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The campaign to eliminate racism, discrimination and intolerance from football has become a major priority for UEFA in recent years – and the European body makes full use of its high-profile platforms to send out a key and unequivocal message: No to Racism.

By Timur Scholz

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As you can see in the following statistic a lot of people in the US still say, that Americas history in slave trade (and concluding to that racism) is still affecting black people in the US.

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The New York Times wrote in interesting article concerning racism in the US, where you are able to compare your experiences of discrimination with the experiences of 101 black teenagers. You can participate in a survey to see the comparisons.

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How Much Racism Do You Face Every Day? (Published 2020)

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To see how your experience compares, answer some of the questions that were posed to 101 black teenagers as part of a study measuring the racism they face on a daily basis.

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Discrimination is, per definition, the unjust or prejudical treatment of different categories of people.

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You can seperate discrimination in different "categories" (characteristics) like discrimation of sex, race or skin color, religion,age, origin or ethnicity.

Examples:
discrimation of sex= sexism
discrimination of race= racism
discrimination of age= ageism

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Discrimination is often the outcome of prejudices and these prejudices lead people to see some individuals (or groups) as inferior.

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Trump`s influence on discrimination in the US

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Trump`s influence on discrimination in the US

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As you can see in the table below, 56% of adults tell, that Trump has made the race relations in America even worse.

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A huge problem is, that politicians are using dog whistles in their speeches. Dog whistle politics is, when politicians use coded language they defend as benign, but is actually intented to provike strong emotional in their audience.

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Ben & Jerry`s has an awesome campaign concerning racism, where they try to educate the society with small videos and articles. Below you can find one of these videos and also the link to the complete article,( you might like it).

https://www.benjerry.com/whats-new/2016/systemic-racism-is-real/

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We Must Talk About Race to Fix Economic Inequality

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prejudice - preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience (e.g. prejudice against foreigners)

inferior - lower in rank, status or quality (similar : lesser)

Dog-whistle politics - political messaging employing coded language that appears to mean one thing to the population of the general public at large while also simultaneously having an additional, different, or more specific resonance for a targeted subgroup

simultaneously - at the same time

target (past tense, past participle: targeted) - select as an object of attention or attack

benign - gentle and kind OR (of a disease) not harmful in effect

subgroup - a subdivision of a group

unequivocal - leaving no doubt; unambiguous

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Police Brutality in the United States especially against African Americans

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Police Brutality in the United States especially against African Americans

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Police brutality in the United States | Definition, History, Causes, & Examples

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Police brutality in the United States, the unwarranted or excessive and often illegal use of force against civilians by U.S. police officers. Forms of police brutality have ranged from assault and battery (e.g., beatings) to mayhem, torture, and murder.

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In the following bar chart you are able to see, that 42% of women in the US say, that they have already been discriminated at work, because of their gender. In comparison to that, only 22% of men said, that they had to face such problems.

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Trump promoting racism by calling the Coronavirus „the Chinese Virus“ 

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Trump promoting racism by calling the Coronavirus „the Chinese Virus“ 

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hen Rosalind Chou was on a flight at the end of February, she saw a woman in front of her raise her phone up high, as if taking a selfie. The woman snapped a picture and sent it to a friend, whose reply showed up in big font on the woman's phone: "Oh no, is he Chinese?"

Across the aisle from Chou was a man she later learned is Korean American and a woman sitting next to him, also of Asian descent. The woman quickly replied to her friend: "There's a lot of them. Pray for me."

Chou knows her experience was not an anomaly. Across the US, Chinese Americans, and other Asians, are increasingly living in fear as the coronavirus spreads across the country amid racial prejudice that the outbreak is somehow the fault of China. It is a fear grounded in racism, but also promoted from the White House as Donald Trump - and his close advisers - insist on calling it "the Chinese virus".

"This is becoming more widespread," said Chou, an associate professor of sociology at Georgia State University. "My fear is coughing in public, coughing while Asian, and the reaction other people will have."

The last few weeks has seen a rise in racist incidents and comments directed toward Asian Americans tied to fears of coronavirus.

Last week Trump started to refer to Covid-19 as the Chinese virus.

"The United States will be powerfully supporting those industries, like airlines and others, that are particularly affected by the Chinese virus. We will be stronger than ever before!" read one tweet on 16 March, the first time he referred to the illness as "Chinese virus" online.

It comes from China, that's why. It comes from China. I want to be accurate

Donald Trump

Trump's use of the phrase sparked a chorus of criticism. Professional basketball player Jeremy Lin told Trump on Twitter that he should be instead supporting vulnerable people, "including those that will be affected by the racism you're empowering". Author Celeste Ng noted on Twitter that "Asians worldwide are facing actual harassment because of people who insist on calling the illness the Chinese virus".

Trump doubled down on the name at a press conference on Wednesday, insisting that using the term is not racist. "It comes from China, that's why. It comes from China. I want to be accurate," Trump said.

Trump has received support from his allies who have defended the president for giving coronavirus a new name. "China is to blame because the culture where people eat bats and snakes and dogs and things like that ... that's why China has been a source of a lot of these viruses," John Cornyn, a Republican senator from Texas, told a reporter when asked if the name was inappropriate.

Trump's new name for coronavirus comes after weeks of racist attacks against Asian American seen across the country. An Asian woman in New York City wearing a face mask was assaulted and called "diseased" in early February by a stranger in a subway station. In Los Angeles, a man directed a racist rant about coronavirus to a fellow passenger, who is Asian.

One family in Fresno, California, had their car tagged with the word "Fuck Asions ... and coronavirus". A middle school student in California was told by his teacher to go to the nurse's office after he coughed, though he told his teacher that he choked on water and was not sick. When he asked his teacher why he didn't ask non-Asian students to go to the nurse after coughing, he was told to "let it go and move on".

"The increasing frequency [in incidents] is something we have to take seriously," said Gregg Orton, national director of the National Council of Asian Pacific Americans (NCAPA). "Racial scapegoating is the exact opposite response we want to see from leaders of our country."

NCAPA led a group of 260 civil rights organizations in sending a call to Congress to denounce anti-Asian racism around coronavirus. The Congressional Asian Pacific American Caucus sent a letter to their fellow members of Congress urging them to share verifiable information about the illness given the misconceptions about national origin and the spread of the virus.

Asian American history scholars point out there is a long history of anti-Asian discrimination in America that gives precedent to racist attacks against Asian Americans because of coronavirus.

"Close from the very beginning, Chinese immigrants were seen as inferior, filthy and diseased," said Claire Jean Kim, a professor of political science and Asian American studies at the University of California at Irvine. When Chinese immigrants came to America in 1870, they were painted as a threat to the white working class, leading to racist attacks and segregation. Chinatowns were seen as filthy and full of scum.

The increasing frequency [in incidents] is something we have to take seriously

Gregg Orton

"What is being accomplished by using this kind of language?" Kim said. "We're being misled about what causes pandemics and how to possibly prevent them or reduce their severity in the future. That's the kind of conversation that we need to be having."

There is also a history of leaders painting those in an outsider group as diseased, evoking fear and often violence in their followers toward that group of people, said Susan Benesch, a faculty associate at the Berkman Klein Center for Internet and Society at Harvard.

Benesch coined the term "dangerous speech": rhetoric that is used to turn one group of people violently against another. That Chinese people are unhygienic and unsanitary is a "very old feature" of dangerous speech against Chinese in America.

"It's not really hatred that is the most operative emotion regarding [dangerous speech], it's fear. Fear is what makes people turn violently against another group of people more than hatred," Benesch said. "The level of fear is so great around this epidemic."

As the coronavirus and its effects appear to be long-lasting, advocates in the Asian American community emphasize the importance of speaking up and calling out any racist remarks, when the environment is safe.

"We have to acknowledge everyone's humanity at this time because the virus doesn't know race or color," Chou said.

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'Coughing while Asian': living in fear as racism feeds off coronavirus panic

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hen Rosalind Chou was on a flight at the end of February, she saw a woman in front of her raise her phone up high, as if taking a selfie. The woman snapped a picture and sent it to a friend, whose reply showed up in big font on the woman's phone: "Oh no, is he Chinese?"

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How the Pandamic of Covid-19 could lead to more discrimination of black americans

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How the Pandamic of Covid-19 could lead to more discrimination of black americans

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While New York's Governor Andrew Cuomo once called the coronavirus a "great equalizer", data shows the virus has been anything but indiscriminate.

As the US climbed to more than 10,000 coronavirus deaths on Monday state health officials grappled with its disproportionate impact on black Americans. The disparity is especially stark in cities like New Orleans, Chicago and Detroit, where high concentrations of African Americans live.
BAME groups hit harder by Covid-19 than white people, UK study suggests
Louisiana has the fourth largest number of Covid-19 cases in the country, and the majority of the Covid-19 deaths are in New Orleans, where black Americans constitute 60% of the population. "Slightly more than 70% of [coronavirus] deaths in Louisiana are African Americans," the state's governor, John Bel Edwards, said in a press conference on Monday. "That deserves more attention and we're going to have to dig into that to see what we can do to slow that down."

Midwestern cities including Detroit, Chicago and Milwaukee are also reporting an increasing imbalance.

Detroit, which is almost 80% black, has the most concentrated coronavirus cases in the state of Michigan. The death rate in the city accounts for 40% of overall deaths in the state.

In Chicago, which is 30% black, black Americans account for 70% of all coronavirus cases in the city and more than half of the state's deaths. "We know all too well that there are general disparities in health outcomes that play along racial lines and the same may be true for this virus," said Ngozi Esike, director of the Illinois department of public health.

African Americans face a higher risk of exposure to the virus, mostly on account of concentrating in urban areas and working in essential industries. Only 20% of black workers reported being eligible to work from home, compared with about 30% of their white counterparts, according to the Economic Policy Institute.

The virus has killed a high number of older black men because of this, though there have also been outbreaks among women and young African Americans in the south.

Meanwhile, experts also point to initial research showing a high prevalence of Covid-19 among those suffering from obesity, high blood pressure and diabetes - risk factors more common among black Americans. The virus is known to take a harsher toll on those with underlying health issues, and many hospitals are only testing those admitted for critical care.

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Pedestrians wearing protective masks walk near the Eastern Market in Detroit, Michigan. Photograph: Bloomberg via Getty Images

Critics note that those risks are significantly exacerbated by racial inequities in healthcare, including facility closures and caps on public health insurance plans like Medicaid and Medicare. African Americans are twice as likely to lack health insurance compared with their white counterparts, and more likely to live in medically underserved areas, where primary care is sparse or expensive.

Unconscious racial bias can also contribute to unequal health outcomes, especially when health professionals are inexperienced with the culture of the community they serve, according to the Journal of General Internal Medicine. The Century Foundation found that healthcare providers located within majority African American or Latinx neighborhoods tend to provide lower-quality care.

Governor JB Pritkzer of Illinois acknowledged racism's role in the state's response to the outbreak, but he called it "a much broader problem" that won't be solved in a matter of weeks. "It's hard to make up for decades, maybe centuries, of inequality of application of healthcare to people of color," he said.

And while the virus doesn't discriminate, Dr Uché Blackstock, practitioner and CEO of Advancing Health Equity, a healthcare advocacy group, said government responses can.

She noted that as the virus first spread, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention initially released testing guidelines that prioritized those who had traveled abroad. That meant Blackstock's mostly black patients in low-income areas of Brooklyn and Queens were not tested as quickly as her more affluent, white clients in Manhattan who had the means to travel.

"What we know now is that Covid-19 had been circulating in our communities for much longer than we realized," she said.

In Wisconsin, more than half of the state's 86 confirmed deaths are in the city of Milwaukee. Limited testing and slow public outreach resulted in the number of cases in the city jumping from just one to more than 350 in less than two weeks. Health officials said the virus was probably introduced to the city after its first infected resident came in contact with someone from an affluent, white suburb nearby.

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A man wearing a face mask walks past the Franklin Square fire station in Washington DC. Photograph: Drew Angerer/Getty Images

The state representative David Bowen, who is black, was the first Wisconsin lawmaker to be diagnosed with the virus. He told the Guardian that it was later confirmed he had passed the virus on to three others. Only one person was able to get tested.

"When white communities get sick, we in the black community are threatened to die from the same sickness, with lack of healthcare often leaving us to self-diagnose," he said.

According to CDC guidelines, every state is legally required to track data on testing and treatment by race, as it has done during other outbreaks. Fewer than a dozen have released that data so far.

Last week congressional Democrats, including Senator Elizabeth Warren and Congresswoman Ayanna Pressley, both of Massachusetts, sent a letter demanding the CDC provide racial data. Without demographic data, health officials and lawmakers would not be able to address inequities in health outcomes and testing that might emerge, the letter said.

The Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights also called out the CDC for not including those racial breakdowns. "This is a crisis like none other and officials in our state and federal governments play a large role here in bringing transparency," said Kristen Clarke, committee president and executive director.

The committee sent letters urging state health departments, as well as Washington DC, to release their numbers. On Monday, Washington's Mayor Muriel Bowser published coronavirus numbers by race for the first time: of the District's 24 deaths, 14 were of black patients. After losing its majority-black status in 2011, Washington DC is now 45.5% African American.

Bowser dismissed questions on racial disparities, claiming "all deaths are a concern". But for many black communities the threat of being infected by Covid-19 is proportional to their fear. According to Pew, 46% of black Americans viewed the coronavirus as a threat to their health, more than double their white counterparts.

"We know that black Americans are particularly vulnerable. This is a social, economic and racial justice issue," Clarke said. "How one community is treated impacts all communities across the country."
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'It's a racial justice issue': Black Americans are dying in greater numbers from Covid-19

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While New York's Governor Andrew Cuomo once called the coronavirus a "great equalizer", data shows the virus has been anything but indiscriminate. As the US climbed to more than 10,000 coronavirus deaths on Monday state health officials grappled with its disproportionate impact on black Americans.

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multiculturalism = the support for the presence of, several distinct cultural or ethnic groups within a society

equality= having the same opportunities and rights

stereotype=an oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing

migration= movement from one country to another

homophobia= dislike or prejudice against homosexual people

transphobia= dislike or prejudice against transexual or transgender people

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In the US abortion is a very controversial topic, because of the high amount of conservative and religious people. The following article discusses wheter abortion will be completely banned in the US by 2020. A ban of abortion would lead to enormous problems and is also a discrimination towards women, as each should have a right to self-determination.

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In a centuries-long debate about gender and sexuality, 2020 could mark a turning point for abortion rights in the US.

In the coming year, the anti-abortion president, Donald Trump, faces re-election, and a conservative supreme court will take up its first abortion case, with potentially far-reaching consequences for a woman's right to choose in America.

Supporters and activists on both sides of the divide - pro-choice and anti-abortion - are braced for a titanic fight that could change the face of abortion access in the States.

"I don't think there's any doubt that the big issue this year is going to be the election in November," said Carol Tobias, president of National Right to Life, an anti-abortion organization.

For activists like herself, "the worst fear would be absolutely everything goes against us in the election, and we have a pro-abortion president and Democrats like Chuck Schumer and Nancy Pelosi in charge of the House and the Senate," said Tobias. "They could do some serious, long-lasting damage, but I really, really, really do not believe that is going to happen."

Meanwhile David Cohen, a pro-choice Drexel University law professor and co-author of Obstacle Course: The Everyday Struggle to Get an Abortion in America, described the coming election as "an all-consuming news item this year". He said: "We have two parties with starkly different views on abortion, so that is going to be a major issue in the presidential campaign."

'An unprecedented wave of the most restrictive anti-abortion laws'

This week marks the 47th anniversary of the landmark US supreme court case Roe v Wade, which legalized abortion in the US and has been a target for conservatives since the religious right adopted abortion as a cause in the late 1970s.

Hundreds of thousands of anti-abortion protesters will also gather in Washington DC on 24 January for the March for Life, the nation's largest anti-abortion protest. And the evidence of recent years shows they are successfully rolling back access to abortion across the US.

Last year saw an unprecedented wave of the most restrictive anti-abortion laws in decades, many blatantly unconstitutional. In 2019, so-called " heartbeat bills", which ban abortion at six weeks, before most women know they are pregnant, became law in Georgia, Kentucky, Ohio and Mississippi. Alabama banned abortion outright.

In one case, an extreme bill proposed in Ohio would have charged doctors with "abortion murder" if they did not attempt to "re-implant" an ectopic pregnancy. There is no such procedure in medical science, and ectopic pregnancies that form in the fallopian tubes are never viable. They do, however, threaten women's lives.

None of these laws are in effect, as they directly contravene law set out in Roe v Wade. This is by design. Emboldened by Trump and funded by conservative Republican mega-donors, abortion opponents hope they can push the right-leaning supreme court to take up a case and overturn Roe, even though most of the public agrees abortion should remain legal.

"The main takeaway is that the states will continue to be important players on abortion laws and regulation,"said Elizabeth Nash, state issues manager at the pro-choice Guttmacher Institute.

Clinics are shuttering in large numbers in the south and midwest

There will be an intense focus on the supreme court this spring, as it hears oral arguments in June Medical Services LLC v Gee. The case from Louisiana focuses on whether doctors should be required to obtain the right to admit patients to local hospitals and will have national implications.

The right to admit patients to hospitals, called "admitting privileges", is meant to sound like it improves women's health. In fact, hospitals are already required to take all cases which come through the emergency department. Instead, admitting privileges often serve as an insurmountable hurdle for doctors who practice independently at abortion clinics, in effect closing their practices.

If it is ruled constitutional, the regulation could shut down two of Louisiana's three abortion clinics, despite providing no measurable health benefits for women. Legal scholars were shocked the country's highest court was even hearing the case. It ruled on an identical law from Texas in 2016, finding the measures unconstitutional and an undue burden to women seeking abortions.

"The breadth of the outcomes is really wide," said Cohen. The case could result in "everything from 'you can regulate a little more' to 'you can outlaw abortion'. So there's a lot we don't know about what's coming in the future."

But if the case in the supreme court could decide the legal fate of abortion rights, a woman's ability to exercise her right is already in dire straits. Between 2011 and 2017, 4% of abortion clinics closed across the US. This modest change obscures a broader truth - clinics are shuttering in large numbers in the south and midwest and opening on the coasts, leading to expensive logistical nightmares for many women.

Abortion is now central to America's culture wars, one of a number of divisive issues shaped by a hyper-partisan political divide. Trump has played a key role in widening the gulf - and attempting to exploit it for electoral gain.

"Virtually every top Democrat also now supports late-term abortion, ripping babies straight from the mother's womb right up until the moment of birth," Trump told a booing audience at a recent rally in Toledo, Ohio. That statement is false - but emblematic.

Abortion is a repeat topic as Trump campaigns for re-election at rallies, where his rhetoric often goes beyond what even the anti-abortion movement could have hoped for from past Republican candidates.

Tobias and other anti-abortion activists have worked diligently to spread news of Trump's "amazing work" to the broader electorate. She mentioned a list of his administration'sachievements thatthe movement holds in esteem, including remaking the federal bench with ideological judges and preventing foreign aid from being used to advise women on abortions.

"I'm expecting more pro-life laws to be passed, and there will of course be more challenges in the court, but we're moving forward," said Tobias.

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People during a rally calling for abortion rights outside the US supreme court in Washington DC, on 21 May 2019. Photograph: Ting Shen/Xinhua/Barcroft Media

That was not always the case. The Christian right only took up the mantle of abortion after Roe was decided and after the supreme court ruled against the segregationist policies of private Christian schools, many of which were founded to exclude African American students.

Southern Baptists even supported abortion rights at their annual conference until 1976. Until Roe, abortion was seen mostly as an issue for the Catholic church, and it was predominantly Democratic states that opposed access to abortion and contraceptives.

Now, most Americans - nearly 80%, according to Gallup polling - support legal abortion in at least some circumstances. However, abortion has historically been a motivating issue for conservative voters, less so for liberals. That has led to a virulent anti-abortion right, while the left has only begun to enshrine abortion rights in state law.

Loretta Ross is a reproductive justice activist and expert who has worked not just for abortion rights but against pregnancy discrimination and maternal mortality. "We just have to keep on fighting the same way black people have to keep on fighting for voting rights for 400 years," she said.

Some older feminists in particular fear abortion rights, which younger women have grown up with, have been taken for granted since Roe v Wade. Doctors such as Mary Jane Minkin, a professor of obstetrics and gynecology at Yale School of Medicine, worry about a return to illegal and deadly procedures.

"Unfortunately, the young women today don't realize how bad it was," said Minkin. When she was attending Brown University in 1968, "I knew of a young woman a couple years before me, she got pregnant during freshman week.

"She was subsequently infertile ... had an illegal abortion done, and couldn't get pregnant thereafter," said Minkin. There were, of course, even worse outcomes. One of Minkin's mother's friends had a sister, a flight attendant, who died from an illegal abortion.

"There were very dark times with people dying having septic abortions and people being infertile for the rest of their lives," said Minkin. "We don't want to go back to that. We really don't want to go back to that."
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Will 2020 be the year abortion is banned in the US?

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In a centuries-long debate about gender and sexuality, 2020 could mark a turning point for abortion rights in the US. In the coming year, the anti-abortion president, Donald Trump, faces re-election, and a conservative supreme court will take up its first abortion case, with potentially far-reaching consequences for a woman's right to choose in America.

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The following article is presenting/introducing 25 Organizations who fight for gender equality. Number one is the "UN women"-organisation , who is fighting for womens rights and equalitarianism and gender nondiscrimination since 2010.

(https://www.unwomen.org/en)

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25 Organizations Fighting for Gender Equality

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1. UN Women The United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women) is the UN agency dedicated to gender equality. The agency was established to accelerate progress on meeting women's needs across the world. It supports the UN members states in achieving global standards of gender equality, and it works [...]

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Please add a "shelf" for annotations and advice by and from your teachers...

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Make sure that you use trustworthy sources... have a look at the information pages attached here:

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Not only people with migration background are affected by discrimation because of Covid-19. But the pandemic has also serious consequences for women, who have to deal with domestic violence. Experts think, that the number of domestic assaults will increase significantly during the lockdown.

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In Focus: Gender equality matters in COVID-19 response

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UN Women is bringing up-to-date information and analysis on how and why gender matters in COVID-19 response.

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https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/03/20/coronavirus-trump-chinese-virus/

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This article of the LA Times evaluates various statistics that deal with police violence.

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About 1 in 1,000 black men and boys in America can expect to die at the hands of police, according to a new analysis of deaths involving law enforcement officers. That makes them 2.5 times more likely than white men and boys to die during an encounter with cops.

The analysis also showed that Latino men and boys, black women and girls and Native American men, women and children are also killed by police at higher rates than their white peers. But the vulnerability of black males was particularly striking.

"That 1-in-1,000 number struck us as quite high," said study leader Frank Edwards, a sociologist at Rutgers University. "That's better odds of being killed by police than you have of winning a lot of scratch-off lottery games."

The number-crunching by Edwards and his coauthors also revealed that for all young men, police violence was one of the leading causes of death in the years 2013 to 2018.

The findings, published this month in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, add hard numbers to a pattern personified by victims like Eric Garner, Tamir Rice and Fredd ie Gray.

Five years after police in the St. Louis suburb of Ferguson, Mo., fatally shot Michael Brown, protesters and activist groups have focused public attention on the disproportionate use of force against African Americans and other people of color.

Scientists, meanwhile, are increasingly studying police violence as a public health problem whose long-term harms radiate far beyond the original victim.

"It can have these toxic effects on communities, in terms of both their physical and mental health," Edwards said.

A study published in the Lancet last year found that police killings of unarmed black men were associated with an increase in mental health problems such as depression and emotional issues for black people living in the state where the killing took place.

And living in a state of constant fear can lead to chronic stress, Edwards said. He referred to "the talk," a conversation that many African American parents have with their children - especially boys - about how to interact with police to avoid being harmed.

"They know that young black men are singled out as being inherently suspect," he said.

Accurately measuring the mortality rate associated with police violence right alongside those of cancer, heart disease and other major causes of death is a crucial step toward mitigating its damage and even "treating" its root causes. But calculating the true rate of police killings is difficult because official data are limited, researchers said.

The National Vital Statistics System captures some of these deaths, but it appears to underreport them, researchers said. This might have to do with the information given to coroners and medical examiners, or with the way they code deaths; the researchers can't say for sure.

To pull those numbers together, Edwards and his colleagues turned to Fatal Encounters, a journalist-led system that collects and combines information on police violence that's available through news coverage, public records and social media. Although not an official database, it appears to provide comprehensive information on recent police killings and has been endorsed as a sound source of data by the federal government's Bureau of Justice Statistics, the researchers said.

By combining and then analyzing information from Fatal Encounters and the National Vital Statistics System, the team was able to calculate the prevalence of fatal police violence overall and according to race, age and gender. Cases that police described as suicides were excluded, as were those involving a vehicle collision or accident such as an overdose or a fall.

For Latino men and boys, the risk was up to 1.4 times higher than it was for whites. For Native American men, the risk was 1.2 to 1.7 times higher.

Overall, women's risk of being killed by police was roughly 20 times lower than the risk to men. Even so, there were clear differences by ethnicity and race.

For instance, black women were about 1.4 times as likely to be killed by police as white women, the researchers found. Native American women were from 1.1 to 2.1 times as likely to be killed as their white peers.

Among Asians and Pacific Islanders, both men and women were less than half as likely as their white peers to be killed by police.

And Latina women were 12% to 23% less likely than white women to meet that fate. (Edwards called that finding "interesting," but he hesitated to speculate about it without studying the issue further.)

Across all groups, younger adults were most at risk; the chances of being killed by police peaked between the ages of 20 and 35.

The early 20s are a particularly dangerous time for young men, the researchers found. During the study period, police use of force accounted for 1.6% of all deaths of black men between the ages of 20 and 24. It was also responsible for 1.2% of deaths of Latino and Native American men. However, police violence accounted for just 0.5% of deaths of white and Asian American men in that age range.

"We believe these numbers, if anything, are a little bit conservative, maybe a bit too low," Edwards said. "But we think that these are the best that can be done in terms of just getting a baseline risk estimate out there."

Justin Feldman, a social epidemiologist at the New York University School of Medicine, said the most striking result for him was the mortality risk for black men and boys, which he called "pretty staggering."

"That's quite meaningful," said Feldman, who was not involved in the study. "If it's not you being killed by police, it's someone you know or someone in your community."

Abigail Sewell, a sociologist at Emory University who did not work on the report, said she wasn't surprised by most of the study's results. But that did not change the gravity of the findings.

"Honestly, it was a really unsettling paper," she said.

Part of the solution may be to reduce unnecessary police contact in the first place, Sewell said. For example, programs that helped young men of color find jobs might help keep them off the streets and away from cops. Perhaps mental health professionals could be called upon to address psychiatric issues instead of asking police to do so, since they typically do not have training for such tasks.

If unnecessary police contact were eliminated, she said, the incidence of fatal police violence might be lower - and racial disparities might be diminished too.

"But I'm not sure if the disparities would disappear altogether," she said. "These women and these men ... are living in neighborhoods that are overpoliced, where the police are very brutal in the way they treat citizens."

Retired Police Maj. Neill Franklin also highlighted the need for cultural and logistical shifts in policing. He pointed to the "war on drugs" waged by the federal government as an example.

That campaign "is clearly a public health issue when it comes to addiction, but for decades we have been using our police departments as the tip of the spear in dealing with this public health issue," said Franklin, who now serves as executive director of the Law Enforcement Action Partnership, an advocacy group comprising criminal justice professionals.

That spear, he said, has often been pointed toward black communities in inner cities.

The study authors said other factors may also be at play. It's possible that the lightness or darkness of a person's skin tone within his or her racial and ethnic group could affect his or her risk. So could geography, if Latino citizens are treated differently in different states.

But in order to probe such questions, scientists say they need far more data than is currently available. Information on police stops, whether or not they result in an arrest, would be crucial in determining the extent to which racial bias plays a role in police contact.

Franklin, who spent much of his 34-year career in law enforcement in the Baltimore city and Maryland state police departments, agreed.

"We need to do a much better job on monitoring the interactions of our police officers as they're going about their daily duties," he said. "I think we would be foolish to believe that we have solved to any great extent the issue of racial profiling in this country regarding police."

Getting that data will require more cooperation from police departments across the country, the researchers added.

"The United States is unique among wealthy democracies in terms of the number of people that are killed by its police forces," Feldman said. "I think the No. 1 thing it comes down to is a lack of accountability by police departments, both legally and politically."

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Getting killed by police is a leading cause of death for young black men in America

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About 1 in 1,000 black men and boys in America can expect to die at the hands of police, according to a new analysis of deaths involving law enforcement officers. That makes them 2.5 times more likely than white men and boys to die during an encounter with cops.