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National curriculum in England: mathematics programmes of study

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The statutory programmes of study and attainment targets for mathematics at key stages 1 to 4.

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Purpose of study

A high-quality science education provides the foundations for understanding the world through the specific disciplines of biology, chemistry and physics. Science has changed our lives and is vital to the world's future prosperity, and all pupils should be taught essential aspects of the knowledge, methods, processes and uses of science. Through building up a body of key foundational knowledge and concepts, pupils should be encouraged to recognise the power of rational explanation and develop a sense of excitement and curiosity about natural phenomena. They should be encouraged to understand how science can be used to explain what is occurring, predict how things will behave, and analyse causes.

Aims

The national curriculum for science aims to ensure that all pupils:

Scientific knowledge and conceptual understanding

The programmes of study describe a sequence of knowledge and concepts. While it is important that pupils make progress, it is also vitally important that they develop secure understanding of each key block of knowledge and concepts in order to progress to the next stage. Insecure, superficial understanding will not allow genuine progression: pupils may struggle at key points of transition (such as between primary and secondary school), build up serious misconceptions, and/or have significant difficulties in understanding higher-order content.

Pupils should be able to describe associated processes and key characteristics in common language, but they should also be familiar with, and use, technical terminology accurately and precisely. They should build up an extended specialist vocabulary. They should also apply their mathematical knowledge to their understanding of science, including collecting, presenting and analysing data. The social and economic implications of science are important but, generally, they are taught most appropriately within the wider school curriculum: teachers will wish to use different contexts to maximise their pupils' engagement with and motivation to study science.

The nature, processes and methods of science

'Working scientifically' specifies the understanding of the nature, processes and methods of science for each year group. It should not be taught as a separate strand. The notes and guidance give examples of how 'working scientifically' might be embedded within the content of biology, chemistry and physics, focusing on the key features of scientific enquiry, so that pupils learn to use a variety of approaches to answer relevant scientific questions. These types of scientific enquiry should include: observing over time; pattern seeking; identifying, classifying and grouping; comparative and fair testing (controlled investigations); and researching using secondary sources. Pupils should seek answers to questions through collecting, analysing and presenting data. 'Working scientifically' will be developed further at key stages 3 and 4, once pupils have built up sufficient understanding of science to engage meaningfully in more sophisticated discussion of experimental design and control.

Spoken language

The national curriculum for science reflects the importance of spoken language in pupils' development across the whole curriculum - cognitively, socially and linguistically. The quality and variety of language that pupils hear and speak are key factors in developing their scientific vocabulary and articulating scientific concepts clearly and precisely. They must be assisted in making their thinking clear, both to themselves and others, and teachers should ensure that pupils build secure foundations by using discussion to probe and remedy their misconceptions.

School curriculum

The programmes of study for science are set out year-by-year for key stages 1 and 2. Schools are, however, only required to teach the relevant programme of study by the end of the key stage. Within each key stage, schools therefore have the flexibility to introduce content earlier or later than set out in the programme of study. In addition, schools can introduce key stage content during an earlier key stage if appropriate. All schools are also required to set out their school curriculum for science on a year-by-year basis and make this information available online.

Attainment targets

By the end of each key stage, pupils are expected to know, apply and understand the matters, skills and processes specified in the relevant programme of study.

Schools are not required by law to teach the content indicated as being 'non-statutory'.

Key stage 1

The principal focus of science teaching in key stage 1 is to enable pupils to experience and observe phenomena, looking more closely at the natural and humanly constructed world around them. They should be encouraged to be curious and ask questions about what they notice. They should be helped to develop their understanding of scientific ideas by using different types of scientific enquiry to answer their own questions, including observing changes over a period of time, noticing patterns, grouping and classifying things, carrying out simple comparative tests, and finding things out using secondary sources of information. They should begin to use simple scientific language to talk about what they have found out and communicate their ideas to a range of audiences in a variety of ways. Most of the learning about science should be done through the use of first-hand practical experiences, but there should also be some use of appropriate secondary sources, such as books, photographs and videos.

'Working scientifically' is described separately in the programme of study, but must always be taught through and clearly related to the teaching of substantive science content in the programme of study. Throughout the notes and guidance, examples show how scientific methods and skills might be linked to specific elements of the content.

Pupils should read and spell scientific vocabulary at a level consistent with their increasing word-reading and spelling knowledge at key stage 1.

Key stage 1 programme of study - years 1 and 2

Working scientifically

During years 1 and 2, pupils should be taught to use the following practical scientific methods, processes and skills through the teaching of the programme of study content:

Notes and guidance (non-statutory)

Pupils in years 1 and 2 should explore the world around them and raise their own questions. They should experience different types of scientific enquiries, including practical activities, and begin to recognise ways in which they might answer scientific questions.

They should use simple features to compare objects, materials and living things and, with help, decide how to sort and group them, observe changes over time, and, with guidance, they should begin to notice patterns and relationships.

They should ask people questions and use simple secondary sources to find answers.

They should use simple measurements and equipment (for example, hand lenses, egg timers) to gather data, carry out simple tests, record simple data, and talk about what they have found out and how they found it out. With help, they should record and communicate their findings in a range of ways and begin to use simple scientific language.

These opportunities for working scientifically should be provided across years 1 and 2 so that the expectations in the programme of study can be met by the end of year 2. Pupils are not expected to cover each aspect for every area of study.

Year 1 programme of study

Plants

Pupils should be taught to:

identify and name a variety of common wild and garden plants, including deciduous and evergreen trees

identify and describe the basic structure of a variety of common flowering plants, including trees

Animals, including humans

Pupils should be taught to:

Everyday materials

Pupils should be taught to:

Seasonal changes

Pupils should be taught to:

observe changes across the 4 seasons

observe and describe weather associated with the seasons and how day length varies

Year 2 programme of study

Living things and their habitats

Pupils should be taught to:

Plants

Pupils should be taught to:

observe and describe how seeds and bulbs grow into mature plants

find out and describe how plants need water, light and a suitable temperature to grow and stay healthy

Animals, including humans

Pupils should be taught to:

Uses of everyday materials

Pupils should be taught to:

identify and compare the suitability of a variety of everyday materials, including wood, metal, plastic, glass, brick, rock, paper and cardboard for particular uses

find out how the shapes of solid objects made from some materials can be changed by squashing, bending, twisting and stretching

Lower key stage 2 - years 3 and 4

The principal focus of science teaching in lower key stage 2 is to enable pupils to broaden their scientific view of the world around them. They should do this through exploring, talking about, testing and developing ideas about everyday phenomena and the relationships between living things and familiar environments, and by beginning to develop their ideas about functions, relationships and interactions. They should ask their own questions about what they observe and make some decisions about which types of scientific enquiry are likely to be the best ways of answering them, including observing changes over time, noticing patterns, grouping and classifying things, carrying out simple comparative and fair tests and finding things out using secondary sources of information. They should draw simple conclusions and use some scientific language, first, to talk about and, later, to write about what they have found out.

'Working scientifically' is described separately at the beginning of the programme of study, but must always be taught through and clearly related to substantive science content in the programme of study. Throughout the notes and guidance, examples show how scientific methods and skills might be linked to specific elements of the content.

Pupils should read and spell scientific vocabulary correctly and with confidence, using their growing word-reading and spelling knowledge.

Lower key stage 2 programme of study

Working scientifically

During years 3 and 4, pupils should be taught to use the following practical scientific methods, processes and skills through the teaching of the programme of study content:

asking relevant questions and using different types of scientific enquiries to answer them

setting up simple practical enquiries, comparative and fair tests

making systematic and careful observations and, where appropriate, taking accurate measurements using standard units, using a range of equipment, including thermometers and data loggers

gathering, recording, classifying and presenting data in a variety of ways to help in answering questions

recording findings using simple scientific language, drawings, labelled diagrams, keys, bar charts, and tables

reporting on findings from enquiries, including oral and written explanations, displays or presentations of results and conclusions

using results to draw simple conclusions, make predictions for new values, suggest improvements and raise further questions

identifying differences, similarities or changes related to simple scientific ideas and processes

using straightforward scientific evidence to answer questions or to support their findings.

Year 3 programme of study

Plants

Pupils should be taught to:

Animals, including humans

Pupils should be taught to:

identify that animals, including humans, need the right types and amount of nutrition, and that they cannot make their own food; they get nutrition from what they eat

identify that humans and some other animals have skeletons and muscles for support, protection and movement

Rocks

Pupils should be taught to:

Light

Pupils should be taught to:

Forces and magnets

Year 4 programme of study

Living things and their habitats

Pupils should be taught to:

Animals, including humans

Pupils should be taught to:

States of matter

Pupils should be taught to:

Sound

Pupils should be taught to:

Electricity

Pupils should be taught to:

Upper key stage 2 - years 5 and 6

The principal focus of science teaching in upper key stage 2 is to enable pupils to develop a deeper understanding of a wide range of scientific ideas. They should do this through exploring and talking about their ideas; asking their own questions about scientific phenomena; and analysing functions, relationships and interactions more systematically. At upper key stage 2, they should encounter more abstract ideas and begin to recognise how these ideas help them to understand and predict how the world operates. They should also begin to recognise that scientific ideas change and develop over time. They should select the most appropriate ways to answer science questions using different types of scientific enquiry, including observing changes over different periods of time, noticing patterns, grouping and classifying things, carrying out comparative and fair tests and finding things out using a wide range of secondary sources of information. Pupils should draw conclusions based on their data and observations, use evidence to justify their ideas, and use their scientific knowledge and understanding to explain their findings.

'Working and thinking scientifically' is described separately at the beginning of the programme of study, but must always be taught through and clearly related to substantive science content in the programme of study. Throughout the notes and guidance, examples show how scientific methods and skills might be linked to specific elements of the content.

Pupils should read, spell and pronounce scientific vocabulary correctly.

Upper key stage 2 programme of study

Working scientifically

During years 5 and 6, pupils should be taught to use the following practical scientific methods, processes and skills through the teaching of the programme of study content:

Year 5 programme of study

Living things and their habitats

Pupils should be taught to:

describe the differences in the life cycles of a mammal, an amphibian, an insect and a bird

describe the life process of reproduction in some plants and animals

Animals, including humans

Pupils should be taught to:

describe the changes as humans develop to old age

Properties and changes of materials

Pupils should be taught to:

Earth and space

Pupils should be taught to:

Forces

Pupils should be taught to:

Year 6 programme of study

Living things and their habitats

Pupils should be taught to:

describe how living things are classified into broad groups according to common observable characteristics and based on similarities and differences, including micro-organisms, plants and animals

give reasons for classifying plants and animals based on specific characteristics

Animals including humans

Pupils should be taught to:

Evolution and inheritance

Pupils should be taught to:

Light

Pupils should be taught to:

Electricity

Pupils should be taught to:

Key stage 3

The principal focus of science teaching in key stage 3 is to develop a deeper understanding of a range of scientific ideas in the subject disciplines of biology, chemistry and physics. Pupils should begin to see the connections between these subject areas and become aware of some of the big ideas underpinning scientific knowledge and understanding. Examples of these big ideas are the links between structure and function in living organisms, the particulate model as the key to understanding the properties and interactions of matter in all its forms, and the resources and means of transfer of energy as key determinants of all of these interactions. They should be encouraged to relate scientific explanations to phenomena in the world around them and start to use modelling and abstract ideas to develop and evaluate explanations.

Pupils should understand that science is about working objectively, modifying explanations to take account of new evidence and ideas and subjecting results to peer review. Pupils should decide on the appropriate type of scientific enquiry to undertake to answer their own questions and develop a deeper understanding of factors to be taken into account when collecting, recording and processing data. They should evaluate their results and identify further questions arising from them.

'Working scientifically' is described separately at the beginning of the programme of study, but must always be taught through and clearly related to substantive science content in the programme of study. Teachers should feel free to choose examples that serve a variety of purposes, from showing how scientific ideas have developed historically to reflecting modern developments in science.

Pupils should develop their use of scientific vocabulary, including the use of scientific nomenclature and units and mathematical representations.

Working scientifically

Through the content across all three disciplines, pupils should be taught to:

Scientific attitudes

Experimental skills and investigations

Analysis and evaluation

Measurement

Subject content

Biology

Pupils should be taught about:

Structure and function of living organisms

Cells and organisation

The skeletal and muscular systems

Nutrition and digestion

Gas exchange systems

Reproduction

reproduction in humans (as an example of a mammal), including the structure and function of the male and female reproductive systems, menstrual cycle (without details of hormones), gametes, fertilisation, gestation and birth, to include the effect of maternal lifestyle on the foetus through the placenta

reproduction in plants, including flower structure, wind and insect pollination, fertilisation, seed and fruit formation and dispersal, including quantitative investigation of some dispersal mechanisms

Health

the effects of recreational drugs (including substance misuse) on behaviour, health and life processes

Material cycles and energy

Photosynthesis

Cellular respiration

Interactions and interdependencies

Relationships in an ecosystem

Genetics and evolution

Inheritance, chromosomes, DNA and genes

Chemistry

Pupils should be taught about:

The particulate nature of matter

the properties of the different states of matter (solid, liquid and gas) in terms of the particle model, including gas pressure

changes of state in terms of the particle model

Atoms, elements and compounds

Pure and impure substances

Chemical reactions

Energetics

energy changes on changes of state (qualitative)

exothermic and endothermic chemical reactions (qualitative)

The periodic table

Materials

Earth and atmosphere

Physics

Pupils should be taught about:

Energy

Calculation of fuel uses and costs in the domestic context

Energy changes and transfers

Changes in systems

Motion and forces

Describing motion

Forces

Pressure in fluids

Balanced forces

opposing forces and equilibrium: weight held by stretched spring or supported on a compressed surface

Forces and motion

forces being needed to cause objects to stop or start moving, or to change their speed or direction of motion (qualitative only)

change depending on direction of force and its size

Waves

Observed waves

waves on water as undulations which travel through water with transverse motion; these waves can be reflected, and add or cancel - superposition

Sound waves

Energy and waves

pressure waves transferring energy; use for cleaning and physiotherapy by ultrasound; waves transferring information for conversion to electrical signals by microphone

Light waves

Electricity and electromagnetism

Current electricity

Static electricity

separation of positive or negative charges when objects are rubbed together: transfer of electrons, forces between charged objects

the idea of electric field, forces acting across the space between objects not in contact

Magnetism

Matter

Physical changes

Particle model

the differences in arrangements, in motion and in closeness of particles explaining changes of state, shape and density; the anomaly of ice-water transition

atoms and molecules as particles

Energy in matter

changes with temperature in motion and spacing of particles

internal energy stored in materials

Space physics

Key stage 4

Teaching in the sciences in key stage 4 continues with the process of building upon and deepening scientific knowledge and the understanding of ideas developed in earlier key stages in the subject disciplines of biology, chemistry and physics.

For some students, studying the sciences in key stage 4 provides the platform for more advanced studies, establishing the basis for a wide range of careers. For others, it will be their last formal study of subjects that provide the foundations for understanding the natural world and will enhance their lives in an increasingly technological society.

Science is changing our lives and is vital to the world's future prosperity, and all students should be taught essential aspects of the knowledge, methods, processes and uses of science. They should be helped to appreciate the achievements of science in showing how the complex and diverse phenomena of the natural world can be described in terms of a number of key ideas relating to the sciences which are inter-linked, and which are of universal application. These key ideas include:

The sciences should be taught in ways that ensure students have the knowledge to enable them to develop curiosity about the natural world, insight into working scientifically, and appreciation of the relevance of science to their everyday lives, so that students:

Curricula at key stage 4 should comprise approximately equal proportions of biology, chemistry and physics. The relevant mathematical skills required are covered in the programme of study for mathematics and should be embedded in the science context.

'Working scientifically' is described separately at the beginning of the programme of study, but must always be taught through and clearly related to substantive science content in the programme of study. Teachers should feel free to choose examples that serve a variety of purposes, from showing how scientific ideas have developed historically to reflecting modern developments in science and informing students of the role of science in understanding the causes of and solutions to some of the challenges facing society.

The scope and nature of their study should be broad, coherent, practical and rigorous, so that students are inspired and challenged by the subject and its achievements.

Working scientifically

Through the content across all three disciplines, students should be taught so that they develop understanding and first-hand experience of:

1. The development of scientific thinking

2. Experimental skills and strategies

3. Analysis and evaluation

applying the cycle of collecting, presenting and analysing data, including:

presenting observations and other data using appropriate methods

translating data from one form to another

carrying out and representing mathematical and statistical analysis

representing distributions of results and making estimations of uncertainty

interpreting observations and other data, including identifying patterns and trends, making inferences and drawing conclusions

presenting reasoned explanations, including relating data to hypotheses

being objective, evaluating data in terms of accuracy, precision, repeatability and reproducibility and identifying potential sources of random and systematic error

communicating the scientific rationale for investigations, including the methods used, the findings and reasoned conclusions, using paper-based and electronic reports and presentations

4. Vocabulary, units, symbols and nomenclature

Subject content - Biology

Biology is the science of living organisms (including animals, plants, fungi and microorganisms) and their interactions with each other and the environment. The study of biology involves collecting and interpreting information about the natural world to identify patterns and relate possible cause and effect. Biology is used to help humans improve their own lives and to understand the world around them.

Students should be helped to understand how, through the ideas of biology, the complex and diverse phenomena of the natural world can be described in terms of a number of key ideas which are of universal application, and which can be illustrated in the separate topics set out below. These ideas include:

life processes depend on molecules whose structure is related to their function

the fundamental units of living organisms are cells, which may be part of highly adapted structures including tissues, organs and organ systems, enabling life processes to be performed more effectively

living organisms may form populations of single species, communities of many species and ecosystems, interacting with each other, with the environment and with humans in many different ways

living organisms are interdependent and show adaptations to their environment

life on Earth is dependent on photosynthesis in which green plants and algae trap light from the Sun to fix carbon dioxide and combine it with hydrogen from water to make organic compounds and oxygen

organic compounds are used as fuels in cellular respiration to allow the other chemical reactions necessary for life

the chemicals in ecosystems are continually cycling through the natural world

the characteristics of a living organism are influenced by its genome and its interaction with the environment

evolution occurs by the process of natural selection and accounts both for biodiversity and how organisms are all related to varying degrees

Students should be taught about:

Cell biology

Transport systems

the need for transport systems in multicellular organisms, including plants

the relationship between the structure and functions of the human circulatory system

Health, disease and the development of medicines

Coordination and control

Photosynthesis

Ecosystems

Evolution, inheritance and variation

the genome as the entire genetic material of an organism

how the genome, and its interaction with the environment, influence the development of the phenotype of an organism

the potential impact of genomics on medicine

most phenotypic features being the result of multiple, rather than single, genes

single gene inheritance and single gene crosses with dominant and recessive phenotypes

sex determination in humans

genetic variation in populations of a species

the process of natural selection leading to evolution

the evidence for evolution

developments in biology affecting classification

the importance of selective breeding of plants and animals in agriculture

the uses of modern biotechnology including gene technology; some of the practical and ethical considerations of modern biotechnology

Subject content - Chemistry

Chemistry is the science of the composition, structure, properties and reactions of matter, understood in terms of atoms, atomic particles and the way they are arranged and link together. It is concerned with the synthesis, formulation, analysis and characteristic properties of substances and materials of all kinds.

Students should be helped to appreciate the achievements of chemistry in showing how the complex and diverse phenomena of both the natural and man-made worlds can be described in terms of a number of key ideas which are of universal application, and which can be illustrated in the separate topics set out below. These ideas include:

matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms and there are about 100 different naturally-occurring types of atoms called elements

elements show periodic relationships in their chemical and physical properties

these periodic properties can be explained in terms of the atomic structure of the elements

atoms bond either by transferring electrons from one atom to another or by sharing electrons

the shapes of molecules (groups of atoms bonded together) and the way giant structures are arranged is of great importance in terms of the way they behave

reactions can occur when molecules collide and do so at different rates due to differences in molecular collisions

chemical reactions take place in only three different ways:

proton transfer

electron transfer

electron sharing

energy is conserved in chemical reactions so can therefore be neither created nor destroyed

Students should be taught about:

Atomic structure and the Periodic Table

Structure, bonding and the properties of matter

Chemical changes

Energy changes in chemistry

Measurement of energy changes in chemical reactions (qualitative)

Bond breaking, bond making, activation energy and reaction profiles (qualitative)

Rate and extent of chemical change

factors that influence the rate of reaction: varying temperature or concentration, changing the surface area of a solid reactant or by adding a catalyst

factors affecting reversible reactions

Chemical analysis

Chemical and allied industries

Earth and atmospheric science

Subject content - Physics

Physics is the science of the fundamental concepts of field, force, radiation and particle structures, which are inter-linked to form unified models of the behaviour of the material universe. From such models, a wide range of ideas, from the broadest issue of the development of the universe over time to the numerous and detailed ways in which new technologies may be invented, have emerged. These have enriched both our basic understanding of, and our many adaptations to, our material environment.

Students should be helped to understand how, through the ideas of physics, the complex and diverse phenomena of the natural world can be described in terms of a number of key ideas which are of universal application and which can be illustrated in the separate topics set out below. These ideas include:

Students should be taught about:

Energy

Forces

Forces and motion

Wave motion

Electricity

Magnetism and electromagnetism

The structure of matter

Atomic structure

Space physics

the main features of the solar system.

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National curriculum in England: science programmes of study

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A high-quality science education provides the foundations for understanding the world through the specific disciplines of biology, chemistry and physics. Science has changed our lives and is vital to the world's future prosperity, and all pupils should be taught essential aspects of the knowledge, methods, processes and uses of science.

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Purpose of study

English has a pre-eminent place in education and in society. A high-quality education in English will teach pupils to speak and write fluently so that they can communicate their ideas and emotions to others, and through their reading and listening, others can communicate with them. Through reading in particular, pupils have a chance to develop culturally, emotionally, intellectually, socially and spiritually. Literature, especially, plays a key role in such development. Reading also enables pupils both to acquire knowledge and to build on what they already know. All the skills of language are essential to participating fully as a member of society; pupils who do not learn to speak, read and write fluently and confidently are effectively disenfranchised.

Aims

The overarching aim for English in the national curriculum is to promote high standards of language and literacy by equipping pupils with a strong command of the spoken and written language, and to develop their love of literature through widespread reading for enjoyment. The national curriculum for English aims to ensure that all pupils:

read easily, fluently and with good understanding

develop the habit of reading widely and often, for both pleasure and information

acquire a wide vocabulary, an understanding of grammar and knowledge of linguistic conventions for reading, writing and spoken language

appreciate our rich and varied literary heritage

write clearly, accurately and coherently, adapting their language and style in and for a range of contexts, purposes and audiences

use discussion in order to learn; they should be able to elaborate and explain clearly their understanding and ideas

are competent in the arts of speaking and listening, making formal presentations, demonstrating to others and participating in debate

Spoken language

The national curriculum for English reflects the importance of spoken language in pupils' development across the whole curriculum - cognitively, socially and linguistically. Spoken language underpins the development of reading and writing. The quality and variety of language that pupils hear and speak are vital for developing their vocabulary and grammar and their understanding for reading and writing. Teachers should therefore ensure the continual development of pupils' confidence and competence in spoken language and listening skills. Pupils should develop a capacity to explain their understanding of books and other reading, and to prepare their ideas before they write. They must be assisted in making their thinking clear to themselves as well as to others, and teachers should ensure that pupils build secure foundations by using discussion to probe and remedy their misconceptions. Pupils should also be taught to understand and use the conventions for discussion and debate.

All pupils should be enabled to participate in and gain knowledge, skills and understanding associated with the artistic practice of drama. Pupils should be able to adopt, create and sustain a range of roles, responding appropriately to others in role. They should have opportunities to improvise, devise and script drama for one another and a range of audiences, as well as to rehearse, refine, share and respond thoughtfully to drama and theatre performances.

Statutory requirements which underpin all aspects of spoken language across the 6 years of primary education form part of the national curriculum. These are reflected and contextualised within the reading and writing domains which follow.

Reading

The programmes of study for reading at key stages 1 and 2 consist of 2 dimensions:

word reading

comprehension (both listening and reading)

It is essential that teaching focuses on developing pupils' competence in both dimensions; different kinds of teaching are needed for each.

Skilled word reading involves both the speedy working out of the pronunciation of unfamiliar printed words (decoding) and the speedy recognition of familiar printed words. Underpinning both is the understanding that the letters on the page represent the sounds in spoken words. This is why phonics should be emphasised in the early teaching of reading to beginners (ie unskilled readers) when they start school.

Good comprehension draws from linguistic knowledge (in particular of vocabulary and grammar) and on knowledge of the world. Comprehension skills develop through pupils' experience of high-quality discussion with the teacher, as well as from reading and discussing a range of stories, poems and non-fiction. All pupils must be encouraged to read widely across both fiction and non-fiction to develop their knowledge of themselves and the world they live in, to establish an appreciation and love of reading, and to gain knowledge across the curriculum. Reading widely and often increases pupils' vocabulary because they encounter words they would rarely hear or use in everyday speech. Reading also feeds pupils' imagination and opens up a treasure house of wonder and joy for curious young minds.

It is essential that, by the end of their primary education, all pupils are able to read fluently, and with confidence, in any subject in their forthcoming secondary education.

Writing

The programmes of study for writing at key stages 1 and 2 are constructed similarly to those for reading:

transcription (spelling and handwriting)

composition (articulating ideas and structuring them in speech and writing)

It is essential that teaching develops pupils' competence in these 2 dimensions. In addition, pupils should be taught how to plan, revise and evaluate their writing. These aspects of writing have been incorporated into the programmes of study for composition.

Writing down ideas fluently depends on effective transcription: that is, on spelling quickly and accurately through knowing the relationship between sounds and letters (phonics) and understanding the morphology (word structure) and orthography (spelling structure) of words. Effective composition involves articulating and communicating ideas, and then organising them coherently for a reader. This requires clarity, awareness of the audience, purpose and context, and an increasingly wide knowledge of vocabulary and grammar. Writing also depends on fluent, legible and, eventually, speedy handwriting.

Spelling, vocabulary, grammar, punctuation and glossary

The 2 statutory appendices - on spelling and on vocabulary, grammar and punctuation - give an overview of the specific features that should be included in teaching the programmes of study.

Opportunities for teachers to enhance pupils' vocabulary arise naturally from their reading and writing. As vocabulary increases, teachers should show pupils how to understand the relationships between words, how to understand nuances in meaning, and how to develop their understanding of, and ability to use, figurative language. They should also teach pupils how to work out and clarify the meanings of unknown words and words with more than 1 meaning. References to developing pupils' vocabulary are also included in the appendices.

Pupils should be taught to control their speaking and writing consciously and to use Standard English. They should be taught to use the elements of spelling, grammar, punctuation and 'language about language' listed. This is not intended to constrain or restrict teachers' creativity, but simply to provide the structure on which they can construct exciting lessons. A non-statutory glossary is provided for teachers.
Throughout the programmes of study, teachers should teach pupils the vocabulary they need to discuss their reading, writing and spoken language. It is important that pupils learn the correct grammatical terms in English and that these terms are integrated within teaching.

School curriculum

The programmes of study for English are set out year-by-year for key stage 1 and two-yearly for key stage 2. The single year blocks at key stage 1 reflect the rapid pace of development in word reading during these 2 years. Schools are, however, only required to teach the relevant programme of study by the end of the key stage. Within each key stage, schools therefore have the flexibility to introduce content earlier or later than set out in the programme of study. In addition, schools can introduce key stage content during an earlier key stage if appropriate. All schools are also required to set out their school curriculum for English on a year-by-year basis and make this information available online.

Attainment targets

By the end of each key stage, pupils are expected to know, apply and understand the matters, skills and processes specified in the relevant programme of study.

Schools are not required by law to teach the example content in [square brackets] or the content indicated as being 'non-statutory'.

Spoken language - years 1 to 6

Spoken language

Pupils should be taught to:

listen and respond appropriately to adults and their peers

ask relevant questions to extend their understanding and knowledge

use relevant strategies to build their vocabulary

articulate and justify answers, arguments and opinions

give well-structured descriptions, explanations and narratives for different purposes, including for expressing feelings

maintain attention and participate actively in collaborative conversations, staying on topic and initiating and responding to comments

use spoken language to develop understanding through speculating, hypothesising, imagining and exploring ideas

speak audibly and fluently with an increasing command of Standard English

participate in discussions, presentations, performances, role play/improvisations and debates

gain, maintain and monitor the interest of the listener(s)

consider and evaluate different viewpoints, attending to and building on the contributions of others

select and use appropriate registers for effective communication

Notes and guidance (non-statutory)

These statements apply to all years. The content should be taught at a level appropriate to the age of the pupils. Pupils should build on the oral language skills that have been taught in preceding years.

Pupils should be taught to develop their competence in spoken language and listening to enhance the effectiveness of their communication across a range of contexts and to a range of audiences. They should therefore have opportunities to work in groups of different sizes - in pairs, small groups, large groups and as a whole class. Pupils should understand how to take turns and when and how to participate constructively in conversations and debates.

Teachers should also pay attention to increasing pupils' vocabulary, ranging from describing their immediate world and feelings to developing a broader, deeper and richer vocabulary to discuss abstract concepts and a wider range of topics, and enhancing their knowledge about language as a whole.

Pupils should receive constructive feedback on their spoken language and listening, not only to improve their knowledge and skills but also to establish secure foundations for effective spoken language in their studies at primary school, helping them to achieve in secondary education and beyond.

Key stage 1 - year 1

During year 1, teachers should build on work from the early years foundation stage, making sure that pupils can sound and blend unfamiliar printed words quickly and accurately using the phonic knowledge and skills that they have already learnt. Teachers should also ensure that pupils continue to learn new grapheme-phoneme correspondences ( GPCs) and revise and consolidate those learnt earlier. The understanding that the letter(s) on the page represent the sounds in spoken words should underpin pupils' reading and spelling of all words. This includes common words containing unusual GPCs. The term 'common exception words' is used throughout the programmes of study for such words.

Alongside this knowledge of GPCs, pupils need to develop the skill of blending the sounds into words for reading and establish the habit of applying this skill whenever they encounter new words. This will be supported by practice in reading books consistent with their developing phonic knowledge and skill and their knowledge of common exception words. At the same time they will need to hear, share and discuss a wide range of high-quality books to develop a love of reading and broaden their vocabulary.

Pupils should be helped to read words without overt sounding and blending after a few encounters. Those who are slow to develop this skill should have extra practice.

Pupils' writing during year 1 will generally develop at a slower pace than their reading. This is because they need to encode the sounds they hear in words (spelling skills), develop the physical skill needed for handwriting, and learn how to organise their ideas in writing.

Pupils entering year 1 who have not yet met the early learning goals for literacy should continue to follow their school's curriculum for the Early Years Foundation Stage to develop their word reading, spelling and language skills. However, these pupils should follow the year 1 programme of study in terms of the books they listen to and discuss, so that they develop their vocabulary and understanding of grammar, as well as their knowledge more generally across the curriculum. If they are still struggling to decode and spell, they need to be taught to do this urgently through a rigorous and systematic phonics programme so that they catch up rapidly.

Teachers should ensure that their teaching develops pupils' oral vocabulary as well as their ability to understand and use a variety of grammatical structures, giving particular support to pupils whose oral language skills are insufficiently developed.

Year 1 programme of study

Reading - word reading

Pupils should be taught to:

apply phonic knowledge and skills as the route to decode words

respond speedily with the correct sound to graphemes (letters or groups of letters) for all 40+ phonemes, including, where applicable, alternative sounds for graphemes

read accurately by blending sounds in unfamiliar words containing GPCs that have been taught

read common exception words, noting unusual correspondences between spelling and sound and where these occur in the word

read words containing taught GPCs and -s, -es, -ing, -ed, -er and -est endings

read other words of more than one syllable that contain taught GPCs

read words with contractions [for example, I'm, I'll, we'll], and understand that the apostrophe represents the omitted letter(s)

read books aloud, accurately, that are consistent with their developing phonic knowledge and that do not require them to use other strategies to work out words

reread these books to build up their fluency and confidence in word reading

Notes and guidance (non-statutory)

Pupils should revise and consolidate the GPCs and the common exception words taught in reception year. As soon as they can read words comprising the year 1 GPCs accurately and speedily, they should move on to the year 2 programme of study for word reading.

The number, order and choice of exception words taught will vary according to the phonics programme being used. Ensuring that pupils are aware of the GPCs they contain, however unusual these are, supports spelling later.

Young readers encounter words that they have not seen before much more frequently than experienced readers do, and they may not know the meaning of some of these. Practice at reading such words by sounding and blending can provide opportunities not only for pupils to develop confidence in their decoding skills, but also for teachers to explain the meaning and thus develop pupils' vocabulary.

Pupils should be taught how to read words with suffixes by being helped to build on the root words that they can read already. Pupils' reading and rereading of books that are closely matched to their developing phonic knowledge and knowledge of common exception words supports their fluency, as well as increasing their confidence in their reading skills. Fluent word reading greatly assists comprehension, especially when pupils come to read longer books.

Reading - comprehension

Pupils should be taught to:

understand both the books they can already read accurately and fluently and those they listen to by:

drawing on what they already know or on background information and vocabulary provided by the teacher

checking that the text makes sense to them as they read, and correcting inaccurate reading

discussing the significance of the title and events

making inferences on the basis of what is being said and done

predicting what might happen on the basis of what has been read so far

participate in discussion about what is read to them, taking turns and listening to what others say

explain clearly their understanding of what is read to them

Writing - transcription

Pupils should be taught to:

Notes and guidance (non-statutory)

Reading should be taught alongside spelling, so that pupils understand that they can read back words they have spelt.

Pupils should be shown how to segment spoken words into individual phonemes and then how to represent the phonemes by the appropriate grapheme(s). It is important to recognise that phoneme-grapheme correspondences (which underpin spelling) are more variable than grapheme-phoneme correspondences (which underpin reading). For this reason, pupils need to do much more word-specific rehearsal for spelling than for reading.

At this stage pupils will be spelling some words in a phonically plausible way, even if sometimes incorrectly. Misspellings of words that pupils have been taught to spell should be corrected; other misspelt words should be used to teach pupils about alternative ways of representing those sounds.

Writing simple dictated sentences that include words taught so far gives pupils opportunities to apply and practise their spelling.

Handwriting

Pupils should be taught to:

sit correctly at a table, holding a pencil comfortably and correctly

begin to form lower-case letters in the correct direction, starting and finishing in the right place

form capital letters

form digits 0-9

understand which letters belong to which handwriting 'families' (ie letters that are formed in similar ways) and to practise these

Notes and guidance (non-statutory)

Handwriting requires frequent and discrete, direct teaching. Pupils should be able to form letters correctly and confidently. The size of the writing implement (pencil, pen) should not be too large for a young pupil's hand. Whatever is being used should allow the pupil to hold it easily and correctly so that bad habits are avoided.

Left-handed pupils should receive specific teaching to meet their needs.

Writing - composition

Pupils should be taught to:

discuss what they have written with the teacher or other pupils

read their writing aloud, clearly enough to be heard by their peers and the teacher

Notes and guidance (non-statutory)

At the beginning of year 1, not all pupils will have the spelling and handwriting skills they need to write down everything that they can compose out loud.

Pupils should understand, through demonstration, the skills and processes essential to writing: that is, thinking aloud as they collect ideas, drafting, and rereading to check their meaning is clear.

Writing - vocabulary, grammar and punctuation

Pupils should be taught to:

develop their understanding of the concepts set out in English appendix 2 by:

leaving spaces between words

joining words and joining clauses using 'and'

beginning to punctuate sentences using a capital letter and a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark

using a capital letter for names of people, places, the days of the week, and the personal pronoun 'I'

learning the grammar for year 1 in English appendix 2

use the grammatical terminology in English English appendix 2 in discussing their writing

Notes and guidance (non-statutory)

Pupils should be taught to recognise sentence boundaries in spoken sentences and to use the vocabulary listed in English appendix 2 ('Terminology for pupils') when their writing is discussed.

Pupils should begin to use some of the distinctive features of Standard English in their writing. 'Standard English' is defined in the glossary.

Key stage 1 - year 2

By the beginning of year 2, pupils should be able to read all common graphemes. They should be able to read unfamiliar words containing these graphemes, accurately and without undue hesitation, by sounding them out in books that are matched closely to each pupil's level of word-reading knowledge. They should also be able to read many common words containing GPCs taught so far [for example, shout, hand, stop, or dream], without needing to blend the sounds out loud first. Pupils' reading of common exception words [for example, you, could, many, or people], should be secure. Pupils will increase their fluency by being able to read these words easily and automatically. Finally, pupils should be able to retell some familiar stories that have been read to and discussed with them or that they have acted out during year 1.

During year 2, teachers should continue to focus on establishing pupils' accurate and speedy word-reading skills. They should also make sure that pupils listen to and discuss a wide range of stories, poems, plays and information books; this should include whole books. The sooner that pupils can read well and do so frequently, the sooner they will be able to increase their vocabulary, comprehension and their knowledge across the wider curriculum.

In writing, pupils at the beginning of year 2 should be able to compose individual sentences orally and then write them down. They should be able to spell many of the words covered in year 1 correctly - see English appendix 1. They should also be able to make phonically plausible attempts to spell words they have not yet learnt. Finally, they should be able to form individual letters correctly, establishing good handwriting habits from the beginning.

It is important to recognise that pupils begin to meet extra challenges in terms of spelling during year 2. Increasingly, they should learn that there is not always an obvious connection between the way a word is said and the way it is spelt. Variations include different ways of spelling the same sound, the use of so-called silent letters and groups of letters in some words and, sometimes, spelling that has become separated from the way that words are now pronounced, such as the 'le' ending in table. Pupils' motor skills also need to be sufficiently advanced for them to write down ideas that they may be able to compose orally. In addition, writing is intrinsically harder than reading: pupils are likely to be able to read and understand more complex writing (in terms of its vocabulary and structure) than they are capable of producing themselves.

For pupils who do not have the phonic knowledge and skills they need for year 2, teachers should use the year 1 programmes of study for word reading and spelling so that pupils' word-reading skills catch up. However, teachers should use the year 2 programme of study for comprehension so that these pupils hear and talk about new books, poems, other writing, and vocabulary with the rest of the class.

Year 2 programme of study

Reading - word reading

Pupils should be taught to:

continue to apply phonic knowledge and skills as the route to decode words until automatic decoding has become embedded and reading is fluent

read accurately by blending the sounds in words that contain the graphemes taught so far, especially recognising alternative sounds for graphemes

read accurately words of two or more syllables that contain the same graphemes as above

read words containing common suffixes

read further common exception words, noting unusual correspondences between spelling and sound and where these occur in the word

read most words quickly and accurately, without overt sounding and blending, when they have been frequently encountered

read aloud books closely matched to their improving phonic knowledge, sounding out unfamiliar words accurately, automatically and without undue hesitation

reread these books to build up their fluency and confidence in word reading

Notes and guidance (non-statutory)

Pupils should revise and consolidate the GPCs and the common exception words taught in year 1. The exception words taught will vary slightly, depending on the phonics programme being used. As soon as pupils can read words comprising the year 2 GPCs accurately and speedily, they should move on to the years 3 and 4 programme of study for word reading.

When pupils are taught how to read longer words, they should be shown syllable boundaries and how to read each syllable separately before they combine them to read the word.

Pupils should be taught how to read suffixes by building on the root words that they have already learnt. The whole suffix should be taught as well as the letters that make it up.

Pupils who are still at the early stages of learning to read should have ample practice in reading books that are closely matched to their developing phonic knowledge and knowledge of common exception words. As soon as the decoding of most regular words and common exception words is embedded fully, the range of books that pupils can read independently will expand rapidly. Pupils should have opportunities to exercise choice in selecting books and be taught how to do so.

Reading - comprehension

Pupils should be taught to:

develop pleasure in reading, motivation to read, vocabulary and understanding by:

understand both the books that they can already read accurately and fluently and those that they listen to by:

drawing on what they already know or on background information and vocabulary provided by the teacher

checking that the text makes sense to them as they read, and correcting inaccurate reading

making inferences on the basis of what is being said and done

answering and asking questions

predicting what might happen on the basis of what has been read so far

participate in discussion about books, poems and other works that are read to them and those that they can read for themselves, taking turns and listening to what others say

explain and discuss their understanding of books, poems and other material, both those that they listen to and those that they read for themselves

Writing - transcription

Pupils should be taught to:

add suffixes to spell longer words including -ment, -ness, -ful, -less, -ly

apply spelling rules and guidance, as listed in English appendix 1

write from memory simple sentences dictated by the teacher that include words using the GPCs, common exception words and punctuation taught so far

Notes and guidance (non-statutory)

In year 2, pupils move towards more word-specific knowledge of spelling, including homophones. The process of spelling should be emphasised: that is, that spelling involves segmenting spoken words into phonemes and then representing all the phonemes by graphemes in the right order. Pupils should do this both for single-syllable and polysyllabic words.

At this stage, children's spelling should be phonically plausible, even if not always correct. Misspellings of words that pupils have been taught to spell should be corrected; other misspelt words can be used as an opportunity to teach pupils about alternative ways of representing those sounds.

Pupils should be encouraged to apply their knowledge of suffixes from their word reading to their spelling. They should also draw from and apply their growing knowledge of word and spelling structure, as well as their knowledge of root words.

Handwriting

Pupils should be taught to:

form lower-case letters of the correct size relative to one another

start using some of the diagonal and horizontal strokes needed to join letters and understand which letters, when adjacent to one another, are best left unjoined

write capital letters and digits of the correct size, orientation and relationship to one another and to lower-case letters

use spacing between words that reflects the size of the letters

Writing - composition

Pupils should be taught to:

read aloud what they have written with appropriate intonation to make the meaning clear

Notes and guidance (non-statutory)

Reading and listening to whole books, not simply extracts, helps pupils to increase their vocabulary and grammatical knowledge, including their knowledge of the vocabulary and grammar of Standard English. These activities also help them to understand how different types of writing, including narratives, are structured. All these can be drawn on for their writing.

Pupils should understand, through being shown these, the skills and processes essential to writing: that is, thinking aloud as they collect ideas, drafting, and rereading to check their meaning is clear.

Drama and role play can contribute to the quality of pupils' writing by providing opportunities for pupils to develop and order their ideas through playing roles and improvising scenes in various settings.

Pupils might draw on and use new vocabulary from their reading, their discussions about it (one-to-one and as a whole class) and from their wider experiences.

Writing - vocabulary, grammar and punctuation

Pupils should be taught to:

develop their understanding of the concepts set out in English appendix 2 by:

learning how to use both familiar and new punctuation correctly - see English appendix 2, including full stops, capital letters, exclamation marks, question marks, commas for lists and apostrophes for contracted forms and the possessive (singular)

learn how to use:

sentences with different forms: statement, question, exclamation, command

expanded noun phrases to describe and specify [for example, the blue butterfly]

the present and past tenses correctly and consistently, including the progressive form

subordination (using when, if, that, or because) and co-ordination (using or, and, or but)

the grammar for year 2 in English appendix 2

some features of written Standard English

use and understand the grammatical terminology in English appendix 2 in discussing their writing

Lower key stage 2 - years 3 and 4

By the beginning of year 3, pupils should be able to read books written at an age-appropriate interest level. They should be able to read them accurately and at a speed that is sufficient for them to focus on understanding what they read rather than on decoding individual words. They should be able to decode most new words outside their spoken vocabulary, making a good approximation to the word's pronunciation. As their decoding skills become increasingly secure, teaching should be directed more towards developing their vocabulary and the breadth and depth of their reading, making sure that they become independent, fluent and enthusiastic readers who read widely and frequently. They should be developing their understanding and enjoyment of stories, poetry, plays and non-fiction, and learning to read silently. They should also be developing their knowledge and skills in reading non-fiction about a wide range of subjects. They should be learning to justify their views about what they have read: with support at the start of year 3 and increasingly independently by the end of year 4.

Pupils should be able to write down their ideas with a reasonable degree of accuracy and with good sentence punctuation. Teachers should therefore be consolidating pupils' writing skills, their vocabulary, their grasp of sentence structure and their knowledge of linguistic terminology. Teaching them to develop as writers involves teaching them to enhance the effectiveness of what they write as well as increasing their competence. Teachers should make sure that pupils build on what they have learnt, particularly in terms of the range of their writing and the more varied grammar, vocabulary and narrative structures from which they can draw to express their ideas. Pupils should be beginning to understand how writing can be different from speech. Joined handwriting should be the norm; pupils should be able to use it fast enough to keep pace with what they want to say.

Pupils' spelling of common words should be correct, including common exception words and other words that they have learnt - see English appendix 1. Pupils should spell words as accurately as possible using their phonic knowledge and other knowledge of spelling, such as morphology and etymology.

Most pupils will not need further direct teaching of word reading skills: they are able to decode unfamiliar words accurately, and need very few repeated experiences of this before the word is stored in such a way that they can read it without overt sound-blending. They should demonstrate understanding of figurative language, distinguish shades of meaning among related words and use age-appropriate, academic vocabulary.

As in key stage 1, however, pupils who are still struggling to decode need to be taught to do this urgently through a rigorous and systematic phonics programme so that they catch up rapidly with their peers. If they cannot decode independently and fluently, they will find it increasingly difficult to understand what they read and to write down what they want to say. As far as possible, however, these pupils should follow the year 3 and 4 programme of study in terms of listening to new books, hearing and learning new vocabulary and grammatical structures, and discussing these.

Specific requirements for pupils to discuss what they are learning and to develop their wider skills in spoken language form part of this programme of study. In years 3 and 4, pupils should become more familiar with and confident in using language in a greater variety of situations, for a variety of audiences and purposes, including through drama, formal presentations and debate.

Years 3 and 4 programme of study

Reading - word reading

Pupils should be taught to:

apply their growing knowledge of root words, prefixes and suffixes (etymology and morphology) as listed in - see English appendix 1 , both to read aloud and to understand the meaning of new words they meet

read further exception words, noting the unusual correspondences between spelling and sound, and where these occur in the word

Notes and guidance (non-statutory)

At this stage, teaching comprehension should be taking precedence over teaching word reading directly. Any focus on word reading should support the development of vocabulary.

When pupils are taught to read longer words, they should be supported to test out different pronunciations. They will attempt to match what they decode to words they may have already heard but may not have seen in print (for example, in reading technical, the pronunciation /tɛtʃnɪkəl/ ('tetchnical') might not sound familiar, but /tɛknɪkəl/ ('teknical') should).

Reading - comprehension

Pupils should be taught to:

develop positive attitudes to reading, and an understanding of what they read, by:

retrieve and record information from non-fiction

participate in discussion about both books that are read to them and those they can read for themselves, taking turns and listening to what others say

Writing - transcription

Pupils should be taught to:

use further prefixes and suffixes and understand how to add them - see English appendix 1

spell further homophones

spell words that are often misspelt - see English appendix 1

place the possessive apostrophe accurately in words with regular plurals [for example, girls', boys'] and in words with irregular plurals [for example, children's]

use the first 2 or 3 letters of a word to check its spelling in a dictionary

write from memory simple sentences, dictated by the teacher, that include words and punctuation taught so far

Notes and guidance (non-statutory)

Pupils should learn to spell new words correctly and have plenty of practice in spelling them.

As in years 1 and 2, pupils should continue to be supported in understanding and applying the concepts of word structure - see English appendix 2.

Pupils need sufficient knowledge of spelling in order to use dictionaries efficiently.

Handwriting

Pupils should be taught to:

use the diagonal and horizontal strokes that are needed to join letters and understand which letters, when adjacent to one another, are best left unjoined

increase the legibility, consistency and quality of their handwriting, [for example, by ensuring that the downstrokes of letters are parallel and equidistant, and that lines of writing are spaced sufficiently so that the ascenders and descenders of letters do not touch]

Writing - composition

Pupils should be taught to:

plan their writing by:

discussing writing similar to that which they are planning to write in order to understand and learn from its structure, vocabulary and grammar

discussing and recording ideas

draft and write by:

composing and rehearsing sentences orally (including dialogue), progressively building a varied and rich vocabulary and an increasing range of sentence structures English appendix 2

organising paragraphs around a theme

in narratives, creating settings, characters and plot

in non-narrative material, using simple organisational devices [for example, headings and sub-headings]

evaluate and edit by:

assessing the effectiveness of their own and others' writing and suggesting improvements

proposing changes to grammar and vocabulary to improve consistency, including the accurate use of pronouns in sentences

proofread for spelling and punctuation errors

read their own writing aloud to a group or the whole class, using appropriate intonation and controlling the tone and volume so that the meaning is clear

Notes and guidance (non-statutory)

Pupils should continue to have opportunities to write for a range of real purposes and audiences as part of their work across the curriculum. These purposes and audiences should underpin the decisions about the form the writing should take, such as a narrative, an explanation or a description.

Pupils should understand, through being shown these, the skills and processes that are essential for writing: that is, thinking aloud to explore and collect ideas, drafting, and rereading to check their meaning is clear, including doing so as the writing develops. Pupils should be taught to monitor whether their own writing makes sense in the same way that they monitor their reading, checking at different levels.

Writing - vocabulary, grammar and punctuation

Pupils should be taught to:

develop their understanding of the concepts set out in English appendix 2 by:

use and understand the grammatical terminology in English appendix 2 accurately and appropriately when discussing their writing and reading

Notes and guidance (non-statutory)

Grammar should be taught explicitly: pupils should be taught the terminology and concepts set out in English appendix 2, and be able to apply them correctly to examples of real language, such as their own writing or books that they have read.

At this stage, pupils should start to learn about some of the differences between Standard English and non-Standard English and begin to apply what they have learnt, for example, in writing dialogue for characters.

Upper key stage 2 - years 5 and 6

By the beginning of year 5, pupils should be able to read aloud a wider range of poetry and books written at an age-appropriate interest level with accuracy and at a reasonable speaking pace. They should be able to read most words effortlessly and to work out how to pronounce unfamiliar written words with increasing automaticity. If the pronunciation sounds unfamiliar, they should ask for help in determining both the meaning of the word and how to pronounce it correctly.

They should be able to prepare readings, with appropriate intonation to show their understanding, and should be able to summarise and present a familiar story in their own words. They should be reading widely and frequently, outside as well as in school, for pleasure and information. They should be able to read silently, with good understanding, inferring the meanings of unfamiliar words, and then discuss what they have read.

Pupils should be able to write down their ideas quickly. Their grammar and punctuation should be broadly accurate. Pupils' spelling of most words taught so far should be accurate and they should be able to spell words that they have not yet been taught by using what they have learnt about how spelling works in English.

During years 5 and 6, teachers should continue to emphasise pupils' enjoyment and understanding of language, especially vocabulary, to support their reading and writing. Pupils' knowledge of language, gained from stories, plays, poetry, non-fiction and textbooks, will support their increasing fluency as readers, their facility as writers, and their comprehension. As in years 3 and 4, pupils should be taught to enhance the effectiveness of their writing as well as their competence.

It is essential that pupils whose decoding skills are poor are taught through a rigorous and systematic phonics programme so that they catch up rapidly with their peers in terms of their decoding and spelling. However, as far as possible, these pupils should follow the upper key stage 2 programme of study in terms of listening to books and other writing that they have not come across before, hearing and learning new vocabulary and grammatical structures, and having a chance to talk about all of these.

By the end of year 6, pupils' reading and writing should be sufficiently fluent and effortless for them to manage the general demands of the curriculum in year 7, across all subjects and not just in English, but there will continue to be a need for pupils to learn subject-specific vocabulary. They should be able to reflect their understanding of the audience for and purpose of their writing by selecting appropriate vocabulary and grammar. Teachers should prepare pupils for secondary education by ensuring that they can consciously control sentence structure in their writing and understand why sentences are constructed as they are. Pupils should understand nuances in vocabulary choice and age-appropriate, academic vocabulary. This involves consolidation, practice and discussion of language.

Specific requirements for pupils to discuss what they are learning and to develop their wider skills in spoken language form part of this programme of study. In years 5 and 6, pupils' confidence, enjoyment and mastery of language should be extended through public speaking, performance and debate.

Years 5 and 6 programme of study

Reading - word reading

Pupils should be taught to:

apply their growing knowledge of root words, prefixes and suffixes (morphology and etymology), as listed in English appendix 1, both to read aloud and to understand the meaning of new words that they meet

Notes and guidance (non-statutory)

At this stage, there should be no need for further direct teaching of word-reading skills for almost all pupils. If pupils are struggling or failing in this, the reasons for this should be investigated. It is imperative that pupils are taught to read during their last two years at primary school if they enter year 5 not being able to do so.

Pupils should be encouraged to work out any unfamiliar word. They should focus on all the letters in a word so that they do not, for example, read 'invitation' for 'imitation' simply because they might be more familiar with the first word. Accurate reading of individual words, which might be key to the meaning of a sentence or paragraph, improves comprehension.

When teachers are reading with or to pupils, attention should be paid to new vocabulary - both a word's meaning(s) and its correct pronunciation.

Reading - comprehension

Pupils should be taught to:

maintain positive attitudes to reading and an understanding of what they read by:

discuss and evaluate how authors use language, including figurative language, considering the impact on the reader

distinguish between statements of fact and opinion

retrieve, record and present information from non-fiction

participate in discussions about books that are read to them and those they can read for themselves, building on their own and others' ideas and challenging views courteously

explain and discuss their understanding of what they have read, including through formal presentations and debates, maintaining a focus on the topic and using notes where necessary

provide reasoned justifications for their views

Writing - transcription

Pupils should be taught to:

use further prefixes and suffixes and understand the guidance for adding them

spell some words with 'silent' letters [for example, knight, psalm, solemn]

continue to distinguish between homophones and other words which are often confused

use knowledge of morphology and etymology in spelling and understand that the spelling of some words needs to be learnt specifically, as listed in English appendix 1

use dictionaries to check the spelling and meaning of words

use the first 3 or 4 letters of a word to check spelling, meaning or both of these in a dictionary

use a thesaurus

Handwriting and presentation

Pupils should be taught to:

write legibly, fluently and with increasing speed by:

choosing which shape of a letter to use when given choices and deciding whether or not to join specific letters

choosing the writing implement that is best suited for a task

Writing - composition

Pupils should be taught to:

draft and write by:

selecting appropriate grammar and vocabulary, understanding how such choices can change and enhance meaning

in narratives, describing settings, characters and atmosphere and integrating dialogue to convey character and advance the action

précising longer passages

using a wide range of devices to build cohesion within and across paragraphs

using further organisational and presentational devices to structure text and to guide the reader [for example, headings, bullet points, underlining]

proofread for spelling and punctuation errors

perform their own compositions, using appropriate intonation, volume, and movement so that meaning is clear

Writing - vocabulary, grammar and punctuation

Pupils should be taught to:

develop their understanding of the concepts set out in English appendix 2 by:

recognising vocabulary and structures that are appropriate for formal speech and writing, including subjunctive forms

using passive verbs to affect the presentation of information in a sentence

using the perfect form of verbs to mark relationships of time and cause

using expanded noun phrases to convey complicated information concisely

using modal verbs or adverbs to indicate degrees of possibility

using relative clauses beginning with who, which, where, when, whose, that or with an implied (ie omitted) relative pronoun

learning the grammar for years 5 and 6 in English appendix 2

use and understand the grammatical terminology in English appendix 2 accurately and appropriately in discussing their writing and reading

Key stage 3

Subject content

Reading

Pupils should be taught to:

Writing

Pupils should be taught to:

plan, draft, edit and proofread through:

considering how their writing reflects the audiences and purposes for which it was intended

amending the vocabulary, grammar and structure of their writing to improve its coherence and overall effectiveness

paying attention to accurate grammar, punctuation and spelling; applying the spelling patterns and rules set out in English appendix 1 to the key stage 1 and 2 programmes of study for English

Grammar and vocabulary

Pupils should be taught to:

consolidate and build on their knowledge of grammar and vocabulary through:

extending and applying the grammatical knowledge set out in English appendix 2 to the key stage 1 and 2 programmes of study to analyse more challenging texts

studying the effectiveness and impact of the grammatical features of the texts they read

drawing on new vocabulary and grammatical constructions from their reading and listening, and using these consciously in their writing and speech to achieve particular effects

knowing and understanding the differences between spoken and written language, including differences associated with formal and informal registers, and between Standard English and other varieties of English

using Standard English confidently in their own writing and speech

discussing reading, writing and spoken language with precise and confident use of linguistic and literary terminology*

*Teachers should refer to the glossary that accompanies the programmes of study for English for their own information on the range of terms used within the programmes of study as a whole.

Spoken English

Pupils should be taught to:

Key stage 4

Subject content

Purpose of study

English has a pre-eminent place in education and in society. A high-quality education in English will teach pupils to speak and write fluently so that they can communicate their ideas and emotions to others and through their reading and listening, others can communicate with them. Through reading in particular, pupils have a chance to develop culturally, emotionally, intellectually, socially and spiritually. Literature, especially, plays a key role in such development. Reading also enables pupils both to acquire knowledge and to build on what they already know. All the skills of language are essential to participating fully as a member of society; pupils, therefore, who do not learn to speak, read and write fluently and confidently are effectively disenfranchised.

Aims

The overarching aim for English in the national curriculum is to promote high standards of language and literacy by equipping pupils with a strong command of the spoken and written word, and to develop their love of literature through widespread reading for enjoyment. The national curriculum for English aims to ensure that all pupils:

read easily, fluently and with good understanding

develop the habit of reading widely and often, for both pleasure and information

acquire a wide vocabulary, an understanding of grammar and knowledge of linguistic conventions for reading, writing and spoken language

appreciate our rich and varied literary heritage

write clearly, accurately and coherently, adapting their language and style in and for a range of contexts, purposes and audiences

use discussion in order to learn; they should be able to elaborate and explain clearly their understanding and ideas

are competent in the arts of speaking and listening, making formal presentations, demonstrating to others and participating in debate

Spoken language

The national curriculum for English reflects the importance of spoken language in pupils' development across the whole curriculum - cognitively, socially and linguistically. Spoken language continues to underpin the development of pupils' reading and writing during key stage 4 and teachers should therefore ensure pupils' confidence and competence in this area continue to develop. Pupils should be taught to understand and use the conventions for discussion and debate, as well as continuing to develop their skills in working collaboratively with their peers to discuss reading, writing and speech across the curriculum.

Reading and writing

Reading at key stage 4 should be wide, varied and challenging. Pupils should be expected to read whole books, to read in depth and to read for pleasure and information.

Pupils should continue to develop their knowledge of and skills in writing, refining their drafting skills and developing resilience to write at length. They should be taught to write formal and academic essays as well as writing imaginatively. They should be taught to write for a variety of purposes and audiences across a range of contexts. This requires an increasingly wide knowledge of vocabulary and grammar.

Opportunities for teachers to enhance pupils' vocabulary will arise naturally from their reading and writing. Teachers should show pupils how to understand the relationships between words, how to understand nuances in meaning, and how to develop their understanding of, and ability to use, figurative language.

Pupils should be taught to control their speaking and writing consciously, understand why sentences are constructed as they are and to use Standard English. They should understand and use age-appropriate vocabulary, including linguistic and literary terminology, for discussing their reading, writing and spoken language. This involves consolidation, practice and discussion of language. It is important that pupils learn the correct grammatical terms in English and that these terms are integrated within teaching.

Teachers should build on the knowledge and skills that pupils have been taught at key stage 3. Decisions about progression should be based on the security of pupils' linguistic knowledge, skills and understanding and their readiness to progress to the next stage. Pupils whose linguistic development is more advanced should be challenged through being offered opportunities for increased breadth and depth in reading and writing. Those who are less fluent should consolidate their knowledge, understanding and skills, including through additional practice.

Glossary

A non-statutory glossary is provided for teachers.

Reading

Pupils should be taught to:

read and appreciate the depth and power of the English literary heritage through:

reading a wide range of high-quality, challenging, classic literature and extended literary non-fiction, such as essays, reviews and journalism. This writing should include whole texts. The range will include:

at least one play by Shakespeare

works from the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries

poetry since 1789, including representative Romantic poetry

re-reading literature and other writing as a basis for making comparisons

choosing and reading books independently for challenge, interest and enjoyment

understand and critically evaluate texts through:

make an informed personal response, recognising that other responses to a text are possible and evaluating these

Writing

Pupils should be taught to:

write accurately, fluently, effectively and at length for pleasure and information through:

make notes, draft and write, including using information provided by others [e.g. writing a letter from key points provided; drawing on and using information from a presentation]

revise, edit and proof-read through:

Grammar and vocabulary

Pupils should be taught to:

Spoken English

Pupils should be taught to:

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National curriculum in England: English programmes of study

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English has a pre-eminent place in education and in society. A high-quality education in English will teach pupils to speak and write fluently so that they can communicate their ideas and emotions to others, and through their reading and listening, others can communicate with them.

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Purpose of study

A high-quality computing education equips pupils to use computational thinking and creativity to understand and change the world. Computing has deep links with mathematics, science and design and technology, and provides insights into both natural and artificial systems. The core of computing is computer science, in which pupils are taught the principles of information and computation, how digital systems work and how to put this knowledge to use through programming. Building on this knowledge and understanding, pupils are equipped to use information technology to create programs, systems and a range of content. Computing also ensures that pupils become digitally literate - able to use, and express themselves and develop their ideas through, information and communication technology - at a level suitable for the future workplace and as active participants in a digital world.

Aims

The national curriculum for computing aims to ensure that all pupils:

can understand and apply the fundamental principles and concepts of computer science, including abstraction, logic, algorithms and data representation

can analyse problems in computational terms, and have repeated practical experience of writing computer programs in order to solve such problems

can evaluate and apply information technology, including new or unfamiliar technologies, analytically to solve problems

are responsible, competent, confident and creative users of information and communication technology

Attainment targets

By the end of each key stage, pupils are expected to know, apply and understand the matters, skills and processes specified in the relevant programme of study.

Schools are not required by law to teach the example content in [square brackets].

Subject content

Key stage 1

Pupils should be taught to:

understand what algorithms are, how they are implemented as programs on digital devices, and that programs execute by following precise and unambiguous instructions

create and debug simple programs

use logical reasoning to predict the behaviour of simple programs

use technology purposefully to create, organise, store, manipulate and retrieve digital content

recognise common uses of information technology beyond school

use technology safely and respectfully, keeping personal information private; identify where to go for help and support when they have concerns about content or contact on the internet or other online technologies

Key stage 2

Pupils should be taught to:

design, write and debug programs that accomplish specific goals, including controlling or simulating physical systems; solve problems by decomposing them into smaller parts

use sequence, selection, and repetition in programs; work with variables and various forms of input and output

use logical reasoning to explain how some simple algorithms work and to detect and correct errors in algorithms and programs

understand computer networks, including the internet; how they can provide multiple services, such as the World Wide Web, and the opportunities they offer for communication and collaboration

use search technologies effectively, appreciate how results are selected and ranked, and be discerning in evaluating digital content

select, use and combine a variety of software (including internet services) on a range of digital devices to design and create a range of programs, systems and content that accomplish given goals, including collecting, analysing, evaluating and presenting data and information

use technology safely, respectfully and responsibly; recognise acceptable/unacceptable behaviour; identify a range of ways to report concerns about content and contact

Key stage 3

Pupils should be taught to:

design, use and evaluate computational abstractions that model the state and behaviour of real-world problems and physical systems

understand several key algorithms that reflect computational thinking [for example, ones for sorting and searching]; use logical reasoning to compare the utility of alternative algorithms for the same problem

use 2 or more programming languages, at least one of which is textual, to solve a variety of computational problems; make appropriate use of data structures [for example, lists, tables or arrays]; design and develop modular programs that use procedures or functions

understand simple Boolean logic [for example, AND, OR and NOT] and some of its uses in circuits and programming; understand how numbers can be represented in binary, and be able to carry out simple operations on binary numbers [for example, binary addition, and conversion between binary and decimal]

understand the hardware and software components that make up computer systems, and how they communicate with one another and with other systems

understand how instructions are stored and executed within a computer system; understand how data of various types (including text, sounds and pictures) can be represented and manipulated digitally, in the form of binary digits

undertake creative projects that involve selecting, using, and combining multiple applications, preferably across a range of devices, to achieve challenging goals, including collecting and analysing data and meeting the needs of known users

create, reuse, revise and repurpose digital artefacts for a given audience, with attention to trustworthiness, design and usability

understand a range of ways to use technology safely, respectfully, responsibly and securely, including protecting their online identity and privacy; recognise inappropriate content, contact and conduct, and know how to report concerns

Key stage 4

All pupils must have the opportunity to study aspects of information technology and computer science at sufficient depth to allow them to progress to higher levels of study or to a professional career.

All pupils should be taught to:

develop their capability, creativity and knowledge in computer science, digital media and information technology

develop and apply their analytic, problem-solving, design, and computational thinking skills

understand how changes in technology affect safety, including new ways to protect their online privacy and identity, and how to report a range of concerns

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National curriculum in England: computing programmes of study

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A high-quality computing education equips pupils to use computational thinking and creativity to understand and change the world. Computing has deep links with mathematics, science and design and technology, and provides insights into both natural and artificial systems. The core of computing is computer science, in which pupils are taught the principles of information and computation, how digital systems work and how to put this knowledge to use through programming.

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This article explores the basic foundations of number sense and outlines relevant research in this area. It updates Jenni Way's article Number Sense Series: Developing Early Number Sense.

What is number sense?
The term "number sense" was coined in the late 80s and early 90s and gained currency during the early days of the National Curriculum as something that we hoped children would achieve by the end of their primary schooling. In Jenni Way's original article (2001), Bobis' definition is highlighted, suggesting that it referred to "a well organised conceptual framework of number information that enables a person to understand numbers and number relationships and to solve mathematical problems that are not bound by traditional algorithms" (Bobis, 1996). Over the last few years in conjunction with my research work in Hungary and the attendant comparative work that I have been engaging in with Judy Sayers and Paul Andrews, I have been exploring some more recent developments in the research into this area.

What does the research tell us?
The research into the development of number sense is divided into two camps. The first of these is concerned with the development of number sense in young children whereas the second is focused on the number sense that people require to function well in the world. In the context of this article, I will limit my consideration to the work on number sense and its development in young children.

In this context, no two researchers in the field accept the same definition but a trawl of recent research yielded a number of common elements and Paul, Judy and I ( Andrews, Sayers and Back, 2013) summarised seven common threads that were evident in studies drawn from a number of different cultures. These were:

1. An awareness of the relationship between number and quantity
2. An understanding of number symbols, vocabulary and meaning
3. The ability to engage in systematic counting, including notions of cardinality and ordinality
4. An awareness of magnitude and comparisons between different magnitudes
5. An understanding of different representations of number
6. Competence with simple mathematical operations
7. An awareness of number patterns including recognising missing numbers

These seven ideas seem to capture the essence of what is being referred to as 'number sense'.

Having developed ideas of the concept from research, how can we, as teachers, help to support its development in our learners? There is no doubt that it is not something that children have innately but rather something which they can develop over time. As Sood and Jitendra (2007) say:

'Number sense develops gradually over time as a result of exploring numbers, visualising them in a variety of contexts, and relating them in ways that are not limited by traditional algorithms' (p.146)

For me the ways in which it can be supported need to be based on giving learners opportunities to make sense of, and reason about, number. They will need to be given reasons to communicate their ideas about arithmetic; to develop fluent recall of key facts and be able to apply them to novel contexts; to have easy access to a range of appropriate and useful representations; to be able to apply ideas to new concepts and to solving problems.

What teaching strategies promote early number sense?
A number of strategies that help to support developing number sense are described by Tsao and Lin (2012). They suggest that children need opportunities to:

1. Work with concrete materials and familiar ideas
2. Compose and recompose different arrangements and representations of number
3. Discuss and share their discoveries and solutions
4. Investigate the realistic uses of number in their everyday world
5. Explore number patterns and relationships
6. Create alternative methods of calculation and estimation
7. Solve realistic problems using a variety of approaches
8. Calculate for a purpose rather than just for the sake of calculating
9. Gather, organise, display and interpret quantitative data
10. Measure and estimate measure for a purpose
11. Explore very large numbers and their representations including using number lines

Quite a list! Yet if we really thought about every aspect of these opportunities in relation to every incremental step on the way to the development of number sense, there is no doubt that our learners would develop deeper and richer understandings of number. In the space of this article, I should like to draw your attention to the key ones that are particularly relevant to supporting young children in developing their understanding of numbers under twenty and especially numbers under ten.

1. Work with concrete materials and familiar ideas
To begin with, early number activities are best done with moveable objects such as counters, blocks and small toys. Most children will need the concrete experience of physically manipulating groups of objects into sub-groups and combining small groups to make a larger group. After these essential experiences more static materials such as 'dot cards' become very useful.

2. Compose and recompose different arrangements and representations of number
By simply presenting objects (such as collections of concrete objects, stamps on a flashcard, buttons sewn onto a card, Rawlplugs in linked groups and so on) in various arrangements, different mental strategies can be prompted. For example, showing six stamps in a cluster of four and a pair prompts the combination of 'four and two makes six'. If the four is not subitised, it may be seen as 'two and two and two makes six'. This arrangement is obviously a little more complex than two groups of three. So different arrangements will prompt different strategies, and these strategies will vary from person to person, from learner to learner. Asking children to find all the dominoes in a six spot set with 6 spots on will encourage them to consider all the ways in which 6 can be partitioned into two sets and build up their understanding of the number bonds for six.

3. Discuss and share their discoveries and solutions
If mental strategies such as these are to be encouraged (and counting discouraged) then an element of speed is necessary. Seeing the objects for only a few seconds challenges the mind to find strategies other than counting. It is also important to have children reflect on and share their strategies. This is helpful in three ways:

verbalising a strategy brings the strategy to a conscious level and allows the person to learn about their own thinking;

it provides other children with the opportunity to pick up new strategies;

the teacher can assess the type of thinking being used and adjust the type of arrangement, level of difficulty or speed of presentation accordingly.

Dot cards are simply cards with dot stickers of a single colour stuck on one side. (However, any markings can be used. Self-inking stamps are fast when making a lot of cards). The important factors in the design of the cards are the number of dots and the arrangement of these dots. The various combinations of these factors determine the mathematical structure of each card, and hence the types of number relations and mental strategies prompted by them.

Consider each of the following arrangements of dots before reading further. What mental strategies are likely to be prompted by each card? What order would you place them in according to level of difficulty?

A B C D E

Card A is the classic symmetrical dice and playing card arrangement of five and so is often instantly recognised without engaging other mental strategies. It is perhaps the easiest arrangement of five to deal with.

Card B presents clear sub-groups of two and three, each of which can be instantly recognised. With practice, the number fact of 'two and three makes five' can be recalled almost instantly.

Card C: A linear arrangement is the one most likely to prompt counting. However, many people will mentally separate the dots into groups of two and three, as in the previous card. Other strategies such as seeing two then counting '3, 4, 5' might also be used.

Card D could be called a random arrangement, though in reality it has been quite deliberately organised to prompt the mental activity of sub-grouping. There are a variety of ways to form the sub-groups, with no prompt in any particular direction, so this card could be considered to be the most difficult one in the set.

Card E shows another sub-group arrangement that encourages the use (or discovery) of the 'four and one makes five' number relation.

Obviously, using fewer than five dots would develop the most basic number sense skills, and using more than five dots would provide opportunities for more advanced strategies. However, it is probably not useful to use more than ten dots. (See this linked article of developing a 'sense of ten' and 'place value readiness'). Cards such as these can be shown briefly to children, then the children can be asked how many dots they saw. The children should be asked to explain how they perceived the arrangement, and hence what strategies they used.

4. Investigate the realistic uses of number in their everyday world
In my Hungarian research I followed the mathematical development of a class of children through the first years of their formal schooling and was particularly struck by the careful grounding they were given in the foundations of arithmetic. When they started school one week was devoted to each of the numbers under ten in turn and they looked for examples of it in their everyday world as well in the classroom and school context. So for the number 3 they would have looked for items that had aspects of 3 associated with them such as tricycles or three legged stools. They would have explored stories with three in them such as Goldilocks and the Three Bears, the Billy Goats Gruff or the Three Little Pigs. They would have talked about those who were in families with three children in them, those who had three siblings or families with three in the house. They would have explored children aged three years and buses and houses with the number 3. Coming third in a queue or a race would have been connected to the notion and they would have made a special point of considering things that happen at 3 o'clock. This deep and thorough investigation of numbers seems to support the children's developing sense of the number and we could gain from building it into the experiences we offer our young learners.

Where do I go from here?
The article Place Value: The Ten-ness of Ten follows on from this one. It outlines how having a strong 'sense of ten' lays foundations for understanding place value and carrying out mental calculations. For activities to try in the classroom, see our article How Can I Support the Development of Early Number Sense and Place Value? as well as our Number Sense and Place Value Feature.

References
Andrews, P., Sayers, J. & Back, J. (2013) The development of foundational number sense in England and Hungary: a case study comparison. Conference Proceedings: CERME 2013.
Bobis, J. (1996). Visualisation and the development of number sense with kindergarten children. In Mulligan, J. & Mitchelmore, M. (Eds.) Children's Number Learning : A Research Monograph of the Mathematics Education Group of Australasia and the Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers. Adelaide: AAMT.
Gelman, R. & Gallistel, C. (1978). The Child's Understanding of Number. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Sood, S., & Jitendra, A. K. (2007). A Comparative Analysis of Number Sense
Instruction in Reform-Based and Traditional Mathematics Textbooks. Journal of
Special Education, 41(3), 145-157.
Tsao, Y.L. & Lin, Y. C. (2012) Elementary School Teachers' Understanding: Towards the Related Knowledge of Number Sense. US - China Education Review B1. (p 17 - 30) davidpublishing.com.

Here is a PDF version of this article.

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This article explores the basic foundations of number sense and outlines relevant research in this area.

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The contribution of professional development to effectiveness in the teaching of numeracy

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The contribution of professional development to effectiveness in the teaching of numeracy

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Using Friendly Numbers: An Addition Strategy - Shelley Gray

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WHAT IS A FRIENDLY NUMBER? In this case, we refer to friendly numbers as a number that is easy to work with. For example, multiples of 10 are "friendly" because they are easy to work with when we add or subtract. USING FRIENDLY NUMBERS AS AN ADDITION STRATEGY When we use the "friendly [...]

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Rachel Rayner is a primary mathematics adviser for HfL

One of the most fundamental learning theories to be implemented within any mastery classroom is the 'CPA' (Concrete, Pictorial, and Abstract) approach. It was first proposed by Jerome Bruner in 1966 as a means of scaffolding learning. The psychologist believes that the abstract nature of learning (and this is especially true in mathematics) is a "mystery" to many children. It, therefore, needs to be scaffolded by the use of effective representations. He saw that, when pupils used the CPA approach, they were able to build on each stage towards a fuller understanding of the concepts being learnt and, as such, the information and knowledge were internalised to a greater degree. This allowed the teacher to build upon this secure learning. Bruner, and others, demonstrated that each stage of the approach acts as a scaffold for subsequent and connected learning.

Concrete (Enactive) Stage This stage should always be used during the learning of new concepts or when building further onto learnt concepts for every child in the classroom. It can also be used to help pupils demonstrate their understanding of concepts or to see the learning in a different way. It involves the physical manipulation of objects to explore structure, find commonalities and rehearse the mathematics. There are many manipulatives to choose from and schools are increasingly aware of the importance of this stage and investing accordingly. There are many benefits in this stage. When pupils are acting on the mathematics with the manipulatives they are also more likely to form the language to communicate concepts and ideas. This allows teachers to gain a greater understanding of where misconceptions lie and the depth of understanding a child exhibits. It, also, allows pupils to develop their ability to communicate mathematically and to reason. In fact, it is almost impossible for reasoning not to happen in a classroom where manipulatives are used regularly.

Pictorial Stage This stage involves the use of images to represent the concrete situation enacted in the first stage. It can be pupils' drawings of the resources they are acting on or a representation such as the bar model, number line or a graph. This stage acts as a 'bridge' to support pupils to make links between the concrete and the abstract and develops their ability to communicate and to represent their mathematics. This stage is commonly overlooked by schools where representation and pupils' own recording is not valued highly enough. To miss this stage out assumes pupils have made the cognitive link between the concrete resource and the abstract notation.

Abstract (Symbolic) Stage This is the use of words and symbols to communicate mathematically. It is difficult for pupils to get to this stage without the other two stages working alongside. This is because words and symbols are abstractions. They do not necessarily represent a direct connection to the information. For example, a number is a symbol used to describe how many of something there are, but the symbol of a number, in itself, has little meaning. Why should a '5' represent five any more than the digit '2' stand for five? The other stages support pupils' understanding of this stage.

The ultimate aim of the CPA approach is to help pupils develop confidence and security when working with the abstract representations. As one of our leading teachers commented, "It is important for teachers to explain how symbols can provide a shorter and efficient way to represent numerical operations." Tia Robinson, Yewtree Primary School
Popular CPA Myths (in the speech bubbles)
In the CPA approach all pupils should have access to manipulatives when any new learning is explored or when the teacher is building on a previous concept. The use of manipulatives can challenge even those pupils who appear to have grasped the learning. It is certainly true that some pupils may need more access to manipulatives and for longer. But the use of manipulatives supports pupils' mathematical reasoning and some pupils who appear to grasp concepts rapidly, may not have as fully developed an understanding as we might expect. The use of manipulatives helps teachers to mitigate this risk. See the example below where a group of year two pupils, who had been identified as having sufficient grasp of the subject, were challenged even more deeply through the use of manipulatives.

All stages should be taught simultaneously whenever a new concept is introduced and when the teacher wishes to build further on the concept. See how, in the example below, pupils are using concrete resources, pictorial and abstract recording - all within the same activity. This ensures that the pupils are able to make good links between each stage. At various points in a sequence of learning, the teacher may reintroduce the concrete resource to develop reasoning and the ability to see multiple representations of a concept.

All age ranges benefit from the use of manipulatives to support their conceptual development. It is equally as important in KS2 as in KS1. Consider the case study below and how the activity using pentominoes might support an increased understanding about the relationship between area and perimeter.

CPA Case Study: Andrew's Lane Primary School, Cheshunt. Child 'H' has always struggled with number concepts; they were the kind of 'mystery' to her that Bruner contemplated in his research. The school is currently reviewing the way it teaches calculation and received some training, including the use of the CPA approach from an HfL teaching and learning adviser. After the training, the year four teacher, Sam Babb, used the approach extensively with all of her pupils. She noticed the progress being made had been underpinned by the use of the manipulatives (Base- 10 or Dienes equipment). Child 'H', in particular, made significant progress in her understanding of the idea of exchange when adding and subtracting towards the formal written method. By the end of the sequence of learning, the physical act of exchanging ones for tens and tens for hundreds had allowed her to develop a physical memory of the concept. From there, she went on to choose increasingly challenging work and was soon engaging in the most challenging learning set in the classroom confidently.
KS2 CPA Activity Example (with thanks to Professor John Mason; Open University for this idea)
Pupils are asked to place two pentominoes together and to find their area and perimeter. Then, they are asked compare against the shape in the middle of the grid and to record the new shape in the correct cell. They must find at least two arrangements that would fit the criteria of each cell.

Has their new shape got a larger or smaller area than the shape in the middle? What about its perimeter?

Which cells cannot be filled with two pentominoes? Why? What happens if we can use upto three pentominoes (including combinations using the same pentomino shape)? Can all the cells be filled then? How many different shapes can be made that have an equal area and perimeter to the shape in the centre? Can we use squared paper to draw other shapes that meet the criteria for each cell?

What do pupils notice about shapes that have a greater area but smaller perimeter than the shape in the middle? When could we say shapes have a greater perimeter but less area? What generalisations can we draw about the relationship between area and perimeter? The teacher should then allow time for pupils to further 'test' these conjectures.

Finally... As we have stated, the 'CPA' approach to the teaching and learning of mathematics is fundamental to the mastery curriculum. It underpins every sequence of learning planned for and taught. But it should be noted that even if schools are not yet in a position to be engaging in teaching for mastery, the approach has enormous benefits to excellence in the teaching and learning of mathematics. Ofsted recognise the approach, and the lead inspector for mathematics, Jane Jones, has specifically referenced the use of manipulatives and the development of reasoning as crucial to good mathematical development in our pupils. It is the ability to transfer understanding between resource and action, representation, symbol, language, real life experience and application that truly denotes mastery of learning. The 'CPA' approach captures and models this with pupils.

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Rachel Rayner is a primary mathematics adviser for HfL One of the most fundamental learning theories to be implemented within any mastery classroom is the 'CPA' (Concrete, Pictorial, and Abstract) approach. It was first proposed by Jerome Bruner in 1966 as a means of scaffolding learning.

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In this English article, learn to recognise the features of explanation texts and use them in your own writing.

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Here at Select English, we like to think we know a thing or two about what makes a good English teacher! All of our teachers are highly qualified (holding a CELTA or Trinity Certificate as a minimum requirement, while many of our core teaching team also hold the DELTA). But qualifications are not the only markers of a great teacher. We asked our Assistant Director of Studies, Jo, for her opinion on how to be a good English teacher.

Maintaining student engagement

A good English teacher knows that students who are engaged and ready to learn are those who will improve the most. So how do we keep our students interested in their lessons?

Making sure the lessons are learner-centred and students are active in lessons, to keep them engaged and also because people learn better by doing things.

Helping students set goals and explaining why particular class activities are useful, so that students understand how the lesson content relates to their goals. They will be more enthusiastic if they understand how the lessons are helping them.

Using a variety of materials and activities to personalise lessons; teachers should get to know the interests, needs and goals of the students and plan lessons that relate to those.

Teachers should listen to what the students want, but also make sure students are aware of what their own needs and goals are and how to achieve them. For example, most of our students want to get a high IELTS score, but aren't always aware of how to do so, or that General English classes are important as well as IELTS classes. We help them to understand that improving their General English knowledge will lead to a better IELTS score, while also teaching them the specific skills required for the exam.

Equipping students with study skills

Teaching vocabulary and grammar are important, but to be a truly good English teacher, you must also instruct your students in how to learn. We do this in the following ways:

Helping students to become independent learners, by giving them the necessary study skills to be able to use and practice their English independently.

Focusing on all skill areas (reading, writing, speaking, listening) as well grammar and vocabulary, so students develop across the board.

In exam focused classes, making sure students are aware of the content of the exam and different task types and ensuring that students have practice in all of these.

Giving and receiving feedback

We can only improve if we understand the areas in which we perform well and those in which we're struggling - and this applies to teachers as well as students!

A good English teacher gives their students constructive feedback and helps them to learn from it.

Getting regular feedback from students is also important, so teachers are aware of how students perceive lessons and to make sure they are happy. We do this with structured weekly tutorials and through informal conversations with students.

Continuing professional development

Many of the teachers at Select English are highly experienced and have taught English in a variety of different countries and contexts. However, we understand that it is essential for our staff to continue learning and improving every day, so we have an excellent Continuing Professional Development programme for teachers.

The best teachers are those who are focussed on their development, so we encourage our teachers to attend workshops and training days alongside the training we provide in-house.

Our teachers enjoy working in a strong team, supporting each other and sharing ideas.

What do you think makes a good English teacher? Let us know in the comments.

If you would like to be taught by our brilliant teachers, click here to enrol!

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What Makes a Good English Teacher? - Select English

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Here at Select English, we like to think we know a thing or two about what makes a good English teacher! All of our teachers are highly qualified (holding a CELTA or Trinity Certificate as a minimum requirement, while many of our core teaching team also hold the DELTA).

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Listen to the world's best poetry read out loud. Start exploring the Poetry Archive for your favourite poems or poet. Read along or listen distraction free.

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Science Kids is the online home of science & technology for children around the world.

Learn more with our fun science experiments, cool facts, free games, activities, lesson plans, quizzes, videos, photos and science fair project ideas.

If you're looking for a specific topic then head over to our topic section.

Find resources on a range of different science topics covering everything from plants to space, animals, chemistry, biology and more!

Earth facts

Our earth is a fascinating place that is home to such wonders as volcanoes, rivers, deserts and more.

Scientist facts

Find out more about the scientists who changed the world we live in thanks to their research and discoveries.

Space facts

Enjoy our space facts and learn the truth behind some of the mysteries that relate to distant stars and galaxies.

Check out some amazing science and technology videos that feature the best experiments, processes, chemical reactions, projects, facts and general information that science has to offer.

These entertaining videos will help you learn while having fun at the same time!

Check out this amazing video of an intelligent dolphin as it plays with bubble rings, performing a number of impressive under water tricks.

Enjoy this fun egg experiment video which involves an egg being sucked into a bottle, do you think you can figure out why it happens?

Take some time out to enjoy the lighter side of science.
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Enjoy a range of classic science jokes.
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Science that has to be seen to be believed.
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Check out our huge range of science images, pictures, photos, drawings and diagrams.

Perfect for science lessons, projects and presentations, the images are free to use however you please.

Find science pictures covering everything from chemistry to space, experiments, biology, weather, animals, technology and more.

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Science for Kids - Fun Experiments, Facts, Games & Projects

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Enjoy learning about science with a wide range of fun experiments, facts, games, activities, quizzes, videos and projects that are perfect for kids.

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Please be aware that resources have been published on the website in the form that they were originally supplied. This means that procedures reflect general practice and standards applicable at the time resources were produced and cannot be assumed to be acceptable today. Website users are fully responsible for ensuring that any activity, including practical work, which they carry out is in accordance with current regulations related to health and safety and that an appropriate risk assessment has been carried out.

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The materials in this resource are from the Secondary National Strategy 'Progressing to Level 6 and beyond in science' project. They were intended for science teachers who are focusing on understanding students' misconceptions. The Understanding misconceptions teacher guidance file provides strategies for teachers using appropriate resources and should be read first - in conjunction with the Understanding misconceptions steps table document.

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Scratch is a free programming language and online community where you can create your own interactive stories, games, and animations.

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Programming is a challenging topic to teach. Few fields rest on so many layers of abstraction; from the bedrock of transistors, to the 1s and 0s of binary, to blazing-fast low-level languages like C, to the compiled and interpreted languages like Python or JavaScript, and finally, to the frameworks that rest atop it all. That's before you've even thought about publishing something on the web.

Lift the veil too quickly and the learner risks becoming lost in these layers of abstraction. Teaching someone to program is, most of all, about what you don't teach. At least, not until the time is right.

I'm a self-taught programmer, I've also taught several people the basics of programming. First, as a teacher's aide at a bootcamp for public school teachers who wanted to learn to code. Later, as a mentor teaching refugees programming skills that would, hopefully, lead to jobs in the tech industry. I've been both the student and the teacher, and I've made and learned from my mistakes in both roles. I'm writing this article because teaching someone to be self-sufficient with programming isn't easy and I want to share what I've learned.

What Does It Mean to 'Teach Someone to Program'?

When does someone actually know how to program? If their goal is to make a Hangman game for the command line, the level of knowledge required is much less than someone whose goal is to create a best-selling mobile game. Your aims as a teacher must be guided by the goals of the student.

You'll find that most people who want to learn programming have ambitious goals, like getting a job as a Junior Developer, or building a best-selling mobile app. It would be impossible to hand-hold them the entire way. Instead, your goal should be to help them achieve programming self-sufficiency. Once at that point, they can proceed toward their goals on their own.

If you like analogies, this might help. Imagine that you know a child who aspires to become a racing cyclist one day. The trouble is, they can't even ride a bicycle right now. Your first aim will probably be to get them riding with the help of training wheels. Once they're comfortable on the bicycle, you take the training wheels off and give them a gentle push.

If they can stay balanced without falling off the bike, the rest of the journey is up to them. They know how to stay balanced, how to pedal, and how to pick up speed. They have all the foundational skills they need to reach their goal. You can help and provide advice along the way, but their success will ultimately be determined by their willingness to put in hours, days, and weeks of intelligent practice.

And so it goes with programming. You want to get your students to the stage where you can give them a push and they succeed in learning new concepts and debugging issues on their own. In other words, you want to help them reach programming self-sufficiency.

Setting up the Teaching Environment

Learners make little progress when they're watching your fingers dance over the keyboard, writing code and executing commands at what seems like impossible speed. They'll quickly slip into a passive mode, watching things happen without truly understanding.

Unless they get hopelessly stuck, your student should drive the keyboard as much as humanly possible. Yes, this may mean painstakingly spelling aloud commands for them to type into the Terminal and that's OK! They'll still learn more than if you just do it for them.

Face-to-face environments. One of the biggest mistakes I see programming mentors make is encouraging first-time programmers to use unfamiliar tools like Vim that add unnecessary cognitive load for the learner. They may be able to push through, but they'll go twice as slow. Instead, start them off with a development environment that allows them to use a mouse, click to place the cursor, and navigate with the arrow keys. This kind of code editor will be most similar to tools they're already comfortable with, like Microsoft Word, or the browser. This will free up the student's cognitive resources to focus completely on learning programming. They'll progress faster, and you can always introduce them to your favourite editor once they've mastered the basics.

Online. The calibre of screen-sharing tools available makes it possible to teach someone programming remotely, and the tips from the previous section still stand. In addition, make sure your microphone quality is good, your connection is stable, and minimize background noise. A cafe or co-working space can be a nice place to work from when you're alone, but a quiet room is the best environment for both teaching and learning remotely.

Work Backwards From The Student's Goals

Your approach should be guided by the reason why your student wants to learn programming. If they dream of creating a mobile game, it doesn't make sense to start teaching by having them build a website (and vice versa). Every task you set should, in some way, clearly move the student closer toward their goal. This will give your student a massive boost to morale. I've observed that one of the main reasons that students give up on learning programming is because they grow frustrated when they can't see how what they're learning contributes to their overall goal.

Create a Project That Relates to the Learner's Goal

Most learners have goals that are far beyond their current skill level. The best way to start is by having them build something that is a drastically simplified and scaled-down version of what they'd eventually like to build.

If the student wants to get a job as a developer, have them build a one-page portfolio website. For the first pass, use only HTML, then add CSS. Then add some JavaScript. And finally, you can introduce a framework when it makes sense to do so.

If the student wants to make an original 3D mobile game, have them start by building a 2D Tetris clone.

If the student wants to become a data scientist, have them work with a single dataset, such as this list of passengers on the Titanic.

Learners Must Have Homework

Becoming self-sufficient with programming will require learners to do more work on their own than they do when they're with you. In the very early days this can be difficult because they lack the knowledge to debug problems when they get stuck. As the learner grows more competent, however, you should slowly shift their learning to take place primarily on their own, with one-on-one time reserved mainly for debugging issues and giving feedback on their work.

Learners Must Do Their Homework

This may sound harsh, but I've never seen someone successfully learn programming who didn't work on it extensively during their own time. There's so much to learn that it's impossible to cover all of it during one-on-one meetings. Learners who only program during your meetings and don't do their assigned homework like the idea of knowing how to program but, unfortunately, aren't prepared to put in the work required. I'd say that about 1 in 5 of those who try to learn programming end up being in this camp, and they can easily take up a great deal of time while progressing very little.

Sometimes life gets in the way, but you can tell the difference between someone who puts in their best effort to practice outside of class, and someone who avoids their homework. Make it a requirement that for you to teach, the learner must, during most weeks, do the work outside of class. Otherwise, you may both be wasting your time.

Figure Out The Learner's Style

I've observed that most people have one of three learning styles when it comes to programming.

1. Analogists. These learners love analogies that relate programming concepts to real-world concepts they're already familiar with. When I was first learning programming, it was helpful to think of a variable as being like a box with a name written on it. Similarly, it was helpful for me to think of methods/functions as recipes. For some learners a well-chosen analogy will help a concept to click almost immediately. Other learners will find talk of 'boxes' and 'recipes' incredibly confusing! Those learners fall into one of the two other styles.
How to identify analogists: they'll come up with their own analogies to explain things.

2. Deep Divers. Some learners have an insatiable need to peek beneath the layers of abstraction and truly understand how things work. When introduced to the concept of variables, their first question will often be: how and where is the value of a variable stored? Hand-waving explanations simply won't cut it for these learners. You'll find that they regularly test your own computer science knowledge. If you don't know the answer to one of their questions, take the time to research it. This will make you a better programmer.
How to identify Deep Divers: they'll ask lots of challenging questions.
3. Experimenters. Some learners want you to stop talking and let them try it out for themselves! They'll learn about variables by testing things out on the command line, assigning and re-assigning variables, giving them weird names, and testing the limits of the system until they break. For these learners, an error message is a rewarding sign that they've learned one of the boundaries of the system. These students flourish when you give them the tools to experiment and get out of the way.
How to identify experimenters: they start experimenting with a new concept before you've even finished explaining it to them.

Introduce One New Tool/Language/Framework at a Time

It's easy to overwhelm the learner by introducing too many new things at once. Programming teachers often forget just how many different tools, concepts and skill-sets are involved in even the most basic programming tasks. For example, most people who think they're teaching programming very quickly realize that teaching someone to use Git or the command line can be just as difficult!

Start as stripped down as possible. For someone trying to learn data science, have them get comfortable navigating around the command line and executing basic Python commands in a REPL before trying to write their first Python script. For someone trying to build a website, have them build the first version using only HTML, before introducing CSS.

Without the appropriate context, these simple projects can seem too far off from the learner's eventual goals. Take the time to explain how the things they're learning are helping them to make progress.

Set Goals Just Beyond the Learner's Current Skill Level

Incremental goals can make what seems like an impossible task for the learner much less daunting. Set small, incremental goals that are just beyond the learner's current skill level, or that can't be achieved unless they learn a new skill.

Test-driven development (TDD) seems like it might be helpful here. However, while I'm a big advocate of TDD, I believe it should only be introduced once the student has become comfortable with the fundamentals of programming. To me, asking a learner in the early stages to do TDD is like asking someone who's just learned how to say "Kon'nichiwa" in Japanese to write a sonnet in the language. Perhaps it can be done, but the results will be poor.

For people just starting their journey with programming, 'Error-driven Development' is a fantastic way to introduce the learner to some of the concepts underlying TDD. Rails, with its relatively friendly and easy-to-parse error messages, is a good candidate for this. Visiting a route which hasn't been created (e.g. /people) results in an error: uninitialized constant PeopleController. This tells the student what they must do next: create the PeopleController. After they do this, visiting the route will throw another error: there is no action for the controller. Creating the action for the controller is the student's next step. This chain of 'see error, fix error' guides the student toward implementing a feature much like the TDD cadence of 'write test, make it fail, then make it pass'.

An example of a Rails error.

Most importantly, this approach teaches students to view error messages as helpful guides pointing them to the next step, rather than scary walls of nonsensical red text. A common anti-pattern for learners with the attitude that 'errors = bad' is to navigate away from the error as quickly as possible without reading it. They'll pore over their code instead, trying to reverse-engineer what the error message is already telling them. Error-driven development can help fix this.

Teach Them To Find Solutions on Their Own As Soon As Possible

When you first start teaching, you'll spend a lot of time answering questions and solving problems for your student. For example, you'll have to tell them how to navigate between directories on the command line. As they grow more comfortable with programming, you should occasionally guide them to seek out answers on their own. The ability to get unstuck by doing research online is a critical skill for even the most senior developers.

Let's say your student encounters an error message that they don't know how to fix. They look to you for guidance. Instead of giving them the answer, instruct them to Google the error message. Help them navigate the results and identify useful sources, such as official documentation, technical blog posts, and StackOverflow. Do this more and more often as your student grows more comfortable with programming. Eventually, they should be getting unstuck using their own research almost all the time. This is an essential element of programming self-sufficiency.

Reflect With Your Student

Time spent on the cycle of teaching and learning needs to be balanced with time spent reflecting on the process. Regularly ask the learner these questions:

Is there anything we've covered that you feel you don't understand as well as you need?

Is there anything we've covered where you don't see why it is important or useful?

Do you feel like what we're working on now is helping you progress toward your goals?

Is there anything we haven't covered that you'd like to learn about?

How is the pacing for you? Too fast? Too slow? Just right?

These questions give you the opportunity to uncover knowledge gaps that might be holding the learner back. For example, if they're confused and overwhelmed by how variables work then they won't be able to confidently write methods/functions. Most of the time when learners aren't 'getting' a particular concept, or they seem to be going slower than expected, it's because you've assumed they've understood a foundational concept when they haven't.

Some learners will have more insight on this than others. If the learner can't identify what they're struggling with, then have them revise concepts they've learned before. For example, to test their understanding of variables, have them write a small program that prints out a greeting to two different people. However, they're not allowed to write any names directly in the greeting sentences. Simple challenges like this verify that your student has the skills needed to move on to more advanced concepts.

Give Them a Final Push

You'll know that your student is approaching programming self-sufficiency when they come to your sessions and demonstrate newly acquired skills that you haven't taught them, or when they tell you about a nasty bug they encountered over the weekend and how they fixed it. At this stage, your sessions with the learner should start to shift. They'll be led mainly by the student, with them asking you for help with specific issues they're facing, or asking you to give advice on some aspect of their project. You may also meet less regularly.

It's at this stage you can start to make the transition from teacher to mentor. If you've enjoyed the journey, you may even want to start fresh with a new student, and apply everything you've learned teaching the first one. You might even decide to become a paid programming mentor on Codementor.

Finally, don't forget that you yourself have also acquired a valuable skill: the ability to teach, and to help another person grow and develop toward their goals.

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Programming is a challenging topic to teach. Few fields rest on so many layers of abstraction; from the bedrock of transistors, to the 1s and 0s of binary, to blazing-fast low-level languages like C, to the compiled and interpreted languages like Python or JavaScript, and finally, to the frameworks that rest atop it all.

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What is coding?

Coding, in the simplest of terms, is telling a computer what you want it to do, which involves typing in step-by-step commands for the computer to follow.

Computers are not clever things, however they are very obedient. They will do exactly what you want them to do, so long as you tell them how to do it correctly.

Learning to code has been likened to learning a foreign language, or perhaps more specifically a family of foreign languages.

There are many different coding languages, each one designed with certain things in mind. Examples include C, a 'low level' but fast programming language that is good for anything graphically intensive like games; Javascript, which was specifically designed for dealing with web content; and Perl, a multi-functional language that is often referred to as the 'swiss army knife' of programming.

Why is coding important?

Code powers our digital world. Every website, smartphone app, computer programme, calculator and even microwave relies on code in order to operate. This makes coders the architects and builders of the digital age.

Over the next 10 years it is estimated that there will be 1.4 million jobs in computer sciences and only around 400,000 graduates qualified to do them.

Jobs not directly linked to computer sciences - such as banking, medicine and journalism - will also be affected by the need for at least an understanding of programming and coding.

Linda Liukas, co-founder of coding workshop programme Rail Girls, believes that coding is "the literacy of the 21st century" and the need for people to speak the ABC of programming is imminent.

"Our world is increasingly run by software and we need more diversity in the people who are building it. More importantly, writing software is about expression, creativity - and practical application," Liukas told IBTimes UK.

"Our kids should learn to bend, join, break and combine code in a way it wasn't designed to. It's a whole generation of kids that will use code like our generation used words."

How can I learn to code?

This summer, we are hosting a series of coding workshops in our Dutch locations along with our friends from The New York Code & Design Academy. This introduction to programming will teach you the basics of designing a web page using code, including HTML, CSS, and JavaScript. You will be able to create and edit your own website in just a couple of days.

Want to know more and sign up? Check the event page.

Excerpts from "Coding in the Classroom". Read the original article here.

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What is Coding and Why is it so Important? - Spaces

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Coding, in the simplest of terms, is telling a computer what you want it to do, which involves typing in step-by-step commands for the computer to follow. Computers are not clever things, however they are very obedient. They will do exactly what you want them to do, so long as you tell them how to do it correctly.

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https://www.classtools.net/QR/qr_generator.php?fold=40&fname=NQiCY&diff=0.

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PREMIUM LOGIN

ClassTools Premium membership gives access to all templates, no advertisements, personal branding and other benefits!

A. Prior to the lesson:

1. Arrange students into groups. Each group needs at least ONE person who has a mobile device (note: an internet connection will not be needed).

2. Ask students to

Download a QR reader (e.g. I-Nigma | NeoReader | Kaywa) onto their mobile devices

Bring these devices into the lesson.

3. Print off these QR codes for each of these quiz questions.

4. Cut them out and place them around your class / school.

B. The lesson:

1. Have the first ('introduction') QR code on display on your whiteboard.

2. Each team scans it into their device and gets told to start hunting around the school for the remaining QR codes.

3. Away they go! The winner is the first team to return with the most correct answers in the time available.

C. TIPS / OTHER IDEAS

1. Award teams ONE point for each question they successfully decode, and a further TWO points for each correct answer that they provide.

2. Students in each team that do not have access to a mobile device can be responsible for research answers / hunting down the other QR codes for their teams.

3. A detailed case study in how to set up a successful QR Scavenger Hunt using this tool can be found here.

Created using the QR Treasure Hunt Generator

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PREMIUM LOGIN ClassTools Premium membership gives access to all templates, no advertisements, personal branding and other benefits! 1. Arrange students into groups. Each group needs at least ONE person who has a mobile device (note: an internet connection will not be needed). 2. Ask students to Download a QR reader (e.g.

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Create your own storybook online. Make writing and publishing a book more fun with our picture book making tool!

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Teaching Coding | Bringing Computer Science Education to All students

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Learning Scratch programming helps kids foster the essential 21-st century skills while improving academic performance. Here are the five amazing benefits of learning Scratch programming for kids.

Introduction

Scratch is a visual programming language that lets children create a wide range of projects, including interactive stories, games, animations, and much more.

Scratch programs are made up of graphical coloured blocks. Kids can create programs by snapping different code blocks together.

The blocks resemble puzzle pieces and can only be snapped together in ways that make sense. It prevents kids from using them in invalid combinations.

In this way, Scratch enforces proper programming syntax and ensures that beginners learn the proper way to assemble and formulate programming logic.

Scratch is designed to meet the needs of children between 8 and 16, helping to introduce them to computer technology. It helps kids improve their learning skills while at the same time facilitating creativity and personal expression.

Let's explore the five amazing benefits of learning Scratch programming for kids.

Encourages creative thinking

Scratch 's slogan is Imagine-Program-Share! It's designed primarily for kids to encourage creativity by providing them with an easy to learn yet powerful programming platform.

It has a large library of predefined sprites and backgrounds, but it also lets kids draw their own designs. With Scratch, kids will be able to create interactive stories with any character they can imagine. Customizing sprites and creating interactive projects will improve their creativity and make them better at design, animation, and storytelling.

Scratch facilitates the development of projects using a mixture of media, graphics, and sound to create something new. It enables kids to unleash the power of their imagination.

Fosters problem-solving

The Scratch programming language is designed to support the constructionist approach to learning, which encourages problem-solving.

Scratch programming helps kids develop programmatic thinking. This involves kids breaking down problems into smaller sub-components by organizing code blocks and exploring multiple solutions to problems.

To plan out the mechanics of their game or story, kids will need to figure out how multiple parts of their code or design will work together. Practicing brainstorming in Scratch helps kids develop strong problem solving and organizational skills transferable across multiple areas of life.

Scratch programming is Fun and interactive

Learning happens naturally when kids are having fun. Scratch programming language is designed primarily for kids with a visually appealing interface.

Kids need to drag blocks from the block palette into the coding workspace to start building programs. Kids can snap code blocks to make characters move, jump, dance, and sing. They can modify how their characters look, design their own backgrounds.

With Scratch, kids can add their voices and sounds and even photos of themselves and then use the programming blocks to bring their characters to life. This allows kids to create games, animations, and other interactive programs easily.

In this way, children explore coding concepts in a safe and fun environment.

Helps develop logical thinking skills

With Scratch, kids can drag and drop code blocks. It involves dragging and dropping code blocks instead of writing code while children still learn coding logic.

They can see what they are building and the result of their actions right away. This helps kids to understand and analyze the logic behind the programs.

Logic with Scratch builds on foundational concepts such as variables, data types, lists, arrays, loops, and operators. These skills also translate to other languages when students advance from the popular block-based coding to text-based coding.

Stepping stone to high-level programming

Scratch programming is one of the best ways for kids to learn to code.
It's the perfect pathway for kids to learn programmatic thinking and get an enthusiastic head start into real-world coding skills.

Many other programming languages require kids to learn text commands and have strict rules about using them.

Scratch enables kids to focus their energy on the fun stuff, thinking of ideas for new programs, working out how to build them, designing them, and sharing them with friends.

Conclusion

You have now learned the amazing benefits of learning Scratch programming for kids.

Kids can use Scratch to code their own interactive stories, animations, and games. In the process, they learn to think creatively, reason systematically, and work collaboratively  - harnessing the essential 21st-century skills.

Today, educators worldwide use Scratch programming to teach kids subjects like mathematics, music, art, design, and many more. Scratch is designed for exploration and experimentation, supporting many different learning styles.

Our Scratch classes are a fun and exciting way to build a foundation of skills that prepares kids for the future. Codingal motivates kids to bring their imagination to life by engaging in Scratch course activities individually and in groups.

For structured Scratch learning, Codingal offers a project-based Scratch programming course for kids ages 1-8. Our Scratch curriculum prepares students with full mastery of the Scratch environment and prepares them to advance into high-level programming.

Sign up for a free trial class and get started on the perfect pathway for kids to explore and learn coding with Scratch.

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5 Benefits of Learning Scratch Programming for Kids

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Learning Scratch programming helps kids foster the essential 21-st century skills while improving academic performance. Here are the five amazing benefits of learning Scratch programming for kids. Scratch is a visual programming language that lets children create a wide range of projects, including interactive stories, games, animations, and much more.

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Technological and digital literacy are two of the most important subjects for students in today's schools. Students are already bombarded with digital information from the internet, social media and countless apps on "smart" devices. And they are constantly using different forms of technology, whether making a Skype video call, getting money out of an ATM or playing the latest video game. Although this leads many educators to believe their students are already "digital natives," true technological and digital literacy encompasses far more.

The abilities to adequately use and do research through digital platforms, judge the validity (and appropriateness) of the information encountered, and communicate and collaborate via digital mediums are necessary for student success in school and in their future careers. They will constantly encounter new technologies because innovation is rapid and exponential. In addition, many technologies can help adapt the content in science classrooms for students with disabilities. If all students understand how to use today's technologies, both software and hardware, they will be better prepared for success in the present as well as adapt more quickly to new technologies in the future.

For these reasons, modern graduate programs like the University of Texas at Arlington's online Master of Education in Curriculum and Instruction in Science Education incorporate appropriate technologies and digital platforms into coursework in science instruction. Gaining fluency both using and instructing in these technologies can assist educators and curriculum designers in ensuring that students are well-prepared for an increasingly technology-saturated world.

Simply put, technology is the science of making things. The word is literally derived from the systematic study and treatment of an art or craft. As we think of it, technology is a modern concept. But every invention or development of tools or devices is a technological advancement, from the wheel to the blackboard to the automated oil rig to the automobile.

Beyond the fact that technology is both a process and a result of science, technological developments provide the tools used in many forms of scientific study and experimentation, from centrifuges used for the separation of fluids to computer programs used in the study of quantum physics. In teaching students the scientific process of inquiry and problem-solving, it is necessary to utilize current technologies. Students will need to use field-appropriate technologies to research questions, construct and execute experiments, and analyze results.

Science teachers can use many modern technologies to great effect in the classroom. Computer software and tablet apps have obvious applications in classroom activities, but the technologies inherent in automated cameras, LCDs and experiment monitoring systems can also aid in science education.

The science classroom provides a perfect environment to help students develop the technological knowledge and skills they will need for the rest of their lives. Learning how to operate machines used for science experiments will help future mechanical engineers in their pursuits. A communications major will rely on computer skills learned in the science classroom. An architect will employ modeling software similar to modeling programs used to design scientific experiments. And beyond future employment opportunities, these forms of literacy will help students make informed decisions as both consumers and global citizens.

Many assistive technologies have been invented and are now used to help students with disabilities in the inclusive classroom. A perfect example is the equipment students with physical disabilities use to participate in activities that their disability would otherwise make difficult or impossible. The most obvious example might be a student with paraplegia using a wheelchair to move around the classroom. Or a student with visual impairment might use a text-to-speech program or text enlargement screen readers to read materials.

Teachers can also use technology to engage and instruct students with learning or cognitive disabilities. Tactile and visual learners can benefit from interactive computer- or tablet-based lessons. Auditory learners can benefit from recorded materials or text-to-speech programs, and inversely, voice dictation software.

Besides being essential to the science classroom, using current technologies can help all students engage in learning, leading to motivation to study the sciences more in depth. Instilling this love and deep knowledge of science and a fluency with technology is one of the most important things today's teachers can accomplish. Being competent, or better yet, excelling in these areas will help students perform and succeed throughout school, their careers and their personal lives.
Learn about the UTA M.Ed. in Science Education online program.
Sources:
Education.com: Why Use Technology in the Science Classroom Education World: Integrating Technology and Science ETC Journal: Technological Literacy: The Key to Education Reform Education Week: What Digital Literacy Looks Like in a Classroom Have a question or concern about this article? Please contact us.

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Using Technology for Science Education | UTA Online

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Technological and digital literacy are two of the most important subjects for students in today's schools. Students are already bombarded with digital information from the internet, social media and countless apps on "smart" devices. And they are constantly using different forms of technology, whether making a Skype video call, getting money out of an ATM or playing the latest video game.

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The new question-of-the-week is:
What are effective ways to use tech in English classes?
There are lots of English classes in schools and there are sure a lot of ed-tech possibilities out there.

This series will explore if there are any useful connections that can be made between them.

This is part of a series considering tech tools for different content classes (you can see posts on tech in math classes here and on tech in social studies classes here).

Today's column features responses from Jennifer Casa-Todd, Jenny Vo, Maggie Verdoia, Sarah Acosta Landry, Ingrid Nelson, and Stephanie Affinito. You can listen to a 10-minute conversation I had with Jennifer, Jenny, and Maggie on my BAM! Radio Show. You can also find a list of, and links to, previous shows here.

You might also be interested in The "All-Time" Best Web Tools For English Language Learners and The Best Places Where Students Can Write For An "Authentic Audience."
Response From Jennifer Casa-Todd The temptation to have students use a Chromebook or tablet to write and peer edit papers is great, but there is so much more to using tech in English. Don't get me wrong; using collaborative tools to get feedback on a student's writing (text or audio) can be very powerful, but technology and social media allow for powerful storytelling and transformational learning experiences in English classes. Here are a few examples: and have your kids reach out to the authors with their questions or comments. -Use your own social-media connections to find another class reading the same book and connect with them by sharing questions and feelings about the book on Google Hangouts or Webroom (if in the same time zone), or Padlet or Flipgrid (if synchronous meetings are not possible). -Have students join the Global Read Aloud, created by Pernille Ripp, and use the Twitter hashtags to talk about what resonates. OR create a slow chat (from a class account if students are under 13) and invite others to respond to your students' questions. with resources to get started. for students to synthesize what they know about a story or create an alternative ending. ) to create scavenger hunts or BreakoutEDU style challenges for vocabulary or content sharing. -Have kids post a review on Amazon or Goodreads for the book they are reading in class or Rotten Tomatoes for a film they are watching (class account for younger kids). Help them to construct a review and teach them how to respond positively and critically to other reviews with which they either agree or disagree. This not only provides an authentic audience, but it also teaches students how to comment appropriately to others. -Create a Twitter poem using a maximum of 280 characters. and the power of Google Earth to create an interactive map of the setting and moments that resonate from the novel or story they are reading. for novels, stories, and nonfiction units. Hyperdocs reinforce the 4Cs, are multimodal and therefore allow for a variety of entry points, and provide students with the opportunity to work at their own pace. Most importantly, ask your students-what are they writing, reading, creating? Students lead rich digital lives outside the classroom. Use these ideas flexibly to meet your curriculum needs; this will reinforce their own literate behaviors and help them to feel valued in the classroom. Response From Jenny Vo
Jenny Vo earned her B.A. in English from Rice University and her M.Ed. in educational leadership from Lamar University. She has been teaching for 22 years and is currently an ESL ISST in the Katy Independent school district in Katy, Texas:
In this digital age where technology is everywhere, it behooves us as educators to embrace it and use it to our benefit and for the benefit of our students. Why not integrate technology into your instruction to enhance the learning experiences of your students? The goal is not to substitute technology for quality teacher instruction but to integrate it seamlessly so that it supports your teaching and provides the students with interactive, meaningful lessons that will engage both their attention and their brains. With so many programs and Apps available, however, teachers need to make wise choices about which ones to use and how to use them. What are some effective ways you can use technology in the classroom?

1. Use technology to develop the language skills of your students, especially your English-language learners
. There are great programs and Apps that help the students with their listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. Flipgrid is a great online discussion tool where students can record themselves responding to questions posted by the teacher and then listen and respond to other students' replies. Use this to activate background knowledge, share experiences, book discussions, etc. Poplet is a powerful mind-mapping tool that allows students to think and learn visually. They use words and pictures to show relationships between ideas. Use this to teach vocabulary, main idea/details, plan for writing, plan out presentations, etc. EPIC and ReadWorks are online libraries of books and nonfiction and literary articles. Teachers can assign students books to read during independent reading time or at home. Students may also choose books themselves. They both have quizzes and assessments that teachers can use to track their students' reading progress.

2. Use technology to give your students opportunities to share their learning and show off their work.
Have students create presentations using PowerPoint or Google Slides. With TeleStory, students can create their own movies. Students can write stories using StoryJumper. These are great to use at the end of the unit when you want students to summarize what they have learned. Not only will the students feel great about sharing their work, you can also use the finished products as an assessment tool and to share with parents what their children have learned.

3. Use technology to enhance your lessons and for assessments. Teachers can use technology to create and deliver lessons and to assess student learning. My school started using Nearpod last year. Nearpod has been a game changer in helping to create engaging and interactive lessons for our students. You can create your own lessons or import lessons from the lesson bank and customize them to your needs. You can add interactive features such as 3D objects, polls, open-ended questions where students can type in answers or draw their answers, virtual field trips, quizzes, etc. It is a great tool for formative assessment during your lesson. Reports can be printed out and used to determine which students mastered the concepts and who needs reteaching. Kahoot! is a game-based technology tool that can be used for pre- and formative assessment. Use it to check for background knowledge, check for understanding midunit, or as a review before an assessment. Teachers can add questions and polls, along with images and videos to their quizzes. Like Nearpod, Kahoot! also has a bank of quizzes that teachers can access and customize.

Technology will only get more advanced as time goes by. Why not embrace it and allow it to support our instruction? Our students will benefit from the fun, interactive lessons and will think we are so cool because we know how to use technology. It's a win-win situation! Response From Maggie Verdoia, Sarah Acosta Landry & Ingrid Nelson

Maggie Verdoia and Sarah Acosta Landry are teachers at Raymond J. Fisher Middle School in the Los Gatos Union school district in Los Gatos, Calif. Ingrid Nelson is a teacher at John Sloat Elementary School in the Sacramento City Unified school district. They are members of the Instructional Leadership Corps, a collaboration among the California Teachers Association, the Stanford Center for Opportunity Policy in Education, and the National Board Resource Center at Stanford:
It's easy to feel overwhelmed by all the tech tools available for the English classroom. As teachers, even though tech is engaging for students, we know that arbitrarily choosing a tool is not going to raise content mastery-it has to be the right tool, for the right purpose, at the right time. In designing 21st-century instruction for an English class, we seek tech tools that promote three key areas: inquiry, reasoning (or critical thinking), and authenticity. When tech allows students to inquire effectively and safely, think critically about the world around them, and do so in authentic ways, we know it's a good integration. (reliability-authenticity-purpose) works well to help them evaluate websites and determine credibility. . , a virtual bulletin board that can be used in a multitude of ways. For inquiry, students use Padlet to post questions (for example, either as part of a K-W-L activity or in response to student presentations), or to post answers to other students' questions. When it comes to authenticity, we want students sharing their work with real audiences, and Padlet works well as a place where students can share their writing (via the Google Doc link) and then comment on each other's pieces using Padlet's comment feature.
A cool tool to get those brains thinking critically is EdPuzzle to publish their thinking in small groups (think Literature Circles) by posting thoughts and commenting on the thoughts of others. And if we want to share with a wider audience (the entire school or beyond), we use Google Sites We challenge you to choose a tool and implement it with your students! They'll thank you! Response From Stephanie Affinito to publish student work. We use Google Sites for literature circles, reciprocal lessons, book reviews, and student portfolios. Our conceptualization of literacy is ever evolving. It includes attention to new, digital, and multimodal literacies and acknowledges that these literacies change our habits as readers. Therefore, literacy teachers must reimagine instruction to ensure students authentically create, communicate, collaborate, and learn together through technology. Based on my work in teacher learning communities, I have found technology can be particularly effective to build connected literacy communities, engage teachers during professional development, and support personalized learning, lessons easily transferred to the English classroom: Build a connected literacy community. Engage students during literacy instruction. Support personalized learning. Above all, pedagogy must lead technology. We must intentionally choose digital tools for the classroom using our knowledge of the learners in front of us. If we focus on how technology can amplify student voice and provide authentic audiences for student work, we harness the power of literacy, empowering students to share their voices with the world and leave their mark on it. Flip your classroom with technology! Flipped learning is a pedagogical approach where individual reflection precedes group collaboration and discussion to create an active and engaged learning space. Create resources for students to guide their own learning: collections of texts and videos, tutorials for skills and strategies, and options for student choice. Connect individually with students to support their journeys and share their voice with others. Innovate your literacy teaching by using technology to spice up lessons and increase student engagement. Survey students before a new unit of study using Google Forms to inform your planning and instruction. Create attractive slides and memes to spark thinking using Canva or Adobe Spark during lessons. Encourage interaction through QR Codes and ThingLink. Engage students by creating backchannels for discussion through Recap or Today's Meet. Technology has the potential to connect readers and writers together. Students can use digital tools such as Padlet and Flipgrid to share books they are reading and begin literate conversations. Students can use Google Docs to easily share their writing with others for feedback and celebration. While these connections might begin in the classroom, they can be continued outside of them, blurring the boundaries of learning. Just a reminder; you can subscribe and receive updates from this blog via email or RSS Reader. And if you missed any of the highlights from the first seven years of this blog, you can see a categorized list below. The list doesn't include ones from this current year, but you can find those by clicking on the "answers" category found in the sidebar. Look for Part Two in a few days.
. There's no denying kids love watching videos online. With EdPuzzle, you can take YouTube videos and make them interactive for students. Teachers import the YouTube video, either use the audio given or record your own, and embed critical-thinking questions for students to answer. Students can also create EdPuzzle videos to demonstrate their own thinking about a text (digital or traditional) and teach others!

Stephanie Affinito, a former classroom teacher and literacy specialist, is a literacy teacher educator at the University of Albany. She has a deep love for literacy coaching and supporting teachers' learning through technology and presents nationally on this topic. You can find her online at stephanieaffinito.com and on Twitter at @AffinitoLit:

Thanks to Jennifer, Jenny, Maggie, Sarah, and Stephanie for their contributions!

Please feel free to leave a comment with your reactions to the topic or directly to anything that has been said in this post.

Education Week has published a collection of posts from this blog, along with new material, in an e-book form. It's titled Classroom Management Q&As: Expert Strategies for Teaching.

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Response: Ways to Use Tech Effectively in English Classes (Opinion)

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The new question-of-the-week is: What are effective ways to use tech in English classes? There are lots of English classes in schools and there are sure a lot of ed-tech possibilities out there. This series will explore if there are any useful connections that can be made between them.

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Ensuring that the technology we bring into math classes fosters active engagement is key.

Incorporating technology in mathematics classrooms enables educators to craft powerful collaborative learning experiences that support problem solving and flexible thinking. With strategic integration of both content-specific and content-neutral technology, students and teachers can construct their learning together in authentic ways that elevate mathematics learning.

Until recently, one of educators' primary concerns around educational technology was the lack of access that existed in many American schools. That gap has decreased, but a new digital divide has emerged: The updated 2017 National Education Technology Plan explains that in today's classrooms many students are using technology as a tool for passive learning rather than engaging in active learning experiences that promote student agency.

The Importance of Content-Specific Pedagogy

In order to create technology-infused experiences that support active mathematics learning, educators must of course have pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)-an understanding of best practices specific to mathematics.

One method a teacher can use to analyze the effectiveness of technology integration is the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework. This tool supports careful educator reflection on pedagogy, content, and technology not only as separate entities but as overlapping and intersecting domains.
Reproduced by permission of the publisher, ©2012 by tpack.org
For example, when planning to integrate technology into a lesson, educators can take into account the technology knowledge the students will need, the mathematics content knowledge they'll need, and the best practices for teaching both the technology and the math. This process is extremely important because without it, the technology may be integrated in a way that is pedagogically inappropriate for mathematics instruction.

Using PCK to Spot Unhealthy Apps and Websites

Teachers start from their understanding of PCK, or best practices for mathematics instruction, in choosing effective technology tools for the mathematics classroom. We know that mathematics should not be focused on speed or quick answer finding. And timed fact testing is a known trigger of math anxiety, which can lead to low mathematics achievement and mathematics avoidance. Yet math apps and websites that focus on speed and rote memorization are readily available and widely used.

This use of technology can promote fear and stress, and it also sends inaccurate messages about the purpose of mathematics. Math is about thinking deeply, discovering patterns, and making connections. Automaticity with math facts and math skills is critical, but how we get students to automaticity matters. A focus on memorization without understanding promotes a joyless, nonsensical form of mathematics that requires remembering a large amount of seemingly disconnected information.

In addition, technology that simply transfers a gradual release-the "I do, we do, you do" structure-to an online format is a form of passive learning that strips math of student agency and rigor. Although gradually releasing responsibility is an effective model in other content areas, in mathematics this model is best flipped to give students the agency to decide what strategies they want to use and how they might solve a problem.

That's because students should productively struggle with math. We need them to problem solve rather than learn to repeat a specific list of procedures given by the teacher. Problem solving skills are more valuable than memorization, and they're the true work of mathematicians. If we're integrating technology into our classrooms to engage students in real-world experiences, our students must be given opportunities to do real mathematics.

Technology That Fosters Deep Mathematical Thinking

When used appropriately, both content-specific and content-neutral technology can be effective in the math classroom. Research indicates that content-specific apps and websites that focus on math learning with the use of virtual manipulatives are highly effective, and in some cases more efficient than physical manipulatives.

The Math Learning Center, for example, provides several manipulative options, such as rekenreks, geoboards, number lines, and number frames. Apps and websites that provide these types of virtual tools are easy to use, support students with conceptual understanding, and increase student access to math tools.

Content-neutral technology includes tools such as virtual whiteboards, handheld clickers, and student collaboration apps. Virtual whiteboard and websites, such as Explain Everything, promote self reflection, enable students to make their learning visible and share and connect ideas, and have been linked with high-level student thinking and teacher questioning.

But content-neutral technology that promotes fast answering, such as handheld clickers, is associated with decreased cognitive demand, most likely due to the likelihood of being used with minimal student discourse.

Being a Critical Consumer of Technology

The educational technology market is flooded with new apps, tech tools, and gadgets, and in some instances, teachers are commended for increased technology use whether it supports healthy math learning or not. Technology can have a truly positive impact on student learning, but it should not replace teaching or ignore research-based best practices for math instruction.

If we believe that students of mathematics need opportunities for discussing math, creating and connecting visuals, analyzing models, discovering patterns, and making generalizations, the technology that we introduce into our classrooms should match those values.

There was a time when simply getting technology into the hands of our students was a goal, but the time has come to slow down and plan for technology integration that truly supports healthy and productive mathematics learning.

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Ensuring that the technology we bring into math classes fosters active engagement is key. Incorporating technology in mathematics classrooms enables educators to craft powerful collaborative learning experiences that support problem solving and flexible thinking. With strategic integration of both content-specific and content-neutral technology, students and teachers can construct their learning together in authentic ways that elevate mathematics learning.