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Prepare for the FRQ and multiple choice test

What are arguments for and against receiving a cochlear implant?

-Arguments against it is that it will create a person into a robot and the parents don't want their child to not be a part of the deaf culture anymore. Arguments for it is that it will allow people to hear again and experience what it's like to hear and be a part of a non-deaf culture.

After receiving cochlear implants what are some of the benefits and struggles that are experienced?

-Benefits are that it allows the person to hear everyone and everything that they could not before. Struggles are that they need speech therapy since they did not understand English and could not speak English since they were not speaking it or listening to it while they were deaf.

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Understand other senses

Olfactory
-Receptor cells sends info to olfactory bulb to limbic system (Amygdala then to hippocampus)
-NOT to thalamus like other senses
-When you get a cold problems with sense of smell due to clogged receptor cells

Gustation (taste)
-Smell+taste/texture=taste
-Taste buds (Papillae) Receptor cells for taste
5 Tastes
-salty, sour, sweet, bitter, umami

Skin
-Skin sesnses
-cutaneous sensations
-Pressure, temp, and pain
-some spots are especially sensitive to certain stimuli (not specific)
-Pressure only receptors
-Brain is most sensistive to unexpected stimulation

Kinesthesis
-sense of body parts and positions (involved with PNS)

Vestibular sense
-monitors head position and movement (balance)
Semicircular canals=balance
Vestibular connects canals with cochlea(fluid) that makes you dizzy when you spin

Pain
-No one specific receptor or stimulus
-Mindset can effect reactions
-Thought process can effect reactions
-Sex can effect reactions
-Memory can effect reactions
Gate-control theory- Ronald Melzack and Patrick WAll
-Neurological gate in the spinal cord controls the transmission of pain to the brain
-Small nerve fiber open (pain)/ Large nerve fiber close (other senses close off pain)
-If you want a positive experience and less pain, taper down even longer.. no immediate cutoff
Phantom limb-misinterpretation

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Understand the structures in the ear and their functions

Pinna: outer ear, funnels sound waves into the ear canal

Ear canal: sound travels
through this canal to the ear drum

Ear Drum: Sound travels through the ear canal and hits the ear drum which vibrates against the hammer, anvil, and stirrup

Hammer, Anvil, and Stirrup (Oscicles): Three bones that vibrate against the ear drum and the sound that creates the vibration is turned into a liquid and passed on to the oval window

Oval Window: liquid form of sound is passed through this by the oscicles and travels to the cochlea

Cochlea: Sound travels through this structure to the auditory nerve. Also determines whether a sound is low frequency or high frequency

Vestibular Organ: Helps us stay balanced

Auditory Nerve: carries auditory sensory information directly to the thalamus then to the temporal lobes.

Theories of Hearing
1. Place Theory: Ability to hear different pitches of sound is due to location of neuron activity in Basilar Membrane in Cochlea (caused by frequency (pitch) of sound wave)

2. Frequency Theory: Vibration triggers neural impulses to brain at same rate as sound wave (Brain reads pitch from frequency)

3. Volley Principle: Neural cells can alternate firing and thereby achieve combined frequency for very average pitch

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Differentiate between monocular and binocular cues

Color constancy-perception of familiar objects as having consistent colors, even if changing illumination

Rules of Perception (Gestalt)
1. Figure-ground
we orgnanize information into a figure

2. Proximity
group nearby figures together

3. Similarity
Group similar figures together

4. Continuity
See smooth, continuous patterns

5. Connectedness
When linked, we see spots, lines or areas as a single unit

Depth perception- 2 dimensions fall on retina; perceive as 3D. We estimate disance

Visual Cliff-
Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk
-Test of depth perception in infants and toddlers
-By crawling age (6 months), we can see depth

Visual Constancy-perceiving objects as unchanging despite changes in retinal images

5 Types of perceptual constancy
1. Color
2. Shape
3. Size
4. Location
5. Brightness

Perceptual Constancies-
Tendency to perceive objects as relatively stabel and unchanging

Size Constancy- Despite distance, objects don't change size (g

Monocular and Binocular Cues

Monocular Cues:
-Interposition=(1 object blocks view of another)

Relative Size=(Assumption that 2 objects are similar size) 1 closer has larger retinal image

Relative Clarity aka. Aerial Perspective=Perception that hazy objects are farther away than sharp objects

Texture Gradient=Coarse, distinct texture is closer than finer, indistinct texture

Relative Height= Objects higher in field of vision appear farther away (vertical dimensions appear longer than horizontal dimensions) ie. St. Louis Arch

Relative Motion (Motion Parallex)= Movement of self causes stable items to appear to move, nearest object appears to move faster

Linear Perspective=Parallel lines appear to converge in distance (people over estimate train's distance)

Light and shadow aka. shadowing=nearby objects reflect more light into eyes (dimmer objects appear farther away)

Binocular Cues:

Binocular Cues-cues that require both eyes

Retinal disparity-difference between sight/views of 2 eyes (Pen movement)

Convergence=Cue for perceiving depth; eyes converge inward towards object

Stereoscopic vision-combine 2 retinal images to get 3D perception

Motion Perception
-Assumption-closer object gets larger
-Stroboscopic Movement-motion pictures ie. cartoon flip book
-Phi Phenomenon-Illusion of lights (blinking on and off)
-Autokinetic Illusion- perceived motion created by single stationary object (slight movement of eye muscles make object move)

Sound localizations:

Monaural cues- louder sound means closer sound

Binaural Cues- stereophonic- stero: multi directional audio perspective

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Learn color theories and visual cues

Transduction-Signals formed into neural impulses as light passes through retina

Parallel Processing-Processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously (color, form, and motion happen at the same time)

Hubel and Wiesel
-Neurons in the visual cortex respond to specific features: responsible for motion in the brain

Wavelength
-the distance from one wave peak to another (light/ sound)

High frequency
-Bluish colors
-High pitched sounds

Low Frequency
-Reddish colors
-Low pitched sounds

Large Amplitude
-Tall wavelength
-Bright colors
-Loud sounds

Small Amplitude
-Short wavelength
-Dull colors
-Soft sounds

Theories of color vision
Young -Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory
-each cone is maximally sensitive to 1 of 3 colors (red, green, or blue)
-Combined stimulation of these cones cause other colors by mixing light waves (red+green stimulation=yellow)

Colorblindness
-partial or total inability to perceive hues
-Monochromats (black and white)
-Dichromats(r and g or b and y)
-Trichromats (normal color vision)

2. Opponent process Theory (Hering)
-(red and green)
-(blue and yellow)
-(black and white)
-Paired with opposites; if one is stimulated the other is inhibited
-Explains both afterimages and colorblindness

Surrounding Context
-If an item is viewed with other colors then the color of the object changes

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Understand the parts and paths of vision

PATH OF VISION:
Cornea
-Transparent protector
-Place where light enters the eye

Pupil
-Adjstable opening in the center of the iris where light continues to enter
-contracts in bright light and relaxes in dim light (reflexive response)

Iris
-Colored portion

Lens
-Transparent part of the eye inside the pupil that focuses light onto the retina (upside down) by changing its curvature

Accommodation
-Lens shape changes according to distance
(round=close, flat=far)
If its rigid you lose depth perception and could have blurry vision

Retina
-Inner lining on the back of the eyeball that contains receptor cells (rods and cones) sensitive to light

Blind Spot
-Point where the optic nerve leaves the eye; no vision receptors here

Fovea
-Line of central focus, holds only cones

Optic Nerve
-Carries visual info to the thalamus then the occipital lobes

Optic Chiasm
-Spot where the nerves cross each other (left to right/ right to left)

Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN)
-Area in thalamus that interprets images

Occipital Lobe

3 Layers of the Retina
1. Rods (b/w) and Cones (color)
-Receptor cells responsible for vision
-20:1 Rods out number
-Peripheral vision relies on rods
2. Bipolar Cells
-Specialized neurons connect to rods and cones(1 axon/ 1 dendrite)
3. Ganglion Cells
-Axons of these cells, made of Optic Nerve and sens info to thalamus specifically the LGN

2 Types of Ganglion Cells
1.Magnocellular CElls (M Cells)
-Detect Motion
2.Parvocellular
-Detect color/ what item is

Visual Acuity
-Ability to distinguish fine details, sharpness

Intensity=brightness
Hue=color

Transduction-when light hits the retina to go to the optic nerve

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Understand the difference between absolute, subliminal, and difference thresholds

JND-Just Noticeable Difference/Difference Threshold (Weber's Law)
-the minimum difference a person can detect between any two stimuli 50% of the time

Subliminal Threshold-

Absolute Threshold-

Signal Detection Theory

Hit- In reality something is there and you notice it

False Alarm- In reality something is not there and you think it is

Miss (False Negative)- In reality something is there and you don't notice it

Negative Negative- In reality something is not there and you don't notice anything

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Understand the difference between top down and bottom up processes of sensation and perception

Perceptual Set-

Priming-

1. Does perception come from top down or bottom up?

-Top down

2.What about sensation
-Bottom up

3. How can top down processing change how features are perceived?
-Top down changes processing changes how features are perceived

Percentage Change is the difference threshold (Weber's Law)

Difference threshold (JND) is Weber's Law and it is the amount something must be changed in order for something to be detected 50% of the time

And absolute threshold is the minimum stimulation necessary to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

Cambridge University Test is perception

Inattentional Blindness- What you are focusing on (Balloon and clown)