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App used during class to show 3D models - desktop and app versions for about $15. (Free version for skeletal system)

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3D4Medical is an award-winning 3D technology company that specializes in medical, educational and health & fitness software for student/patient education and professional reference.

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Free App/Desktop for 3D models of the body

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App that may be helpful in learning different structures. Available on Google Play and Desktop (FireFox/Chrome). Not sure on cost.

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3D Anatomy Atlas. Explore Human Body in Real Time

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Games to quiz yourself on all systems (skeletal, muscles, etc.)

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WHAT'S THIS

Anatomy Arcade makes basic human anatomy come ALIVE through awesome free flash games, interactives and videos.

Anatomy Arcade is perfect for the novice teenager in the classroom, right through to students and professionals of health care looking for a fun way to revise.

WHAT'S COMING

With the help of Media Saints, we plan on making many more iPad apps. Poke-A-Muscle is next followed by a digestive game called Eat Me and eventually a very exciting, whole body system game called Machine Man!

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Anatomy Arcade makes basic human anatomy come ALIVE through awesome free flash games, interactives and videos. Anatomy Arcade is perfect for the novice teenager in the classroom, right through to students and professionals of health care looking for a fun way to revise. With the help of Media Saints, we plan on making many more iPad apps.

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Anatomical Terminology, Axial Skeleton, Appendicular Skeleton

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The Easiest Way to Learn Anatomical Regions | Corporis

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Anatomical Position And Directional Terms - Anatomical Terms - Directional Terms Anatomy

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Anatomical Terms - Drawn & Defined (Updated)

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Video covering terms

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Start studying Body planes. Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools.

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Review the different categories of bony landmarks

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How to Memorize Bony Landmarks Quickly and Easily! - Human Anatomy | Kenhub

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Another quizlet

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Quizlet to get started

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Nurse Labs Review

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Although the word skeleton comes from the Greek word meaning "dried-up body", our internal framework is so beautifully designed and engineered that it puts any modern skyscraper to shame.
Functions of the Skeletal System

Besides contributing to body shape and form, our bones perform several important body functions.

1. Support. Bones, the "steel girders" and "reinforced concrete" of the body, form the internal framework that supports the body and cradle its soft organs; the bones of the legs act as pillars to support the body trunk when we stand, and the rib cage supports the thoracic wall.

2. Protection. Bones protect soft body organs; for example, the fused bones of the skull provide a snug enclosure for the brain, the vertebrae surround the spinal cord, and the rib cage helps protect the vital organs of the thorax.

3. Movement. Skeletal muscles, attached to bones by tendons, use the bones as levers to move the body and its parts.

4. Storage. Fat is stored in the internal cavities of bones; bone itself serves as a storehouse for minerals, the most important of which are calcium and phosphorus; because most of the body's calcium is deposited in the bones as calcium salts, the bones are a convenient place to get more calcium ions for the blood as they are used up.

5. Blood cell formation. Blood cell formation, or hematopoiesis, occurs within the marrow cavities of certain bones.

Anatomy of the Skeletal System

The skeleton is subdivided into two divisions: the axial skeleton, the bones that form the longitudinal axis of the body, and the appendicular skeleton, the bones of the limbs and girdles.

The adult skeleton is composed of 206 bones and there are two basic types of osseous, or bone, tissue: compact bone and spongy bone, and are classified into four groups according to shape: long, short, flat, and irregular.

Compact bone. Compact bone is dense and looks smooth and homogeneous.

Spongy bone. Spongy bone is composed of long, needle-like pieces of bone and lots of open space.

Long bones. Long bones are typically longer than they are wide; as a rule, they have a shaft with heads at both ends, and are mostly compact bone.

Short bones. Short bones are generally cube-shaped and mostly contains spongy bone; sesamoid bones, which form within tendons, are a special type of short bone.

Flat bones. Flat bones are thin, flattened, and usually curved; they have two thin layers of compact bone sandwiching a layer of spongy bone between them.

Irregular bones. Bones that do not fit one of the preceding categories are called irregular bones.

The structure of a long bone is shown both through gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy.

The gross structure of a long bone consists of the following:

To the naked eye, spongy bone has a spiky, open appearance, whereas compact bone appears to be very dense.

Diaphysis. The diaphysis, or shaft, makes up most of the bone's length and is composed of compact bone; it is covered and protected by a fibrous connective tissue membrane, the periosteum.

Epiphyses. The epiphyses are the ends of the long bone; each epiphysis consists of a thin layer of compact bone enclosing an area filled with spongy bone.

Articular cartilage. Articular cartilage, instead of a periosteum, covers its external surface; because the articular cartilage is glassy hyaline cartilage, it provides a smooth, slippery surface that decreases friction at joint surfaces.

Epiphyseal line. In adult bones, there is a thin line of bony tissue spanning the epiphysis that looks a bit different from the rest of the bone in the area; this is the epiphyseal line.

Epiphyseal plate. The epiphyseal line is a remnant of the epiphyseal plate (a flat plate of hyaline cartilage) seen in young, growing bone; epiphyseal plates can cause the lengthwise growth of a long bone; by the end of puberty, when hormones inhibit long bone growth, epiphyseal plates have been completely replaced by bones, leaving only the epiphyseal lines to mark their previous location.

Yellow marrow. In adults, the cavity of the shaft is primarily a storage area for adipose (fat) tissue called the yellow marrow, or medullary, cavity.

Red marrow. However, in infants, this area forms blood cells and red marrow is found there; in adult bones, red marrow is confined to cavities in the spongy bone of flat bones and epiphyses of some long bones.

Bone markings. Even when looking casually at bones, one can see that their surfaces are not smooth but scarred with bumps, holes, and ridges; these bone markings reveal where muscles, tendons, and ligaments were attached and where blood vessels and nerves passed.

The axial skeleton, which forms the longitudinal axis of the body, is divided into three parts: the skull, the vertebral column, and the bony thorax.

Osteocytes. The mature bone cells, osteocytes, are found within the matrix in tiny cavities called lacunae.

Lamellae. The lacunae are arranged in concentric circles called lamellae around central (Haversian) canals.

Osteon. Each complex consisting of central canals and matrix rings is called an osteon, or Haversian system.

Canaliculi. Tiny canals, canaliculi, radiate outward from the central canals to all lacunae; the canaliculi form a transportation system that connects all the bone cells to the nutrient supply through the hard bone matrix.

Perforating canals. The communication pathway from the outside of the bone to its interior (and the central canals) is completed by perforating (Volkmann's) canals, which run into the compact bone at right angles to the shaft.

The skull is formed by two sets of bones: the cranium and the facial bones.

The cranium encloses and protects the fragile brain tissue and is composed of eight large flat bones.

There are several bone markings that appear at the temporal bone:

Frontal bone. The frontal bone forms the forehead, the bony projections under the eyebrows, and the superior part of each eye's orbits.

Parietal bones. The paired parietal bones form most of the superior and lateral walls of the cranium; they meet in the midline of the skull at the sagittal suture and form the coronal suture, where they meet the frontal bone.

Temporal bones. The temporal bones lie inferior to the parietal bones; they join them at the squamous sutures.

Fourteen bones compose the face; twelve are paired, only the mandible and vomer are single.

1. External acoustic meatus. The external acoustic meatus is a canal that leads to the eardrum and middle ear; it is the route by which sound enters the ear.

2. Styloid process. The styloid process, a sharp, needlelike projection, is just inferior to the external auditory meatus.

3. Zygomatic process. The zygomatic process is a thin bridge of bone that joins with the cheekbone (zygomatic bone) anteriorly.

4. Jugular foramen. The jugular foramen, at the junction of the occipital and temporal bones, allows passage of the jugular vein, the largest vein of the head, which drains the brain; just anterior to it in the cranial cavity is the internal acoustic meatus, which transmits cranial nerves VII and VIII.

Occipital bone. The occipital bone joins the parietal bones anteriorly at the lambdoid suture; in the base of the occipital bone is a large opening, the foramen magnum, which surrounds the lower part of the brain allows the spinal cord to connect with the brain.

Sphenoid bone. The butterfly-shaped sphenoid bone spans the width of the skull and forms part of the floor of the cranial cavity; in the midline of the sphenoid is a small depression, the sella turcica or Turk's saddle, which forms a snug enclosure for the pituitary gland.

Foramen ovale. The foramen ovale, a large oval opening in line with the posterior end of the sella turcica, allows fibers of cranial nerve V to pass to the chewing muscles of the lower jaw.

Optic canal. The optic canal allows the optic nerve to pass to the eye.

Superior orbital fissure. The slitlike superior orbital fissure is where the cranial nerves controlling eye movements pass.

Sphenoid sinuses. The central part of the sphenoid bone is riddled with air cavities, the sphenoid sinuses.

Ethmoid bone. The ethmoid bone is very irregularly shaped and lies anterior to the sphenoid; it forms the roof of the nasal cavity and part of the medial walls of the orbits.

Crista galli. Projecting from its superior surface is the crista galli; the outermost covering of the brain attaches to this projection.

Cribriform plates. These holey areas, the cribriform plates, allow nerve fibers carrying impulses from the olfactory receptors of the nose to reach the brain.

Superior and middle nasal conchae. Extensions of the ethmoid bone, the superior and middle nasal conchae, form part of the lateral walls of the nasal cavity and increase the turbulence of air flowing through the nasal passages.

Though not really part of the skull, the hyoid bone is closely related to the mandible and temporal bones.

Palatine bones. The paired palatine bones lie posterior to the palatine processes of the maxillae; they form the posterior part of the hard palate.

Zygomatic bones. The zygomatic bones are commonly referred to as the cheek bones; they also form a good-sized portion of the lateral walls of the orbits, or eye sockets.

Lacrimal bones. The lacrimal bones are finger-sized bones forming part of the medial walls of each orbit; each lacrimal bones has a groove that serves as a passageway for tears.

Nasal bones. The small rectangular bones forming the bridge of the nose are the nasal bones.

Vomer bone. The single bone in the medial line of the nasal cavity is the vomer; the vomer forms most of the bony nasal septum.

Inferior nasal conchae. The interior nasal conchae are thin, curved bones projecting medially from the lateral walls of the nasal cavity.

The skull of a fetus or newborn infant is different in many ways from an adult skull.

Location. It is suspended in the midneck region about 2 cm (1 inch) above the larynx, where it is anchored by ligaments to the styloid processes of the temporal bones.

Parts. Horseshoe-shaped, with a body and two pairs of horns, or cornua, the hyoid bone serves as a movable base for the tongue and as an attachment point for neck muscles that raise and lower the larynx when we swallow and speak.

Serving as the axial support of the body, the vertebral column, or spine, extends from the skull, which it supports, to the pelvis, where it transmits the weight of the body to the lower limbs.

Size. The adult skull represents only one-eighth of the total body length, whereas that of a newborn infant is one-fourth as long as its entire body.

Fontanels. In the newborn, the skull also has a fibrous regions that have yet to be converted to bone; these fibrous membranes connecting the cranial bones are called fontanels.

Anterior fontanel. The largest fontanel is the diamond-shaped anterior fontanel; the fontanel allows the fetal skull to be compressed slightly during birth.

The seven cervical vertebrae (C1 to C7) form the neck region of the spine.

The twelve thoracic vertebrae (T1 to T12) are all typical.

Composition. The spine is formed from 26 irregular bones connected and reinforced by ligaments in such a way that a flexible, curved structure results.

Spinal cord. Running through the central cavity of the vertebral column is the delicate spinal cord, which the vertebral column surrounds and protects.

Cervical vertebrae. Of the 24 single bones, the 7 vertebrae of the neck are cervical vertebrae.

Thoracic vertebrae. The next 12 are the thoracic vertebrae.

Lumbar vertebrae. The remaining 5 supporting the lower back are lumbar vertebrae.

Intervertebral discs. The individual vertebrae are separated by pads of flexible fibrocartilage-intervertebral discs- that cushion the vertebrae and absorb shock while allowing the spine flexibility.

Primary curvatures. The spinal curves in the thoracic and sacral regions are referred to as primary curvatures because they are present when we are born.

Secondary curvatures. The curvatures in the cervical and lumbar regions are referred to as secondary curvatures because they develop some time after birth.

Body or centrum. Disc-like, weight-bearing part of the vertebra facing anteriorly in the vertebral column.

Vertebral foramen. Canal through which the spinal cord passes.

Transverse processes. Two lateral projections from the vertebral arch.

Spinous process. Single projection arising from the posterior aspect of the vertebral arch (actually the fused laminate).

Superior and inferior articular processes. Paired projections lateral to the vertebral foramen, allowing a vertebra to form joints with adjacent vertebrae.

The five lumbar vertebrae (L1 to L5) have massive, blocklike bodies.

Atlas. The atlas (C1) has no body; the superior surfaces of its transverse processes contain large depressions that receive the occipital condyles of the skull.

Foramina. The transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae contain foramina (openings) through which the vertebral arteries pass on their way to the brain above.

The sacrum is formed by the fusion of five vertebrae.

Size. They are larger than the cervical vertebrae and are distinguished by the fact that they are the only vertebrae to articulate with the ribs.

Shape. The body is somewhat heart-shaped and has two costal facets on each side, which receive the heads of the ribs.

Transverse processes. The two transverse processes of each thoracic vertebrae articulate with the nearby knoblike tubercles of the ribs.

Spinous process. The spinous process is long and hooks sharply downward, causing the vertebra to look like a giraffe's head viewed from the side.

Spinous processes. Their short, hatchet-shaped spinous processes make them look like a moose head from the lateral aspect.

Strength. Because most of the stress on the vertebral column occurs in the lumbar region, these are the sturdiest of the vertebrae.

The coccyx is formed from the fusion of three to five tiny, irregular shaped vertebrae.

The sternum, ribs, and thoracic vertebrae make up the bony thorax; The bony thorax is routinely called the thoracic cage because it forms a protective, cone-shaped cage of slender bones around the organs of the thoracic cavity.

Alae. The winglike alae articulate laterally with the hip bones, forming the sacroiliac joints.

Median sacral crest. Its posterior midline surface is roughened by the median sacral crest, the fused spinous processes of the sacral vertebrae.

Posterior sacral foramina. This is flanked laterally by the posterior sacral foramina.

Sacral canal. The vertebral canal continues inside the sacrum as the sacral canal and terminates in a large inferior opening called the sacral hiatus.

The sternum (breastbone) is a typical flat bone and the result of the fusion of three bones- the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process.

Tailbone. It is the human "tailbone", a remnant of the tail that other vertebrate animals have.

Twelve pairs of ribs form the walls of the bony thorax.

Appendicular Skeleton

The appendicular skeleton is composed of 126 bones of the limbs and the pectoral and pelvic girdles, which attach the limbs to the axial skeleton.

Each shoulder girdle, or pectoral girdle, consists of two bones - a clavicle and a scapula.

Jugular notch. The jugular notch (concave upper border of the manubrium) can be palpated easily, generally it is at the level of the third thoracic vertebra.

Sternal angle. The sternal angle results where the manubrium and the body meet at a slight angle to each other, so that a transverse ridge is formed at the level of the second ribs.

Xiphisternal joint. The xiphisternal joint, the point where the sternal body and xiphoid process fuse, lies at the level of the ninth thoracic vertebra.

True ribs. The true ribs, the first seven pairs, attach directly to the sternum by costal cartilages.

False ribs. False ribs, the next five pairs, either attach indirectly to the sternum or are not attached to the sternum at all.

Floating ribs. The last two pairs of false ribs lack the sternal attachments, so they are called the floating ribs.

Thirty separate bones form the skeletal framework of each upper limb; they form the foundations of the arm, forearm, and hand.

The arm is formed by a single bone, the humerus, which is a typical long bone.

Two bones, the radius, and the ulna, form the skeleton of the forearm.

Clavicle. The clavicle, or collarbone, is a slender, doubly curved bone; it attaches to the manubrium of the sternum medially and to the scapula laterally, where it helps to form the shoulder joint; it acts as a brace to hold the arm away from the top of the thorax and helps prevent shoulder dislocation.

Scapulae. The scapulae, or shoulder blades, are triangular and commonly called "wings" because they flare when we move our arms posteriorly.

Acromion. The acromion is the enlarged end of the spine of the scapula and connects with the clavicle laterally at the acromioclavicular joint.

Coracoid. The beaklike coracoid process points over the top of the shoulder and anchors some of the muscles of the arm; just medial to the coracoid process is the large suprascapular notch, which serves as a nerve passageway.

Borders of the scapula. The scapula has three borders- superior, medial (vertebral), and lateral (axillary).

Angles of the scapula. It also has three angles- superior, inferior, and lateral; the glenoid cavity, a shallow socket that receives the head of the arm bone, is in the lateral angle.

Factors to free movement of the shoulder girdle. Each shoulder girdle attaches to the axial skeleton at only one point- the sternoclavicular joint; the loose attachment of the scapula allows it to slide back and forth against the thorax as muscles act; and, the glenoid cavity is shallow, and the shoulder joint is poorly reinforced by ligaments.

The skeleton of the hand consists of carpals, the metacarpals, and the phalanges.

The pelvic girdle is formed by two coxal bones, or ossa coxae, commonly called hip bones.

The lower limbs carry the total body weight when we are erect; hence, it is not surprising that the bones forming the three segments of the lower limbs (thigh, leg, and foot) are much thicker and stronger than the comparable bones of the upper limb.

Anatomical neck. Immediately inferior to the head is a slight constriction called anatomical neck.

Tubercles. Anterolateral to the head are two bony projections separated by the intertubercular sulcus- the greater and lesser tubercles, which are sites of muscle attachment.

Surgical neck. Just distal to the tubercles is the surgical neck, so named because it is the most frequently fractured part of the humerus.

Deltoid tuberosity. In the midpoint of the shaft is a roughened area called the deltoid tuberosity, where the large, fleshy deltoid muscle of the shoulder attaches.

Radial groove. Nearby, the radial groove runs obliquely down the posterior aspect of the shaft; this groove marks the course of the radial nerve, an important nerve of the upper limb.

Trochlea and capitulum. At the distal end of the humerus is the medial trochlea, which looks somewhat like a spool, and the lateral ball-like capitulum; both of these processes articulate with the bones of the forearm.

Fossa. Above the trochlea anteriorly is a depression, the coronoid fossa; on the posterior surface is the olecranon fossa; these two depressions, which are flanked by medial and lateral epicondyles, allow the corresponding processes of the ulna to move freely when the elbow is bent and extended.

Radius. When the body is in the anatomical position, the radius is the lateral bone; that is, it is on the thumb side of the forearm; when the hand is rotated so that the palm faces backward, the distal end of the radius crosses over and ends up medial to the ulna.

Radioulnar Joints. Both proximally and distally the radius and ulna articulate at small radioulnar joints and the two bones are connected along their entire length by the flexible interosseous membrane.

Styloid process. Both the ulna and the radius have as styloid process at their distal end.

Radial tuberosity. The disc-shaped head of the radius also forms a joint with the capitulum of the humerus; just below the head is the radial tuberosity, where the tendon of the biceps muscle attaches.

Ulna. When the upper limb is in the anatomical position, the ulna is the medial bone (on the little-finger side) of the forearm.

Trochlear notch. On its proximal end are the coronoid process and the posterior olecranon process, which are separated by the trochlear notch; together, these two processes grip the trochlea of the humerus in a pliers-like joint.

The femur, or thigh bone, is the only bone in the thigh; it is the heaviest, strongest bone in the body.

Metacarpals. The metacarpals are numbered 1 to 5 from the thumb side of the hand to the little finger; when the fist is clenched, the heads of the metacarpals become obvious as the "knuckles".

Phalanges. The phalanges are the bones of the fingers; each hand contains 14 phalanges; there are three in each finger (proximal, middle, and distal), except in the thumb, which has only two )proximal and distal.

Connected along their length by an interosseous membrane, two bones, the tibia and fibula, form the skeleton of the leg.

Pelvic girdle. The bones of the pelvic girdle are large and heavy, and they are attached securely to the axial skeleton; bearing weight is the most important function of this girdle because the total weight of the upper body rests on the bony pelvis.

Sockets. The sockets, which receives the thigh bones, are deep and heavily reinforced by ligaments that attach the limbs firmly to the girdle.

Bony pelvis. The reproductive organs, urinary bladder, and part of the large intestine lie within and are protected by the bony pelvis.

Ischium. The ischium is the "sit-down" bone, so called because it forms the most inferior part of the coxal bone.

Ischial tuberosity. The ischial tuberosity is a roughened area that receives weight when you are sitting.

Ischial spine. The ischial spine, superior to the tuberosity, is another important anatomical landmark, particularly in pregnant women, because it narrows the outlet of the pelvis through which the baby must pass during the birth process.

Greater sciatic notch. Another important structural feature of the ischium is the greater sciatic notch, which allows blood vessels and the large sciatic nerve to pass from the pelvis posteriorly into the thigh.

Pubis. The pubis, or pubic bone, is the most anterior part of the coxal bone.

Obturator foramen. An opening that allows blood vessels and nerves to pass into the anterior part of the thigh.

Pubic symphysis. The pubic bones of each hip bones fuse anteriorly to form a cartilaginous joint, the pubic symphysis.

Acetabulum. The ilium, ischium, and pubis fuse at a deep socket called the acetabulum, which means "vinegar cup"; the acetabulum receives the head of the thigh bone.

False pelvis. The false pelvis is superior to the true pelvis; it is the area medial to the flaring portions of the ilia.

True pelvis. The true pelvis is surrounded by bone and lies inferior to the flaring parts of the ilia and the pelvic brim; the dimensions of the true pelvis of the woman are very important because they must be large enough to allow the infant's head to pass during childbirth.

Outlet and inlet. The dimensions of the cavity, particularly the outlet (the inferior opening of the pelvis measured between the ischial spines, and the inlet (superior opening between the right and left sides of the pelvic brim) are critical, and thus they are carefully measured by the obstetrician.

The foot, composed of the tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges, has two important functions.; it supports our body weight and serves as a lever that allows us to propel our bodies forward when we walk and run.

Joints, also called articulations, have two functions: they hold the bones together securely, but also give the rigid skeleton mobility.

In fibrous joints, the bones are united by fibrous tissue.

Parts. Its proximal end has a ball-like head, a neck, and greater and lesser trochanters (separated anteriorly by the intertrochanteric line and posteriorly by the intertrochanteric crest).

Gluteal tuberosity. These markings and the gluteal tuberosity, located on the shaft, all serve as sites for muscle attachment.

Head. The head of the femur articulates with the acetabulum of the hip bone in a deep, secure socket.

Neck. However, the neck of the femur is a common fracture site, especially in old age.

Lateral and medial condyles. Distally on the femur are the lateral and medial condyles, which articulate with the tibia below; posteriorly these condyles are separated by the deep intercondylar fossa.

Patellar surface. Anteriorly on the distal femur is the smooth patellar surface, which forms a joint with the patella, or kneecap.

In cartilaginous joints, the bone ends are connected by cartilage.

Tibia. The tibia, or shinbone, is larger and more medial; at the proximal end, the medial and lateral condyles articulate with the distal end of the femur to form the knee joint.

Tibial tuberosity. The patellar (kneecap) ligament attaches to the tibial tuberosity, a roughened area on the anterior tibial surface.

Medial malleolus. Distally, a process called medial malleolus forms the inner bulge of the ankle.

Anterior border. The anterior surface of the tibia is a sharp ridge, the anterior border, that is unprotected by the muscles; thus, it is easily felt beneath the skin.

Fibula. The fibula, which lies along the tibia and forms joints with it both proximally and distally, is thin and sticklike; the fibula has no part in forming the knee joint.

Lateral malleolus. Its distal end, the lateral malleolus, forms the outer part of the ankle.

Synovial joints are joints in which the articulating bone ends are separated by a joint cavity containing a synovial fluid; they account for all joints of the limbs.

Tarsus. the tarsus, forming the posterior half of the foot, is composed of seven tarsal bones.

Calcaneus and Talus. Body weight is carried mostly by the two largest tarsals, the calcaneus, or heel bone, and the talus (ankle), which lies between the tibia and the calcaneus.

Metatarsals. Five metatarsals form the sole.

Phalanges. 14 phalanges form the toes; each toe has three phalanges, except the great toe, which has two.

Arches. The bones in the foot are arranged to form three strong arches: two longitudinal (medial and lateral) and one transverse.

Classification. Joints are classified in two ways- functionally and structurally.

Functional classification. The functional classification focuses on the amount of movement the joint allows.

Diarthroses. Freely movable joints predominate in the limbs, where mobility is important.

Synarthroses and amphiarthroses. Immovable and slightly movable joints are restricted mainly to the axial skeleton, where firm attachments and protection of internal organs are priorities.

Types of Synovial Joints Based on Shape

The shapes of the articulating bone surfaces determine what movements are allowed at a joint; based on such shapes, our synovial joints can be classified as plane, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, and ball-and-socket joints.

Examples. The best examples of this type of joint are the sutures of the skull; in sutures, the irregular edges of the bones interlock and are bound tightly together by connective tissue fibers, allowing essentially no movement.

Syndesmoses. In syndesmoses, the connecting fibers are longer than those of sutures; thus the joint has more "give"; the joint connecting the distal ends of the tibia and fibula is a syndesmosis.

Practice Quiz: Skeletal System Anatomy and Physiology

Synarthrotic cartilaginous joints. The hyaline cartilage epiphyseal plates of growing long bones and the cartilaginous joints between the first ribs and the sternum are immovable cartilaginous joints.

Here's a 10-item quiz about the study guide:

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Articular cartilage. Articular cartilage covers the ends of the bones forming the joints.

Fibrous articular capsule. The joint surfaces are enclosed by a sleeve or a capsule of fibrous connective tissue, and their capsule is lined with a smooth synovial membrane (the reason these joints are called synovial joints).

Joint cavity. The articular capsule encloses a cavity, called the joint cavity, which contains lubricating synovial fluid.

Reinforcing ligaments. The fibrous capsule is usually reinforced with ligaments.

Bursae. Bursae are flattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial membrane and containing a thin film of synovial fluid; they are common where ligaments, muscles, skin, tendons, or bones rub together.

Tendon sheath. A tendon sheath is essentially an elongated bursa that wraps completely around a tendon subjected to friction, like a bun around a hotdog.

Plane joint. In a plane joint, the articular surfaces are essentially flat, and only short slipping or gliding movements are allowed; the movements of plane joints are nonaxial, that is, gliding does not involve rotation around any axis; the intercarpal joints of the wrist are best examples of plane joints.

Hinge joint. In a hinge joint, the cylindrical end of one bone fits into a trough-shaped surface on another bone; angular movement is allowed in just one plane, like a mechanical hinge; hinge joints are classified as uniaxial; they allow movement in only one axis, and examples are the elbow joint, ankle joint, and the joints between the phalanges of the fingers.

Pivot joint. In a pivot joint, the rounded end of one bone fits into a sleeve or ring of bone; because the rotating bone can turn only around its long axis, pivot joints are also uniaxial joints; the proximal radioulnar joint and the joint between the atlas and the dens of the axis are examples.

Condyloid joint. In a condyloid joint, the egg-shaped articular surface fits into an oval concavity in another; condyloid joints allow the moving bone to travel (1) from side to side and (2) back and forth but the bone cannot rotate around its long axis; movement occurs around two axes, hence these are biaxial joints.

Saddle joints. In saddle joints, each articular surface has both convex and concave areas, like a saddle; these biaxial joints allow essentially the same movements as condyloid joints; the best examples of saddle joints are the carpometacarpal joints in the thumb.

Ball-and-socket joint. In a ball-and-socket joint, the spherical head of one bone fits into a round socket in another; these multiaxial joints allow movement in all axes, including rotation, and are the most freely moving synovial joints; the shoulder and hip are examples.

See Also

Other anatomy and physiology study guides:

Further Reading
2. Answer: C. Hydroxyapatite 4. Answer: A. Irregular bones 6. Answer: B. Greenstick 7. Answer: C. Saddle joint 8. Answer: D. Increase; Decrease

1. Nursing Diagnosis Handbook: An Evidence-Based Guide to Planning Care

2. Medical-Surgical Nursing: Assessment and Management of Clinical Problems

3. Medical-Surgical Nursing: Patient-Centered Collaborative Care

4. Saunders Comprehensive Review for the NCLEX-RN Examination

5. Brunner & Suddarth's Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing

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Skeletal System Anatomy and Physiology - Nurseslabs

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Although the word skeleton comes from the Greek word meaning "dried-up body", our internal framework is so beautifully designed and engineered that it puts any modern skyscraper to shame. Besides contributing to body shape and form, our bones perform several important body functions. Support.

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Quizlet

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Interactive Guide to quiz yourself on the bones of the skull

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Quizlet

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The security system for this website has been triggered. Completing the challenge below proves you are a human and gives you temporary access.

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Interactive model of skeletal system

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Interactive Guide to the Skeletal System | Innerbody

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Explore the skeletal system with our interactive 3D anatomy models. Learn about the bones, joints, and skeletal anatomy of the human body.

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Michigan State A&P

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https://www.britannica.com/science/human-skeleton

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Interactive Quiz for the Vertebral Column

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Lots of information, great photos

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The bones of the human skeleton are divided into two groups. The axial skeleton includes all the bones (that form bony structures) along the body's long axis. The bones of the appendicular skeleton make up the rest of the skeleton, and are so called because they are appendages of the axial skeleton. The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the shoulder girdle, the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle, and the lower limbs.

Let's take a look at the bones of the appendicular skeleton.

1. The Bones of the Shoulder Girdle

The pectoral or shoulder girdle consists of the scapulae and clavicles. The shoulder girdle connects the bones of the upper limbs to the axial skeleton. These bones also provide attachment for muscles that move the shoulders and upper limbs.

See the bones of the shoulder girdle in 3D:

2. Bones of the Upper Limbs

The upper limbs include the bones of the arm (humerus), forearm (radius and ulna), wrist, and hand. The only bone of the arm is the humerus, which articulates with the forearm bones-the radius and ulna-at the elbow joint. The ulna is the larger of the two forearm bones.

Wrist Bones. The wrist, or carpus, consists of eight carpal bones. One mnemomic to remember the carpal bones is the sentence: Some Lovers Try Positions That They Can't Handle. The eight carpal bones of the wrist are the Scaphoid, Lunate, Triquetral, Pisiform, Trapezoid, Trapezium, Capitate, H amate.

Hand Bones. The hand includes 8 bones in the wrist, 5 bones that form the palm, and 14 bones that form the fingers and thumb. The wrist bones are called carpals. The bones that form the palm of the hand are called metacarpals. The phalanges are the bones of the fingers.

3. The Bones of the Pelvis

The pelvic girdle is a ring of bones attached to the vertebral column that connects the bones of the lower limbs to the axial skeleton. The pelvic girdle consists of the right and left hip bones. Each hip bone is a large, flattened, and irregularly shaped fusion of three bones: the ilium, ischium, and pubis.

Female and Male Pelvis. The female and male pelvises differ in several ways due to childbearing adaptations in the female.

The female pelvic brim is larger and wider than the male's.

The angle of the pubic arch is greater in the female pelvis (over 90 degrees) than in the male pelvis (less than 90 degrees).

The male pelvis is deeper and has a narrower pelvic outlet than the female's.

4. The Bones of the Lower Limbs

The lower limbs include the bones of the thigh, leg, and foot. The femur is the only bone of the thigh. It articulates with the two bones of the leg-the larger tibia (commonly known as the shin) and smaller fibula. The thigh and leg bones articulate at the knee joint that is protected and enhanced by the patella bone that supports the quadriceps tendon. The bones of the foot include the tarsus, metatarsus, and phalanges.

Foot Bones. The bones of the foot consist of the tarsal bones of the ankle, the phalanges that form the toes, and the metatarsals that give the foot its arch. As in the hand, the foot has five metatarsals, five proximal phalanges, five distal phalanges, but only four middle phalanges (as the foot's "big toe" has only two phalanges).

Ankle Bones. The ankle, or tarsus, consists of seven tarsal bones: the calcaneus, talus, cuboid, navicular, and three cuneiforms.

Foot Arches. The arches of the foot are formed by the interlocking bones and ligaments of the foot. They serve as shock-asborbing structures that support body weight and distribute stress evenly during walking.

The longitudinal arch of the foot runs from the calcaneus to the heads of the metatarsals, and has medial and lateral parts.

The transverse arch of the foot runs across the cuneiforms and the base of the metatarsal bones.

Download Appendicular Skeleton Lab Manual

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Appendicular Skeleton | Learn Skeleton Anatomy

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The bones of the human skeleton are divided into two groups. The axial skeleton includes all the bones (that form bony structures) along the body's long axis. The bones of the appendicular skeleton make up the rest of the skeleton, and are so called because they are appendages of the axial skeleton.

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..that's not "some lovers try positions..."

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Want to know the name for each carpal bone off-hand? Scrub up on your latin and learn these 8 handy tips.

The secret to these 8 handy tips is all about understanding the origin of their names. If you know where the Greek and Latin originate from, then it will make a lot more sense when it comes to learning these structures and identifying them in a dissection.

First let's take the scaphoid. Greek in origin, it means "like a boat". If you isolate this bone and rotate it around, what you will discover is that it sort of looks like a boat.

Next up is the lunate. This name is Latin in origin; it means "like the moon". So if we examine this bone in isolation, we can actually see the outline of a half-moon, and with this it will be easier to remember.

Now let's look at the triquetrum. This bone's name is Latin in origin - it means three corners; "tri" meaning three, "quetra" meaning corner. So again, if we take a look at this bone isolation, we can make out a triangular (three-cornered) shape.

The pisiform is up next. Latin in origin, its name means "in the shape of a pea". The pisiform is a standalone, small, ball-like shaped structure just like a pea. It's the easiest bone to remember.

The trapezium 's name is Greek in origin; it means "like a table". If you view this bone in isolation, the bone roughy resembles a table shape.

The next bone, the trapezoid, means "like a table" also. This one looks a little more like its namesake. Viewing it in isolation you can really make out that table shape.

The capitate bone is up next. Again, Latin in origin, it means "like a head". This one takes a little more imagination than the others, but once again, looking at it in isolation, you should be able to make out a head shape.

The final bone we're going to look at is the hamate. Another name that's Latin in origin, meaning "like a hook". If you isolate this bone and view it from the side, you can make out the hook-like structure sticking out of this bone.

So that's all the bones of the wrist covered. Like I said before, if you know your Greek and Latin you'll always have these names at hand. But if you don't, don't worry - just remember these simple tips and you'll be sorted.

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8 Handy Tips to Remember the Bones of the Wrist | Anatomy Slices

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Want to know the name for each carpal bone off-hand? Scrub up on your latin and learn these 8 handy tips. The secret to these 8 handy tips is all about understanding the origin of their names.

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BONES OF THE HAND (LEARN IN 2.5 MINUTES!)

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Divided by body systems (from head to toe)

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Quizzes on human skeletal system anatomy, bone anatomy, and bone markings. Visit Kenhub for more skeletal system quizzes. Start now!

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Combines labs 3 and 4

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Joints: Crash Course Anatomy & Physiology #20

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Identify the different parts of the Scapula from both the anterior view and posterior view.

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Name the parts of the Ilium, Ischium, and Pubis.

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This online quiz is called Femur -Distal End anatomy, and, physiology

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In anatomy, an arm is one of the upper limbs of an animal. The term arm can also be used for analogous structures, such as one of the paired upper limbs of a four-legged animal, or the arms of cephalo

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Articulations & Muscles

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This online quiz is called Knee Joint Model Labeling Quiz

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So much information! Only use as a reference/want the information provided in another way secondary to your textbook/TopHat

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Author: Adrian Rad BSc (Hons) * Reviewer: Francesca Salvador MSc * Last reviewed: September 07, 2020

This article will shed some light on the various types of movements in the human body. They will be grouped in pairs of 'antagonistic actions' (actions that oppose one another), just like certain muscle groups.

In order to understand fellow medical students and physicians, you need to have an excellent grasp of the anatomical language. This can simultaneously be a blessing and a curse. If you see the glass half full, the language is extremely precise and exact, leaving no room for errors, misinterpretation, or miscommunication. If you see the glass half empty, there is only one specific term that can accurately describe an anatomical structure/movement/relation, which means there are a lot of words that you need to learn in order to become fluent in this language.

Almost every anatomy department in the world naturally focuses its resources on teaching students the names and details of bones, muscles, vessels, nerves, etc. However, the basic concepts of planes, relations, and especially anatomical movements are glanced over in perhaps the first 30 minutes to 1 hour. Planes and relations eventually catch up with students because they are constantly used to relate anatomical structures together, but movements are usually forgotten or poorly understood.

Flexion

Bending

Extension

Straightening

Abduction

Moving away from the reference axis

Adduction

Bringing closer to the reference axis

Protrusion

Forward

Retrusion

Backward

Elevation

Superiorly to the reference axis

Depression

Inferiorly to the reference axis

Lateral rotation

Rotation away from the midline

Medial rotation

Rotation toward the midline

Pronation

Medial rotation of the radius, resulting in the palm of the hand facing posteriorly (if in anatomical position) or inferiorly (if elbow is flexed)

Supination

Lateral rotation of the radius, resulting in the palm of the hand facing anteriorly (if in anatomical position) or superiorly (if elbow is flexed)

Mnemonic: 'Supinate to the Sun and Pronate to the P lants'

( Supinate: palm towards the sun, Pronate: palm towards the p lants)

Circumduction

Combination of: flexion, abduction, extension, adduction

Deviation

Ulnar and radial abduction of the wrist

Opposition

Bringing the thumb in contact to a finger

Reposition

Separating the thumb from the digits

Inversion

Plantar side toward the medial plane

Eversion

Plantar side away from the medial plane

What is a movement?

Without going into complicated physics explanations and equations, movement involves an entity moving from point A to point B. The movement is carried out around a fixed axis or fulcrum and has a direction.

Anatomical movements are no different. They usually involve bones or body parts moving around fixed joints relative to the main anatomical axes (sagittal, coronal, frontal, etc.) or planes parallel to them.

Therefore, the template of anatomical movements consists of the following (not all of them are required for every movement):

Anatomical structures involved in the movement.

Reference axes around which the movement happens.

Direction, which in anatomy is usually related to a standard plane, such as the median, medial, sagittal, frontal, etc.

Learn everything about the human body movements with our articles, video tutorials, quizzes, and labeled diagrams.

Flexion/extension

The opposing movements of flexion and extension take place in sagittal directions around a frontal/coronal axis. Flexion, or bending, involves decreasing the angle between the two entities taking part in the movement (bones or body parts). In contrast, extension, or straightening, involves increasing the respective angle.

Anatomical structures: The tibia of the leg moves relative to the femur of the thigh.

Reference axes: The movement is in the sagittal plane. The fulcrum is provided by the knee joint, through which the frontal/coronal axis passes.

Direction: During flexion, the leg moves backwards (posteriorly). During extension, it moves forwards (anteriorly).

Anatomical structures: The forearm moves relative to the arm. More precisely, the ulna (one of the two forearm bones) moves relative to the humerus (bone of the arm).

Reference axes: The movement is in the sagittal plane. The fulcrum is provided by the elbow joint, around a frontal/coronal axis .

Direction: During flexion, the forearm moves upwards and 'closer' to the arm, resulting in a decreased angle between them. During extension it straightens, increasing the angle relative to the arm.

Anatomical structures: The humerus of the arm moves relative to the scapula of the shoulder blade.

Reference axes: The movement is in the sagittal plane. The fulcrum is provided by the shoulder, or glenohumeral joint, around a frontal axis.

Direction: During flexion, the arm moves anteriorly and upwards (in full flexion). During extension of the arm/shoulder joint (from a flexed position), the arm moves posteriorly and downwards, back to the anatomical position. If a full range of motion is performed, it can continue posteriorly, creating an imaginary arc or semicircle.

Anatomical structures: The skull and cervical vertebrae of the neck move relative to the thoracic vertebrae and upper back.

Reference axes: The movement is in the sagittal plane. The 'fulcrum' is not fixed due to the anatomy and movement of the cervical vertebrae, but it can loosely be positioned through the upper thoracic vertebrae. Movement occurs around a frontal/coronal axis.

Direction: During flexion, the head and neck move anteriorly and downwards (in full flexion). Essentially, you are looking down. During extension, it moves posteriorly and slightly downwards.

Anatomical structures: The vertebral column moves relative to the sacrum and hip bone.

Reference axes: The movement is in the sagittal plane. You can imagine the 'fulcrum' as being loosely through the two hip bones and sacrum. Movement occurs around a frontal/coronal axis.

Direction: During flexion, when you are bending forward, the vertebral column moves anteriorly and downwards (in full flexion). During extension, it moves backwards and slightly downwards.

Abduction/adduction

The movements of abduction and adduction are intimately related to the median plane. They both generally occur in the frontal plane and are happening around an anteroposterior axis.

Are you struggling to remember all of these terms like abduction, adduction and flexion? Master basic medical terminology with our quizzes and free worksheets!

Anatomical structures: The arm moves relative to the trunk and the shoulder. The leg moves relative to the hip.

Reference axes: The movement is in the frontal plane. You can imagine the 'fulcrum' as axes that pierce the shoulder and the hip respectively, each one following in a forward-backward trajectory.

Direction: During abduction, you are moving your arm/leg away from the median plane. During adduction, you are moving them towards the median plane. To picture these movements, imagine a child jumping and flailing his/her arms very excitedly in order to grab your attention.

Anatomical structures: The digits move relative to the third finger of the hand or the second toe of the foot. These two entities represent the medial planes.

Reference axes: The movement can be in multiple planes, depending on the orientation of the hand or foot.

Direction: During abduction, you are moving the digits away from the third finger or second toe, hence spreading them apart from the medial plane. Adduction is the opposite - the digits are brought closer.

Protrusion/retrusion

The movements of protrusion and retrusion take place in the sagittal plane. Since they are also related to the frontal/coronal axis, but instead of only moving around it, these movements are also taking place parallel to it. Protrusion involves a movement going straight ahead or forward.

Retrusion is the opposite and involves going backwards. Anatomical structures capable of such actions are the tongue, chin (mandible) and lips.

Anatomical structures: The mandible moves relative to the viscerocranium (fused bones of the skull forming the face)

Reference axes: The movement is primarily of a 'sliding/gliding' nature, and occurs in the sagittal plane. A very slight degree of rotation will also occur around a frontal/coronal axis.

Direction: During protrusion, the mandible moves directly anteriorly (think underbite). During retrusion, it moves directly posteriorly (think overbite).

Depression/elevation

While protrusion and retrusion move anatomical structures forward and backwards, depression and elevation move them down (inferiorly) and up (superiorly), respectively.

Anatomical structures: The mandible moves relative to the viscerocranium (fused bones of the skull forming the face)

Reference axes: The movement is in the frontal plane. It has a 'fulcrum' due to the nature of the temporomandibular joint, which is the transverse plane passing through the two respective joints.

Direction: During depression, the mandible moves directly downwards. During elevation, it moves directly upwards. You are performing these two movements when you open and close your mouth or during mastication.

Lateral/medial rotation

Rotation happens in the transverse plane around a vertical (longitudinal) axis that happens relative to the median plane. Medial rotation involves bringing the anatomical structure closer to the median plane, while lateral rotation involves moving it further away.

Although very similar, rotations are distinct from abductions/adductions, due to the planes the movements are happening in.

Many anatomical entities take part in rotation, but a few examples are given below.

Anatomical structures: The head turns relative to the trunk.

Reference axes: The movement is in the transverse plane. The 'fulcrum' is the longitudinal/vertical axis passing up and down through the vertebral column and the crown of your head.

Direction: These two movements happen by changing the position the nose is pointing to. Turning your head laterally corresponds to lateral rotation, while turning it back to look straight ahead corresponds to medial rotation.

Anatomical structures: The anterior surface of the arm/leg turns relative to the trunk.

Reference axes: The movement is in the transverse plane. The 'fulcrum' is the longitudinal/vertical axis passing up and down through the arm/leg itself.

Direction: These two movements happen by changing the position of their anterior surfaces. By bringing your biceps/vastus muscles towards the midline, you are rotating them medially. If you orientate them in the opposite direction, you are rotating them laterally. For instance, if you are holding a newborn baby, your arms are medially rotated.

Pronation/supination

Strictly speaking, pronation and supination are considered as two special types of rotation. They are restricted to the forearm and involve the radius twisting over the ulna. The movement template is as follows:

Anatomical structures: The distal part of the radius rotates around the ulna. Its proximal part rotates in place.

Reference axes: The movement is in the transverse plane. The 'fulcrum' is the longitudinal axis passing through the ulna.

Direction: Supination is a lateral rotation of the radius, resulting in the palm of the hand facing anteriorly (if in anatomical position) or superiorly (if elbow is flexed). In contrast, pronation is a medial rotation of the radius, with the palm ending in opposite directions compared to supination. You are supinating and pronating when you hold a bowl of soup and when you empty it, respectively.

Supinate: palm towards the sun

Pronate: palm towards the plants

Circumduction

Circumduction is a special type of movement that is actually a combination of many other ones. The overall movement starts with flexion, followed by abduction, extension and finally adduction. The order must be sequential, but it can start from either flexion or adduction. The result is a circular movement. Due to the multitude of movements, circumduction is restricted to ball-and-socket type joints, such as the shoulder and the hip.

Circumduction of upper limb (ventral view)

Deviation

Deviation is a special type of movement that is restricted to the wrist joint. The movement happens in a longitudinal plane through the wrist relative to an axis passing from palmar to dorsal through the wrist. It occurs as follows:

Anatomical structures: The carpal bones move in relation to the radius.

Reference axes: The movement is in the longitudinal plane through the wrist. The 'fulcrum' is the palmar to dorsal axis passing through the capitate bone of the wrist. The joint allowing the movement is the radiocarpal joint.

Direction: Radial deviation involves the movement of the wrist towards the "thumb side". Ulnar deviation consists of the moving the wrist towards the side of the little finger (fifth digit). As the angle between the hand and the forearm are reduced, deviation can be referred to as radial/ulnar flexion.

Opposition/reposition

These two movements are restricted to the digits of the hand. Essentially, they involve pinching, such as when sprinkling salt over food or snapping your fingers. Anatomically speaking, opposition involves touching the pad of any one of your fingers with the thumb of the same hand. Reposition is the reverse, which consists of separating them.

Opposition of thumb (ventral view)

Inversion/eversion

The antagonistic movements of inversion and eversion take place relative to the median place and are specific to the foot. In eversion, the plantar side of the foot is moved away from the median plane so that it is turned laterally. In inversion, the plantar side is moved towards the median plane, resulting in a medial turn.

E version muscles

pEroneus longus

pEroneus brevis

pEroneus terius

I nversion muscles

tIbialis anterior

tIbialis posterior

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Author: Adrian Rad BSc (Hons) * Reviewer: Francesca Salvador MSc * Last reviewed: September 07, 2020 This article will shed some light on the various types of movements in the human body. They will be grouped in pairs of 'antagonistic actions' (actions that oppose one another), just like certain muscle groups.

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This online quiz is called Upper Muscles

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4 Steps to Help Learn Origins and Insertions

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4 Steps to Help Learn Origins and Insertions

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1) Get a good clear picture
2) Put origin/insertion IN YOUR OWN WORDS
3) Check notes to confirm
4) Memorize picture

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Muscles of the Thoracic Region, Dorsal Side - Rollover the regions to identify the muscle

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Quizlet created by TA using terms from TopHat! 

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Quizlet created by TA using terms from TopHat! 

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Transcript

Dr. Wallace

The ear is made of flexible, soft tissue that attaches to the side of the head. It's divided into three parts called the outer, middle, and inner ear. Each part has an important function in the hearing process.

The outer ear consists of skin and cartilage, called the auricle, or pinna, and the ear canal. The ear drum, or tympanic membrane, is a thin membrane that separates the outer ear from the middle ear.

The middle ear is an air-filled chamber containing three small bones called ossicles. They connect the ear drum to the inner ear and are named the malleus, or hammer, incus, or anvil, and stapes, or stirrup. Normal hearing occurs when the sound waves pass through the ear canal and vibrate the ear drum.

The air chamber in the middle ear connects to the back of the nose via the Eustachian tube. In both ears, the Eustachian tube serves as a pressure-equalizing valve and drains any fluid that collects in the middle ear into the back of the throat.

The final part of the ear is called the inner ear, which includes the cochlea, the vestibule, and the labyrinth. The cochlea, also known as the organ of hearing, is shaped much like a snail's shell and has small hair cells called cilia that are bathed in fluid. An elastic membrane runs from the beginning to the end of the cochlea, splitting it into an upper and lower part. This membrane is called the basilar membrane because it serves as the base, or ground floor, on which key hearing structures sit. The vestibule connects the cochlea to the labyrinth, a set of semicircular canals that control balance.

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The ear is made of flexible, soft tissue that attaches to the side of the head. It's divided into three parts called the outer, middle, and inner ear. Each part has an important function in the hearing process. The outer ear consists of skin and cartilage, called the auricle, or pinna, and the ear canal.

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Here is how the ear works normally:

1. Sound is transmitted as sound waves from the environment. The sound waves are gathered by the outer ear and sent down the ear canal to the eardrum.

2. The sound waves cause the eardrum to vibrate, which sets the three tiny bones in the middle ear into motion.

3. The motion of the bones causes the fluid in the inner ear or cochlea to move.

4. The movement of the inner ear fluid causes the hair cells in the cochlea to bend. The hair cells change the movement into electrical pluses.

5. These electrical impulses are transmitted to the hearing (auditory) nerve and up to the brain, where they are interpreted as sound.

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Here is how the ear works normally: Sound is transmitted as sound waves from the environment. The sound waves are gathered by the outer ear and sent down the ear canal to the eardrum. The sound waves cause the eardrum to vibrate, which sets the three tiny bones in the middle ear into motion.

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Transcript

Dr. Kent

Hearing is the process of changing sound waves in the air into electrical signals that the brain interprets as specific sounds.

Sound waves enter the outer ear and travel through a narrow passageway called the ear canal, which leads to the ear drum. The incoming sound waves cause the ear drum to vibrate. The ear drum sends these vibrations to the three tiny bones in the middle ear called the malleus, incus, and stapes.

The bones in the middle ear amplify, or increase, the sound vibrations and send them to the cochlea in the inner ear. The sound vibrations cause fluid inside the cochlea to ripple, and a traveling wave forms along the basilar membrane.

The wave causes the cilia to move up and down. Cilia near the base of the cochlea detect higher-pitched frequencies, such as a cell phone ringing. Those closest to the center of the cochlea detect lower-pitched frequencies, such as a large dog barking.

As the cilia move up and down, they bump against an overlying membrane and tilt to one side. This is where the electrical signal is created.

The auditory nerve then carries this electrical signal from each ear to the brain, where it is combined and analyzed by timing, volume, and pitch. This information is critical for detecting changes in the environment and separating speech from background noise.

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Hearing is the process of changing sound waves in the air into electrical signals that the brain interprets as specific sounds. Sound waves enter the outer ear and travel through a narrow passageway called the ear canal, which leads to the ear drum. The incoming sound waves cause the ear drum to vibrate.

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Balance Error Scoring System (BESS) How To

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Balance Error Scoring System (BESS) How To

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From ImPACT - one of the most common computer based concussion testing applications - very well done video