal is one of the famous pilgrim centres in South India. Though the Church is named after St. Andrew the Apostle, it is the feast of St. Sebastian that has brought fame to Arthunkal. The Christian presence in Arthunkal dates back to a very early period, to 7th Century or earlier.

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St. Thomas Mar Thoma Church, Kozhencherry has a played a pivotal role in the development of Kozhencherry.The farsightedness of some of the leaders of this parish has made Kozhencherry an educational hub and contributed to its 100% literacy.

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Welcome to St Thomas Mar Thoma Church, Kozhencherry

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St. Thomas Mar Thoma Church, Kozhencherry has a played a pivotal role in the development of Kozhencherry.The farsightedness of some of the leaders of this parish has made Kozhencherry an educational hub and contributed to its 100% literacy.

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St. Thomas Mar Thoma Church, Kozhencherry has a played a pivotal role in the development of Kozhencherry.The farsightedness of some of the leaders of this parish has made Kozhencherry an educational hub and contributed to its 100% literacy.

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Welcome to St Thomas Mar Thoma Church, Kozhencherry

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St. Thomas Mar Thoma Church, Kozhencherry has a played a pivotal role in the development of Kozhencherry.The farsightedness of some of the leaders of this parish has made Kozhencherry an educational hub and contributed to its 100% literacy.

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St. George Dayara, Othera, Thiruvalla (Tiruvalla), India. 845 likes · 4 talking about this. Community

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Pazhaya Suriyani Pally a.k.a. Old Syrian Church, Chengannur is an ancient Syrian Christian church of Kerala. It is considered as one among the oldest still standing church buildings in Kerala and across India, that predates several centuries before the arrival of European Christianity in India. It is located at Chengannur, a major town along the MC Road, about 117 km north of the Kerala state capital Thiruvananthapuram and about 98 km south of Kochi.

It is believed that the church was built about 1650 years ago. The structure of the church building certifies that it is very very old. The story is that long ago a hermit priest came to Chengannur and began a worship place at this spot.

Till AD 1580, Nazranis and Knanaya people were worshipping together in this church. Then the Knanaya people who escaped the persecution in Cochin and surrounding area, also joined with those at Chengannur. Later the Knanaya people had built their own church and moved out. During reformation two groups were formed in the Malankara Church. These two factions quarreled in this church and there was a court case. Now the Chengannur Pazhaya Pally is co-owned by the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church and the Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church.

Trust Agreement

The parish is governed according to a Trust Agreement signed by both parties on 7 August 1877 The names of the signatories in the same order as given in the original Agreement:

1. Vicar Marakkan Parampil Ouseph Koshy Kathanaru. (''Kathanaru = clergy'')

2. Vicar Pallyil Veettil Geevarghese Geevarghese Kathanaru.

3. Thoppil Cherian Yohannan Kathanaru.

4. Poovathuru Chandy Yaccob Kathanaru'

5. Kottaarathil Varkey Thoma Kathanaru'

6. Kottureth Mammen Ouseph Kathanaru

7. Pallyil Veettil Geeverghse Yaccob Kathanaru

8. Perukaavil Vareeth Geevarghese Kathanaru

9. Kadamthottil Nazrani Kocherya Mammen. (''Nazrani = St. Thomas Christian'')

10. Chittooru Nazrani Umumman Cherian

11. Kurisummoottil Nazrani Kappitha Yohannan Chandy

12. Pallithekkethil Nazrani Kappitha Ittyavira Chandy

Architectural style is a blend of 18th Century Christian and Hindu temple architecture and something fast disappearing from Kerala landscape. Its gopuravathil, nadapanthal, kalluvilakku and doors adorned with carved figurines includes a Hanuman holding a baton. This is indicative of communal and religious harmony exhibited by the localities in yesteryears.

The Pazhaya Suriyani Pally in Chengannur and the Cheriya Pally (St. Mary's Orthodox Church) in Kottayam are unique with the same architectural splendor.

History has it that Ivanios Yuhanon, a metropolitan from Antioch, Syria, visited Malankara in 1751 and made the western malika (double storied building) of the Pazhya Suriyani Pally (this malika is no more there) his home. Mar Ivanios, credited with the propagation the liturgy of Mar Yacob in Malankara, died in 1794 and was interred in front of the southern thronos (altar) of the Church.

There is legend regarding Mar Ivanios' arrival in Chengannur. When he reached Erapuzha Kadavu on River Pampa by boat, his followers took him to the Church in a procession. But the Nair chiefs of the land did not allow the procession to pass in front of the Vanchipuzha Chief's palace and the procession had to take a different route. When the son of Vanjipuzha Chief fell ill, the royal astrologer found that the curse of a saint had fallen on the son. The Chief is said to have tendered an apology to Mar Ivanios whose prayer rid the boy of his illness. In return the Chief bestowed tax-free land and properties to the Church.

Tablets of History: Over 1200 tombs in the cemetery adjoining the Suriyani Pally, some of them belonging to eminent Christians, stand as mute witness to the bygone days when all Christians were united in Christ but fell apart for reasons purely temporal[verification needed ]. George Joseph, who was once President of the Indian National Congress and his brother renowned journalist Pothen Joseph and Padmashri PM Joseph, once principal of the National Physical Education College, Gwalior, are among those buried here[verification needed ].

Suriyani Pally, short of written evidences of its hoary past except perhaps the words carved on the pillars of its nadapanthal, proudly recalls the stories of its tour de resistance against foreign machinations, both from the East and the West. Throughout the centuries the church proclaimed its independence as evidenced by the formation of a Trust ratified by Travancore Royal, Court and latest by the High Court of Kerala[unreliable source? ]

Two tombs conspicuous by their close proximity to the Church belong to two illustrious sons of the Marthoma Church-Kottooreth Valiachan and Kottarathil Thoma Kaseesa. Valiachan, Rev. M. Joseph Kottooreth, was the first translator of the Syrian liturgy and first Secretary of the Church. He was also the first editor of the Malankara Sabha Tharaka. He also successfully conducted the Suriyani Pally case. Thoma Kaseesa and 11 others founded the Marthoma Suvishesha Sangham, which has been organizing the renowned Maramon Convention for more than a century.

The Church is famous Aval Nercha (offering of sweetened rice flakes) held on every Maundy Thursday, for the last four centuries. The current Trustee, V.A.Abraham Vaikkathethu, is one of the chief organisers of the Nercha at present.

The aval nercha custom is said to have an uninterrupted history of not less than 400 years. It was the patronage of the then rural chieftain of Vanjippuzha Palace, attached to the erstwhile kingdom of Venad who ruled Chengannur in the 16th century, which made it a popular event in the region.

The Vanjippuzha chief had given the power of local administration to Thomman Thomman, founder of the Mukkathu family of Syrian Christians, who had migrated to Chengannur in the late 16th century.

Origins of the custom

According to church trustee V.A. Abraham, the origin of the aval nercha is attributed to an elderly matriarch of the Mukkathu family named Ackamma who used to take a small packet of aval to distribute it to the devotees after the Holy Qurbana on Maundy Thursday.

Ackamma used to give a pinch of rice flakes to all around her, and the members of the Mukkathu family continued the practice even after her death. The aval nercha became an elaborate event in later years, says Babu Zacharia, a former English professor and former president of the Mukkathu Kudumbayogam.

It is believed that a unique eight-headed coconut-scraper was gifted to the church by the royal chief for the annual aval nercha. There are others who believe that the foldable eight-headed coconut scraper is as old as the 1,650-year-old church. This antique piece is a major attraction of the aval nercha.

More than a thousand coconuts, 300 kg of rice flakes, 200 kg of jaggery, and spices go into the preparation of the aval, says Zacharia.

In the olden days, all these items were collected from the members of the Mukkathu family. However, now, rice flakes, jaggery and spices are purchased from the market, while the coconuts are collected from family members.

Collective effort

As many as 100 family members assemble on the church premises on the eve of Maundy Thursday, immediately after the evening service. The eldest member of the family present breaks a coconut after a short prayer, marking the beginning of the collective preparation of the aval.

The sweetened aval is kept to soak and swell in large bell metal vessels. It is distributed immediately after the morning service.

The faithful here still follow the custom and tradition of accepting the aval nercha in a cloth and not in a container of any kind, says Abraham.

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Pazhaya Suriyani Pally a.k.a. Old Syrian Church, Chengannur is an ancient Syrian Christian church of Kerala. It is considered as one among the oldest still standing church buildings in Kerala and across India, that predates several centuries before the arrival of European Christianity in India.

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St. John's Cathedral at Thiruvalla in the district of Pathanamthitta, Kerala, is a new cathedral that looks like a temple. It can accommodate 2,000 people and has no pews.

Getting there

Nearest railway station: Thiruvalla, about 2 km away

Nearest airport: Cochin International Airport, about 119 km away

Location

Latitude: 9.3793, Longitude: 76.570446

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St. John's Cathedral, Thiruvalla, Pathanamthitta | Kerala Tourism

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St. John's Cathedral at Thiruvalla in the district of Pathanamthitta, Kerala, is a new cathedral that looks like a temple. It can accommodate 2,000 people and has no pews. Nearest railway station: Thiruvalla, about 2 km away Nearest airport: Cochin International Airport, about 119 km away Latitude: 9.3793, Longitude: 76.570446

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Light can be interpreted in many ways. Light always involves the expulsion of darkness in the unfurling of scriptural history and religious philosophy. The metaphysical differentiation between good and evil, God and malevolent powers, believers and non-believers. Light helps us redefine the relationships of people with the environment and with themselves. In terms of religious spaces, light expresses a sense of spirituality which draws us within its walls. But over the years, churches have turned into a communal gathering space- giving importance to its grandeur; a shift from being a sanctuary. Along with this shift, light has lost its spiritual importance. My research involves identifying this element and its effect in old churches' architecture and study the shift as I analyse the architecture of new churches.

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EVOLUTION OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LIGHT AND SPIRITUALITY IN CHURCHES

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EVOLUTION OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LIGHT AND SPIRITUALITY IN CHURCHES