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The future of plants and its importance to human life are being well maintained for the future generations of farming. In the future it is predicted by the way it looks that breeding will be a more safe option but also have a more productive process to align with the population of future generations. It is assured that multiple scientist and college students are working on assessing what can be done better with things like soil droughts, diseases and fighting toxic pollutants. With more than one scientist putting their minds together with new tools that are shown with one another to understand how plants adapt with their environment. Between animal and plant tissues, genes, cells, the world is learning more and testing more every day for new ways to approach diseases and much more.

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Plants For Our Future

Plants form the basis of all food, fiber and fuel production on our planet. How plants will cope with a future bringing rapid climate change and accelerating human demands is uncertain. All plants will surely experience increased stress, whether it be poor soil quality, altered temperatures or attacks by pests.

Bond LSC plant scientists and their colleagues are uniquely suited for assessing these impacts and providing the plants and management tools needed to retain and maximize plant contributions to planet health and our quality of life. We bring together some of the world's leading experts on plant responses to stresses, including drought, low soil nutrients, toxic pollutants, diseases and insects.

The intensely collaborative approach of the Bond LSC promotes cooperation among these plant experts as well as interactions with scientists working in animal and human systems, focusing on critical responses seen in all plant and animal cells.

Our plant scientists also gain access to novel tools by interacting with a wide range of experts in diverse research areas. They employ the latest imaging, computational, genomic and analytical methods to fully understand how plants cope with their environments. This accelerates plant improvement by genetic modification as well as conventional breeding, and is producing useful management approaches such as rapid analyses of plant tissue composition, precision agriculture, new genes for pest control, and soil amendments based on signaling between plants and microbes.

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Plants form the basis of all food, fiber and fuel production on our planet. How plants will cope with a future bringing rapid climate change and accelerating human demands is uncertain. All plants will surely experience increased stress, whether it be poor soil quality, altered temperatures or attacks by pests.

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The use of plants increases more and more everyday as there are new problems that can be resolved with them. Plants are used to fight a bunch of different diseases, bugs and animals. Bug repellant or anti radiant is infused with different plants and materials that help prevent the attacks of them. Different diseases like cancer and depression are fought off with other plant ingredients. Medicines are also being infused with plant ingredients needed to complete medicines specialized for its opponent. Food supplements are being produced everyday due to fact that one dose or pill can fulfill the needs of someone more than actually eating and digesting food. This is because they contain the needed and wanted nutrients inside of them that will help move a process faster.

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Abstract

The use of herbal medicinal products and supplements has increased tremendously over the past three decades with not less than 80% of people worldwide relying on them for some part of primary healthcare. Although therapies involving these agents have shown promising potential with the efficacy of a good number of herbal products clearly established, many of them remain untested and their use are either poorly monitored or not even monitored at all. The consequence of this is an inadequate knowledge of their mode of action, potential adverse reactions, contraindications, and interactions with existing orthodox pharmaceuticals and functional foods to promote both safe and rational use of these agents. Since safety continues to be a major issue with the use of herbal remedies, it becomes imperative, therefore, that relevant regulatory authorities put in place appropriate measures to protect public health by ensuring that all herbal medicines are safe and of suitable quality. This review discusses toxicity-related issues and major safety concerns arising from the use of herbal medicinal products and also highlights some important challenges associated with effective monitoring of their safety.

Keywords: herbal medicines, adverse reactions, monitoring safety, challenges, public health

INTRODUCTION

The use of herbal medicines and phytonutrients or nutraceuticals continues to expand rapidly across the world with many people now resorting to these products for treatment of various health challenges in different national healthcare settings ( WHO, 2004). This past decade has obviously witnessed a tremendous surge in acceptance and public interest in natural therapies both in developing and developed countries, with these herbal remedies being available not only in drug stores, but now also in food stores and supermarkets. It is estimated that up to four billion people (representing 80% of the world's population) living in the developing world rely on herbal medicinal products as a primary source of healthcare and traditional medical practice which involves the use of herbs is viewed as an integral part of the culture in those communities ( Mukherjee, 2002; Bodeker et al., 2005; Bandaranayake, 2006).

The use of herbal remedies has also been widely embraced in many developed countries with complementary and alternative medicines (CAMs) now becoming mainstream in the UK and the rest of Europe, as well as in North America and Australia ( Committee on the Use of Complementary, and Alternative Medicine by the American Public, Board on Health Promotion, and Disease Prevention, Institute of Medicine, 2005; Calapai, 2008; Braun et al., 2010; Anquez-Traxler, 2011). In fact, while places like the UK have a historical tradition of using herbal medicines ( Nissen, 2010), the use is also widespread and well established in some other European countries ( Calapai, 2008). In these developed countries, the most important among many other reasons for seeking herbal therapy is the belief that it will promote healthier living. Herbal medicines are, therefore, often viewed as a balanced and moderate approach to healing and individuals who use them as home remedies and over-the-counter drugs spend huge amount of money (in excess of billions of dollars) on herbal products. This explains in part the reason sales of herbal medicines are booming and represents a substantial proportion of the global drug market ( Roberts and Tyler, 1997; Blumenthal et al., 1998; WHO, 2002a; Kong et al., 2003; Pal and Shukla, 2003; WHO, 2005a; Bandaranayake, 2006).

As the global use of herbal medicinal products continues to grow and many more new products are introduced into the market, public health issues, and concerns surrounding their safety are also increasingly recognized. Although some herbal medicines have promising potential and are widely used, many of them remain untested and their use also not monitored. This makes knowledge of their potential adverse effects very limited and identification of the safest and most effective therapies as well as the promotion of their rational use more difficult ( WHO, 2002b). It is also common knowledge that the safety of most herbal products is further compromised by lack of suitable quality controls, inadequate labeling, and the absence of appropriate patient information ( Raynor et al., 2011). It has become essential, therefore, to furnish the general public including healthcare professionals with adequate information to facilitate better understanding of the risks associated with the use of these products and to ensure that all medicines are safe and of suitable quality. Discussion in this review is limited to toxicity-related issues and major safety concerns arising from the use of herbal medicines as well as factors promoting them. Some important challenges associated with effective monitoring of safety of these herbal remedies are also highlighted with a view to helping refocus relevant regulatory agencies on the need for effectiveness and ensuring adequate protection of public health and promoting safety.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR INCREASED PATRONAGE AND SELF-MEDICATION WITH HERBAL MEDICINE

Essentially, herbal remedies consist of portions of plants or unpurified plant extracts containing several constituents which are often generally believed to work together synergistically. The recent resurgence of public interest in herbal remedies has been attributed to several factors some of which include (i) various claims on the efficacy or effectiveness of plant medicines, (ii) preference of consumers for natural therapies and a greater interest in alternative medicines, (iii) erroneous belief that herbal products are superior to manufactured products, (iv) dissatisfaction with the results from orthodox pharmaceuticals and the belief that herbal medicines might be effective in the treatment of certain diseases where conventional therapies and medicines have proven to be ineffective or inadequate, (v) high cost and side effects of most modern drugs, (vi) improvements in the quality, efficacy, and safety of herbal medicines with the development of science and technology, (vii) patients' belief that their physicians have not properly identified the problem; hence the feeling that herbal remedies are another option, and (viii) a movement toward self-medication ( Bandaranayake, 2006).

The increasing utilization of herbs for self-medication by patients or individuals is also attributed to a number of other reasons such as (i) patients being uncomfortable about discussing their medical problems and fear lack of confidentiality in handling their health information, (ii) fear of possible misdiagnosis and wrong treatment by patients with non-specific symptoms or general malaise, and (iii) lack of time to see a physician; this is usually a reason where prior visit did not yield any positive experience ( Studdert et al., 1998). Furthermore, patients' freedom of choice of a practitioner is also encouraging their utilization of alternative treatments and herbal remedies, although many select herbal medicines from a deductive approach based on anecdotal information, that is, "it worked for my friend or relative" ( Parle and Bansal, 2006). So also, because of the influence of religion and greater level of spiritual consciousness, many individuals tend to be increasingly disposed to accepting therapeutic value of a treatment based on faith or intuition rather than scientific reasoning ( Astin, 1998; Zeil, 1999). Herbal medicines, therefore, become particularly alluring when the body's natural capacity for self-repair, given appropriate conditions, is emphasized ( Parle and Bansal, 2006).

In addition to all these above-mentioned factors, the marketing strategies and efforts by various manufacturers of herbal medicines and their sales representatives have seriously projected these products into greater limelight. Various advertisements in the mass media including television and radio programmes have significantly increased consumers' awareness and given the herbal products undue respectability and credibility ( Brevort, 1998; Parle and Bansal, 2006). These advertisements are carefully presented to attract the different age groups of people that exist in the society. Children are encouraged to use herbs for their nutritional values to facilitate normal or healthy growth and development; young persons for their euphoric effects, supply essential ingredients to help them cope with daily stress and to prevent or slow the onset of aging; older persons for their anti-aging or rejuvenating effects and women for slimming and beauty enhancing effects ( Parle and Bansal, 2006).

INFLUENCE OF REGULATORY POLICIES ON SAFETY OF HERBAL MEDICINES

It has been observed that most of the problems associated with the use of traditional and herbal medicines arise mainly from the classification of many of these products as foods or dietary supplements in some countries. As such, evidence of quality, efficacy, and safety of these herbal medicines is not required before marketing. In the same vein, quality tests and production standards tend to be less rigorous or controlled and in some cases, traditional health practitioners may not be certified or licensed. The safety of traditional and herbal medicines has therefore become a major concern to both national health authorities and the general public ( Kasilo and Trapsida, 2011).

Until 2011, there were three possible regulatory routes by which an herbal product could reach a consumer in the UK. The unlicensed herbal remedy is the commonest route which does not have to meet specific standards of safety and quality neither is it required to be accompanied by safety information for the consumer ( Raynor et al., 2011). Recently, the European Union (EU) implemented a directive after a 7-year transition period to harmonize the regulation of traditional herbal medicine products across the EU and establish a simplified licensing system in order to help the public make informed choices about the use of herbal products. This requires that all manufactured herbal products either gain a product license of the type needed to manufacture "conventional" products or become registered as a "traditional herbal medicinal product" ( Routledge, 2008; Raynor et al., 2011).

Like conventional medicines, licensed herbal medicines hold a product license based on safety, quality, and efficacy. Hence, it is compulsory that they are accompanied by comprehensive information such as indications, precautions, how to use the product, side effects, how to store the product and regulatory information, for safe use. This information is usually provided on a leaflet inserted into the product package ( Raynor et al., 2011). On the other hand, due to insufficient evidence of reproducible efficacy to meet regulatory standards, license cannot be obtained for some herbal medicines to sell these products. This led to the creation of a new category of traditional herbal registration (THR) with a transition period of seven years ( European Union Herbal Medicines Directive, 2004). In line with this, the Traditional Herbal Medicines Registration Scheme, which is a "simplified registration scheme," was introduced in the UK. In this scheme, herbal medicinal products are required to meet specific standards of safety and quality, agree upon indications for use based on their traditional use and also provide information in a leaflet to promote safe use of the product by the purchaser ( Raynor et al., 2011). However, this is not the case in many other parts of the world, especially in the developing countries where many unregistered and poorly regulated herbal products are sold freely on the market with little or no restraint. Furthermore, the common misconception that natural products are not toxic and are devoid of adverse effects often lead to improper use and unrestrained intake and this has also resulted in severe poisoning and acute health problems. This misconception is not limited to the developing countries. It also exists in highly developed countries, where the general public often resorts to "natural" products without any proper awareness or information on the associated risks, particularly in the event of excessive or chronic use ( UNESCO, 2013).

TOXICITY AND ADVERSE HEALTH EFFECTS OF SOME COMMON HERBAL MEDICINES

In most countries, herbal medicines and related products are introduced into the market without any mandatory safety or toxicological evaluation. Many of these countries also lack effective machinery to regulate manufacturing practices and quality standards. These herbal products are continuously made available to consumers without prescription in most cases and the potential hazards in an inferior product are hardly recognized ( Bandaranayake, 2006).

It is important to reiterate the staggering rate at which interest and use of herbal medicines is expanding. Over the past decade, the use of herbal medicines represents approximately 40% of all healthcare services delivered in China while the percentage of the population which has used herbal medicines at least once in Australia, Canada, USA, Belgium, and France is estimated at 48%, 70%, 42%, 38%, and 75%, respectively ( Foster et al., 2000; WHO, 2002b). In spite of the positive perception of patients on the use of herbal medicines and alleged satisfaction with therapeutic outcomes coupled with their disappointment with conventional allopathic or orthodox medicines in terms of effectiveness and/or safety ( Huxtable, 1990; Abbot and Ernst, 1997), the problem of safety of herbal remedies continues to remain a major issue of concern.

The general perception that herbal remedies or drugs are very safe and devoid of adverse effects is not only untrue, but also misleading. Herbs have been shown to be capable of producing a wide range of undesirable or adverse reactions some of which are capable of causing serious injuries, life-threatening conditions, and even death. Numerous and irrefutable cases of poisoning have been reported in the literature ( Vanherweghem and Degaute, 1998; Cosyns et al., 1999; Ernst, 2002). The toxicity evaluation of the polyherbal formula, Yoyo "Cleanser" Bitters®, conducted recently in our laboratory ( Ekor et al., 2010), was prompted by an unpublished case report of a young male adult who had been on self-medication with this herbal product and was subsequently admitted to the hospital on account of liver failure. Yoyo "Cleanser" Bitters® is one of the herbal remedies that is widely advertised in the various Nigerian media and as such has gained so much public acceptance over time and continues to enjoy increased patronage among consumers, especially in the southwestern part of the country. Our study revealed that this herbal formula was capable of elevating plasma levels of liver enzymes and inducing hypokalemia following 30 days administration in rats. From our observation, the potassium loss (which is capable of predisposing to dangerous arrhythmias) was a greater risk associated with this herb during this sub-acute exposure or toxicity study. Prior to this study, we had evaluated the safety of "super B blood purifier" and "super B seven keys to power" mixtures in experimental model over a decade ago ( John et al., 1997). These herbal mixtures were marketed by a registered Nigerian company which cultivated medicinal plants and manufactured medicinal herbal preparations. The herbal blood tonics were well patronized by common folks who claim their efficacy according to the manufacturer's stipulation that "they are safe, give strength and cleanse the blood and body of infection." We obtained the herbal constituents ( Entandrophragma utile and Anacardium occidentalis) and investigated the individual plant extract as well as the herbal tonics made from them. Although, all the extracts and tonics proved safe during acute toxicity study, chronic toxicity testing revealed splenic enlargement in 10% of mice that received E. utile or either of the two tonics and one case of lung tumor ( John et al., 1997). Recently, Auerbach et al. (2012) reported an association between traditional herbal medicine use and the development of liver fibrosis among study participants in Uganda. A number of Chinese herbal medicines and other herbal medicines from different parts of the world have also been implicated in cases of poisoning. Many of them have been shown to contain toxic compounds which are capable of reacting with cellular macromolecules including DNA, causing cellular toxicity, and/or genotoxicity ( Rietjens et al., 2005). For the purpose of brevity and other obvious constraints, adverse reactions of only a few commonly used herbal medicines are described below.

ARISTOLOCHIC ACIDS AND Aristolochia SPECIES

Following the discovery of the nephrotoxic and carcinogenic potentials of aristolochic acids ( Vanherweghem et al., 1993), several studies confirmed their genotoxic activity ( Kohara et al., 2002; Fang et al., 2011; Hwang et al., 2012). Schmeiser et al. (1996) demonstrated the presence of aristolochic acids-related DNA adducts in renal tissues of patients. These mutagenic adducts when formed are usually poorly repaired ( Sidorenko et al., 2012) and are capable of persisting for years in DNA ( Nortier et al., 2000). Aristolochic acids I and II have been identified in different Asian medicinal plants and also reported to be present in slimming products. This has led to the banning of medicinal products containing these acids in Belgium, UK, Canada, Australia, and Germany ( Hashimoto et al., 1999; Lee et al., 2002; Zhou et al., 2013).

Misidentification of medicinal plants and mislabeling herbal medicinal products are sometimes responsible for some of the observed adverse events or interaction and that is the reason it is important to assess herbal medicines for possible presence of adulterants. In the UK and many other countries Aristolochia fangchi was linked to the development of subacute interstitial fibrosis of the kidney referred to as "Chinese herbs nephropathy" ( Cosyns et al., 1994; Tanaka et al., 1997a, b; Stengel and Jones, 1998; Lord et al., 1999). Also, recently a 75-year-old man was reported to have died in Australia from kidney failure associated with a toxic preparation containing the root of Aristolochia fangchi which he purchased over the internet for psoriasis ( Chau et al., 2011). This case report suggested the chronic use of aristolochic acid-containing herbal product as the most likely cause of the patient's death. Similar cases had previously been reported in Taiwan and Japan ( Yang et al., 2002; Hong et al., 2006). Consumption of aristolochic acid-containing Chinese herbal products has also been demonstrated in several studies to be associated with increased risk of urothelial cancer ( Li et al., 2008; Yang et al., 2009; Lai et al., 2010; Chen et al., 2012).

A few years back, poisoning that was attributed to Fang-Ji ( Stephania tetrandra S. Moore) in a weight-loss preparation ( Cosyns et al., 1994; van Ypersele de Strihou, 1995; Reginster et al., 1997; Kessler, 2000) was actually caused by Guang-Fang-Ji ( Aristolochia fangchi; Vanhaelen et al., 1994). The presence of aristolochic acids in the latter produced dramatic adverse reactions which led to nephrotoxic and carcinogenic events in more than 100 women using this weight-loss preparation ( Zhou et al., 2004). In this instance, the similarity in the names of the two herbal products was responsible for the confusion and the unfortunate events.

Ephedra sinica

Ephedra is a very popular herb with long history of traditional use in respiratory conditions ( Zhang et al., 1999; Bensky et al., 2004). This herb, whose efficacy has been demonstrated in a number of randomized double-blind clinical trials ( Boozer et al., 2002; Haller et al., 2005; Kim et al., 2008), is currently included in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia for therapeutic use and classified as non-toxic. It is an ingredient in commonly used formulary preparations such as Xiaoqinglong Heji for common cold and Zhisou Dingchuan Koufuye for asthma ( Chinese Pharmacopoeia Commission, 2010). Ephedra has been marketed in the US as a weight-loss dietary supplement and its use associated with a number of serious cardiovascular and central nervous systems (CNSs) adverse effects ( Verduin and Labbate, 2002; Hackman et al., 2006; Hallas et al., 2008; Chen et al., 2010). Several case reports have also linked the use of Ephedra sinica and Ephedra-containing dietary supplements to adverse events such as hepatotoxicity ( Skoulidis et al., 2005; Schoepfer et al., 2007), neurotoxicity ( Varlibas et al., 2009), and transient blindness ( Moawad et al., 2006).

Aconitum SPECIES

Aconitum carmichaeli and Aconitum kusnezoffii are used traditionally for pain relief ( Chinese Pharmacopoeia Commission, 2010). The toxicity of the medicinal plants derives primarily from the presence of diester diterpene alkaloids such as aconitine, mesaconitine, and hypaconitine in them ( Xu et al., 2005). These medicinal plants constitute important ingredients in some commonly used herbal preparations like Sini Tang, Fuzi Lizhong Wan, and Guifu Dihuang Wan for stroke and heart failure, diarrhea and diabetes, respectively ( Chinese Pharmacopoeia Commission, 2010). Poisoning due to homemade medicated liquor containing aconite and traditional medicine containing A. carmichaeli were reported in China between 1999 and 2008 ( Liu et al., 2011). Severe cases of cardiac toxicity from consumption of aconitine-containing herbal preparation manifesting as ventricular tachycardia and fibrillation and eventually leading to death have been reported ( Tai et al., 1992; Fujita et al., 2007; Dhesi et al., 2010; Lin et al., 2011). In other studies bradycardia and hypotension were observed ( Chan, 2009). Clinical cases of aconitine poisoning from A. kusnezoffii consumption have also been reported ( Chan and Critchley, 1994; Chan, 2002). Furthermore, the toxic effect of the combination of A. kusnezoffii and A. carmichaeli overdose which manifested as bradycardia and hypotension was also reported by Chan (2009) in a case study.

Tussilago farfara

Traditionally, Tussilago farfara has been used effectively for thousands of years for the treatment of acute and chronic cough and it is generally regarded as non-toxic ( Chinese Pharmacopoeia Commission, 2010). Total alkaloids and senkirkine isolated from this plant, on the other hand, have been demonstrated to be hepatotoxic ( Zhang et al., 2008). Recently, the potential health effects of the pyrrolizidine alkaloids found in T. farfara was reviewed and hepatic veno-occlusive disease and cirrhosis were suggested as the major potential disease outcome in human ( Edgar et al., 2011). However, restrictions in intake of pyrrolizidine-containing herbs and further investigations were recommended because of paucity of data on toxicity assessment in human ( Kim et al., 2013).

GARLIC (Allium sativum)

Garlic has found relevance for management of hypertension and hypercholesterolemia besides its use as a food or food additive. It is known to contain alliin, which on crushing or chopping in the absence of heat or acid becomes activated by alliinase to allicin. Adverse effects associated with garlic extract including burning sensation in the gastrointestinal tract, nausea, diaphoresis, and lightheadedness have been reported. This extract may also cause contact dermatitis and morbid spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma has been attributed solely to excess garlic ingestion ( Rose et al., 1990).

Ginkgo biloba AND Ginseng

Ginkgo biloba has found widespread use in a variety of conditions and several products such as elixirs, extracts, tea, as well as capsules and tablets that may differ in terms of content, have been made from the dried root ( Sparreboom et al., 2004). The whole root which contains ginsenosides is usually used because these compounds possess specific pharmacologic effects that may oppose each other ( Chong and Oberholzer, 1988). Over 30 ginsenosides have been identified and these compounds are being investigated for their ability to inhibit cell proliferation, tumor cell invasion, and/or metastasis ( He et al., 2011; Kim et al., 2012). Recently, the ability of ginsenosides to modulate signaling pathways involving cell cycle, inflammatory, or growth factor pathways, was demonstrated ( Nag et al., 2012; Dunnick and Nyska, 2013). The leaf extracts of ginkgo had also been demonstrated to contain active compounds that had found usefulness in improving circulation and cognition ( Boullata and Nace, 2000).

The plant extracts appear to be relatively safe, although headache, dizziness, restlessness, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and dermal sensitivity are the most common side effects that have been observed. Ginkgo has been demonstrated to be capable of inhibiting platelet-activating factor and altering bleeding times. Therefore, cautious use had been advised in individuals or patients on anticoagulants therapy ( Boullata and Nace, 2000). The ability of ginkgo to induce liver cancer in experimental model was reported recently and genotoxic mechanisms were suggested to play some role in the carcinogenic process ( National Toxicology Program, 2012; Dunnick and Nyska, 2013). Similar observation was made in the thyroid gland and further studies are required to determine whether the mechanisms for the ginkgo-induced thyroid tumors are also found in humans ( National Toxicology Program, 2012; Dunnick and Nyska, 2013). In addition to the carcinogenic effects in the liver and thyroid, ginkgo has also been shown to be capable of inducing tumorigenesis in the nasal cavity. The pathogenesis of the nasal lesions was suggested to be related to toxic metabolites of ginkgo reaching the nasal cavity from the systemic circulation ( Reed, 1993; Sells et al., 2007). Some other authors, however, have attributed the nasal lesions to gastric reflux/post gavage reflux through the nasopharyngeal duct ( Damsch et al., 2011a, b).

Although, Ginseng products as well as the published descriptions rarely report or specify the species, Ginseng used as herbal remedies has different botanical sources generally obtained from several Panax species including Panax quinquefolius, Panax Ginseng, and Panax pseudoginseng. In large or excessive doses, Ginseng has been reported to cause agitation, insomnia, and elevation of blood pressure while mastalgia and vaginal bleeding have been observed at recommended doses ( Baldwin et al., 1986; Dunnick and Nyska, 2013). Other adverse effects that have reported include transient nervousness, excitation, insomnia, inability to concentrate, headache, epistaxis, and allergies. A case of severe but non-fatal Stevens-Johnson syndrome was reported following a 3-day Ginseng administration ( Dega et al., 1996). Also, spontaneous bleeding from the iris into the anterior chamber of the eye was linked to the use of G. biloba extract ( Rosenblatt and Mindel, 1997).Separate case reports had also linked the use of G. biloba to the development of bilateral subdural hematomas and subarachnoid hemorrhage ( Rowin and Lewis, 1996; Vale, 1998).

KAVA (Piper methysticum)

Kava is known for its CNS depressant activity and it is commonly used as an anxiolytic agent. Commonly reported side effects of this medicinal plant include headache, dizziness, gastrointestinal discomfort, and localized numbness after oral ingestion. Large dosages has been shown to be capable of giving rise to dry, scaly skin, and yellowish discoloration of the skin and nails, photosensitivity and redness of the eye. Excessive consumption of kava may also lead to photophobia and diplopia ( Boullata and Nace, 2000). The muscle relaxant and anticonvulsant effects of this plant have been attributed to its active pyrones constituent. Significant interaction of kava with other CNS depressants which may lead to a comatose state has been reported and as such concurrent use with these agents is usually not advised ( Almeida and Grimsley, 1996; Wong et al., 1998). In 2002, the US Food and Drug Administration received several reports of liver-related injuries alongside that of a previously healthy young female who eventually required liver transplantation following consumption of kava-containing products. This prompted the FDA to alert consumers on the potential risk of severe liver injury associated with the use of kava-containing dietary supplements. This liver-related risks also prompted regulatory agencies in other countries including Germany, Switzerland, France, Canada, and the UK to warn consumers about the potential risks of kava use and also went on to consider the withdrawal of kava-containing products from the market ( U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2002). In over 25 reports of adverse events outside the US, kava-containing products were associated with liver-related injuries like hepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver failure with some of the affected patients eventually requiring liver transplants ( U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2002).

ST. JOHN'S WORT

Hypericum perforatum, popularly known as St. John's wort, contains active compounds, such as hypericin, hyperforin, and melatonin. It was once used against viral infections but has gained increased use for mild depressive symptoms ( Bennett et al., 1998; Rey and Walter, 1998). Adverse effects reportedly associated with its use include allergic reactions, headache, dizziness, restlessness, fatigue, dry mouth, nausea, vomiting, constipation, and photosensitivity. Hyperesthesia and a syndrome of dyspnea and hyperventilation with flushing headache, mydriasis, nausea, palpitations, and tremor, have been reported ( Rey and Walter, 1998). Schneck (1998) reported a hypomanic episode in a patient with a history of panic disorder who took St. John's wort tincture for 10 days. The hypomanic episode, however, resolved within 2 days of discontinuing the herbal remedy. Interaction of St. John's wort with antidepressants and anticoagulants has been demonstrated and the herbal remedy is usually not recommended in pregnancy because of its uterotonic activity ( Rey and Walter, 1998).

CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH MONITORING SAFETY OF HERBAL MEDICINES

With the enormous global consumption of herbal products and medicines, it is high time they were included in pharmacovigilance systems. In terms of population exposure alone, it is essential to identify the risks associated with the use of herbal medicines, and in this regard, the safety of these products has become an issue of great public health importance ( WHO, 2004, 2005b). There is no doubt that the increasing cases of poisoning associated with the use herbal medicines in many parts of the world in recent times, is necessitating the need to ensure thorough toxicity assessment alongside active pharmacovigilance on these products in order to promote their safe use and protect public health ( Zhou et al., 2013).

The development as well as implementation of the regulation of traditional or herbal medicines in different parts of the world is often confronted with several challenges. Challenges often encountered and common to many countries are those related to regulatory status, assessment of safety and efficacy, quality control, safety monitoring and inadequate or poor knowledge about traditional, complementary/alternative, and herbal medicines within national drug regulatory authorities ( WHO, 2005b).

CHALLENGES RELATED TO THE REGULATORY STATUS OF HERBAL MEDICINES

The definition and categorization of herbal medicines vary from one country to another. Depending on the regulations applying to foods and medicines, a single medicinal plant may be categorized as a food, a functional food, a dietary supplement, or a herbal medicine in different countries. This introduces serious difficulty in the definition of the concept of herbal medicines for the purposes of national drug regulation while at the same time also confusing patients and consumers ( WHO, 2005b). In the United States, for example, natural products are regulated under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) of 1994 ( U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2012). By definition, a dietary supplement is a product that is ingested and is intended to supplement the diet and contains a "dietary ingredient." The dietary ingredients in these products may include vitamins, minerals, herbs, or other botanicals ( U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2011). Under the DSHEA, additional toxicity studies are generally not required if the herb has been on the market prior to 1994 ( National Institute of Health (NIH) Office of Dietary Supplements, 2011). In this regard, the FDA bears the burden to prove that a herbal medicinal product or "dietary ingredient" is toxic or not safe for use. Additional major challenge in many countries is the fact that regulatory information on herbal medicines is often not shared between regulatory authorities and safety monitoring or pharmacovigilance centers ( WHO, 2004).

CHALLENGES RELATED TO THE ASSESSMENT OF SAFETY AND EFFICACY

There is no gainsaying the fact that the requirements as well as the research protocols, standards and methods needed for the evaluation of the safety and efficacy of herbal medicines are much more complex than those required for conventional or orthodox pharmaceuticals ( WHO, 2005b; Zhou et al., 2013). A single herbal medicine or medicinal plant may contain hundreds of natural constituents, and a mixed herbal medicinal product may contain several times that number. Suppose every active ingredient were to be isolated from individual herb from which the herbal medicine is formulated or produced, the time and resources required would be tremendous. Such an analysis may practically be impossible especially where an herbal product is a mixture of two or more herbs ( WHO, 2005b).

CHALLENGES RELATED TO QUALITY CONTROL OF HERBAL MEDICINES

The quality of the source materials used in the production of herbal medicines determines to a large extent the safety and efficacy of these herbal remedies. Generally, the quality of source materials is dependent not only on intrinsic (genetic) factors, but also on extrinsic factors like environmental conditions, good agricultural, and good collection practices (GACP) for medicinal plants, including plant selection and cultivation. It is the combination of these factors that makes it difficult to perform quality controls on the raw materials of herbal medicines ( WHO, 2004, 2005b). According to good manufacturing practice (GMP), correct identification of species of medicinal plants, special storage, and special sanitation and cleaning methods for various materials are important requirements for quality control of starting materials.

One of the major challenges often encountered in the quality control of finished herbal medicinal products, especially mixture herbal products, is the difficulty in ascertaining the inclusion of all the plants or starting materials ( WHO, 2005b). Thus, the general requirements and methods for quality control of finished herbal products remain far more complex than for other pharmaceuticals ( WHO, 2003, 2004, 2005b). To ensure safety and efficacy of herbal medicines, therefore, WHO continues to recommend the institution of quality assurance and control measures such as national quality specification and standards for herbal materials, GMP for herbal medicines, labeling, and licensing schemes for manufacturing, import and marketing, in countries where herbal medicines are regulated ( WHO, 2004).

CHALLENGES RELATED TO SAFETY MONITORING OF HERBAL MEDICINES

In recent years, issues relating to increasing use of herbal products in developed countries, dependence of many people living in developing countries on plants as a major source of medicines coupled with absence or weak regulation of herbal medicines in most countries and the occurrence of high-profile safety concerns, have increased awareness of the need to monitor safety and deepen understanding of possible harmful as well as potential benefits associated with the use of herbal medicines ( Rodrigues and Barnes, 2013). Adverse events arising from consumption of herbal medicines are attributable to several factors among which include the use of the wrong species of plant by mistake, adulteration of herbal products with other, undeclared medicines, contamination with toxic or hazardous substances, overdosage, misuse of herbal medicines by either healthcare providers or consumers and use of herbal medicines concomitantly with other medicines.

Although, the assessment of the safety of herbal medicines has become an important issue for consumers, regulatory authorities, and healthcare professionals, analysis of adverse events related to the use of these products is much more complex than in the case of conventional pharmaceuticals ( WHO, 2005b; Zhou et al., 2013). It is also recognized that evaluation of safety is complicated by factors such as the geographical origin of plant material, different processing techniques, route of administration, and compatibility with other medicines ( Zhang et al., 2012). Furthermore, there is lack of the knowledge and/or poor emphasis on the importance of taxonomic botany and documentation by most manufacturers of herbal medicines and this poses peculiar challenges during identification and collection of medicinal plants used for herbal remedies ( Farah et al., 2000). In order to eliminate the confusion created by the common names, it is necessary to adopt the most commonly used binomial names (including their binomial synonyms) for medicinal plants. For example, Artemisia absinthium L., which contains an active narcotic derivative and capable causing CNS disorders and generalized mental deterioration, has at least 11 different common names. Seven of the common names bear no resemblance to its botanical name. Because common names are mainly used, Heliotropium europaeum (heliotrope), which contains potent hepatotoxic pyrrolidine alkaloids, is often confused with Valerian officinalis (garden heliotrope), known to contain valepotriates with sedative and muscle relaxant properties. This explains why it is important to provide the exact scientific name of the plant, the plant part used, and the name of the manufacturer when reporting adverse drug reactions of herbal medicines. Therefore, effective monitoring of safety of herbal medicine will require effective collaboration between botanists, phytochemists, pharmacologists, and other major stake-holders.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The global acceptance and use of herbal medicines and related products continue to assume exponential increase. Issues relating to adverse reactions in recent times are also becoming more vivid, increasing in prevalence and no longer debatable because of previous misconception of regarding or categorizing herbal medicinal products as "safe" because they are derived from "natural" source. The reality is that "safety" and "natural" are not synonymous. Therefore, regulatory policies on herbal medicines need to be standardized and strengthened on a global scale. Relevant regulatory authorities in different countries of the world need to be proactive and continue to put in place appropriate measures to protect public health by ensuring that all herbal medicines approved for sale are safe and of suitable quality.

Providers of medicines, such as physicians, nurses, and pharmacists, often have little training in and understanding of how herbal medicines affect the health of their patients. Many of them are also poorly informed about these products and how they are being used. Adequate training is now very essential since most patients are almost often on other types of prescription or non-prescription medicines. In spite of the fact that the active involvement of orthodox healthcare professionals is continuously solicited and huge responsibility lies with them in terms of their valuable contributions to safety monitoring of medicinal products, it is also very important that all providers of herbal medicines are sufficiently empowered to play a role in monitoring safety of herbal medicines. This, however, should be in collaboration with the orthodox healthcare professionals. For this to be effective, it would be essential to create an atmosphere of trust to facilitate adequate sharing of knowledge about the use and safety of herbal medicines. In fact, the education of healthcare professionals, providers of herbal medicines, and patients/consumers is vital for the prevention of potentially serious risks from misuse of herbal medicines.

Of crucial importance also is an appropriate knowledge base relevant to diagnostic and treatment decision-making. Furthermore, individual healthcare provider should also show sufficient commitment toward understanding the use of herbal medicines. This can be by asking relevant questions about the use of these herbal remedies among others whenever they encounter patients who are taking these medications. Health professionals who work in poisons centers and health information services also need to be informed about herbal medicines. Finally, as with other medicines for human use, it has become mandatory that herbal medicines are covered in every country of the world by a drug regulatory framework to ensure that they conform with required standards of safety, quality, and efficacy.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

Martins Ekor gratefully acknowledges the support provided by Dr. Oluwayemisi E. Ekor during the course of preparation of this manuscript.

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Articles from Frontiers in Pharmacology are provided here courtesy of Frontiers Media SA

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The growing use of herbal medicines: issues relating to adverse reactions and challenges in monitoring safety

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The use of herbal medicinal products and supplements has increased tremendously over the past three decades with not less than 80% of people worldwide relying on them for some part of primary healthcare. Although therapies involving these agents have ...

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The production of GMO's has been a growing factor in how we produce food for different places, especially developing countries or places with lower socioeconomic society. One of the main purposes of domesticating plants was to massively increase the quantity of food that could be available. It tends to be towns and cities that are surrounding heavy areas that show plant domestication. The downside to production of domestication is that there are new antibodies and genetic diseases that can be introduced into the society. This can mean that a certain medicine we have now may develop an opposite host or virus that can produce more problems. During this period of time before the third agriculture revolution, it also showed the emphasis on gender roles and what they were supposed to accomplish during the time. It is important to know because this was a big portion of how we have more world hunger problems being solved more and more every day.

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Plant domestication, which led to agriculture, arguably has had among the deepest or most profound impacts on modern societies relative to all other human innovations. Not only did it lead to greater availability of food, allowing societies to grow in population, but it enabled a large labor force to be freed to pursue other specialties. Additionally, technologies related to agriculture, even today, continue to have profound consequences on all societies, for better and worse. Finally, with domestication, the plant's environment has also profoundly changed.

Initial Impact on Societies

Plant domestication was initially thought to have first appeared in the Fertile Crescent, with later societies in the Nile, Yellow River, and Indus valleys also adopting domesticated plants. However, now it has become evident that various societies have independently discovered how to domesticate given plants for food production. These plant staples have included wheat, barley, rice, lintels, beans, millet, corn/maize, and others (Figure 1).

Several results ultimately developed with the domestication of these plants. First, the benefits of plant domestication was to increase food supplies and make them more predictable. Although plants, as they become domesticate, are susceptible to disease and other detrimental results, over time genetics of plants begin to alter. For wheat, barley, and other grains, these developments can take hundreds of years before fully domesticated varieties form. However, once domesticated varieties form, they now require societies to more fully invest in them. This includes removing weeds, providing fertilizer, and harvesting at appropriate times so that yields are not lost. Thus, one of the first major impacts of domesticated plants is how they required societies to be settled, where labor began to focus on the care of grain production and other domesticated plants.

Greater dependence on plant domestication ultimately makes societies live in villages, towns, and even cities. This change led to a change in gender roles, often leading to the emphasis of men being more focused on production and creation of food resources, while women became caretakers of the home. Previously, women likely spend much of their time collecting food for human societies. In effect, domestication led to a major cultural evolution and not just a new mode in obtaining food.

The other major development evident in New and Old World societies is the freeing up of labor. While plant domestication can be labor-intensive, the greater output of food allows larger populations to form. Most or if not all settled societies show evidence of families becoming larger, where even social norms and systems evolved so that women began having more children. Once labor increased, then more people were able to focus on other activities, including the production of other goods that supported agriculture. Innovations often lead to other innovations to support them. Agriculture led to many secondary innovations that helped to support it. This included new technologies such as plows, the need for mathematics to calculate field areas, and eventually writing became one result in some societies that needed to account for agricultural goods being produced.

While we often see these impacts, particularly as they spread across different agricultural regions, as having beneficial results for societies, the reality is much more mixed. One major result of domesticated agriculture is that the environment has been greatly altered, to the point where scientists today call the period after plant domestication the Anthropocene, or when human societies began to have a major impact on the plant. Plant domestication leads to the need for clearing more land, including burning fields to fertilize them and clear them. This, already beginning by 10,000 years before the present, began to have an impact on societies and even likely global temperatures through the release of carbon dioxide and methane. While we think global warming has been a modern effect of industry, agriculture arguably helped to create the first significant wave of human-induced climate change or at least increased emissions into the atmosphere.

Intensification of Agriculture

After the initial innovation of plant domestication in many parts of the globe between 12,000-5,000 years ago, the next major wave of development occurred in how plant domestication enabled large cities to develop. Initially, plant domestication and agriculture allowed towns and villages to flourish. However, with increased accumulation of agricultural resources by fewer individuals, cities encouraged greater labor migration to them so that people could work in the new economies that had agriculture at their core. This is evident in the place that first had cities, southern Mesopotamia, but also appears to be the case in the Indus and the New Word. In these cases, social inequality in wealth distribution was closely associated with the rise of cities. However, that wealth was based on unequal ownership of agricultural holding. In effect, domestication helped to create our modern economic institutions that also created more wealth inequality across societies.

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Technologies also became more complex as the need to feed larger cities developed further after 5000 years ago. Large-scale irrigation networks, spanning hundreds of miles are found in the Old World, were required to intensify agriculture (Figure 2). These irrigation works not only required large labor forces, but they also required larger control of territory. One goal of now a new form of states, that is empires, was to control the food production process, where the control of water resources became paramount in some of the earliest empires from the 3rd millennium BCE to the 1st millennium BCE. This only continued and intensified in later states and empires. Technologies, on the one hand, enabled larger populations to grow, but they also created new social problems, as they required new social adaptation to enable them. In the case of irrigation technologies, intense labor and upkeep of major irrigation works, including canals, qanats, and aqueducts, required an enormous amount of labor but also led to state control of these resources because of their enormous investment required. The power of governments over people's lives subsequently increased as agriculture and irrigation of domesticated plants became ingrained.

Continued Modern Impact

We think of agriculture and plant domestication as an old technology or development. However, as earlier waves of development have shown, with population increase, new needs arise. Over the last two hundred years, human population has grown at unprecedented scales, as modern medicine, another innovation made possible by agriculture, has allowed people to live much longer. The now much higher populations globally led to the drive in the 1960s to develop new types of fertilizers and hybrid and genetically modified plants. The so-called "Green Revolution" was one development that has led to increased productivity. However, just like the innovation of agriculture had negative effects on the environment, Green Revolution fertilizers and production have led to increased water and air pollution. Some of the productivity by Green Revolution innovations have also not proven to be as sustainable, leading to collapses in productivity or an inability by poorer farmers to maintain the high costs associated with agriculture, in particular the need for petroleum and fertilizers.

Genetically modified plants are also another recent development. These have become controversial in places because it is not clear what the long-term impact of these plants might be. Many such modified plants have similar or the same genes. This potentially makes domesticated crops susceptible to plant disease that can kill many plants. If genetics are similar, and there is a lack of genetic diversity, then hunger could be a result of a major crop-killing disease.

Globally, agriculture is a more than 3.0 trillion dollars industry, where domesticated plants makeup a large-bulk of this business. While agriculture has freed up many people for other pursuits, it is also a major employer around the world, we more than a billion people are involved in agriculture in some way.

Few developments have affected our societies, cultural development, and environment as much as agriculture. Plant domestication has not only allowed many of us to pursue other interests, as we are freed from the daily need to forage for food, but it has also meant we have chosen a lifestyle we were not initially evolved to. We have become mostly sedentary societies that have increasingly focused on developing technologies to solve many of our problems and enhance our lives. However, this has also made us vulnerable to environmental damage, all the while global population continues to reach record levels. Nevertheless, all of our major technologies and social developments today would have not been possible without plant domestication. Everything from the way we structure our families, to how we build our homes, and even pass on our possessions to our children is dependent on how agriculture became the dominant lifestyle. Agriculture has made it possible for scientists and others to spend their time on endeavours that would have been unthinkable in our early, mobile societies. Today, it is the ever increasing need to develop new technologies or products to increase productivity of agriculture that continue to drive technical and social change, similar to how plant domestication and agriculture did more than 10,000 years ago.

Related DailyHistory.org Articles

References

For more on the environmental impact of agriculture and plant domestication, see: Balter, M. (2013). Archaeologists Say the "Anthropocene" Is Here--But It Began Long Ago. Science, 340(6130), 261-262. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.340.6130.261

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What is the Deep Impact of Plant Domestication

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Plant domestication, which led to agriculture, arguably has had among the deepest or most profound impacts on modern societies relative to all other human innovations. Not only did it lead to greater availability of food, allowing societies to grow in population, but it enabled a large labor force to be freed to pursue other specialties.

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Plant domestication serves humans in multiple ways with the main one being humans were able to trade after plant domestication was invented. Due to some of the first villages and camps were created alongside domesticated plant fields. This was an important contributing factor because this made populations boom during this time period. Overcrowding caused shortages of food and plants that were being farmed and offered. The unavailability of space in villages and whatnot led to revised version of agricultural tools. Trading and exchanging different services between each other was the biggest impact of plant domestication.

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Domestication is the process of adapting wild plants and animals for human use. Domestic species are raised for food, work, clothing, medicine, and many other uses. Domesticated plants and animals must be raised and cared for by humans. Domesticated species are not wild.

Plant Domestication
People first domesticated plants about 10,000 years ago, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia (which includes the modern countries of Iran, Iraq, Turkey, and Syria). People collected and planted the seeds of wild plants. They made sure the plants had as much water as they needed to grow, and planted them in areas with the right amount of sun. Weeks or months later, when the plants blossomed, people harvested the food crops.

The first domesticated plants in Mesopotamia were wheat (Triticum aestivum), barley ( Hordeum vulgare), lentils ( Lens culinaris or Lens esculenta), and types of peas. People in other parts of the world, including eastern Asia, parts of Africa, and parts of North and South America, also domesticated plants. Other plants that were cultivated by early civilizations included rice ( Oryza sativa in Asia) and potatoes ( Solanum tuberosumin South America).

Plants have not only been domesticated for food. Cotton plants were domesticated for fiber, which is used in cloth. Some flowers, such as tulips, were domesticated for ornamental, or decorative, reasons.

Animal Domestication
About the same time they domesticated plants, people in Mesopotamia began to tame animals for meat, milk, and hides. Hides, or the skins of animals, were used for clothing, storage, and to build tent shelters.

Goats were probably the first animals to be domesticated, followed closely by sheep ( Ovis aries). In Southeast Asia, chickens (Gallus domesticus)also were domesticated about 10,000 years ago. Later, people began domesticating larger animals, such as oxen ( Bos taurus) or horses ( Equus ferus caballus), for plowing and transportation. These are known as beasts of burden.

Domesticating animals can be difficult work. The easiest animals to domesticate are herbivores that graze on vegetation, because they are easiest to feed: They do not need humans to kill other animals to feed them, or to grow special crops. Cows, for instance, are easily domesticated. Herbivores that eat grains are more difficult to domesticate than herbivores that graze because grains are valuable and also need to be domesticated. Chickens are herbivores that eat seeds and grain.

Some animals domesticated for one purpose no longer serve that purpose. Some dogs ( Canis lupus familiaris) were domesticated to assist people in hunting, for instance. There are hundreds of domestic dog species today. Many of them are still excellent hunters, but most are pets.

Throughout history, people have bred domesticated animals to promote certain traits. Domestic animals are chosen for their ability to breed in captivity and for their calm temperament. Their ability to resist disease and survive in difficult climates is also valuable.

Over time, these traits make domestic animals different from their wild ancestors. Dogs were probably domesticated from gray wolves ( Canis lupus).

Domesticated animals can look very different from their wild ancestors. For example, early wild chickens weighed about 0.9 kilograms (two pounds). But over thousands of years of domestication, they have been bred to be larger. Larger chickens yield more meat. Today, domestic chickens weigh as much as 7.7 kilograms (17 pounds). Wild chickens only hatched a small number of eggs once a year, while domestic chickens commonly lay 200 or more eggs each year.

Effects on Humans
Domestication marked a major turning point for humans: the beginning of an agricultural way of life and more sedentary communities. Humans no longer had to wander to hunt animals and gather plants for food.

It's improtant to understand, however, that while hunter gatherers did not grow crops they tended plants in allotted areas. Once grown, the plant could then be collected as food.

Agriculture-the cultivating of domestic plants-allowed fewer people to provide food for the community. The stability that came with regular, predictable food production led to increased population density. The world's first villages and cities were built near flooplains where fields of domesticated plants could be grown more easily.

Plant domestication also led to advances in tool production. The earliest farming tools were hand tools made from stone. People later developed metal farming tools, and eventually used plows pulled by domesticated animals to work fields.

Fast Fact

Dogs and Wolves
Though today's dogs were likely domesticated from gray wolves, they are now a distinct species. Dogs' scientific name is canis lupus familiaris, while the scientific name for gray wolves is canis lupus.

Fast Fact

Wild Horses
The process of domestication continues. Cowboys and other horse experts train horses ( Equus ferus caballus). Sometimes, this is called "breaking" a horse. Training a horse to allow a saddle and rider requires an enormous amount of physical work, training, and patience. Horses that are born on ranches or in stables still need to be trained, although training a young horse is easier than domesticating a horse caught in the wild.

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October 19, 2023

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Domestication is the process of adapting wild plants and animals for human use

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Biomes provide us with the ecological producer/consumer pyramid. Each biome has its own unique role to fill in the overall environment of the world. In every continent there are multiple biomes distributed throughout each country. It is important to know the individual native plants and resources to a biome to make its main product. Not all human resources come out of one biome, which is where the transportation process of goods comes in play. For instance, we get our water from a true natural source like an ocean within vicinity of you. In the tropical rainforest biome we used lots of wood so, everything has it's own job to take care of.

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Because we share the world with many other species of plants and animals, we must consider the consequences of our actions. Over the past several decades, increasing human activity has rapidly destroyed or polluted many ecological habitats throughout the world. It is important to preserve all types of biomes as each houses many unique forms of life. However, the continued heavy exploitation of certain biomes, such as the forest and aquatic, may have more severe implications.

Forests are important as they are home to the most diverse biotic communties in the world. Hidden within these biomes are potential medicines and many thousands of unseen and undiscovered species. Also, forests have a global climate-buffering capacity, so their destruction may cause large-scale changes in global climate.

Logging has depleted many old-growth temperate forests. The increased demand for homes, paper, and other wood products have not allowed for much conservation. More recently, people have begun to realize that logging has cleared much of these forests. Wiser use of the forests and efforts to replant trees have helped to slow down the depletion of these communities.

Tropical forests have fallen victim to timber exploitation, slash and burn farming, and clearfelling for industrial use or cattle ranching, particularly in Latin America. Our increasing demand for meat products has spurred these events. For years, this destruction was occuring at a rapid rate. Over half of the world's original tropical forests are already gone. Public attention to this exploitation have helped to alleviate the problem somewhat, though many challenges are still to be faced.

Aquatic biomes are probably the most important of all the biomes. Their medium, water, is a major natural resource. Water is the basis of life, it supports life, and countless species live in it for all or part of their lives. Freshwater biomes supply us with our drinking water and water for crop irrigation. The world's oceans have an even greater effect on global climate than forests do. Water has a high capacity for heat, and because the Earth is mostly covered with water, the temperature of the atmosphere is kept fairly constant and able to support life. In addition to this climate-buffering capacity, the oceans contain several billion photosynthetic plankton which account for most of the photosynthesis occuring on Earth. Without these, there might not be enough oxygen to support such a large world population and complex animal life.

Freshwater biomes have suffered mainly from pollution. Runoff containing fertilizer and other wastes and industrial dumpings enter into rivers, ponds, and lakes and tend to promote abnormally rapid algae growth. When these algae die, dead organic matter accumulates in the water. This makes the water unusable and it kills many of the organisms living in the habitat. Stricter laws have helped to slow down this thoughtless pollution.

Overfishing and pollution have threatened to make oceans into ecological disaster areas. Industrial pollutants that are dumped upstream of estuaries have rendered many marine habitats unsuitable for life. Again, tighter regulations have been used to prevent further destruction of the ocean biomes.

By educating people about the consequences of our actions, we can all gain a better understanding of how to preserve the earth's natural biomes. The areas that have been destroyed the most will never regain their original forms, but conservation will help to keep them from getting worse.

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Because we share the world with many other species of plants and animals, we must consider the consequences of our actions. Over the past several decades, increasing human activity has rapidly destroyed or polluted many ecological habitats throughout the world. It is important to preserve all types of biomes as each houses many unique forms of life.

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Plant adaption ends up being compared and dwindled by the similarities of plant evolution. They can both be compared because both include the alternation of the cells and physical appearance of the plant. During the process of adaptation, a plant will produce new parts to its system, like the stomata or vascular transportation system. New leaves and root hairs are also important to the process because they are the outcome of what the process is. Gene expression plays an important role in this also to solidify diversity when talking about plant evolution. Plant evolution is it's own big separate topic due to organisms like bryophytes and more. They show us that these plants have been on earth for millions of years and continue to produce new genes every day.

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Summary

The genetic and molecular basis of the developmental programs underlying adaptive morphological changes is largely unknown. A new study reveals an ancient gene that has been instrumental for the generation of morphological diversity and adaptation in land plants.

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When talking about the process of plant growth and photosynthesis it brings things that are even deeper in the picture. Auxins are the first important thing to mention when talking about plant growth. Auxins are naturally made plant hormones that are made in the meristem to play a big role in making sure the cell is regulated. Its molecules are then moved down the roots of the plant to then later aid the plant especially the side growing away from the sun the most. Another key word is gibberellins which are found higher in the plant and contain plant hormones that have decisions like seed germination or elongation of the stem. These are both Important to know because they are two of the main components in order to make a plant grow. The effects that these hormones have on plants like enhancement of leaf growth and transportation of anything throughout the plant are why they are able to grow and get to their full potential.

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It is necessary in order to know the parts of a plant so that you can know what keeps one healthy. As vital as plants are to our ecosystem and species, keeping them healthy should be a main priority. Each part of the plant has a important role it has to perform or the plant will start to decay. Growing fruits and vegetables yourself can play a big role in this because it is crucial you know how to keep a plant healthy at your own risk. A person wants their fruits or vegetables to turn out as perfect as they can get, and that happens when there is good plant housing. On an even larger scale plants are used for a lot more than just human survival but materialistic things such as clothes, fuel, medicine etc.