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CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD(~358.9 mya - 298.9 mya)

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CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD(~358.9 mya - 298.9 mya)

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An era in Earth's history wherein the majority of the Earth is covered in swamps; with an oxygen-rich atmosphere that promoted the growth of megafauna.

This era accelerated the growth and evolution of reptiles because of the increasingly cold, dry climate of the late Carboniferous period.

Source: When Giant Amphibians Ruled the Earth. (n.d.). ThoughtCo. Retrieved September 19, 2021, from https://www.thoughtco.com/carboniferous-period-350-300-million-years-1091426

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Constituted some of the dominant animals of Late Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic times (about 350 to 210 million years ago). The early labyrinthodonts were mostly aquatic, hunting in shallow water or weed-filled tidal channels. They are believed to be the cause of the evolution from amphibians to reptiles.

Source:
Labyrinthodontia | Fossil Wiki | Fandom. (n.d.). Fossil Wiki. Retrieved September 20, 2021, from https://fossil.fandom.com/wiki/Labyrinthodontia

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The first animal known to have fully adapted to life on land.
About 20 cm (8 in.) long, counting the tail. These lizard-like reptiles were primarily insectivores, feeding on millipedes, insects, and land snails. Females deposited eggs on land in moist, sheltered areas.

Source: Hylonomus: The Earliest Reptile: Natural History Notebooks. (n.d.). Canadian Museum of Nature. Retrieved September 19, 2021, from https://nature.ca/notebooks/english/coalrep.htm

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Discovered the Hylonomus lyelli in 1852.

Fossil bones of Hylonomus lyelli were found in petrified stumps exposed along the sea cliff near Joggins, Nova Scotia.

Source: Hylonomus: The Earliest Reptile: Natural History Notebooks. (n.d.). Canadian Museum of Nature. Retrieved September 19, 2021, from https://nature.ca/notebooks/english/coalrep.htm

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A primitive reptile that lived during the Carboniferous period.
These small lizard-like animals (including Hylonomus lyelli) that apparently lived in forested habitats are called Eureptillia (True Reptiles).

Source:
reptile - Evolution and paleontology. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved September 20, 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/animal/reptile/Evolution-and-paleontology#ref998037

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Discovered the Paleothyris in 1969

Source:
A Middle Pennsylvanian Captorhinomorph, and the Interrelationships of Primitive Reptiles on JSTOR. (n.d.). Robert L. Carroll. Retrieved September 20, 2021, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/1302357

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Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse (~305 mya - 300 mya)

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Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse (~305 mya - 300 mya)

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A fragmentation of tropical rainforests that occurred 300 million years ago that helped pave the way for the rise of the dinosaurs and eventually, modern reptiles.

Early amphibians appear to have been hardest hit by this event. The relative success of reptiles may have been due to physical adaptations in which they differed from amphibians.

Firstly, the hard-shelled eggs of reptiles could be laid on dry land. Secondly, reptiles possess protective scales that help them retain moisture.

This event kickstarted the evolution of reptiles.

Source:
Rincon, B. P. (2010, November 30). Rainforest collapse kickstarted reptile evolution. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-11870322

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First Evolution (Sauropsids & Synapsids)

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First Evolution (Sauropsids & Synapsids)

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The early amniotes diverged into two main lines soon after the first amniotes (Hylonomus and Paleothyris)arose. The initial split was into synapsids and sauropsids. Synapsids include all mammals, while Sauropsids include reptiles and birds which can be further divided into anapsids and diapsids.

Source:
B. (n.d.). Reptiles | Boundless Biology. Lumen. Retrieved September 20, 2021, from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/reptiles/

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The emerging supercontinent of Pangaea presented severe extremes of climate and environment due to its vast size. The south was cold and arid, with much of the region frozen under ice caps. Northern areas suffered increasingly from intense heat and great seasonal fluctuations between wet and dry conditions. The lush swamp forests of the Carboniferous were gradually replaced by conifers, seed ferns, and other drought-resistant plants.

This period is mostly dominated by Sauropsids and Synapsids.

Source:
Permian Period. (2021, May 4). Science. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/permian

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A lizard-like reptile of the order Prolacertiformes and is the earliest known archosauromorph. It lived during the Late Permian period.

Source:
Protorosaurus | Fossil Wiki | Fandom. (n.d.). Fossil Wiki. Retrieved September 20, 2021, from https://fossil.fandom.com/wiki/Protorosaurus

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A late Permian lizard that was present in South Africa.

Source:
www.prehistoric-wildlife.com, Darren Pepper. (n.d.). Youngina. 2011, Www.Prehistoric-Wildlife.Com, Darren Pepper. Retrieved September 20, 2021, from http://www.prehistoric-wildlife.com/species/y/youngina.html

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Permian-Triassic Extinction (~299 mya-252 mya)

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Permian-Triassic Extinction (~299 mya-252 mya)

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A series of extinction pulses contributed to the greatest mass extinction in Earth’s history. The Permian extinction was characterized by the elimination of over 95 percent of marine and 70 percent of terrestrial species. In addition, over half of all taxonomic families present at the time disappeared.

Source:
Permian extinction | Overview & Facts. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved September 20, 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/science/Permian-extinction

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After the worst extinction disaster in Earth's history, the Triassic Period began. It is known as the Mesozoic Era's earliest and shortest period.

A transitional time between the late Palaeozoic Era, when synapsids, or mammalian-like reptiles, dominated, and the Mesozoic Era, when archosaurian reptiles, which include dinosaurs, came to predominate.

The diversity and dominance of life on Earth shifted dramatically throughout this period, ushering in the development of several well-known animal groupings.

This period marks the start of "The Age of Reptiles"

Source:
Bagley M. (February 12, 2014). Triassic Period Facts: Climate, Animals & Plants. Retrieved September 20, 2021, from https://www.livescience.com/43295-triassic-period.html

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Triassic Period Photos, Dinosaur Photos -- National Geographic

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Diapsids evolved into the first archosaurs, which then split off into dinosaurs, pterosaurs, crocodiles, and probably marine reptiles such as plesiosaurs and ichthyosaurs.

These newly evolved reptiles dominated the following eras up until the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction.

Source:
These 300-Million-Year-Old Lizards Went on to Spawn a Mighty Race. (n.d.). ThoughtCo. Retrieved September 20, 2021, from https://www.thoughtco.com/the-first-reptiles-1093767

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LYSTROSAURUS (Permian Period - Triassic Period)

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LYSTROSAURUS (Permian Period - Triassic Period)

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One of the few synapsid species to survive the Permian extinction was therapsids, or mammal-like reptiles. It's also the only abundant synapsid that survived the climatic and ecological disruptions.

Its fossils may serve as markers for the transition between the Permian and Triassic periods, as well as contributing to the body of evidence supporting continental drift theory.

Source:
Logan A. (2020). Triassic Period. Retrieved September  20, 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/science/Triassic-Period

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Meet the Mammal-Like Reptiles of the Paleozoic Era

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A paleontologist who recovered Lystrosaurus fossils from Lower Triassic rocks in Antarctica's Trasantarctic Mountains.

Sources:
Logan A. (2020). Triassic Period. Retrieved September  20, 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/science/Triassic-Period

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Also known as "ruling reptiles," they are members of a subclass that includes dinosaurs, pterosaurs (flying reptiles), and a number of Triassic Period extinct species.

True archosaurs are classified into two groups. Crocodiles and any other archosaurs that are more closely linked to crocodiles than to birds belong to the Pseudosuchia branch. The Ornithosuchia, the second archosaurian branch, encompasses birds and all archosaurs that are more closely related to birds than to crocodiles.

Although most archosaurs died extinct by the end of the Triassic, dinosaurs, crocodiles, and pterosaurs survived and thrived during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.

Sources:
Logan A. (2020). Triassic Period. Retrieved September  20, 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/science/Triassic-Period

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The Triassic-Jurassic Extinction resulted in the demise of some 76 percent of all marine and terrestrial species and about 20 percent of all taxonomic families. It is thought that the end-Triassic extinction was the key moment that allowed dinosaurs to become the dominant land animals on Earth.

Source:
end-Triassic extinction | Evidence & Facts. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved September 20, 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/science/end-Triassic-extinction

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The Jurassic was a time of significant global change in continental configurations, oceanographic patterns, and biological systems. During this period the supercontinent Pangea split apart, allowing for the eventual development of what is now the central Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. Heightened plate tectonic movement led to significant volcanic activity, mountain-building events, and the attachment of islands onto continents.

In Triassic terrestrial ecosystems, synapsids and therapsids, the ancestors of modern mammals and their relatives, were dominant. By the start of the Jurassic, these groups became rare. Instead, the archosaurs (dinosaurs, crocodiles, and pterosaurs) were the dominant terrestrial vertebrates.

Source:
Jurassic Period - Vertebrates. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved September 21, 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/science/Jurassic-Period/Vertebrates

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The Sauropods is a four-legged dinosaur that emerges in the late Jurassic period. This reptile is the largest animal that ever lived. It has a body of small head, long neck, and tail with large body size. This dinosaur is a herbivorous diet type of reptile.

Source: Jurassic Period Facts / eden / UKTV. (n.d.). eden. Retrieved September 20, 2021, from https://eden.uktv.co.uk/animals/reptiles/dinosaurs/article/jurassic-period-facts/

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Elmer Riggs was an American Paleontologist famous for discovering sauropod dinosaurs. He was assigned to investigate the dinosaur collection, even though his forte was about the fossils of mammals. Riggs found a suitable site, and along with his assistant H. William Menke, they discovered a partial skeleton of a new sauropod.

A. William (2020). “Scientist of the Day - Elmer Riggs”. Linda Hall Library. Retrieved September 20, 2021, from

https://www.lindahall.org/elmer-riggs/

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Ichthyosaurs are giant marine reptiles that resemble a dolphin with large teeth. Ichthyosaurs had a very wide geographic distribution, and their fossil remains span almost the entire Mesozoic Era (251 million to 65.5 million years ago), but they were most abundant and diverse during the Triassic and Jurassic periods .

Source:
ichthyosaur | Definition, Size, Fossil, & Facts. (2021, August 26). Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/animal/ichthyosaur

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Discovered the Ichthyosaurus in 1811.

Source:
Mary Anning’s Ichthyosaur. (n.d.). Oxford University Museum of Natural History. Retrieved September 21, 2021, from https://oumnh.ox.ac.uk/mary-annings-ichthyosaur

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CRETACEOUS PERIOD (145.5 mya. ~ 65.5 mya.)

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CRETACEOUS PERIOD (145.5 mya. ~ 65.5 mya.)

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Cretaceous Period is the last period of the Mesozoic Era.
Cretaceous period is also the longest period in the Phanerozoic eon.

The name is derived from the word creta which means "chalk' in Latin which was proposed by J.B.J. Omalius d'Halloy in year 1822.

The Cretaceous Period is composed of 2 continents known as Laurasia and Gondwana. These continents are where the modern continents came from.

Source:
B.Waggoner et al., (1995) The Cretaceous Period retrieved from https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/mesozoic/cretaceous/cretaceous.php

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Basilemys, derived from greek words meaning King Turtle, are animals from the Cretaceous Period which highly resembles a  tortoise.
Basilemys are 1 meter long. They lived along the plain deposits of North America. They feed on plants being they are herbivores just like the modern tortoises.

Source:
Brinkman, Donald (1998). "The skull and neck of the Cretaceous turtle Basilemys (Trionychoidea, Nanhsiungchelyidae), and the interrelationships of the genus". Paludicola. 1 (4): 150–157.

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Edward Drinker Cope is a Paleontologist, zoologist, and herpetologist from America.
He liked studying science since he was a child. He published his first scientific paper at a young age of 19 years old.
Despite the lack of formal scientific training, he was able to give out his contributions to science which is proven after being awarded the Bigsby medal in 1879 and the Hayden memorial geological award on 1891.

Source:
A. John (1999). "Edward Drinker Cope (1840–1897)". National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis. retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20090207103110/http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/~alroy/lefa/Cope.html

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Ocean of Kansas shows a reduced black and white version of the photo here; however, this sepia-toned copy resides on their server at http://www.oceansofkansas.com/images2/edcope.jpg. Earliest known publication of this photo is page 11 of volume 55 of The Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine around 1897-98.

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Tyrannosaurus Rex, commonly known as T-Rex is a famous dinosaur because of its use in films.
Tyrannosaurus Rex means King of Tyrant Lizards in Latin. They are known for being a vicious predator living off other smaller animals.
Their size roughly goes to 12.3 meters being one of the largest carnivores of the Cretaceous period.

Source:
A. Mckeever (n.a) "Why Tyrannosaurus rex was one of the fiercest predators of all time" retrieved from
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/facts/tyrannosaurus-rex

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Henry Fairfield Osborn was an American Eulogist and Paleontologist.
He was once a professor at Columbia University teaching zoology. Followed by that is he became a curator and president of the American Museum of Natural History.
He is also known as the paleontologist who named and described the Tyrannosaurus Rex in 1905.

Source:
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2021, August 4). Henry Fairfield Osborn. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-Fairfield-Osborn

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Title: The American Museum journal Identifier: americanmuseumjo16amer ( find matches) Year: c1900-(1918) ( c190s) Authors: American Museum of Natural History Subjects: Natural history Publisher: New York : American Museum of Natural History Contributing Library: American Museum of Natural History Library Digitizing Sponsor: Biodiversity Heritage Library View Book Page: Book Viewer About This Book: Catalog Entry View All Images: All Images From Book Click here to

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Velociraptor mongoliensis is a land dinosaur that was found roaming the lands of China and Mongolia. The name itself means "swift thief" due to the fact that it is able to run fast.
It became famous after its portrayal on some Hollywood movies.
Velociraptor sized up to 2.07 m and are actually feathered creatures. They have large claws that helped them on slashing their prey.

Source:
J. Logan King et al., (2020) The endocranium and trophic ecology of Velociraptor mongoliensis. https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.13253

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Triceratops is a large herbivore ranging with length of 9 meters. They feed on shrubs around their area and moves with 4 legs.
They are called Ceratopsian meaning horned dinosaur. They have 3 horns, 2 just above the eyes and 1 above their beaklike mouth.
They are believed to be preyed on by Tyrannosaurus rex after the discovery of a triceratops fossil with bite marks that resembles of a T. rex bite.

Source:
Triceratops (n.a) National History Museum retrieved from https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/dino-directory/triceratops.html

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Othniel Charles Marsh is one of the American Trio of Paleontologist that has appeared after Charles Darwin.
He showed his interest in science as a kid by collecting animals, insects and fossils.
He graduated from Yale where he became interested in paleontology and then filled the spot there as a Professor in Vertebrae Paleontology after graduating from Germany.

Source:
Wortman, J. L. (1899). Othniel Charles Marsh. Science, 9(225), 561–565. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1627335

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Spinosaurus aegyptiacus is a dinosaur with a length of around 50 feet and is larger than the T-rex.
It is characterized by its elongated snout and the sail like mounted on its back.

This gigantic reptile feeds on aquatic animals in its time by using its crocodile like snout to catch its preys.
It was discovered while German paleontologist Ernst Stromer led a fossil dig on Egypt.

Source:
J. Meszaros (n.a.) "Discovering Spinosaurus" Connecticut Science Center retrieved from https://ctsciencecenter.org/blog/discovering-spinosaurus/#:~:text=At%20over%2050%20feet%20long,by%20German%20paleontologist%20Ernst%20Stromer.

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Ernst Stromer is a German Paleontologist.
He was famously known as a paleontologist that led a dig on Egypt and discovered a very important piece of fossils.
He discovered the boned of the Spinosaurus, a very large dinosaur from the late cretaceous period. It was so large that it defeated the size of the previously well known Tyrannosaurus Rex.

Source:
W. Ashworth Jr., (2020) "Ernst Stromer" Linda Hall Library, retrieved from https://www.lindahall.org/ernst-stromer/.

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Arguably the most famous extinction event in the planet's history, the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction marked the end of the dinosaur age.

The exact nature of this catastrophic event is still open to scientific debate. Evidence suggests an asteroid impact was the main culprit. Volcanic eruptions that caused large-scale climate change may also have been involved, together with more gradual changes to Earth's climate that happened over millions of years.

Whatever the causes, the huge extinction that ended the age of the dinosaur left gaps in ecosystems around the world. These were subsequently filled by the only dinosaurs to survive - birds - and mammals, both of which went on to evolve rapidly.

Source:
What killed the dinosaurs? (n.d.). Natural History Museum. Retrieved September 21, 2021, from https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/dinosaur-extinction.html

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-The Cenozoic Era is the most recent of the three major subdivisions of animal history. The other two are the Mesozoic and Paleozoic Eras. The Cenozoic spans only about 65 million years, from the end of the Cretaceous Period and the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs to the present.  The Cenozoic is sometimes called the Age of Mammals, because the largest land animals have been mammals during that time.

-The Cenozoic Era is divided into three periods:

Paleogene (65.5 to 23.02 million years ago)
Neogene (23.03 to 2.6 million years ago)
Quaternary (2.6 million years ago to now)

-This is a misnomer for several reasons. First, the history of mammals began long before the Cenozoic began. Second, the diversity of life during the Cenozoic is far wider than mammals.

-The Cenozoic could have been called the "Age of Flowering Plants" or the "Age of Insects" or the "Age of Teleost Fish" or the "Age of Birds" just as accurately.

Reference:
Poly, Guralnick, and Collins (2008). The Cenozoic Era. Retrieve September 20, 2021 from https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/cenozoic/cenozoic.php

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Third Evolution (Shift to Modern Reptiles)

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Third Evolution (Shift to Modern Reptiles)

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After the extinction of the large reptiles (dinosaurs) 66 million years ago, many small reptiles then such as the crocodile and alligator survived the mass extinction, even though many are now endangered because of habitat destruction and hunting. Lizards and snakes, both distant relatives of dinosaurs, also survived and continued to evolve from that period of time into what we now see today.

Source:
Dinosaurs Survive! | AMNH. (n.d.). American Museum of Natural History. Retrieved September 21, 2021, from https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/dinosaurs-ancient-fossils/extinction/dinosaurs-survive

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 West African Dwarf Crocodile (Vulnerable)

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 West African Dwarf Crocodile (Vulnerable)

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Scientific Name: Osteolaemus tetraspis
Common Names: African Dwarf Crocodile, West African Dwarf Crocodile
Maximum adult length: 1.8 metres (5.9 feet)

-The West African dwarf crocodile is the world’s smallest crocodile, growing up to 1.8 metres (5.9 feet). It is found alone or in pairs, in burrows and the hollows of low lying tree branches at the waters edge. It is a heavily armoured crocodile, which is dark in colour on the back and sides with a yellowish belly featuring many black patches. Dwarf crocodiles are a little-known species, unlike their more studied relatives.

Reference:
IUCN Red List (September, 2014). West African Dwarf Crocodile | Crocodiles Of The World . Retrieved September 20, 2021 from https://www.crocodilesoftheworld.co.uk/animals/west-african-dwarf-crocodile/

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Scientific Name: Tomistoma Schlegelii
Common Names: Tomistoma

Maximum adult length: 3 – 5 metres

-The Tomistoma is a large freshwater crocodilian from Indonesia and Malaysia. They can attain huge sizes, with males occasionally exceeding 5 metres in length, and females regularly growing to over 3m. Tomistoma hatch out of the largest egg of any living crocodilian. These crocodilians are restricted to rivers, lakes and swamps in low lying areas, especially the peat swamp forests of Borneo, Sumatra and Malaysia.

Reference:
IUCN Red List (September, 2014). Tomista  | Crocodiles Of The World. Retrieve September 20, 2021 from https://www.crocodilesoftheworld.co.uk/animals/tomistoma/

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Scientific Name: Mecistops cataphractus
Common Names: Slender-Snouted Crocodile
Maximum adult length: 4m

-The Slender-snouted crocodile is a narrow-snouted, medium sized species native to freshwater habitats in central and western Africa. They are a very shy and secretive species and consequently in 1996 the IUCN rated them as ‘Data Deficient.’ In 2014 this was reviewed and Slender-Snouted Crocodiles were listed as ‘Critically Endangered.’

Reference:
IUCN Red List (September, 2014). Slender-Snouted Crocodile |  Crocodile Of The World. Retrieve September 20, 2021 from https://www.crocodilesoftheworld.co.uk/animals/slender-snouted-crocodile/

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Scientific Name: Crocodylus rhombifer
Common Names: Cuban Crocodile

Maximum adult length: 3.5 metres (11.4 feet)

-The Cuban crocodile is a medium sized but aggressive species of crocodile which today can only be found in Cuba’s Zapata Swamp and the Isle of Youth. It is medium sized with adult males reaching a maximum length of 3.5 metres (11.4 feet). It is the most terrestrial of all the crocodilians and has big, strong legs, which gives it a unique high walk. It is often regarded as the most aggressive species of crocodile. In contrast to their usual solitary hunting habits, Cuban crocodiles in captivity developed pack-hunting behaviour. Already ferocious on their own, these animals pose a formidable threat as a pack.

Reference:
IUCN Red List (September, 2014). Cuban Crocodile |   Crocodiles Of The World. Retrieve September 20, 2021 from
https://www.crocodilesoftheworld.co.uk/animals/cuban-crocodile/

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An extinct species of snake in the Bolyeriidae family, in the monotypic genus Bolyeria that was endemic to Mauritius. The species was last seen on Round Island in 1975.

Source:
Round Island Burrowing Boa | Animal Database | Fandom. (n.d.). Animal Database. Retrieved September 21, 2021, from https://animals.fandom.com/wiki/Round_Island_Burrowing_Boa

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Currently the smallest out of 11,500 known species of reptiles. It was discovered by a German-Madagascan expedition team in northern Madagascar. The species’ closest relative is the slightly larger Brookesia micra, whose discovery was announced in 2012.

Scientists assume that the lizard’s habitat is small, as is the case for similar subspecies.

Source:
Scientists have discovered the smallest reptile on earth. (2021, February 9). World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/02/new-species-madagascar-smallest-reptile-nano-chameleon/

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Holocene Extinction (~10000 years ago - Present)

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Holocene Extinction (~10000 years ago - Present)

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An extinction brought about by the rise of humans. Other factors include habitat encroachment, hunting, climate change, pollution and genetic mutations are being credited as the major causes of this mass extinction.

The Holocene Extinction is also called the Anthropocene, or Age of Man extinction since it is directly linked to human evolvement to the changes of the planet. There has been a significant decline of biodiversity due to mankind which could lead to the untimely elimination of not just individual species but whole lines of phyla if not checked in time.

Source:
Mohandas, A. (2018, March 10). THE HOLOCENE EXTINCTION. LinkedIn. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/holocene-extinction-athulya-mohandas/