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How to Avoid Respondent Bias in Quantitative Research

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How to Avoid Respondent Bias in Quantitative Research

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Bias is an unavoidable occurrence in market research ( Suchman 1962) but researchers can limit its effects on survey results by understanding what causes it and taking proactive measures. By implementing effective survey design and ensuring questions are both well written and well-formatted, researchers can be more confident that respondents' answers are more accurate and autonomous ( Summers and Hammonds 1969).

In this article, we explore some of the common types of bias in survey research, and how to minimise their impact on survey results.

Acquiescence bias or 'Yes' bias

Acquiescence bias AKA friendliness bias occurs when a respondent feels inclined to answer a question in a positive or agreeable way. This can happen when the respondent selects options which seem "right".

For example, in a customer satisfaction survey, the respondent may select "Very satisfied" because it is the most positive option and pleasing to the researcher. Acquiescence bias can also occur if respondents are fatigued and begin to answer questions with minimal thought. It is more prevalent in Asian cultures than in Western countries and varies by other characteristics of respondent groups ( Johnson et al. 2005).

To minimise acquiescence bias, the researcher should review and adjust any questions which might elicit a favourable answer including binary response formats such as "Yes/No", "True/False", and "Agree/Disagree". The dual negative-positive scale helps avoid this bias, making results more comparable across countries and subgroups.

Social desirability bias

Social desirability bias is caused by respondents who choose answers based on what they think is socially acceptable ( Lindsay and Roxas 2011). This results in answers which either depict a higher number of "desirable" responses or a lower number of "undesirable" responses.

Questions about topics such as health, income, politics, and religion tend to be affected by social bias. For example, respondents might answer the question "How often do you drink alcohol?" with a lower frequency than is actually true. To reduce this form of bias, researchers should anonymise respondents and assure confidentiality, whilst using neutral and non suggestive question wording.

Habituation bias

Respondents can be affected by habituation bias when questions are repetitive or phrased similarly. This lowers assertiveness, causing respondents to answer questions based on similar questions they have previously answered.

For example, a survey that uses the question "On a scale of 1-5, how likely would you buy this product", is likely to suffer from habituation bias. To prevent this, researchers must differentiate question wording, and use an engaging tone to keep respondents alert.

Confirmation bias

Confirmation bias is characterised as the human tendency to seek out information that supports their pre-existing beliefs or opinions and ignore information that does not. It affects researchers during the analysis process as they may use respondent data to validate their original hypothesis but ignore any data that contradicts it.

To reduce the effects of confirmation bias, researchers must remain open-minded and consider all data when evaluating existing hypotheses whilst acknowledging it could be disproven during analysis.

Extreme response bias

Extreme response bias occurs when respondents answer a question in the extreme way, regardless of if it reflects their actual views. It is usually the result of another underlying form of bias.

For example, if a respondent is affected by acquiescence bias and selects the most "positive" answers during a customer satisfaction survey, this is also an instance of extreme response bias. Habituation bias from habit can also cause extreme response bias as respondents may choose the lowest or highest option as a habit or due to fatigue.

Researchers should ensure there is question variation, unsuggestive phrasing, and respondent anonymity to help reduce extreme response bias.

Non-response bias

Non-response bias aka participation bias occurs when potential respondents do not participate in or complete a survey ( Shultz and Luloff 2009). This can happen for a number of reasons such as respondent fatigue, privacy concerns, complex survey design, poor question wording, or if a survey is irrelevant to the respondent.

For example, if a survey asks too many open response questions, respondents may get overwhelmed and opt not to complete it. To avoid non-response bias, researchers should keep surveys as simple as possible, with clear wording and instruction and seek respondents who are relevant to the survey topic.

Need high quality responses?

We can source the right participants to minimise potential bias in your research.

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How to Avoid Respondent Bias in Quantitative Research

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Bias is an unavoidable occurrence in market research ( Suchman 1962) but researchers can limit its effects on survey results by understanding what causes it and taking proactive measures. By implementing effective survey design and ensuring questions are both well written and well-formatted, researchers can be more confident that respondents' answers are more accurate and autonomous ( Summers and Hammonds 1969).

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Dealing with biases in Qualitative Research

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Dealing with biases in Qualitative Research

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Sampling is an essential part of any research project. The right sampling method can make or break the validity of your research, and it's essential to choose the right method for your specific question. In this article, we'll take a closer look at some of the most popular sampling methods and provide real-world examples of how they can be used to gather accurate and reliable data.

From simple random sampling to complex stratified sampling, we'll explore each method's pros, cons, and best practices. So, whether you're a seasoned researcher or just starting your journey, this article is a must-read for anyone looking to master sampling methods. Let's get started!

Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members or a subset of the population to make statistical inferences from them and estimate the characteristics of the whole population. Different sampling methods are widely used by researchers in market research so that they do not need to research the entire population to collect actionable insights.

It is also a time-convenient and cost-effective method and hence forms the basis of any research design . Sampling techniques can be used in research survey software for optimum derivation.

suppose a drug manufacturer would like to research the adverse side effects of a drug on the country's population. In that case, it is almost impossible to conduct a research study that involves everyone. In this case, the researcher decides on a For example, sample of people from each demographic and then researches them, giving him/her indicative feedback on the drug's behavior.
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Types of sampling: sampling methods

Sampling in market action research is of two types - probability sampling and non-probability sampling. Let's take a closer look at these two methods of sampling.

1. Probability sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher selects a few criteria and chooses members of a population randomly. All the members have an equal opportunity to participate in the sample with this selection parameter.

2. Non-probability sampling: In non-probability sampling, the researcher randomly chooses members for research. This sampling method is not a fixed or predefined selection process. This makes it difficult for all population elements to have equal opportunities to be included in a sample.

This blog discusses the various probability and non-probability sampling methods you can implement in any market research study.

LEARN ABOUT: Survey Sampling

Types of probability sampling with examples:

Probability sampling is a technique in which researchers choose samples from a larger population based on the theory of probability. This sampling method considers every member of the population and forms samples based on a fixed process.

in a population of 1000 members, every member will have a 1/1000 chance of being selected to be a part of a sample. Probability sampling eliminates For example, sampling bias in the population and allows all members to be included in the sample.
There are four types of probability sampling techniques:

method. It is a reliable method of obtaining information where every single member of a population is chosen randomly, merely by chance. Each individual has the same probability of being chosen to be a part of a sample.Simple random sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps in saving time and resources is the Simple Random Sampling
For example, in an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on conducting team-building activities, they would likely prefer picking chits out of a bowl. In this case, each of the 500 employees has an equal opportunity of being selected.

is a method where the researchers divide the entire population into sections or clusters representing a population. Clusters are identified and included in a sample based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc. This makes it very simple for a survey creator to derive effective inferences from the feedback.Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling
For example, suppose the United States government wishes to evaluate the number of immigrants living in the Mainland US. In that case, they can divide it into clusters based on states such as California, Texas, Florida, Massachusetts, Colorado, Hawaii, etc. This way of conducting a survey will be more effective as the results will be organized into states and provide insightful immigration data.

to choose the sample members of a population at regular intervals. It requires selecting a starting point for the sample and Systematic sampling: Researchers use the systematic sampling method sample size determination that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined range; hence, this sampling technique is the least time-consuming.
For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a population of 5000. He/she numbers each element of the population from 1-5000 and will choose every 10th individual to be a part of the sample (Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).

is a method in which the researcher divides the population into smaller groups that don't overlap but represent the entire population. While sampling, these groups can be organized, and then draw a sample from each group separately.Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling
For example, a researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people belonging to different annual income divisions will create strata (groups) according to the annual family income. Eg - less than $20,000, $21,000 - $30,000, $31,000 to $40,000, $41,000 to $50,000, etc. By doing this, the researcher concludes the characteristics of people belonging to different income groups. Marketers can analyze which income groups to target and which ones to eliminate to create a roadmap that would bear fruitful results.

LEARN ABOUT: Purposive Sampling

Uses of probability sampling

There are multiple uses of probability sampling:

Using the probability sampling method, the Reduce Sample Bias: research bias in the sample derived from a population is negligible to non-existent. The sample selection mainly depicts the researcher's understanding and inference. Probability sampling leads to higher-quality data collection as the sample appropriately represents the population.

Diverse Population: When the population is vast and diverse, it is essential to have adequate representation so that the data is not skewed toward one demographic . For example, suppose Square would like to understand the people that could make their point-of-sale devices. In that case, a survey conducted from a sample of people across the US from different industries and socio-economic backgrounds helps.

Create an Accurate Sample: Probability sampling helps the researchers plan and create an accurate sample. This helps to obtain well-defined data.

Types of non-probability sampling with examples

The non-probability method is a sampling method that involves a collection of feedback based on a researcher or statistician's sample selection capabilities and not on a fixed selection process. In most situations, the output of a survey conducted with a non-probable sample leads to skewed results, which may not represent the desired target population. But, there are situations, such as the preliminary stages of research or cost constraints for conducting research, where non-probability sampling will be much more useful than the other type.

Four types of non-probability sampling explain the purpose of this sampling method in a better manner:

because of the researcher's ease of carrying it out and getting in touch with the subjects. Researchers have nearly no authority to select the sample elements, and it's purely done based on proximity and not representativeness. This non-probability sampling method is used when there are time and cost limitations in collecting feedback. In situations with resource limitations, such as the initial stages of research, convenience sampling is used.Convenience sampling: This method depends on the ease of access to subjects such as surveying customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street. It is usually termed as convenience sampling
For example, startups and NGOs usually conduct convenience sampling at a mall to distribute leaflets of upcoming events or promotion of a cause - they do that by standing at the mall entrance and giving out pamphlets randomly.

Judgmental or purposive sampling: Judgmental or purposive samples are formed at the researcher's discretion. Researchers purely consider the purpose of the study, along with the understanding of the target audience. For instance, when researchers want to understand the thought process of people interested in studying for their master's degree. The selection criteria will be: "Are you interested in doing your masters in ...?" and those who respond with a "No" are excluded from the sample.

Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that researchers apply when the subjects are difficult to trace. For example, surveying shelterless people or illegal immigrants will be extremely challenging. In such cases, using the snowball theory, researchers can track a few categories to interview and derive results. Researchers also implement this sampling method when the topic is highly sensitive and not openly discussed-for example, surveys to gather information about HIV Aids. Not many victims will readily respond to the questions. Still, researchers can contact people they might know or volunteers associated with the cause to get in touch with the victims and collect information.

Quota sampling: In Quota sampling , members in this sampling technique selection happens based on a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed based on specific attributes, the created sample will have the same qualities found in the total population. It is a rapid method of collecting samples.

Uses of non-probability sampling

Non-probability sampling is used for the following:

Create a hypothesis: Researchers use the non-probability sampling method to create an assumption when limited to no prior information is available. This method helps with the immediate return of data and builds a base for further research.

Exploratory research: Researchers use this sampling technique widely when conducting qualitative research, pilot studies, or exploratory research .

Budget and time constraints: The non-probability method when there are budget and time constraints, and some preliminary data must be collected. Since the survey design is not rigid, it is easier to pick respondents randomly and have them take the survey or questionnaire.

How do you decide on the type of sampling to use?

For any research, it is essential to choose a sampling method accurately to meet the goals of your study. The effectiveness of your sampling relies on various factors. Here are some steps expert researchers follow to decide the best sampling method.

Jot down the research goals. Generally, it must be a combination of cost, precision, or accuracy.

Identify the effective sampling techniques that might potentially achieve the research goals.

Test each of these methods and examine whether they help achieve your goal.

Select the method that works best for the research.

Unlock the power of accurate sampling!
Difference between probability sampling and non-probability sampling methods

We have looked at the different types of sampling methods above and their subtypes. To encapsulate the whole discussion, though, the significant differences between probability sampling methods and non-probability sampling methods are as below:

Now that we have learned how different sampling methods work and are widely used by researchers in market research so that they don't need to research the entire population to collect actionable insights, let's go over a tool that can help you manage these insights.

LEARN ABOUT: 12 Best Tools for Researchers

QuestionPro understands the need for an accurate, timely, and cost-effective method to select the proper sample; that's why we bring QuestionPro Software, a set of tools that allow you to efficiently select your target audience, manage your insights in an organized, customizable repository and community management for post-survey feedback.

Don't miss the chance to elevate the value of research.

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Sampling Methods: Guide To All Types with Examples | QuestionPro

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Learn about sampling methods to draw statistical inferences from your population. Target the right respondents and collect insights.

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You can write your outline of your methodology section using this template.

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Free and easy to use. Used by teachers and for raffles. Enter names, spin wheel to pick a random winner. Customize look and feel, save and share wheels.

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Example 2 - Method (The Use of Social and Affective Strategies to Improve the 7th Graders’ Speaking Participation and Performance )

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Example 2 - Method (The Use of Social and Affective Strategies to Improve the 7th Graders’ Speaking Participation and Performance )

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Example 1 - Method (Indonesian University Students' Perceptions About Individual Work)

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Example 1 - Method (Indonesian University Students' Perceptions About Individual Work)

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The Use of Social and Affective Strategies to Improve the 7th Graders’ Speaking Participation and Performance 

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The Use of Social and Affective Strategies to Improve the 7th Graders’ Speaking Participation and Performance 

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INDONESIAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS ABOUT INDIVIDUAL WORK 

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INDONESIAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS ABOUT INDIVIDUAL WORK 

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Enhancing EFL Learners’ Reading Vocabulary Acquisition through Task-Based Instruction

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Enhancing EFL Learners’ Reading Vocabulary Acquisition through Task-Based Instruction

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Enhancing EFL Learners’ Reading Vocabulary Acquisitionthrough Task-Based Instruction

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ELT Students’ Perceptions of Classroom Management during Teaching Practice Difficulties and Solutions

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ELT Students’ Perceptions of Classroom Management during Teaching Practice Difficulties and Solutions

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ELT Students’ Perceptions of Classroom Management during Teaching Practice Difficulties and Solutions

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At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1.  understand methodology
2. use appropriate language in writing your methodology
3. write methodology section in your article

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Academic Phrases for Writing Methods Section of a Research Paper

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Academic Phrases for Writing Methods Section of a Research Paper

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Ref-n-Write: Scientific Research Paper Writing Software Tool - Improve Academic English Writing Skills

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The methods section that follows the introduction section should provide a clear description of the experimental procedure, and the reasons behind the choice of specific experimental methods. The methods section should be elaborate enough so that the readers can repeat the experimental procedure and reproduce the results. The scientific rigor of the paper is judged by your materials and methods section, so make sure you elaborate on all the fine details of your experiment. Explain the procedures step-by-step by splitting the main section into multiple sub-sections. Order procedures chronologically with subheadings. Use past tense to describe what you did since you are reporting on a completed experiment. The methods section should describe how the research question was answered and explain how the results were analyzed. Clearly explain various statistical methods used for significance testing and the reasons behind the choice.

The methods section of your research paper should include the following:

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Academic Phrases for Writing Methods Section of a Research Paper - Ref-n-Write: Scientific Research Paper Writing Software Tool - Improve Academic English Writing Skills

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The methods section that follows the introduction section should provide a clear description of the experimental procedure, and the reasons behind the choice of specific experimental methods. The methods section should be elaborate enough so that the readers can repeat the experimental procedure and reproduce the results.

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How to Write a Research Methodology for Your Academic Article

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How to Write a Research Methodology for Your Academic Article

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For academic writing help, focus on these criteria and tips on how to write a great research methodology for your academic article
This article is part of an ongoing series on academic writing help of scholarly articles. Previous parts explored how to write an introduction for a research paper and a literature review outline and format.
The Methodology section portrays the reasoning for the application of certain techniques and methods in the context of the study.

For your academic article, when you describe and explain your chosen methods it is very important to correlate them to your research questions and/or hypotheses. The description of the methods used should include enough details so that the study can be replicated by other Researchers, or at least repeated in a similar situation or framework.

Every stage of your research needs to be explained and justified with clear information on why you chose those particular methods, and how they help you answer your research question or purpose.

As the Authors, in this section you get to explain the rationale of your article for other Researchers. You should focus on answering the following questions:

How did you collect the data or how did you generate the data?

Which research methods did you use?

Why did you choose these methods and techniques?

How did you use these methods for analyzing the research question or problem?

The responses to these questions should be clear and precise, and the answers should be written in past tense.

First off, let's establish the differences between research methods and research methodology.

Research Methods and Research Methodology

As an Academic and Author of valuable research papers, it's important not to confuse these two terms.

Research Methodology Definition

Research Methodology refers the discussion regarding the specific methods chosen and used in a research paper. This discussion also encompasses the theoretical concepts that further provide information about the methods selection and application.

In other words, you should highlight how these theoretical concepts are connected with these methods in a larger knowledge framework and explain their relevance in examining the purpose, problem and questions of your study. Thus, the discussion that forms your academic article's research methodology also incorporates an extensive literature review about similar methods, used by other Authors to examine a certain research subject.

Research Method Definition

A Research Method represents the technical steps involved in conducting the research. Details about the methods focus on characterizing and defining them, but also explaining your chosen techniques, and providing a full account on the procedures used for selecting, collecting and analyzing the data.

Important Tips for a Good Methodology Section

The methodology section is very important for the credibility of your article and for a professional academic writing style.

Data Collection or Generation for Your Academic Article

Readers, academics and other researchers need to know how the information used in your academic article was collected. The research methods used for collecting or generating data will influence the discoveries and, by extension, how you will interpret them and explain their contribution to general knowledge.

The most basic methods for data collection are:

Secondary data

Secondary data are data that have been previously collected or gathered for other purposes than the aim of the academic article's study. This type of data is already available, in different forms, from a variety of sources.

Secondary data collection could lead to Internal or External secondary data research.

Internal secondary data research

- particularly related to a company or organization, internal sources (such as sales data, financial data, operations-related data, etc.) can be easily attained and re-purposed to explore research questions about different aspects.

External secondary data research

- represents a study that uses existing data on a certain research subject from government statistics, published market research reports from different organizations, international agencies (such as IMF, World Bank, etc.), and so on.

Primary data

Primary data represent data originated for the specific purpose of the study, with its research questions. The methods vary on how Authors and Researchers conduct an experiment, survey or study, but, in general, it uses a particular scientific method.

Primary data collection could lead to Quantitative and Qualitative research.

or empirical-analytical research focuses on a certain research purpose, with its complementary research questions and operational definitions of the variables to be measured. This type of study uses deductive reasoning and established theories as a foundation for the hypotheses that will be tested and explained.

or interpretative research focuses on analytically disclosing certain practices or behaviors, and then showing how these behaviors or practices can be grouped or clustered to lead to observable outcomes. This type of research is more subjective in nature, and requires careful interpretation of the variables.

Readers need to understand how the information was gathered or generated in a way that is consistent with research practices in a field of study. For instance, if you are using a multiple choice survey, the readers need to know which questionnaire items you have examined in your primary quantitative research. Similarly, if your academic article involves secondary data from FED or Eurostat it is important to mention the variables used in your study, their values, and their time-frame.

For primary research, that involve surveys, experiments or observations, for a valuable academic article, Authors should provide information about:

Study participants or group participants,

Inclusion or exclusion criteria

Selecting and Applying Research Methods

Establishing the main premises of methodology is pivotal for any research because a method or technique that is not reliable for a certain study context will lead to unreliable results, and the outcomes' interpretation (and overall academic article) will not be valuable.

In most cases, there is a wide variety of methods and procedures that you can use to explore a research topic in your academic article. The methods section should fully explain the reasons for choosing a specific methodology or technique.

Also, it's essential that you describe the specific research methods of data collection you are going to use, whether they are primary or secondary data collection.

For primary research methods, describe the surveys, interviews, observation methods, etc.

For secondary research methods, describe how the data was originally created, gathered and which institution created and published it.

Reasons for Choosing Specific Research Methods

For this aspect that characterizes a good research methodology, indicate how the research approach fits with the general study, considering the literature review outline and format, and the following sections.

The methods you choose should have a clear connection with the overall research approach and you need to explain the reasons for choosing the research techniques in your study, and how they help you towards understanding your study's purpose.

A common limitation of academic articles found in research papers is that the premises of the methodology are not backed by reasons on how they help achieve the aims of the article.

Data Analysis Methods

This section should also focus on information on how you intend to analyze your results.

Describe how you plan and intend to achieve an accurate assessment of the hypotheses, relationships, patterns, trends, distributions associated with your data and research purpose.

The data type, how it was measured, and which statistical tests were conducted and performed, should be detailed and reported in an accurate manner.

For explaining the data analysis methods, you should aim to answer questions, such as:

Will your research be based on statistical analysis?

Will you use theoretical frameworks to help you (and your Readers) analyze a set of hypotheses or relationships?

Which data analysis methods will you choose?

Which other Authors or studies have used the same methods and should be cited in your academic article?

Issues to Avoid

There are certain aspects that you need to pay extra attention in relation to your research methodology section. The most common issues to avoid are:

Irrelevant details and complicated background information that provides too information and does not provide accurate understanding for Readers

Unnecessary description and explanations of basic or well-known procedures, for an academic audience who is already has a basin understanding of the study

For unconventional research approaches, it is important to provide accurate details and explain why your innovative method contributes to general knowledge (save more details for your Discussion/ Conclusion section in which you can highlight your contributions)

Research limitations and obstacles should be described in a separate section (Research Limitations)

The methodology should include sources and references that support your choice of methods and procedures, compared to the literature review that provides a general outlook and framework for your study.

Which aspects are you generally focusing on when writing your academic article's research methodology section?

This blog series focuses on useful academic writing tips. Next, we discuss empirical analysis and results.

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How to Write a Research Methodology for Your Academic Article - Expert Journals

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For academic writing help, focus on these criteria and tips on how to write a great research methodology for your academic article This article is part of an ongoing series on academic writing help of scholarly articles. Previous parts explored how to write an introduction for a research paper and a literature review outline and format.

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Examples of method sections

An excerpt from the method section of a biology report

Growth rates were determined by estimating the number of bacteria in a culture at zero time and after 1 hour of growth at 37°C. In order to make this estimation, a dilution series was performed by diluting aliquots of the bacterial culture, at each incubation time, by a factor of 10, 100, and 10 000 with nutrient broth, and then plating out 0.01ml of each of these dilutions onto quadrants of a sterile agar plate. Following one week's incubation at 25°C, the colonies of the plate were counted manually.

In this excerpt no amounts or descriptions of equipment have been included nor would they have been necessary, as someone wishing to repeat the experiment could change these and still get the same effect.

An example of a poorly written method section from a biology report

We did a serial dilution by pipetting 0.9 ml broth into labelled tubes, then adding 2 drops (0.1ml) of the original culture to tube 1, 2 drops of tube 1 to tube 2, 2 drops of tube 2 to 3 and 2 drops of tube 3 to tube 4. Mix the tubes and spread a loopful (0.01 ml) of each tube onto a different quadrant of a labelled agar plate.

The personal pronoun we could have been avoided by using the passive voice (a serial dilution was carried out).
Keep explanations as simple as possible.
Avoid unnecessary repetition.In the present tense, this reads like an instruction, not a description of what you did. The past tense should be used (The tubes were mixed...)

An excerpt from the method section of a psychology report

Method
Participants
The instructional materials used in the experiment consisted of information on three electrical safety tests that are performed on 240 volt electrical appliances using a volt meter.....

Subjective ratings were used in the experiment to measure cognitive load as they "provide a powerful ...(measure of) the subjective experience of workload" (Gopher & Braune, 1984: 529; see also Paas & van Merrienboer, 1993; 1994) since students have little difficulty assigning a numerical value to the imposed mental workload.....A copy of the subjective mental load rating scale used in the experiment has been included in Appendix 4.

The test material consisted of test items and equipment for both written and practical tests. Each test item was designed to be objective and was marked as either correct or incorrect. The written test consisted of twenty three items. .....

Procedure

All the students were randomly assigned to either the isolated-interacting elements instruction or the interacting elements only group with 11 students in each group. They were tested individually, in a quiet room. ..... At the completion of the study phase, the students were provided with a subjective mental load rating scale, the format of which was explained to both groups. They were asked to rate the mental effort involved in understanding all of the electrical tests described in their training booklet on the scale .....

The test section of the experiment followed. The students were asked to complete the written test, described in the materials section, ......

Twenty-two first year industrial trade students enrolled in a training course at a Sydney company participated in the experiment. The students were from a varied educational background but all had completed at least Year 10 of High School and all understood electrical principles at a basic level ..... Students who had completed further studies were excluded from the study. .....

Materials

An excerpt from the method section of a scientific report from Education that used qualitative research methodology.

The study originated from a need to explain the differences in participation rates between boys and girls in physical activity. In the present study, systemic functional linguistics and semiotic theory and methodology have provided the means to go beyond the earlier approach of identifying and quantifying the number and duration of different types of teachers and pupil behaviour (Good and Brophy, 1973; Cinclair and Coulthard, 1975). An approach combining systemic functional linguistics and semiotic theory and methodology meant the present research could take into account the complexity of meanings generated in lessons, including meanings, that operate at the unconscious as well as the conscious level of awareness. ....Three schools were finally settled upon as the most appropriate sources for the variety of lesson situations required. This selection took into account the combinations of teachers and students most likely to be found in New South Wales secondary schools. One school situated in a semi-rural area had universal mixed physical education ... From these schools, six male teachers and three female teachers consented to have their lessons recorded on video and audio tape (through lapel microphones). These teachers, together with at least one other member of staff from each school, were also interviewed at length ...

Systemic functional linguistics requires a detailed and systematic analysis of text....

In all, eighteen lessons were recorded, some lasting for one 'period' of 40 minutes duration and others for a 'double period' of 80 minutes. As some lessons yielded 40 pages of transcript, the usual detailed analysis of every clause was obviously impracticable for this amount of a data. A taxonomy was developed to provide the initial framework (grid) by which the lessons could be analysed in terms of the research questions described below. As a starting point, two lessons were selected for analysis .....

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An excerpt from the method section of a biology report Growth rates were determined by estimating the number of bacteria in a culture at zero time and after 1 hour of growth at 37°C.

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Methodology

The methodology section or methods section tells you how the author(s) went about doing their research. It should let you know a) what method they used to gather data (survey, interviews, experiments, etc.), why they chose this method, and what the limitations are to this method.

The methodology section should be detailed enough that another researcher could replicate the study described. When you read the methodology or methods section:

What kind of research method did the authors use? Is it an appropriate method for the type of study they are conducting?

How did the authors get their tests subjects? What criteria did they use?

What are the contexts of the study that may have affected the results (e.g. environmental conditions, lab conditions, timing questions, etc.)

Is the sample size representative of the larger population (i.e., was it big enough?)

Are the data collection instruments and procedures likely to have measured all the important characteristics with reasonable accuracy?

Does the data analysis appear to have been done with care, and were appropriate analytical techniques used?

A good researcher will always let you know about the limitations of his or her research.

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LibGuides: Scholarly Articles: How can I tell?: Methodology

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