# data[].attributes.headline
From the Byzantine to the Arabs and then the Normans

# data[].attributes.subject
From the Byzantine to the Arabs and then the Normans

# data[].attributes.body
Video: dai Bizantini ai Normanni (durata 70 minuti)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Norman Conquest of Sicily - full documentary

# data[].attributes.body
Byzantine were in Sicily before the Arabs (Eastern Roman Empire influence in Sicily)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
During 6th century AD Eastern Roman Empire (commonly known as Byzantium) tried to recover as much as possible from the collapsed and dismembered Western Roman Empire.

Fighting back Vandals, they recaptured Sicily making it in 535 a Byzantine Province. The new rulers found there "fertile grounds" because they brought back to island what indeed was never lost - Greek's culture (and language) with "ingredients" of Western Roman influence.

In a way, taking the control of Sicily after the "century of darkness", Byzantium did not act as a conqueror but rather as promoter of continuity....

The move was so successful that some hundred years later Emperor Constantine 2nd considered relocating his capital from Constantinople to Syracuse (his death put end to this plan).

During the following centuries the growing power of Muslims (Arabs) united under the "wings of Islam" started to heavily weight on fortunes (and misfortunes) of the Byzantine Imperium. In 9th century Sicily was completely controlled by Arabs.

The Sicilian "honeymoon" with Byzantium did not last long. However given the strong roots of earlier Greco-Roman influence as well as Eastern-Flavor of Christianity, the Byzantine culture was still resonating on the island for several more long centuries. It left formidable imprints especially in the architectural style and visual religious art.

The best examples of Byzantine influence can be seen today in architectural elements (domes) and decorations of Sicilian cathedrals and churches built during Norman times (11th century and up). Palatine Chapel in Palermo's Royal Castle, Cathedrals in Monreale and Cefalu, church Martorana (Palermo) with their large domes and very rich interior mosaics (Icons) are the best examples of Byzantine religious art.

The ruins of Byzantine stronghold worth to see (but this time mainly due to their location and views) are on top of the mountain towering Cefalu. As the bonus - on the way up you will find a megalithic structure called Temple of Diana (underground cistern is dated to "pre-historic" times around 9BC, the temple itself to 5th-6th century BC). Climbing the Rock (La Rocca - as the hill is called) you will enjoy breath-taking views on Cefalu and the seacoast.

If you enjoyed this visit, then please share your experience with friends :-)

.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Sicily under Byzantine Influence | Rediscover Sicilian Past

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
During 6th century AD Eastern Roman Empire (commonly known as Byzantium) tried to recover as much as possible from the collapsed and dismembered Western Roman Empire. Fighting back Vandals, they recaptured Sicily making it in 535 a Byzantine Province.

# data[].attributes.body
IX-X Century

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Arab domination in Sicily lasted about 250 years. Its history began around the year 700 and lasted until around 1090.

This was, for the island, one of the dominations that most influenced had in the dialect and in the habits of the Sicilian people.

Islamic history in Sicily began during the 600s, years in which Sicily suffered several attacks.

At the beginning of the eighth century, these incursions became constant and forced the Byzantine Empire to react.

In the middle of this century the real invasion attempts began.

The beginnings of the ninth century were marked by a series of raids by the Arab world and a series of peace treaties.

These years marked the beginning of the Arab invasion. On the one hand, the Byzantine Empire was losing strength; on the other hand, the Islamic advance was becoming more and more powerful.

The conquest of the island began around 830 but was very long. The last Byzantine resistance lasted for more than a century.
The Islamic domination of the island can be divided into four periods:

1st: The island was dominated by a governor chosen by the Aghlabid Emir of Kairouan;
2nd: In this period the island was dominated by the Shiite dynasty of the Fatimids;
3rd: A period in which Sicily was ruled by the Shiite dynasty of the Kalbites;
4th: The last period in which the island was divided into several Emirates;

Arab domination was not a "heavy" domination. In reality the rulers were very tolerant and imported various "traditions" that have remained in the Sicilian culture; some of these are part of the dominant features of the island still today.

Among the plants brought by the Arabs to Sicily we find:

In the same way they also imported agriculture processes that, for example, allowed the new crops to flourish. Among all, we must remember the rationalization of water resources.

It should not be forgotten that they greatly favor the cultural growth of the island and the large commercial growth. In fact, Sicily became the nerve center of trade in the Mediterranean in that period.

During this period, Christians and Jews continued to be present on the island. These were left free to profess their beliefs, only a different tax was imposed on them from those who professed the Islamic religion.

The center of Arab Sicily was Palermo. The city in this period had a very strong expansion and it became one of the largest metropolises in the then known world.

The Arabic influence is also strong in the Sicilian dialect, here are some words found in our dialect that almost certainly derive from Arabic:

bagghiu - limbìccu - capurrais - jarrùsu - Taliàri - zaffarana - zibbibbu - favara - gebbia - mischinu - tabbutu - cassata - brunìa

These are just a few, if we pay attention to our dialect we will find many.

Another great Sicilian tradition that most likely derives from the Arab invasion is that of sweets.

"Cassata" and "Granita" are just two examples of typical sweets that derive from that period.

The end of Islamic rule came mainly due to the fragmentation of Sicily into several emirates. This allowed the Byzantines to try to regain possession of the island in 1038.

The attempt was a failure, but not entirely. It was during this incursion that the Norman William Popeye was present, who returned to Norway convinced his family members of the island's wealth and ease in defeating Arab rule.

Although this was one of the most incisive dominations for Sicily, we have very little of it from an architectural point of view.

The city of Palermo, the capital of the Arab world in Sicily, retains very little of Arabic architectural interest. A trace of that period that is still clearly present and visible today are the traditional markets Ballarò, Vucciria, Capo and Lattarini.

These markets were famous at the time of Islamic domination, for the presence of different product types, and they still are, representing a distinctive feature for the city of Palermo.

After all, those two hundred and fifty years have had a lot of weight for what concerns Sicily, in fact they continue to reflect on the mentality and behavior of us Sicilians on our cuisine and in our dialect much more than other dominations that remained for much longer.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Arab domination in Sicily, a period that has left a big mark

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Arab domination in Sicily lasted about 250 years. Its history began around the year 700 and lasted until around 1090. This was, for the island, one of the dominations that most influenced had in the dialect and in the habits of the Sicilian people.

# data[].attributes.body
1066- XI Century

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The term "Normans" ("men from the North") applied first to the people of Scandinavia in general, and afterwards (Northmannus, Normannus, Normand) it is the name of the Viking colonists from Scandinavia who settled themselves in Gaul and founded Normandy. The Normans' adopted a new religion (became Christians), a new language, a new system of law and society, new thoughts and feelings on all matters.

From their new home in northern France they set forth on new errands of conquest, chiefly in the British Islands and in southern Italy and Sicily.

If Britain and Sicily were the greatest fields of their enterprise, they were however very far from being the only fields. The same spirit of enterprise which brought the Northmen into Gaul seems to carry the Normans into every corner of the world. The conquest of England was made directly from Normandy, by the reigning duke, in a comparatively short time, while the conquest of Sicily grew out of the earlier and far more gradual conquest of Apulia and Calabria by private men, making their own fortunes and gathering round them followers from all quarters. They fought simply for their own hands, and took what they could by the right of the stronger.

They started with no such claim as Duke William put forth to justify his invasion of England; their only show of legal right was the papal grant of conquests that were already made. The conquest of Apulia, won bit by bit in many years of what we can only call freebooting, was not a national Norman enterprise like the conquest of England, and the settlement to which it led could not be a national Norman settlement in the same sense.

The Sicilian enterprise had in some respects another character. By the time it began the freebooters had grown into princes. Sicily was won by a duke of Apulia and a count of Sicily. Warfare in Sicily brought in higher motives and objects. Althought this was before the Crusades, the strife with the Muslims at once brought in the crusading element. Duke William was undisputed master of England at the end of five years; it took Count Roger thirty years to make himself undisputed master of Sicily. The one claimed an existing kingdom, and obtained full possession of it in a comparatively short time; the other formed for himself a dominion bit by bit, which rose to the rank of a kingdom.

Professor Robert Bartlett describes their exit like this in the excellent BBC documentary "The Normans": "The Normans simply disappeared. This might sound like failure, but in fact it was the key to their success. They weren't interested in the purity of their blood. They came, they saw, they conquered. Then they married the locals, learnt the language, and assimilated themselves out of existence."

Links to more information about the Normans

The Normans in South Italy

999-1017 Arrival of the Normans in Italy
1009-1022 Lombard revolt
1022-1046 Mercenary service
1046-1059 County of Melfi
1049-1098 County of Aversa
1053-1105 Conquest of the Abruzzo
1061-1091 Conquest of Sicily
1073-1077 Conquest of Amalfi and Salerno
1059-1085 Byzantine-Norman wars
1077-1139 Conquest of Naples
1095: 22 December Roger II is born
1105: Roger II is named Count of Sicily
1127: Roger II becomes Duke of Apulia and Calabria
1130: Roger II becomes King of Sicily
1130s Cappella Palatina: Commenced by Roger II
1131 Building of the cathedral in Cefalù begins (Roger II)
1140 Cappella Palatina is consecrated.
c1140-c1147 The painted wooded ceiling in Cappella Palatina was completed
1143-1151 The mosaics in La Martorana (Santa Maria dell'Ammiraglio) was made
1154: 26 February Roger II dies and William I becomes King of Sicily
1154-1166: The mosaics of the central nave of the Cefalù Cathedral and the nave and aisles of the Palatine Chapel (Cappella Palatina) were most likely made during the rule of William I
1160-70 c. Sala di Ruggero (King Roger's Room) in the Norman Palace is made
1166: 7 May King William I dies in Palermo
1174-1189 The cathedral in Monreale is built (King William II)
1194 Sicily falls into the hands of the Germanic Hohenstaufen dynasty

Christ Pantocrator in the Cefalù Cathedral.

The Normans in Sicily

"For the first, and indeed the last, time in European history, the three great civilizations of the Mediterranean, the Latin, the Greek and the Arabic all came together in harmony and concur. And all this occurred less than a hundred years after the schism between the Greek and the Latin churches, and in the very century of the second and third crusades, where just a few hundred miles to the East Christians and Muslims were bashing each other's brains out. Only here, in this one island, in the dead centre of the Mediterranean, was there peace, understanding and mutual respect. Norman Sicily remains a lesson to us all."
John Julius Norwich

See also: Conquest and Conversion in Medieval Muslim Sicily September 28, 2017 A talk by Alex Metcalfe, Senior Lecturer, Department of History, Lancaster University, UK.

Related links

The Norman Rulers in Sicily

Roger I (c. 1031-1101 Mileto), also known as Great Count Roger I, Roger Bosso, The Great Count. Italian: Ruggero I di Sicilia.

Roger II (1095-1154)
Rogerios Rex (inscription in mosaic, Martorana, Palermo)

Simon of Hauteville (1093-1105), also known as Simon de Hauteville (in French) and Simone D'Altavilla (in Italian). He was the eldest son and successor of Roger I, count of Sicily, and Adelaide del Vasto.

William I (1131-1166), also known as William the Bad or the Wicked

William II (1155-1189), also known as William the Good

The Normans landed in Sicily as mercenaries in 1061. In 1194 Sicily fell into the hands of the Germanic Hohenstaufen dynasty

Byzantine mosaic of the coronation of Roger II in Santa Maria dell'Ammiraglio

The Normans in Sicily: Roger II receiving the crown directly from Christ and not the Pope. Mosaic in the Martorana, Palermo. The mosaic carries an inscription Rogerios Rex in Greek letters. After the Sicilian Vespers of 1282 the island's nobility gathered in the church for a meeting that resulted in the Sicilian crown being offered to Peter III of Aragon.

Christ Pantocrator in Martorana (Santa Maria dell'Ammiraglio), Palermo. The 12th century mosaics were executed by Byzantine craftsmen.

Islamic inscription on a column in La Martorana (Santa Maria dell'Ammiraglio), Palermo. The inscription (in Kufic, the oldest calligraphic form of the various Arabic scripts) reads:

In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate, ("Basmala" - all prayers and chapters in the Quran starts with these words)
God is sufficient for me and He is the best advocate

Norman Monuments in Sicily (selection)

Castelvetrano
The little 12th Century church of the SS. Trinità di Delia is, according to John Julius Norwich "the perfect fusion of Arab and Byzantine". [Link to the church on Google Maps]

Cefalù Cathedral
"Though much of the inside is now distressingly baroque, the outside is exquisite and the great apse mosaic the most sublime masterpiece Sicily has to offer."
After Norwich's book was written, the "distressingly baroque" elements have been removed.

Forza d'Agrò
The Basilian churchSS. Pietro e Paolo is situated a few kilometres outside Forza d'Agrò. The inscription over the west door dates it to 1171-72. The church was built in the 560, then it was destroyed by the Arabs and it was rebuilt in the 1117. The church was restored by the architect Gherardo il Franco in the 1172 because of an earthquake.

Monreale
Cathedral and cloister
Castellaccio (12th Century) on the summit of Monte Caputo

Palermo
ThePalatine Chapel (In the Royal Palace, also known as the Norman Palace)
Sala di Ruggero (In the Royal Palace)
S. Maria dell' Ammariglio (theMartorana)
S. Giovanni degli Eremiti
S. Spirito (the church known for the Sicilian Vespers in 1282)
The Royal tombs of Roger II, Henry VI, Constance and Frederick II (in the Palermo Cathedral / Duomo)

Source: John Julius Norwich: The Normans in Sicily: The Magnificent Story of "the other Norman Conquest

Capital in the Monreale cathedral.
See more Sicilian capitals here
Facts about the Normans in Sicily

Unlike the Norman conquest of England (1066), which took a few years after one decisive battle, the conquest of southern Italy was the product of decades and a number of battles, few decisive. Many territories were conquered independently, and only later were unified into a single state. Compared to the conquest of England it was unplanned and disorganised, but equally complete.

Video: Vikings Heritage: The Splendour of Norman Sicily

The Normans arrive in Sicily

Monte Gargano, just east of Foggia, is the starting point for the Normans' adventure in Sicily. In 1016 about 40 Norman pilgrims met Melus, a noble Lombard from Bari who had been driven into exile by the Byzantines. Melus appealed to the pilgrims for help in ousting the Byzantines and in restoring the Roman Church throughout the southern part of the peninsula. The Normans returned the next year, and met Melus at Capua, north of Naples. Although defeated at first, the Normans continued to plunder, and in 1038 the Greeks and their Norman allies landed on Sicilian soil. Messina fell at once, and then Syracuse.

Coronation mantle made for Roger II

Coronation mantle made for Roger II in 1133/34 in the royal workshop in Palermo of fabric from Byzantium or Thebes, Samite, silk, gold, pearls, filigree, sapphires, garnets, glass, and cloisonné enamel.

Arab-Norman bronze pail (c. 1100-1200) from the Contrada Bambina shipwreck near Marsala. Beneath the rim, a punched inscription from the Qur'an in early Arabic characters. This pail was part of the exhibition Storms, War and Shipwrecks: Treasures from the Sicilian Seas ( Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, 21 Jun 2016 to 25 Sep 2016), but is owned by Museo archeologico regionale Lilibeo-Baglio Anselmi, Marsala.

The Normans' use of bilingual documents

To understand why the Normans used bilingual documents, one should consider how this made the documents more credible and stand out with authority. Alex Metcalfe writes:

"Back in the 1090s, it is only with the benefit of hindsight that we can imagine why bilingual records were issued. Certainly, in a breeding-ground for dubious diplomata and false claims, there was an urgent need for new comital documents whose distinctive features, both literal and visual, underwrote their credibility and authority. In this respect, Arabic-Greek documents provided a double form of validation that was irreplicable without the input of two, trained, non-'Latin' scribes. It is not coincidental that this period of nascent bureaucracy saw the rise of 'Greek' scribes, functionaries and locals with various titles - some more vague than others. Greek was the Norman rulers' prevailing written language of choice, and it appeared in a range of administrative contexts especially in the first half of the 1100s." (Alex Metcalfe: Language and the written record: loss, survival and revival in early Norman Sicily in Multilingual and multigraphic manuscripts and documents of East and West, eds. Giuseppe Mandalà and Inmaculada Pérez Martín (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2014))

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The term "Normans" ("men from the North") applied first to the people of Scandinavia in general, and afterwards (Northmannus, Normannus, Normand) it is the name of the Viking colonists from Scandinavia who settled themselves in Gaul and founded Normandy.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Pictures from the Arab-Norman Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalú and Monreale

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Outstanding Universal Value
Brief synthesis
Located on the northern coast of the Italian island of Sicily, Arab-Norman Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalú and Monreale is a series of nine religious and civic structures dating from the era of the Norman kingdom of Sicily (1130-1194). Two palaces, three churches, a cathedral, and a bridge are in Palermo, the capital of the kingdom, and two cathedrals are in the municipalities of Monreale and Cefalù. Collectively, they are an outstanding example of a socio-cultural syncretism between Western, Islamic, and Byzantine cultures. This interchange gave rise to an architectural and artistic expression based on novel concepts of space, structure, and decoration that spread widely throughout the Mediterranean region.

The monuments that comprise this 6.235-ha serial property include the Royal Palace and Palatine Chapel; Zisa Palace; Palermo Cathedral; Monreale Cathedral; Cefalù Cathedral; Church of San Giovanni degli Eremiti; Church of Santa Maria dell'Ammiraglio; Church of San Cataldo; and Admiral's Bridge. Each illustrates important aspects of the multicultural Western-Islamic-Byzantine syncretism that characterized the Norman kingdom of Sicily during the 12th century. The innovative re-elaboration of architectural forms, structures, and materials and their artistic, decorative, and iconographic treatments - most conspicuously the rich and extensive tesserae mosaics, pavements in opus sectile, marquetry, sculptural elements, paintings, and fittings - celebrate the fruitful coexistence of people of different origins.

Criterion (ii): Arab-Norman Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalù and Monreale bears witness to a particular political and cultural condition characterized by the fruitful coexistence of people of different origins (Muslim, Byzantine, Latin, Jewish, Lombard, and French). This interchange generated a conscious and unique combination of elements derived from the architectural and artistic techniques of Byzantine, Islamic, and Western traditions. This new style contributed to the developments in the architecture of the Tyrrhenian side of southern Italy and spread widely throughout the medieval Mediterranean region.

Criterion (iv): Arab-Norman Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalù and Monreale is an outstanding example of stylistic synthesis that created new spatial, constructive, and decorative concepts through the innovative and coherent re-elaboration of elements from different cultures.
Integrity
The serial property includes all the elements necessary to express its proposed Outstanding Universal Value, including religious, civic, and engineering works, and is therefore of adequate size to ensure the complete representation of the features and processes that convey the property's significance. The property does not suffer unduly from adverse effects of development or neglect.
Authenticity
The cultural value of the property and of its individual components is truthfully and credibly expressed through attributes such as their locations and settings, forms and designs, materials and substances, and uses and functions. The authenticity of the mosaics in particular has been confirmed by experts in the field of Byzantine mosaics.
Protection and management requirements
The nine components of the serial property are under the ownership of various governmental and religious bodies. They have been given the highest level of protection established by national legislation under the 2004 Italian Code of the Cultural and Landscape Heritage. In addition, the Church of San Giovanni degli Eremiti, Church of Santa Maria dell'Ammiraglio (Church of the Martorana), and Monreale Cathedral have been designated individually as National Monuments. The Level I and Level II buffer zones are protected by virtue of the regulations and planning directions in the territory's current planning tools.

A management system and Management Plan for the serial property as a whole have been laid out in a Memorandum of Understanding. The Memorandum establishes a Steering Committee comprised of representatives of the owners, managers, and institutions that are responsible for the nine components. This Committee will specify the activities to be carried out annually, and the Sicilian UNESCO Heritage Foundation will implement the Committee's decisions. The Management Plan includes a description of the serial property and its components; the system of protection, planning, and control for the property, buffer zones, and setting; existing planning at the civic and regional levels; the management system; the territorial context; and action plans.

Long-term challenges for the protection and management of the property include eliminating or mitigating the consequences of human actions (vandalism, theft, fire); degenerative phenomena provoked by the pressures of mass tourism, including cruise ships; environmental disasters (earthquakes, landslides, floods, pollution), particularly for monuments subject to seismic risk; and socio-economic decay of the historic urban centres. These potential vulnerabilities and threats to the property's Outstanding Universal Value, authenticity, and integrity must be fully addressed by the Management Plan and management structure.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Arab-Norman Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalú and Monreale

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Located on the northern coast of Sicily, Arab-Norman Palermo includes a series of nine civil and religious structures dating from the era of the Norman kingdom of Sicily (1130-1194): two palaces, three churches, a ...

# data[].attributes.headline
Street Food in Sicily comes from ancient times

# data[].attributes.subject
Street Food in Sicily comes from ancient times

# data[].attributes.body
9 Sicilian Street Food Meals to Try (description)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
It seems that the effects of a 'driver,' a special drink made with lemon juice, soda water and sparkling soda, used to "degrease" and digest after over indulging, are miraculous.

And where else could such a concoction have been invented if not in Palermo, Italy, the capital of Sicilian street food - some of the best street food in the world.

In the capital of the sun-kissed island, there are still many kiosks where you can try the mysterious digestive effect of the driver, and you'll more than likely be all the better for it. Particularly if you decide to take a culinary tour of the specialties of a region that offer all possible variations on a theme of " fried and carbs."

We have selected just nine of them, to scratch the surface of some of the island favourites. Take your pick of your new favourite street food from Sicily?

1. Scaccia
Photo: Ragusa h24
Born in the town of Ragusa, in the south of Sicily, the 'scaccia' varies, depending both on the very thin dough - made of water, oil and yeast, and folded several times - and the filling, generally containing cottage cheese, onion, eggplant, tomato, and sausage.

2. Stigghiola
Photo: Cinque Cose Belle
An example of fine typical Sicilian street food for all those offal lovers! Served on the street from 'stigghiularu,' the lamb intestines (sometimes chicken or goat) are simply skewered and cooked on the grill, seasoned with salt and lemon and eaten when still warm.

3. Sfincione

This may look like a pizza, but rather confusingly, it's not. Instead, a basic yeast-like dough with a pizza-like topping that can include a tomato sauce with onion, anchovies and oregano and an optional sprinkling of cheese. Needless to say, the variations are endless.

4. Arancini

Most discussion around this Sicilian street food focuses more on the namesake of the 'small orange' than on the recipe. The dilemma can be resolved simply by saying arancini (deep fried rice balls with a filling) can be shaped in any way depending on the geographical origin and on the traditional recipe.

5. Pane and Panelle
Photo: La Forchetta e Il Coltello
One of the few, and perhaps only, cases of 100% vegan Sicilian street food. A sandwich, which is usually covered with sesame seeds, and a stuffing made from chickpea flour pancakes: very easy to prepare and can be served with potato croquettes.

6. Cannoli

Impossible not to know about them and even more impossible not to love them: the cannoli are the sweeter side of Sicilian street food. Although they can now be found in all parts of Italy, those that are tasted (in the right places) in Sicily are of an authentic and inimitable goodness. Candied fruits, ground pistachio nuts and chocolate sprinkled on top are all optional.

7. PANI CUNZATU
Photo: Piacere Sicilia
The cunzatu bread, or bread cunzato, is a recipe born out of poverty, and those who had no money to buy a condiment to go with the bread. These days it makes for the perfect street food for the beach: bread "seasoned" with olive oil, fresh tomatoes, oregano, anchovies, salt and pepper with optional cheese, and onions.

8. PANI CÂ MEUSA

One of the most famous Sicilian street foods, 'pani ca 'meusa' is made stuffing vastedda (soft bread) with chopped spleen and lung, boiled and then fried in lard. It can also come with added grated cheese or cottage cheese, lemon and pepper.

9. CALIA E SIMENZA

Photo: Flickr/duegb

A mixture of chick peas and pumpkin seeds, which are prepared for festive occasions. Calia are chickpeas, roasted and then salted, while simenza are dried pumpkin seeds, best eaten warm and crispy.

Follow Fine Dining Lovers on Facebook

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
It seems that the effects of a 'driver,' a special drink made with lemon juice, soda water and sparkling soda, used to "degrease" and digest after over indulging, are miraculous. And where else could such a concoction have been invented if not in Palermo, Italy, the capital of Sicilian street food - some of the best street food in the world.

# data[].attributes.body
Sicilian wonderful Food!!! Love it!!!!!!!!!!!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Sicilian Street Food in Palermo 🇮🇹 CRAZY Italian BBQ + HUGE Arancini in Sicily!!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Street Food in Sicily 🇮🇹 CHEESE VOLCANO ARANCINI in Catania + BEST Fish Market in Italy!

# data[].attributes.headline
Sicily-Historical Timeline from prehistory to Modern Era

# data[].attributes.subject
Sicily-Historical Timeline from prehistory to Modern Era

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The history of Sicily has been influenced by numerous ethnic groups. It has seen Sicily controlled by external powers - Phoenician and Carthaginian, Greek, Roman, Vandal and Ostrogoth, Byzantine Greek, Aghlabid, Kalbid, Norman, Aragonese and Spanish - but also experiencing important periods of independence, as under the indigenous Sicanians, Elymians and Sicels, and later as the Emirate of Sicily, County of Sicily, and Kingdom of Sicily. The Kingdom was founded in 1130 by Roger II, belonging to the Siculo-Norman family of Hauteville. During this period, Sicily was prosperous and politically powerful, becoming one of the wealthiest states in all of Europe. As a result of the dynastic succession, then, the Kingdom passed into the hands of the Hohenstaufen. At the end of the 13th century, with the War of the Sicilian Vespers between the crowns of Anjou and Aragon, the island passed to the latter. In the following centuries the Kingdom entered into the personal union with the Spaniard and Bourbon crowns, preserving however its substantial independence until 1816. Sicily was merged with the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. Although today an Autonomous Region, with special statute, of the Republic of Italy, it has its own distinct culture.

Sicily is both the largest region of the modern state of Italy and the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Its central location and natural resources ensured that it has been considered a crucial strategic location due in large part to its importance for Mediterranean trade routes. Cicero and al-Idrisi described respectively Syracuse and Palermo as the greatest and most beautiful cities of the Hellenic World and of the Middle Ages.

The indigenous peoples of Sicily, long absorbed into the population, were tribes known to ancient Greek writers as the Elymians, the Sicani and the Siculi or Sicels (from which the island derives its name). Of these, the last was clearly the latest to arrive and was related to other Italic peoples of southern Italy, such as the Italoi of Calabria, the Oenotrians, Chones, and Leuterni (or Leutarni), the Opicans, and the Ausones. It is possible, however, that the Sicani were originally an Iberian tribe. The Elymi, too, may have distant origins from outside Italy, in the Aegean Sea area. The recent discoveries of dolmens dating to the second half of the third millennium BC, seem to open up new horizons on the composite cultural panorama of primitive Sicily.

It is a well-known fact that this region went through quite an intricate prehistory, so much so that it is difficult to move about amongst the muddle of peoples that have followed each other. The impact of two influences, however, remains clear: the Europeans coming from the North-West - for example, the Proto-Celtic peoples of Beaker culture (bearers of the dolmens culture, recently discovered in this island and dating back to the neolithic Bronze Age), and the Mediterranean influence with a clear oriental matrix. Complex urban settlements become increasingly evident from around 1300 BC.

From the 11th century BC, Phoenicians begin to settle in western Sicily, having already started colonies on the nearby parts of North Africa. Within a century, we find major Phoenician settlements at Soloeis (Solunto), present day Palermo and Motya (an island near present-day Marsala). As Phoenician Carthage grew in power, these settlements came under its direct control.

Sicily was colonized by Greeks in the 8th century BC. Initially, this was restricted to the eastern and southern parts of the island. The most important colony was established at Syracuse in 734 BC. Other important Greek colonies were Gela, Akragas, Selinunte, Himera, Kamarina and Zancle or Messene (modern-day Messina, not to be confused with the ancient city of Messene in Messenia, Greece). These city-states were an important part of classical Greek civilization, which included Sicily as part of Magna Graecia - both Empedocles and Archimedes were from Sicily.

These Greek city-states enjoyed long periods of democratic government, but in times of social stress, in particular, with constant warring against Carthage, tyrants occasionally usurped the leadership. The more famous include: Gelo, Hiero I, Dionysius the Elder and Dionysius the Younger.

As the Greek and Phoenician communities grew more populous and more powerful, the Sicels and Sicanians were pushed further into the centre of the island. By the 3rd century BC, Syracuse was the most populous Greek city in the world. Sicilian politics was intertwined with politics in Greece itself, leading Athens, for example, to mount the disastrous Sicilian Expedition in 415 BC during the Peloponnesian War.

In Greek mythology, the goddess Athena threw Mount Aitna onto the island of Sicily and upon either the gigante Enceladus or Typhon during the giants' war against the gods.

The Greeks came into conflict with the Punic trading communities, by now effectively protectorates of Carthage, with its capital on the African mainland not far from the southwest corner of the island. Palermo was a Carthaginian city, founded in the 8th century BC, named Zis or Sis ("Panormos" to the Greeks). Hundreds of Phoenician and Carthaginian grave sites have been found in a necropolis over a large area of Palermo, now built over, south of the Norman palace, where the Norman kings had a vast park.

The constant warfare between Carthage and the Greek city-states eventually opened the door to an emerging third power. In the 3rd century BC, the Messanan Crisis motivated the intervention of the Roman Republic into Sicilian affairs, and led to the First Punic War between Rome and Carthage. The Carthaginians sent forces to Hiero II, the military leader of the Greek city-states. The Romans fought for the Mamertines of Messina and, Rome and Carthage declared war on each other for the control of Sicily. This led to a war based mainly on the water, which served as an advantage to the Carthaginians, as they were led by Hamilcar, a general who earned his surname Barca (meaning lightning) due to his fast attacks on Roman supply lines. Romans attempted to hide the weakness in their navy by using large moveable planks to invade enemy ships and forcing hand-to-hand combat, but they still struggled due to the lack of a talented general. Hamilcar and his mercenaries struggled to receive additional aid and reinforcements, as the Carthaginian government hoarded their wealth due to greed and belief that Hamilcar could win on his own. His victory at Drepana in 249 BC was his last, as he was forced to withdraw. In 241 BC, after the Romans adapted better to battle at sea, the Carthaginians surrendered. By the end of the war in (242 BC), and with the death of Hiero II, all of Sicily except Syracuse was in Roman hands, becoming Rome's first province outside of the Italian peninsula.

Hamilcar died in combat in 228 BC, and following the death of his son Hasdrubal, his third son Hannibal took control of the military. He followed a more aggressive path, laying siege to Saguntum, a city allied to Rome. This action started the second war, in which Hannibal took many early victories in Northern Italy. However, like his farther in the first war, a lack of reinforcements and support from the Carthaginians put his forces at a disadvantage. Additionally, Roman general Scipio realized that attacking Carthage itself would force Hannibal to recall his troops. Following the loss at the Battle of Zama in 202, Hannibal pushed the senate to surrender. The success of the Carthaginians during most of the Second Punic War encouraged many of the Sicilian cities to revolt against Roman rule. Rome sent troops to put down the rebellions (it was during the siege of Syracuse that Archimedes was killed). Carthage briefly took control of parts of Sicily, but in the end was driven off. Many Carthaginian sympathizers were killed - in 210 BC the Roman consul M. Valerius told the Roman Senate that "no Carthaginian remains in Sicily".

The Third and final war was the shortest of the three, being the most one sided as well. Carthage waged war against Numidia, an ancient kingdom located modern day Algeria, and upon losing had to pay additional war debts. The Roman Senate expected to be asked for permission, and decided that Carthage posed too much of a threat. After the Carthaginians refused to dismantle the city in 149 BC, the Third Punic War began. The conflict lasted only three years, as the city was besieged during the entire conflict until the city fell and was sacked by the Romans. The power of the Roman Empire expanded largely due to these three wars, and allowed for a prolonged control of Sicily, an incredibly important piece to the Roman empire for hundreds of years.

For the next 600 years, Sicily was a province of the Roman Republic and later Empire. It was something of a rural backwater, important chiefly for its grain fields, which were a mainstay of the food supply for the city of Rome until the annexation of Egypt after the Battle of Actium largely did away with that role. The empire made little effort to Romanize the region, which remained largely Greek. One notable event of this period was the notorious misgovernment of Verres, as recorded by Cicero in 70 BC in his oration, In Verrem. Another was the Sicilian revolt under Sextus Pompeius, which liberated the island from Roman rule for a brief period.

A lasting legacy of the Roman occupation, in economic and agricultural terms, was the establishment of the large landed estates, often owned by distant Roman nobles (the latifundia).

Germanic and Byzantine period

As the Roman Empire was falling apart, a tribe of Franks conquered Syracuse in 280 AD; subsequently a Germanic tribe known as the Vandals took Sicily in 440 AD under the rule of their king Genseric. The Vandals had entered the Empire crossing the Rhine the last night of 406 with three other tribes. They were in Gaul until October 409 when they entered Spain where they remained until 429 crossing over to North Africa. The Romans, unable to defeat them, ceded two Mauretanian provinces and the western half of Numidia in 435. However, in October 439 they seized the rest of the Roman provinces, inserting themselves as an important power in western Europe. After the sacking of Rome in 455 the Vandals seized Corsica and Sardinia which they kept until the end of their kingdom in 533. In 476 Odoacer gained most of Sicily for the payment of tribute to the Vandals. In 491 Theodoric gained control over the entire island after repulsing a Vandal invasion and seizing their remaining outpost Lilybaeum on the western tip of the island.

The Gothic War took place between the Ostrogoths and the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire. Sicily was the first part of Italy to be taken under general Belisarius who was commissioned by Eastern Emperor Justinian I. Sicily was used as a base for the Byzantines to conquer the rest of Italy, with Naples, Rome, Milan and the Ostrogoth capital Ravenna falling within five years. However, a new Ostrogoth king, Totila, drove down the Italian peninsula, plundering and conquering Sicily in 550. Totila, in turn, was defeated and killed in the Battle of Taginae by the Byzantine general Narses in 552.

When Ravenna fell to the Lombards in the middle of the 6th century, Syracuse became Byzantium's main western outpost. Latin was gradually supplanted by Greek as the national language and the Greek rites of the Eastern Church were adopted.

The Byzantine Emperor Constans II decided to move from the capital Constantinople to Syracuse in Sicily in 663, the following year he launched an assault from Sicily against the Lombard Duchy of Benevento, which then occupied most of Southern Italy. The rumours that the capital of the empire was to be moved to Syracuse, along with small raids probably cost Constans his life as he was assassinated in 668. His son Constantine IV succeeded him, a brief usurpation in Sicily by Mizizios being quickly suppressed by the new emperor.

From the late 7th century, Sicily joined with Calabria to form the Byzantine Theme of Sicily.

In 826, Euphemius, the commander of the Byzantine fleet of Sicily, forced a nun to marry him. Emperor Michael II caught wind of the matter and ordered that general Constantine[clarification needed ] end the marriage and cut off Euphemius' nose. Euphemius rose up, killed Constantine and then occupied Syracuse; he in turn was defeated and driven out to North Africa.

There, Euphemius requested the help of Ziyadat Allah, the Aghlabid Emir of Tunisia, in regaining the island; an Islamic army of Arabs, Berbers, Cretan Saracens and Persians was sent. The conquest was a see-saw affair; the local population resisted fiercely and the Arabs suffered considerable dissension and infighting among themselves. It took over a century to complete the conquest (although practically complete by 902, the last Byzantine strongholds held out until 965).

Throughout this reign, continued revolts by Byzantine Sicilians happened, especially in the east, and part of the lands were even re-occupied before being quashed. Agricultural items, such as oranges, lemons, pistachio and sugar cane, were brought to Sicily, the native Christians were allowed nominal freedom of religion with jaziya (tax on non-Muslims, imposed by Muslim rulers) to their rulers for the right to practise their own religion privately. However, the Emirate of Sicily began to fragment as inner-dynasty related quarrels took place between the Muslim regime.

By the 11th century, mainland southern Italian powers were hiring ferocious Norman mercenaries, who were Christian descendants of the Vikings; it was the Normans under Roger I who conquered Sicily from the Muslims. After taking Apulia and Calabria, he occupied Messina with an army of 700 knights. In 1068, Robert Guiscard and his men defeated the Muslims at Misilmeri; but the most crucial battle was the siege of Palermo, which led to Sicily being completely in Norman control by 1091.

Many historians have recently argued that the Norman conquest of Islamic Sicily (1060-91) was the start of the Crusades.

In 860, according to an account by the Norman monk Dudo of Saint-Quentin, a Viking fleet, probably under Björn Ironside and Hastein, landed in Sicily, conquering it.

Many Norsemen fought as mercenaries in Southern Italy, including the Varangian Guard led by Harald Hardrada, who later became king of Norway, who conquered Sicily between 1038 and 1040, with the help of Norman mercenaries, under William de Hauteville, who won his nickname Iron Arm by defeating the emir of Syracuse in single combat, and a Lombard contingent, led by Arduin. The Varangians were first used as mercenaries in Italy against the Arabs in 936. Runestones were raised in Sweden in memory of warriors who died in Langbarðaland ( Land of the Lombards), the Old Norse name for southern Italy.

Later, several Anglo-Danish and Norwegian nobles participated in the Norman conquest of southern Italy, like Edgar the Ætheling, who left England in 1086, and Jarl Erling Skakke, who won his nickname ("Skakke", meaning bent head) after a battle against Arabs in Sicily. On the other hand, many Anglo-Danish rebels fleeing William the Conqueror, joined the Byzantines in their struggle against the Robert Guiscard, duke of Apulia, in Southern Italy.

Norman period (1091-1194)

Palermo continued on as the capital under the Hauteville. Roger's son, Roger II of Sicily, was ultimately able to raise the status of the island, along with his holds of Malta and Southern Italy to a kingdom in 1130. During this period, the Kingdom of Sicily was prosperous and politically powerful, becoming one of the wealthiest states in all of Europe; even wealthier than England.

The Siculo-Norman kings relied mostly on the local Sicilian population for the more important government and administrative positions. For the most part, initially Greek, Arabic and Latin were used as languages of administration while Norman was the language of the royal court. Significantly, immigrants from France, England, North Europe, Northern Italy and Campania arrived during this period and linguistically the island would eventually become Latinised, in terms of church it would become completely Roman Catholic, previously under the Byzantines it had been more Eastern Christian.

The most significant changes that the Normans were to bring to Sicily were in the areas of religion, language and population. Almost from the moment that Roger I controlled much of the island, immigration was encouraged from Northern Europe, France, Northern Italy and Campania. For the most part, these consisted of Lombards who were Vulgar Latin variety-speaking and more inclined to support the Western church. With time, Sicily would become overwhelmingly Roman Catholic and a new vulgar Latin idiom would emerge that was distinct to the island.

Roger II's grandson, William II (also known as William the Good) reigned from 1166 to 1189. His greatest legacy was the building of the Cathedral of Monreale, perhaps the best surviving example of Siculo-Norman architecture. In 1177, he married Joan of England (also known as Joanna). She was the daughter of Henry II of England and the sister of Richard the Lion Heart.

Hohenstaufen reign (1194-1266)

Tancred died in 1194, just as Henry VI and Constance were travelling down the Italian peninsula to claim their crown. Henry rode into Palermo at the head of a large army unopposed and thus ended the Siculo-Norman Hauteville dynasty, replaced by the south German ( Swabian) Hohenstaufen. Just as Henry VI was being crowned as King of Sicily in Palermo, Constance gave birth to Frederick II (sometimes referred to as Frederick I of Sicily).

Many repressive measures, passed by Frederick II, were introduced in order to please the Popes who could not tolerate Islam being practiced in the heart of Christendom, which resulted in a rebellion of Sicily's Muslims. This in turn triggered organized resistance and systematic reprisals and marked the final chapter of Islam in Sicily. The Muslim problem plagued Hohenstaufen rule in Sicily under Henry VI and his son Frederick II. The rebellion abated, but direct papal pressure induced Frederick to transfer all his Muslim subjects deep into the Italian hinterland, to Lucera. In 1224, Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor and grandson of Roger II, expelled the few remaining Muslims from Sicily.

Throughout Frederick's reign, there had been substantial antagonism between the Kingdom and the Papacy, which was part of the wider Guelph Ghibelline conflict. This antagonism was transferred to the Hohenstaufen house, and ultimately against Manfred.

Growing opposition to French officialdom and high taxation led to an insurrection in 1282 (the Sicilian Vespers), which was successful with the support of Peter III of Aragón, who was crowned King of Sicily by the island's barons. Peter III had previously married Manfred's daughter, Constance, and it was for this reason that the Sicilian barons effectively invited him. This victory split the Kingdom in two, with Charles continuing to rule the mainland part (still known as the Kingdom of Sicily as well).

Peter III's son, Frederick III of Sicily (also known as Frederick II of Sicily) reigned from 1298 to 1337. For the whole of the 14th century, Sicily was essentially an independent kingdom, ruled by relatives of the kings of Aragon, but for all intents and purposes they were Sicilian kings. The Sicilian parliament, already in existence for a century, continued to function with wide powers and responsibilities.

The island's first university was founded at Catania in 1434. Antonello da Messina is Sicily's greatest artist from this period.

With the union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon in 1479, Sicily was ruled directly by the kings of Spain via governors and viceroys. In the ensuing centuries, authority on the island was to become concentrated among a small number of local barons.

The viceroy had to overcome the distance and poor communication with the royal court in Madrid. It proved almost impossible for the Spanish viceroys both to comply with the demands of the crown and to satisfy the aspirations of the Sicilians - a situation also apparent in Spain's colonies in Latin America. The viceroys secured territorial control and sought to guarantee the loyalty of vassals by distributing patronage in the form of offices and grants in the name of the king. The monarchy, however, also exercised its power through royal councils and independent entities, such as the agents of the Inquisition and visitadores or inspectors. Local spheres of royal influence were never clearly defined, and various local political entities within the viceregal system competed for power, often rendering Sicily ungovernable.

The 16th century was a golden age for Sicily's wheat exports. Inflation, rapid population growth, and international markets brought economic and social changes. In the 17th century, Sicily's silk exports overtook its wheat exports. Internal colonization and the foundation of new settlements by feudal aristocrats in Sicily was significant from 1590 to 1650, involving the redistribution of population away from the larger towns back to the countryside.

The baronage took advantage of increasing population and demand to build new estates, based mostly on wheat, and the new villages were inhabited mostly by landless laborers. The foundation of estates was a means toward social and political prominence for many families. The townspeople initially welcomed the process as a way of alleviating poverty by draining off surplus population, but at the same time it led to a decline in their political and administrative control of the countryside.

Sicily suffered a ferocious outbreak of the Black Death in 1656, followed by a damaging earthquake in the east of the island in 1693. Sicily was frequently attacked by Barbary pirates from North Africa. The subsequent rebuilding created the distinctive architectural style known as Sicilian Baroque. Periods of rule by the house of Savoy (1713-1720) and then the Austrian Habsburgs led to union (1734) with the Bourbon-ruled Kingdom of Naples, under the rule of Don Carlos of Bourbon (later Charles III of Spain).

Bourbon period

The Bourbon kings officially resided in Naples, except for a brief period during the Napoleonic Wars between 1806 and 1815, when the royal family lived in exile in Palermo. The Sicilian nobles welcomed British military intervention during this period and a new constitution was developed specifically for Sicily based on the Westminster model of government - in that a two-chamber parliament was formed (instead of the three of the existing one). The formation of the parliament brought the end of feudalism in the Kingdom.

The British were committed to preserving the security of the Kingdom of Sicily so as to keep Mediterranean sea routes open against the French. The British dispatched several expeditions of troops between 1806 and 1815 and built strong fortifications around Messina.

The Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily were officially merged in 1816 by Ferdinand I to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The accession of Ferdinand II as king of the Two Sicilies in 1830 was hailed by Sicilians; they dreamed that autonomy would be returned to the island and the problems of poverty and maladministration of justice would be tackled by the count of Syracuse, the king's brother and lieutenant in Sicily.

The royal government in Naples saw the problem of Sicily as being purely administrative, a question of making existing institutions function properly. Neapolitan ministers had no interest in serious reforms. Ferdinand's failure, leading to disillusion and the revolt of 1837, was due mainly to his making no attempt to gain support in the Sicilian middle class, with which he could have faced the power of the baronage.

Simmering discontent with Bourbon rule and hopes of Sicilian independence led to major revolts in 1820 and 1848 against Bourbon denial of constitutional government. The 1848 revolution resulted in a sixteen-month period of independence from the Bourbons before its armed forces took back control of the island on 15 May 1849. The city of Messina long harbored proponents of independence throughout the 19th century, and its urban Risorgimento leaders arose out of a diverse milieu comprising artisans, workers, students, clerics, Masons, and sons of English, Irish, and other settlers.

The 1847-48 unrest enjoyed wide support in Messina and produced an organized structure, and consciousness of the need to link the struggle to the whole of Sicily. The insurgents briefly gained control of the city but, despite bitter resistance, the Bourbon army was victorious and suppressed the revolt. This suppression resulted in further oppression, created a diaspora of Messinian and Sicilian revolutionaries outside Sicily and locked Sicily under the control of the reactionary government. The bombardments of Messina and Palermo earned Ferdinand II the name "King Bomba".

Sicily was merged with the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1860 following the expedition of Giuseppe Garibaldi's Mille; after the Dictatorship of Garibaldi the annexation was ratified by a popular plebiscite. The Kingdom of Sardinia became in 1861 the Kingdom of Italy, in the context of the Italian Risorgimento.

However, local elites across the island systematically opposed and nullified efforts of the national government to modernize the traditional economy and political system. For example, they frustrated government efforts to set up new town councils, new police forces, and a liberal judicial system. Furthermore, repeated revolts showed a degree of unrest among the peasants.

In 1866, Palermo revolted against Italy. The city was bombed by the Italian navy, which disembarked on September 22 under the command of Raffaele Cadorna. Italian soldiers summarily executed the civilian insurgents, and once again took possession of the island.

A limited, but long guerrilla campaign against the unionists (1861-1871) took place throughout southern Italy, and in Sicily, inducing the Italian governments to a severe military response. These insurrections were unorganized, and were considered by the Government as operated by "brigands" ("Brigantaggio"). Ruled under martial law for several years, Sicily (and southern Italy) was the object of a harsh repression by the Italian army that summarily executed thousands of people, made tens of thousands prisoners, destroyed villages, and deported people.

Emigration

The Sicilian economy did not adapt easily to unification, and in particular competition by Northern industry made attempts at industrialization in the South almost impossible. While the masses suffered by the introduction of new forms of taxation and, especially, by the new Kingdom's extensive military conscription, the Sicilian economy suffered, leading to an unprecedented wave of emigration.

The reluctance of Sicilian men to allow women to take paid work meant that women usually remained at home, their seclusion often increased due to the restrictions of mourning. Despite such restrictions, women carried out a variety of important roles in nourishing their families, selecting wives for their sons, and helping their husbands in the field.

In in the years between 1889 and 1894, there were labour agitations, through the radical left-wing, called Fasci Siciliani (Sicilian Workers Leagues). The proprietors and landowners asked the government to intervene, and Prime Minister Francesco Crispi declared a state of emergency , dissolving the organizations. The suppression of the strikes also led to an increase in emigration.

Ongoing government neglect in the late 19th century ultimately enabled the establishment of organized crime networks, commonly known as Cosa Nostra. The Mafia became an essential part of the social structure in the late 19th century because of the inability of the Italian state to impose its concept of law and its monopoly on violence in a peripheral region. The decline of feudal structures allowed a new middle class of violent peasant entrepreneurs to emerge who profited from the sale of baronial, Church, and common land and established a system of clientage over the peasantry. The government was forced to compromise with these "bourgeois mafiosi," who used violence to impose their law, manipulated the traditional feudal language, and acted as mediators between society and the state.

The Sicilian mafia during the fascism was fought by the government of Benito Mussolini, who sent the island in 1924 the prefect Cesare Mori. These were gradually able to extend their influence across all sectors over much of the island (and many of its operatives also emigrated to other countries, particularly the United States). After Mussolini came to power in the 1920s, he launched a fierce crackdown on organized crime, but they recovered quickly following the Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943, during World War II, once the Allies freed imprisoned Mafia leaders under the mistaken notion that they were political prisoners.

Although Sicily fell to the Allied armies with relatively little fighting, the German and Italian forces escaped to the mainland largely intact. Control of Sicily gave the Allies a base from which to advance northward through Italy. Furthermore, it proved a valuable training ground for large-scale amphibious operations-lessons that would be essential for the invasion of Normandy.

Following some political agitation of the Sicilian Independence Movement, Sicily became an autonomous region in 1946, with its own Statute, under the new Italian constitution, with its own parliament and elected president.

The latifundia (large feudal agricultural estates) were abolished by sweeping land reform mandating smaller farms in 1950-1962, funded from the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno, the Italian government's development Fund for the South (1950-1984).

Cosa Nostra remains a secret criminal organization with a state-like structure. It utilizes violence as an instrument of control, executing members who break its rules as well as outsiders who threaten or fail to cooperate with the organization. The 1960s Sicilian Mafia trials took place at the end of that decade in response to a rise in organized crime violence around the late 1950s and early 1960s. In 1984, the Italian government initiated an anti-Mafia policy that sought to eliminate the organization by prosecuting its leaders. The early 1990s were the scenario of the dramatic death of Giovanni Falcone and Paolo Borsellino, anti-mafia magistrates, which triggered a general upheaval in Italian political life.

In the second decade of the 21st century, Sicily has become a destination for migrants coming from Africa and Middle Eastern countries, as well as Bangladesh, on their way to Europe, mainly Germany, Northern Italy, France and Sweden.

1. ^ "Sicilia's Urbs of Syracusa". AncientWorlds.net. 20 November 2007. Archived from the original on 21 October 2007.

2. ^ Durant, Will, (2011) The Story of Civilization - The Age of Faith, Simon and Schuster, New York, ISBN 9781451647617

3. ^ Cary, M. (1922). "HISTORICAL REVISIONS. XXI.-The Origins of the Punic Wars". History. 7 (26): 109-111. doi:10.1111/j.1468-229X.1922.tb01629.x. ISSN 0018-2648. JSTOR 24399923.

4. "Gothic War: Byzantine Count Belisarius Retakes Rome". Historynet.com. 7 October 2007. Archived from the original on 2 November 2007.

5. ^ Smith, Denis Mack, (1968) A History of Sicily: Medieval Sicily 800-1713, Chatto & Windus, London, ISBN 0-7011-1347-2

6. "Syracuse, Sicily". TravelMapofSicily.com. 7 October 2007.

7. ^ "Brief history of Sicily" (PDF). Archaeology.Stanford.edu. 7 October 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 June 2007.

8. "Chronological - Historical Table Of Sicily". In Italy Magazine. 7 October 2007. Archived from the original on 27 July 2016.

9. ^ 2. Runriket - Täby Kyrka Archived 2008-06-04 at archive.today, an online article at Stockholm County Museum, retrieved July 1, 2007.

10. A.Lowe: The Barrier and the bridge, op cit;p.92.

11. Julie Taylor. ^ Muslims in Medieval Italy: The Colony at Lucera Archived 2005-03-18 at the Wayback Machine. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books. 2003.

12. Francesco Benigno, "Vecchio e Nuovo Nella Sicilia del Seicento: Il Ruolo Della Colonizzazione Feudale", [Old and new in 17th-century Sicily: the role of feudal colonization] Studi Storici (1986), Vol. 27 Issue 1, pp 93-107

13. Correnti, (2002)

14. Dickie (2004)

15. John Paul Russo, "The Sicilian Latifundia," ^ Italian Americana, March 1999, Vol. 17 Issue 1, pp 40-57

Abulafia, David. The Two Italies: economic relations between the Norman kingdom of Sicily and the northern communes (Cambridge UP, 2005).

Atkinson, Rick. The Day of Battle: The War in Sicily and Italy, 1943-1944 (2007)

Baedeker (1912), "Sicily: Historical Notice", Southern Italy and Sicily (16th ed.), Leipzig: Leipzig, Baedeker, pp. 290-303

Blok Anton. The Mafia of a Sicilian Village 1860-1960: A Study of Violent Peasant Entrepreneurs (1988)

Chiarelli, Leonard C. A history of Muslim Sicily (Midsea Books, 2018).

Darby, Graham. "Sicily's British Occupation" History Today (July 2012)(, Vol. 62 Issue 7, pp 28-34; covers 1806 to 1815.

De Angelis, Franco. Archaic and classical Greek Sicily: a social and economic history (Oxford UP, 2016).

Dickie, John. Cosa Nostra: A History of the Sicilian Mafia (2004), synthesis of Italian scholarship

Dimico, Arcangelo, Alessia Isopi, and Ola Olsson. "Origins of the Sicilian Mafia: The market for lemons." Journal of Economic History 77.4 (2017): 1083-1115. online

Domenico, Roy (2002). "Sicily". Regions of Italy: a Reference Guide to History and Culture. Greenwood. ISBN 0313307334.

Dummett, Jeremy. Sicily: Island of Beauty and Conflict (Bloomsbury, 2020).

Epstein, S. R. "Cities, Regions and the Late Medieval Crisis: Sicily and Tuscany Compared," Past & Present, Feb 1991, Issue 130, pp 3-50, advanced social history

Epstein, Stephan R. Island for Itself: Economic Development and Social Change in Late Medieval Sicily (1992). ISBN 978-0521385183

Finley, M. I. and Denis Mack Smith. History of Sicily (3 Vols. 1961)

Edward Augustus Freeman; Thomas Ashby (1910). "Sicily". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). New York. pp. 20-35. OCLC 14782424 - via Internet Archive.

Gabaccia, Donna R. "Migration and Peasant Militance: Western Sicily, 1880-1910," Social Science History, Spring 1984, Vol. 8 Issue 1, pp 67-80 in JSTOR

Gabaccia, Donna. Militants & Migrants: Rural Sicilians Become American Workers (1988) 239p; covers 1860 to 20th century

Granara, William. Narrating Muslim Sicily: War and Peace in the Medieval Mediterranean World (Bloomsbury, 2019).

Harpster, Matthew. "Sicily: A Frontier in the Centre of the Sea?." Al-Masāq 31.2 (2019): 158-170. online

Jäckh, Theresa, and Mona Kirsch, eds. Urban dynamics and transcultural communication in medieval Sicily (Wilhelm Fink, 2017).

Jonasch, Melanie, ed. The Fight for Greek Sicily: Society, Politics, and Landscape (Oxbow Books, 2020).

Kantorowicz, Ernst. Frederick the Second, 1194-1250 (Frederick Ungar, 1957).

Denis Mack Smith, A History of Sicily (Medieval Sicily: 800-1713; Modern Sicily: After 1713, 2 voll.), Chatto & Windus, 1968

Mallette, Karla. The Kingdom of Sicily, 1100-1250: A Literary History (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2011).

Matthew, Donald. The Norman Kingdom of Sicily (2008) excerpt

Romolo Menighetti, Franco Nicastro, History of Autonomous Sicily, Legas, Mineola, Usa, 2001

Militello, Paolo. "The Historiography on Early Modern Age Sicily Between the 20th and 21st Centuries." Mediterranea-ricerche storiche 36 (2016) 101-118 online.

Newark, Tim. "Pact with the Devil?" History Today (April 2007), Vol. 57 Issue 4, pp32-38' US deals with Mafia 1942-1943.

Pfuntner, Laura. Urbanism and empire in Roman Sicily (U of Texas Press, 2019).

Ramm, Agatha. "The Risorgimento in Sicily: Recent Literature," English Historical Review (1972) 87#345 pp. 795-811 in JSTOR

Reeder, Linda. Widows in White: Migration and the Transformation of Rural Italian Women, Sicily, 1880-1920. (2003), 322pp ISBN 0-8020-8525-3

Riall, Lucy. Sicily and the Unification of Italy: Liberal Policy & Local Power, 1859-1866 (1998), 252pp

Runciman, Steven. The Sicilian Vespers (1958) online

Schneider, Jane. Culture and Political Economy in Western Sicily (1976)

Smith, Denis Mack. Medieval Sicily, 800-1713 (1968).

Takayama, Hiroshi. Sicily and the Mediterranean in the Middle Ages (2019) excerpts

Vincent, Benjamin (1910), "Sicily", Haydn's Dictionary of Dates (25th ed.), London: Ward, Lock & Co., hdl:2027/uc2.ark:/13960/t41r6xh8t

Williams, Isobel. Allies and Italians under Occupation: Sicily and Southern Italy, 1943-45 (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013). online review

Valguarnera, Mariano (1614). Discorso dell'origine ed antichità di Palermo, e de' primi abitatori della Sicilia, e dell'Italia. Palermo: Giovanni Battista Maringo.

Gallo, Francesca. Sicilia austriaca. Le istruzioni ai viceré, 1719-1734, Napoli, Jovene, 1994.

Gibilaro, Giovanni. Sicilia austriaca. 1720-1735, 1996.

D. Ligresti, Sicilia aperta (secoli XV-XVII). Mobilità di uomini e di idee, Palermo, Quaderni Mediterranea Ricerche Storiche, 2006

Riccobene, Luigi. Sicilia ed Europa dal 1700 al 1815, (3 vol), Sellerio, Palermo 1996

Tusa, Sebastiano. La Sicilia nella Preistorica. Sellerio, Palermo 1999

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The history of Sicily has been influenced by numerous ethnic groups. It has seen Sicily controlled by external powers - Phoenician and Carthaginian, Greek, Roman, Vandal and Ostrogoth, Byzantine Greek, Aghlabid, Kalbid, Norman, Aragonese and Spanish - but also experiencing important periods of independence, as under the indigenous Sicanians, Elymians and Sicels, and later as the Emirate of Sicily, County of Sicily, and Kingdom of Sicily.

# data[].attributes.body
Sicilian Medieval Music

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.authors[].name
𝔐𝔲𝔰𝔦𝔠𝔞 𝔐𝔢𝔡𝔦𝔢𝔳𝔞𝔩𝔢

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
𝔄𝔟𝔟𝔞𝔩𝔩𝔞𝔱𝔦, 𝔞𝔟𝔟𝔞𝔩𝔞𝔱𝔦! - Sicilian Medieval Music