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Rwanda: How the genocide happened

Between April and June 1994, an estimated 800,000 Rwandans were killed in the space of 100 days.

Most of the dead were Tutsis - and most of those who perpetrated the violence were Hutus.

Even for a country with such a turbulent history as Rwanda, the scale and speed of the slaughter left its people reeling.

The genocide was sparked by the death of the Rwandan President Juvenal Habyarimana, a Hutu, when his plane was shot down above Kigali airport on 6 April 1994.

A French judge has blamed current Rwandan President, Paul Kagame - at the time the leader of a Tutsi rebel group - and some of his close associates for carrying out the rocket attack.

Mr Kagame vehemently denies this and says it was the work of Hutu extremists, in order to provide a pretext to carry out their well-laid plans to exterminate the Tutsi community.

Whoever was responsible, within hours a campaign of violence spread from the capital throughout the country, and did not subside until three months later.

But the death of the president was by no means the only cause of Africa's largest genocide in modern times.

History of violence

Ethnic tension in Rwanda is nothing new. There have always been disagreements between the majority Hutus and minority Tutsis, but the animosity between them has grown substantially since the colonial period.

The two ethnic groups are actually very similar - they speak the same language, inhabit the same areas and follow the same traditions.

However, Tutsis are often taller and thinner than Hutus, with some saying their origins lie in Ethiopia.

During the genocide, the bodies of Tutsis were thrown into rivers, with their killers saying they were being sent back to Ethiopia.

When the Belgian colonists arrived in 1916, they produced identity cards classifying people according to their ethnicity.

The Belgians considered the Tutsis to be superior to the Hutus. Not surprisingly, the Tutsis welcomed this idea, and for the next 20 years they enjoyed better jobs and educational opportunities than their neighbours.

Resentment among the Hutus gradually built up, culminating in a series of riots in 1959. More than 20,000 Tutsis were killed, and many more fled to the neighbouring countries of Burundi, Tanzania and Uganda.

When Belgium relinquished power and granted Rwanda independence in 1962, the Hutus took their place. Over subsequent decades, the Tutsis were portrayed as the scapegoats for every crisis.

Building up to genocide
This was still the case in the years before the genocide. The economic situation worsened and the incumbent president, Juvenal Habyarimana, began losing popularity.

At the same time, Tutsi refugees in Uganda - supported by some moderate Hutus - were forming the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), led by Mr Kagame. Their aim was to overthrow Habyarimana and secure their right to return to their homeland.

Habyarimana chose to exploit this threat as a way to bring dissident Hutus back to his side, and Tutsis inside Rwanda were accused of being RPF collaborators.

In August 1993, after several attacks and months of negotiation, a peace accord was signed between Habyarimana and the RPF, but it did little to stop the continued unrest.

When Habyarimana's plane was shot down at the beginning of April 1994, it was the final nail in the coffin.

Exactly who killed the president - and with him the president of Burundi and many chief members of staff - has not been established.

Whoever was behind the killing its effect was both instantaneous and catastrophic.

Mass murder
In Kigali, the presidential guard immediately initiated a campaign of retribution. Leaders of the political opposition were murdered, and almost immediately, the slaughter of Tutsis and moderate Hutus began.

Within hours, recruits were dispatched all over the country to carry out a wave of slaughter

The early organisers included military officials, politicians and businessmen, but soon many others joined in the mayhem.

Organised gangs of government soldiers and militias hacked their way through the Tutsi population with machetes, or blew them up in churches where they had taken refuge.

The extremist ethnic Hutu regime in office in 1994 appeared genuinely to believe that the only way it could hang on to power was by wiping out the ethnic Tutsis completely.

Encouraged by the presidential guard and radio propaganda, an unofficial militia group called the Interahamwe (meaning those who attack together) was mobilised. At its peak, this group was 30,000-strong.

Soldiers and police officers encouraged ordinary citizens to take part. In some cases, Hutu civilians were forced to murder their Tutsi neighbours by military personnel.

Participants were often given incentives, such as money or food, and some were even told they could appropriate the land of the Tutsis they killed.

On the ground at least, the Rwandans were largely left alone by the international community. Most of the UN troops withdrew after the murder of 10 soldiers.

The day after Habyarimana's death, the RPF renewed their assault on government forces, and numerous attempts by the UN to negotiate a ceasefire came to nothing.

Aftermath
Finally, in July, the RPF captured Kigali. The government collapsed and the RPF declared a ceasefire.

As soon as it became apparent that the RPF was victorious, an estimated two million Hutus fled to Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of Congo).

These refugees include many who have since been implicated in the massacres.

At first, a multi-ethnic government was set up, with a Hutu, Pasteur Bizimungu as president and Mr Kagame as his deputy.

But the pair later fell out and Bizimungu was jailed on charges of inciting ethnic violence, while Mr Kagame became president.

Although the killing in Rwanda was over, the presence of Hutu militias in DR Congo has led to years of conflict there, causing up to five million deaths.

Rwanda's now Tutsi-led government has twice invaded its much larger neighbour, saying it wants to wipe out the Hutu forces.

And a Congolese Tutsi rebel group remains active, refusing to lay down arms, saying otherwise its community would be at risk of genocide.

The world's largest peacekeeping force has been unable to end the fighting.

Summary :
Rwanda genocide of 1994, planned campaign of mass murder in Rwanda that occurred over the course of some 100 days in April–July 1994. The genocide was conceived by extremist elements of Rwanda’s majority Hutu population who planned to kill the minority Tutsi population and anyone who opposed those genocidal intentions. It is estimated that some 200,000 Hutu, spurred on by propaganda from various media outlets, participated in the genocide. More than 800,000 civilians—primarily Tutsi, but also moderate Hutu—were killed during the campaign. As many as 2,000,000 Rwandans fled the country during or immediately after the genocide.

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The US and other Western countries halted exports of essential materials to Japan in an
attempt to prevent Japan from further expansion. Japan saw this as an aggressive move. The
countries tried to negotiate for Japan to withdraw from China and the US to start exporting fuel
again in late 1941, but no terms were agreed between the two. The Japanese then launched an air
raid on the US airbase Pearl Harbor, Hawaii on December 7, 1941, killing 2,403 US troops and
wounding 1,178 others. The attack was later judged a war crime because it took place
unannounced and while peace talks were underway.
The two countries declared war on each other shortly after the attack. The US and Japan
have been at war for nearly four years, since April 1941. Bloody conflict and fierce fighting in
the Pacific have claimed the lives of millions of Japanese and Americans. The war in Europe had
ended almost two months earlier, in May 1945, after Germany's unconditional surrender. The US
is preparing for a ground invasion of Japan, which will be very difficult to resist. At least
500,000 Americans alone were likely to die, according to US government estimates at the time.
At the same time, the US was developing nuclear bomb manufacturing since the late
1930s. The bomb was ready by the summer of 1945. The Allies called for Japan's surrender by
the end of July 1945, threatening complete destruction if Japan did not surrender. Since Japan
did not fly the white flag, on August 6, 1945, a uranium bomb nicknamed Little Boy was
dropped on Hiroshima. The city was destroyed, tens of thousands of people died instantly and as
many as 146,000 people died three months after the attack. Many of the victims were reported to
have suffered from cancer and other illnesses as a result of the bomb's radiation. A large number
of buildings were completely destroyed or damaged. The Japanese authorities realized another
attack could follow after Hiroshima, but decided to hold out rather than surrender.
The next attack, the plutonium bomb nicknamed Fat Man, fell on Nagasaki on August 9. As
many as 80,000 people died. In both cities, most of the people who died were civilians.
Hiroshima and Nagasaki were chosen as targets because they were military and industrial
centers. These two regions supplied the Japanese armed forces with resources, weapons
manufacturing, and other military technology. Japan surrendered on August 15, 6 days after the
attack on Nagasaki.

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In World War II, Germany created the concept of making medium-strength bullets like other countries. It is based on experience that most modern battles take place at a fairly close range, which is about 300 meters. The power and range of the bullets at that time turned out to be too great. So, the Germans began to develop melee bullets with great damage.

The German invasion of the Soviet Union was what Nazi German forces called the invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II. This invasion started on June 22, 1941. In this war Germany used these weapons and bullets to invade the Soviet Union

Therefore, the Soviet Union also participated in developing weapons to overcome the German invasion. The Soviet Union held a weapons-making competition to find the best weapon and it would be developed. later these weapons will be used for the war against Germany

Mikhail Kalashnikov is one of the participants in the competition. he was previously just a soldier of the Soviet Union against Germany. but because he was injured in the arm after the war, he ended up joining the competition. it was he who designed the AK-47 in the competition

with the AK-47 rifle the Soviet Union could defeat the Germans. The rifle is still used today as an assault rifle

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Battles of Panipat
Indian history

Battles of Panipat, (1526, 1556, 1761), three military engagements, important in the history of northern India, fought at Panipat, a level plain suitable for cavalry movements, about 50 miles (80 km) north of Delhi.

First Battle of Panipat (1526)
An overwhelmingly outnumbered Mughal force prevailed at Panipat. This was due to the resourcefulness of its commander, Babur, demonstrated in his use of field fortifications and his instinctive sense of the value of the firepower of gunpowder. The victory enabled him to lay the foundations for the Indian Mughal Empire.

A descendant of Timur, Babur became a refugee at the age of twelve when the Uzbeks seized Samarkand in 1494. At age fifteen he was back with his own warband. He laid siege to his home city, but without success. Undaunted, he headed south into Afghanistan. Capturing Kabul in 1504, he made it his base for raids into Central Asia’s Transoxania region. Increasingly, however, he found himself tempted by the unimaginable wealth of India. In the years that followed, he mounted a series of incursions into the Punjab.

These territories had for three centuries belonged to a Muslim empire, the Delhi sultanate. Although its prestige had been badly damaged by Timur’s triumph of 1398, it remained a powerful presence in northern India. At this time, the sultanate was under the control of an Afghan elite. A capricious and divisive ruler, Sultan Ibrahim Lodi had alienated many of his nobles. It was indeed a local lord in Hindustan who, in 1523, invited Babur to undertake a full-scale invasion.

Although he clearly was attracted by the idea of invasion, Babur was in no hurry. His army numbered only 10,000 men, so he made sure that they were well equipped and superbly trained before committing to his assault on Hindustan. He took the time to train them in the use of gunpowder weapons, while making sure their skills in traditional steppe warfare were not neglected. Only at the end of 1525 did he embark on his invasion.

His army swept aside the Afghan force that marched out to meet it, so Sultan Ibrahim himself led a second army into the field, taking up a position at Panipat, to the north of Delhi. On 12 April 1526, Babur found himself confronted with an enormous multitude: 100,000 men and 1,000 elephants. Unfazed, he set about constructing an impromptu fortress on the open plain, tying 700 carts together and fronting them with earthen ramparts as protection for his cannon and for his musketeers with their matchlocks. As the days passed and a hesitant Sultan Ibrahim stayed his attack, Babur was able to consolidate his position still further. He dug trenches and felled trees, constructing barriers to the left and right, while leaving gaps through which his cavalry could charge.

On 21 April, Ibrahim finally made his move. His troops surged forward, only to be brought up short by Babur’s fortifications. As they milled about in confusion, the Mughal cavalry came wheeling in from the wings: the sultan’s force was effectively surrounded. At this point, Babur’s gunners opened up their bombardment from behind their barrier, firing at point-blank range into this close-packed mass. Unable either to advance or retreat, the Afghan army was cut down cruelly.

Not only was Babur now the undisputed ruler of Hindustan, but also the road to Delhi and the domains of the sultanate lay wide open. On the basis of this victory, he was able to establish a glorious new ruling line. In honor of its founder’s Timurid origins—and of the Mongol antecedents of Timur himself—this was to be known as the Mughal, or Mogul, dynasty. This victory marked the beginning of the Mughal Empire in India

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In late February (3 March 1917), a strike occurred in a factory in the capital Petrograd (the new name for Saint Petersburg). On 23 February (8 March) 1917, thousands of female textile workers walked out of their factories protesting the lack of food and calling on other workers to join them. Within days, nearly all the workers in the city were idle, and street fighting broke out. The tsar ordered the Duma to disband, ordered strikers to return to work, and ordered troops to shoot at demonstrators in the streets. His orders triggered the February Revolution, especially when soldiers openly sided with the strikers. The tsar and the aristocracy fell on 2 March, as Nicholas II abdicated.

To fill the vacuum of authority, the Duma declared a Provisional Government, headed by Prince Lvov, which was collectively known as the Russian Republic. Meanwhile, the socialists in Petrograd organized elections among workers and soldiers to form a soviet (council) of workers' and soldiers' deputies, as an organ of popular power that could pressure the "bourgeois" Provisional Government.

In July, following a series of crises that undermined their authority with the public, the head of the Provisional Government resigned and was succeeded by Alexander Kerensky, who was more progressive than his predecessor but not radical enough for the Bolsheviks or many Russians discontented with the deepening economic crisis and the continuation of the war. While Kerensky's government marked time, the socialist-led soviet in Petrograd joined with soviets that formed throughout the country to create a national movement.

The German government provided over 40 million gold marks to subsidize Bolshevik publications and activities subversive of the tsarist government, especially focusing on disgruntled soldiers and workers.In April 1917 Germany provided a special sealed train to carry Vladimir Lenin back to Russia from his exile in Switzerland. After many behind-the-scenes maneuvers, the soviets seized control of the government in November 1917 and drove Kerensky and his moderate provisional government into exile, in the events that would become known as the October Revolution.

When the national Constituent Assembly (elected in December 1917) refused to become a rubber stamp of the Bolsheviks, it was dissolved by Lenin's troops and all vestiges of democracy were removed. With the handicap of the moderate opposition removed, Lenin was able to free his regime from the war problem by the harsh Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918) with Germany. Russia lost much of her western borderlands. However, when Germany was defeated the Soviet government repudiated the Treaty.

The Bolshevik grip on power was by no means secure, and a lengthy struggle broke out between the new regime and its opponents, which included the Socialist Revolutionaries, the anti-Bolshevik White movement, and large numbers of peasants. At the same time the Allied powers sent several expeditionary armies to support the anti-Communist forces in an attempt to force Russia to rejoin the world war. The Bolsheviks fought against both these forces and national independence movements in the former Russian Empire. By 1921, they had defeated their internal enemies and brought most of the newly independent states under their control, with the exception of Finland, the Baltic States, the Moldavian Democratic Republic (which joined Romania), and Poland (with whom they had fought the Polish–Soviet War). Finland also annexed the region Pechenga of the Russian Kola peninsula; Soviet Russia and allied Soviet republics conceded the parts of its territory to Estonia (Petseri County and Estonian Ingria), Latvia (Pytalovo), and Turkey (Kars). Poland incorporated the contested territories of Western Belarus and Western Ukraine, the former parts of the Russian Empire (except Galicia) east to Curzon Line.

Both sides regularly committed brutal atrocities against civilians. During the civil war era White Terror (Russia) for example, Petlyura and Denikin's forces massacred 100,000 to 150,000 Jews in Ukraine and southern Russia.Hundreds of thousands of Jews were  left homeless and tens of thousands became victims of serious illness.

Estimates for the total number of people killed during the Red Terror carried out by the Bolsheviks vary widely. One source asserts that the total number of victims of repression and pacification campaigns could be 1.3 million, whereas others give estimates ranging from 10,000 in the initial period of repression to 50,000 to 140,000 and an estimate of 28,000 executions per year from December 1917 to February 1922.The most reliable estimations for the total number of killings put the number at about 100,000, whereas others suggest a figure of 200,000.

The Russian economy was devastated by the war, with factories and bridges destroyed, cattle and raw materials pillaged, mines flooded and machines damaged. The droughts of 1920 and 1921, as well as the 1921 famine, worsened the disaster still further. Disease had reached pandemic proportions, with 3,000,000 dying of typhus alone in 1920. Millions more also died of widespread starvation. By 1922 there were at least 7,000,000 street children in Russia as a result of nearly ten years of devastation from the Great War and the civil war. Another one to two million people, known as the White émigrés, fled Russia, many were evacuated from Crimea in the 1920, some through the Far East, others west into the newly independent Baltic countries. These émigrés included a large percentage of the educated and skilled population of Russia.

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The Soviet Union was one of the superpowers that won World War II. In 1947-1991, the Soviet Union became the center of the Eastern Bloc communist alliance during the Cold War. Until early 1991, the Soviet Union was the country with the largest territory in the world. The heyday of the Soviet Union did not last long. After 69 years of existence, the Soviet Union collapsed in December 1991.

The collapse of the Soviet Union began with the economic downturn around 1980. The economic downturn had a negative impact on all aspects of the life of the Soviet Union. In particular, the following factors caused the collapse of the Soviet Union: The emergence of middle class and elite dissatisfaction with the implementation of the communist system, The centralized economic system that was implemented made it difficult to distribute welfare and regional economic development, Corruption among the communist party and government, The emergence of separatist movements in the region, vassal states of the Soviet Union, Presidents Michael Gorbachev and Boris Yeltsin failed to reform the communist system of government in the Soviet Union.

In the book History of Europe: From Ancient Europe to Modern Europe (2012) by Wahjudi Djaja, Mikhail Gorbachev as president of the Soviet Union implemented Perestroika (political and economic restructuring) to remedy the Soviet Union crisis in 1985. In general, Perestroika's policy attempted to change the communist system. become more democratic. The Perestroika policy has three main principles, namely Glasnost (political openness), Democratizatsiya (democratization) and the Rule of Law.

The Perestroika policy in its development was considered a blunder that accelerated the collapse of the Soviet Union. This policy caused opposition between moderate, conservative and radical groups about the communist system in the Soviet Union.

In addition, the Perestroika policy also gave rise to the desire of the states to become independent from the Soviet Union. In 1990, communist rule began to crumble in the states of the Soviet Union. They assume that the communist system has been destroyed because it is unable to adapt to the times.

Finally these countries began to break away in mid-1991. The Soviet Union was officially dissolved on December 25, 1991 marked by the resignation of president Mikhail Gorbachev.

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At the end of the Second World War, Germany was divided into four zones of occupation under the control of the United States, Britain, France and the Soviet Union. Berlin, although located within the Soviet zone, was also split amongst the four powers. The American, British and French sectors would form West Berlin and the Soviet sector became East Berlin. The division of Germany and the nature of its occupation had been confirmed by the Allied leaders at the Potsdam Conference, held between 17 July and 2 August 1945. The relationship between the former wartime Allies, although tense from as early as 1942, became increasingly strained as they struggled to reach agreement on the shape of post-war Europe.

By 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union had begun to emerge as ideologically opposed 'superpowers', each wanting to exert their influence in the post-war world. Germany became a focus of Cold War politics and as divisions between East and West became more pronounced, so too did the division of Germany. In 1949, Germany formally split into two independent nations: the Federal Republic of Germany (FDR or West Germany), allied to the Western democracies, and the German Democratic Republic (GDR or East Germany), allied to the Soviet Union. In 1952, the East German government closed the border with West Germany, but the border between East and West Berlin remained open. East Germans could still escape through the city to the less oppressive and more affluent West.

In 1961, rumours spread that measures would be introduced to strengthen the border and stop East Germans from leaving for the West. On 15 June, East German leader Walter Ulbricht declared that ‘no one has the intention of building a wall’, but on the night of 12-13 August a wire barrier was constructed around West Berlin. Established crossing points between the Western and Soviet sectors were closed, dividing neighbourhoods and separating families overnight. From this barbed wire barricade, the Wall would eventually develop into a fortified concrete structure encircling West Berlin and isolating it from the surrounding East German territory.

The Berlin Wall was not one wall, but two. Measuring 155 kilometres (96 miles) long and four metres (13 feet) tall, these walls were separated by a heavily guarded, mined corridor of land known as the ‘death strip’. It was under the constant surveillance of armed East German border guards who were authorised to shoot anyone attempting to escape into West Berlin. By 1989, the Wall was lined with 302 watchtowers. More than 100 people died trying to cross the Berlin Wall over the course of its 28-year history. But the Wall was just one part of the larger ‘inner German border’ that separated East and West Germany, and hundreds more were killed trying to cross other fortified border points.

In 1989, political changes in Eastern Europe and civil unrest in Germany put pressure on the East German government to loosen some of its regulations on travel to West Germany. At a press conference on 9 November, East German spokesman Günter Schabowski announced that East Germans would be free to travel into West Germany, starting immediately. He failed to clarify that some regulations would remain in place.

Western media inaccurately reported that the border had opened and crowds quickly gathered at checkpoints on both sides of the Wall. Passport checks were eventually abandoned and people crossed the border unrestricted. East and West Berliners came together in celebration. The fall of the Berlin Wall was the first step towards German reunification. The political, economic and social impact of the fall of the Berlin Wall further weakened the already unstable East German government. Germany reunited on 3 October 1990, 11 months after the fall of the Berlin Wall.

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The Goryeo Dynasty was a dynasty founded by Wang Geon or King Taejo in Songdo (present-day Kaesong), South Korea, in 918. This dynasty merged the Three Kingdoms of Late Korea with the Rulers of Silla and overthrew Later Baekje (Hubaekje) in 935. The name Goryeo which means the forerunner of the Korean name, an abbreviation of Goguryeo, the name of the dynasty that ruled between 37 BC – 667 AD. At the end of the 9th century, Silla and Balhae experienced the consequences of internal royal conflict. In the Kingdom of Silla, the seizure of the throne shook politics and the outbreak of peasant rebellions and the emergence of rebellions in the regions. Meanwhile, Balhae faced crisis and pressure from the Liao Dynasty, which ruled the Khitan Empire, from northern China.
In the end, Balhae was successfully controlled by the Liao Dynasty. With the conflict between the two kingdoms in the 10th century, a revival movement emerged from the former peoples of Baekje and Goguryeo. This movement ushered in the New Kingdom period in Korean history. One of the leaders of the movement was a military figure named Wang Geon, who built a new force called Goryeo. Wang Geon then recruited other generals to participate in government politics. Goryeo’s birth in 918, the end of the Southern and Northern Dynasties of the State Period, and the beginning of the true unification of Korea.
During its existence until 1392, the dynasty was involved in several upheavals with great power. For example in 1231, Goryeo was attacked by the Mongols. The war between the two lasted for years. Towards the end of the 14th century, the Goryeo Dynasty collapsed with years of war and the occupation of Mongolia. In addition, the rise of the Ming Dynasty in China affected the political situation in Goryeo, which eventually became the two political forces. The first group of reformers was led by General Yi Seong Gye (supported by Ming) and the second group was General Choe (supported by Yuan of China). In 1388, Yi Seong Gye and Jeong Do Jeon were in their army and launched a coup. He killed the ruler of Goryeo, King U or Woo, and took advantage of Jeong Mung Ju, a group leader loyal to Goryeo. Thus, the Goryeo Dynasty fell and was founded by the Joseon Dynasty founded by Yi Seong Gye.

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This event took place after a 53-day siege by the 21-year-old Sultan Mehmed II of the Ottomans. Constantinople was not just any city; it was a leading city in the world and had been the capital of the Byzantine Empire for sixteen centuries.

The fall of this city was considered a great boon to Islam and a severe blow to Christianity. Previously the city was thought to have played a role in the spread of Christianity, even being named after a Roman Emperor, Constantine. After being conquered by the Ottomans, the city became a stronghold for Muslims.

The seizure of Constantinople was the beginning of the Ottoman expansion into Europe. This siege of the city also marked the first use of artillery in combat. The wave of Byzantine scholars and refugees from the Constantinople offensive had an impact on the Renaissance in Western Europe.

The conquest of Constantinople not only marked the fall of the Byzantine Empire, the collapse of the 1,500-year Roman Empire and the rise of the Ottoman Empire, but also marked the end of the Middle Ages. Constantinople was renamed Istanbul and remained the capital of Turkey until 1923.

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The British Empire's First KingThere is a controversy concerning who was the first king on British territory, according to several sources. The first king is thought to have come from the Kingdom of Wessex, also known as the Kingdom of West Saxons, in southwest England.The creation of the United KingdomFollowing Elizabeth I's accession to the throne, King James VI of Scotland seized control of the United Kingdom and proclaimed himself James I of England. The United Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland, on the other hand, were only joined in 1707 by the Act of Union.The United Kingdom's foundationFollowing the death of Charles I, England was ruled by the Cromwell family and became a Commonwealth republic before being restored to its previous form.The British Empire's SurvivalUntil Mary's death in 1694, William III and Mary II governed as husband and wife. His marriage to a commoner prohibited him from ascending to the throne. George VI, his younger brother, was also given the title of king. From 1952 to the present, Elizabeth II has ruled the British Empire, succeeding George VI.

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The British Empire's First KingThere is a controversy concerning who was the first king on British territory, according to several sources. The first king is thought to have come from the Kingdom of Wessex, also known as the Kingdom of West Saxons, in southwest England.The creation of the United KingdomFollowing Elizabeth I's accession to the throne, King James VI of Scotland seized control of the United Kingdom and proclaimed himself James I of England. The United Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland, on the other hand, were only joined in 1707 by the Act of Union.The United Kingdom's foundationFollowing the death of Charles I, England was ruled by the Cromwell family and became a Commonwealth republic before being restored to its previous form.The British Empire's SurvivalUntil Mary's death in 1694, William III and Mary II governed as husband and wife. His marriage to a commoner prohibited him from ascending to the throne. George VI, his younger brother, was also given the title of king. From 1952 to the present, Elizabeth II has ruled the British Empire, succeeding George VI.

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Rasyid Widan/28

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Operation Barbarossa (German: Unternehmen Barbarossa) or German Invasion of the Soviet Union was the name Nazi German troops invaded the Soviet Union during World War II. Barbarossa is the name of a German Emperor in the Middle Ages. The invasion began on June 22, 1941. More than 4.5 million soldiers from the Axis powers invaded the Soviet Union along a 2,900 km (1,800 mi) stretch.  Planning for Operation Barbarossa began on 18 December 1940;  The secret preparations and military operations themselves lasted nearly a year, from the spring of 1940 to the winter of 1941.
At the beginning of the operation, the Wehrmacht under the leadership of Adolf Hitler arranged various battles with its Blitzkrieg strategy, but by winter, the Soviet position had the upper hand. German troops were able to destroy Soviet troops but failed to take into account the Soviet Union's ability to continuously send retaliation from the East. Convinced that Japan would not attack in the East, Stalin also withdrew Soviet troops from Siberia to defend Moscow and carry out the attack. German troops were able to press for several kilometers from Moscow, but the Soviet Union's counterattack in the middle of winter finally managed to break Operation Barbarossa. Hitler expected a swift blow and did not prepare for continued war in the middle of winter.
Barbarossa's operational goal was the rapid European conquest of the western part of the USSR of the line connecting the cities of Arkhangelsk and Astrakhan, often called the AA line.  At the end of January 1942, the Soviet Army repelled the Wehrmacht, preventing Adolf Hitler from achieving the expected victory, although it managed to bring the Soviet Union to its worst state.  Tactically, Germany has won some resounding victories and occupied some of the most important economic areas in the country, most notably in Ukraine.  Despite this success, the Germans were pushed back from Moscow and never mounted a simultaneous attack along the entire Soviet-German strategic front again.
Operation Barbarossa was a failure of Hitler and led to demands for further operations in the Soviet Union, all of which ultimately failed, such as continuing the Siege of Leningrad, Operation Nordlicht, and the Battle of Stalingrad, fighting among others in Soviet-occupied territory.  Operation Barbarossa is still the largest military operation, in terms of troop strength and casualties, in human history.  The failure was a turning point in the fortunes of the Third Reich.  Most importantly, Operation Barbarossa opened up the Eastern Bloc, where troops were more committed than on any battlefield in world history.  Operation Barbarossa and the areas that fell under it were the scene of some of the greatest, deadliest, cruelty, highest casualties, and most dire conditions for the Soviets and Germans - all of which influenced World War II and 20th century history.

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The Black Death, also known as the Black Plague, was a severe pandemic that first hit Europe in the mid to late 14th century (1347 – 1351) and killed one-third to two-thirds of Europe's population.  The name "Black Death" is generally ascribed to a characteristic symptom of the disease, called acral necrosis, in which the sufferer's skin turns black due to sub dermal bleeding.

Historical records have led most scientists to believe that the Black Death was an attack of bubonic plague caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis and spread by flies with the help of animals such as the house mouse (Rattus rattus).  There are several theories regarding the origin of this epidemic.  One of the oldest theories is that the black death originated in the steppes of central Asia.  From this area, it spread to Europe via the Silk Road brought by Mongol armies and traders.  This epidemic spread in Asia and spread in Hubei Province, China.  In 1334. The Black Death in Europe was first reported in the Crimean City of Caffa in 1347.

The Black Death had drastic effects on the European population, and changed the social structure of Europe.  This epidemic resulted in hunting and killing of minorities such as Jews, immigrants, beggars, and lepers.  The uncertainty of survival creates an unhealthy tendency in society to live only for the present, as described by Giovanni Boccaccio in The Decameron (1353).

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From Attack On Pearl Harbour to Attack On Japan

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From Attack On Pearl Harbour to Attack On Japan

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Eigthy one years ago, shortly before 8 a.m. on Sunday, December 7, 1941, Japan launched a surprise attack against US armed forces in Hawaii.
Japanese pilots targeted Army, Navy, and Marine airfields, followed by naval ships at Pearl Harbor, with the aim of devastating the entire US Pacific fleet.
The two-hour attack left 2,403 Americans dead and 1,178 injured, and was followed by a formal declaration of war against the United States. On December 8, after a nearly unanimous vote by Congress, the US formally declared war on Japan.
But U.S was not silent about this. On 1942, Physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer becomes director of the Manhattan Project, a U.S. government program formed to secretly build and test an atomic bomb. The project originally began to counter Nazi Germany. But in May 7, 1945, Germany agrees to unconditional surrender, ending the war in Europe. On July 16, 1945, The United States successfully detonates the world’s first atomic bomb at the Trinity test site in the desert of New Mexico.

On August 6,1945, The first atomic bomb to be used as a weapon is dropped on Hiroshima, Japan, at approximately 8:15 a.m. Nicknamed Little Boy, the bomb is released from the Enola Gay, a B-29 bomber piloted by Brig. Gen. Paul Tibbets. It explodes 2,000 feet above ground, and killing 80,000 people instantly. One of the main arguments for use of the bomb by U.S. officials is that it would force Japan to surrender unconditionally.

On August 9, 1945: An atomic bomb is dropped over Nagasaki, Japan, by a B-29 bomber piloted by Major Charles Sweeney. It explodes 1,540 feet above the ground. The original target for the bomb, nicknamed Fat Man, is Kokura, Japan. Due to cloud cover, the bomb is instead detonated over Nagasaki, the alternate location. It is estimated that 75,000 people are killed immediately. And finally in August 15, 1945, Japan surrenders, and ending World War II.

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The Roman Colosseum has a long and rich history. From the times when it was used as a gladiatorial arena and witnessed staged hunts with thousands of wild beasts to today, it has saw the Roman Empire rise to its greatest splendour and dwindle and disappear. It is said that up to 400,000 people met their end on the sands of the arena, as did one million wild animals of many different species.

72 AD Construction of the Flavian Amphitheater began under Emperor Vespasian. 80 AD Titus, Vespasian’s son, officially dedicates the Amphitheater, also knew as the Colosseum, and decrees 100 days of games for its inauguration. Construction would be finalized completely under Titus’s younger brother and successor Domitian in 83 AD. Mid 5th century No exact date is known, but the last reports of gladiatorial combat in the Colosseum date from this period, although it continued to be used for hunts of wild beasts for some time afterwards. Around this time a chapel is affixed to the building, the arena floor is used as a cemetery, and the vaulted spaces that make up the building’s walls under its seats are used as houses and workshops.

12th century The Frangipani family, a powerful Roman patrician clan of the time, took over the building and converted it into a fortified castle. 14th to 18th century The Colosseum undergoes progressive degradation as its building materials are stripped to be used elsewhere in Rome. Some of the marble that decorated its façade was used in the construction of Saint Peter’s Basilica.19th and 20th centuries The Colosseum undergoes successive restoration projects at the instance of various Popes, governments, and the city of Rome. 2013 to 2016 The Colosseum undergoes a major restoration project. The entire facade of the building is cleaned, removing grime and soot accumulated from decades of Roman traffic.

From the date of its completion in 80 AD, when it was still knew as the Flavian Amphitheater, it is one thousand nine hundred and thirty-seven years old, making it one of the oldest and best preserved human-made structures in the world. The monument remains one of the most famous landmarks in Italy.

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World War 1 was fought in the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, who was shot dead along with his wife, Sophie Chotek. The shooter was a Serbian nationalist, Gavrilo Princip, on June 28, 1914. The head of Serbia's military intelligence, Colonel Dragutin Dimitrijevi, believed independence could be achieved by killing Franz Ferdinand.  Austria-Hungary and many countries around the world blamed the Serbian government for the attack. After Franz Ferdinand was killed, Austria-Hungary sent an ultimatum to resolve the matter immediately, but Serbia's answer was unpleasant and made the conflict even hotter. As a result of no follow-up, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. Russia's ally, France, responded by declaring war on Germany on August 3. Germany occupied Belgium on August 4. The desire to retake its former territory in Eastern Europe was the main reason the Ottoman Turks followed World War I. The countries, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia united to defeat the Ottoman Empire in the Balkan Wars that took place in 1912. But in 1913 the countries fought each other over territorial seizing after they gained independence from Ottoman Turkey.

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Constantinople has been the capital of the empire since its ordination in 330 AD under the
Roman emperor Constantine the Great. Over the next 11 centuries, the city has been besieged many
times but has only been captured once before, during the Fourth Crusade in 1204. The Crusaders then
established a Latin state around Constantinople, while the Byzantine Empire split into smaller states,
such as Nicaea. , Epirus and Trebizond. The Nicenes finally recaptured Constantinople from the Latins
in 1261 and rebuilt the Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty. After that, the empire
weakened further as it had to keep on fending off successive attacks by the Latins, Serbs, Bulgarians,
and Ottoman Turks.

When Mehmed II inherited his fathers throne in 1451, he was only 19 years old. This led the
Europeans to assume that the young Ottoman ruler would not threaten Christian hegemony in the
Balkans and the Aegean Sea. Even the Europeans had time to celebrate the coronation of Mehmed II
and hoped that his lack of experience would mislead the Ottomans. But who would have thought, in
1452, Mehmed II began carrying out his plan by building a fort on the Bosphorus, a few miles north of
Constantinople. In October 1452, Mehmed stationed troops in the Peloponnese to blockade Thomas
and Demetrios from being able to provide assistance to their brother, Constantine XI, in the
forthcoming attack.

Armed with new and sophisticated weapons, on April 6, 1453, a total of 80,000 Muslim troops
led by Mehmed began an attack on 8,000 Christian troops under Constantine XI, the 57th Byzantine
emperor. This 21-year-old youth who was thirsty for glory, managed to pass through the city
defensive walls with his very large army. After 53 days of siege, Constantinople finally fell on May 29,
1453, marking the collapse of Byzantine rule and the end of the Middle Ages. After conquering the
city, Mehmed II made Constantinople the new Ottoman capital, replacing Adrianople.

The impact of the fall of Constantinople was so great that it changed the map of power in the
Mediterranean region and made clear the threat to stakeholders and Christian nations. The
Europeans were very shocked and saw this historic event as a disaster for their civilization. While in
the Christian world, this conquest affected their religious, military, economic, and psychological life.
They feared that other European Christian kingdoms would suffer the same fate as Constantinople. In
addition, many Greek scientists from Constantinople fled to Europe and grew their knowledge there.

One of the effects of the fall of Constantinople into the hands of the Turks for the Europeans was
the disconnection of the Asian-European spice trade route. Because the Ottoman Turks made many
regulations that made it difficult for European shipping traffic, especially in obtaining spices. This
situation prompted European traders to look for other ways to spice-producing centers in Asia,
including Indonesia. That is why, the fall of Constantinople into the hands of Turkey has encouraged
Europeans to come to Indonesia. Exploration of the oceans later became the way for Europeans to
reach Asia. The Europeans who pioneered the exploration of the oceans were the Portuguese and the
Spanish. Because, among other nations, these two countries faced the most severe economic
difficulties after the fall of Constantinople. Along the way, Europeans also discovered many new
territories in various parts of the world.

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On August 15, 1945, Japan declared unconditional surrender to the Allied Forces and the independence that the Korean people had long hoped for finally arrived. On that day, the country's leaders, including Yeo Un-hyeong, formed the Preparatory Committee for the Establishment of a Korean State. Various means were provided throughout the country to support the preparation. The freedom fighters who fought overseas returned to Korea.

However, the United States had plans to divide the Korean Peninsula along the 38th parallel into two military operation zones for the United States and the Soviet Union. Furthermore, the real plan of the United States was not to make Korea an independent state as soon as possible after independence. In fact, Roosevelt wanted to make Korea a state under the Allied Trust for 35 years after it separated from Japan. General R. Hodge, the US commander in Korea, deployed the US Army Military Government and made southern Korea an area under US military rule. Koreans are very disappointed and angry. Their sympathy for the United States immediately cooled.

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1918 Pandemic Influenza Historic Timeline

In 1918, a new influenza virus emerged. During this same time period World War I was taking place. The vulnerability of healthy young adults and the lack of vaccines and treatments created a major public health crisis, causing at least 50 million deaths worldwide, including approximately 675,000 in the United States.
April 1917, U.S. enters World War I with 378,000 in the armed services. June 1917, a draft is established to increase the number of soldiers; Army begins training recruits at 32 large camps, each housing 25,000 to 55,000 soldiers. March 1918, outbreaks of flu-like illness are first detected in the United States. April 1918, first mention of influenza appears in an April 5 weekly public health report. The report informs officials of 18 severe cases and three deaths in Haskell, Kansas. May 1918, by May, hundreds of thousands of soldiers travel across the Atlantic each month as they are deployed for World War I.
September 1918, The second wave of flu emerges at Camp Devens, a United States Army training camp just outside of Boston, and at a naval facility in Boston. Between September and November, a second wave of flu peaks in the United States. By the end of September, more than 14,000 flu cases are reported at Camp Devens—equaling about one-quarter of the total camp, resulting in 757 deaths. October 1918, the 1918 flu pandemic virus kills an estimated 195,000 Americans during October alone. January 1919 , a third wave of influenza occurs in the winter and spring of 1919, killing many more. Third wave subsides in the summer. In San Francisco, 1,800 flu cases and 101 deaths are reported in first five days of January.
February 1919, influenza appears to be nearly eradicated in New Orleans as number of reported cases drops. Illinois passes a bill to create a one-year course to become a “practical nurse,” an effort to address the nursing shortage the pandemic had exposed. April 1919, at Versailles Peace Conference, while negotiating the end of World War I with other world leaders, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson collapses. Some historians speculate he was weak from influenza, which was still rampant in Paris.

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The bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were one of the most decisive events of World War II in the Pacific region. The atomic bomb attack instantly shattered the mentality of the Japanese troops who were previously reluctant to surrender. On the other hand, the incident also claimed many lives, the majority of which came from the civilian population.
The United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, in August 1945 with the consent of the United Kingdom. Two bombing operations that used wartime nuclear weapons for the first and only time in history.
In the final year of World War II, the Allies were preparing to launch a costly invasion of mainland Japan. The United States previously carried out a bombing campaign that devastated many Japanese cities. The war in Europe ended after Nazi Germany signed the instrument of surrender on May 8, 1945. However, Japan refused to comply with Allied demands for unconditional surrender. Together with Great Britain and China, the United States demanded that Japanese troops surrender in the Potsdam Declaration of 26 July 1945 or face "quick and great destruction". Japan ignored the ultimatum.
In July 1945, the Allied Manhattan Project successfully carried out atomic bomb testing in the New Mexico desert. On August 6, the United States dropped a gun-type uranium atomic bomb (Little Boy) on Hiroshima. The American president asked Japan to surrender 16 hours later and gave a warning. On August 9, the US dropped an implosion-type plutonium bomb (Fat Man) on Nagasaki. In the first two to four months after the bombings occurred, their effects killed 90.000–146.000 people in Hiroshima and 39.000–80.000 in Nagasaki. On August 15, Japan declared surrender to the Allies. On September 2, Japan signed the instrument of surrender which automatically ended World War II.

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The Cold War refers to the period between the end of the Second World War and the collapse of
the Soviet Union in 1991. During this time, the world was largely divided into two ideological
camps — the United States-led capitalist “West” and the Soviet-dominated communist “East.”
Canada aligned with the West. Its government structure, politics, society and popular
perspectives matched those in the US, Britain, and other democratic countries. The global
US-Soviet struggle took many different forms and touched many areas. It never became “hot”
through direct military confrontation between the two main antagonists. The Cold War was
rooted in the collapse of the American-British-Soviet alliance that defeated Germany and Japan
in the Second World War. The Allies were already divided ideologically. They were deeply
suspicious of the other side’s world plans. American and British diplomatic relations with Joseph
Stalin’s Soviet Union severely cooled after the war, over several issues. In particular, the Soviets
placed and kept local communist parties in power as puppet governments in once-independent
countries across Eastern Europe. This was done without due democratic process. This situation
led former British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill to state on 5 March 1946 that an “iron
curtain” had fallen across the European continent.
In February 1946, the Canadian government revealed that it had given political asylum to Igor
Gouzenko. He was a Soviet cipher clerk stationed at the Soviet Union’s embassy in Ottawa. Just
weeks after the end of the Second World War, Gouzenko left the embassy with documents that
proved his country had been spying on its wartime allies: Canada, Britain and the United States.
According to the documents, the Soviet embassy was home to several spies. They were
connected to agents in Montreal, the United States and the United Kingdom who had been
providing Moscow with classified information. On 16 April 1947, American financier and
presidential adviser Bernard Baruch used the phrase Cold War to describe the relationship
between the US and Soviet Union in a speech written for him by British journalist Herbert
Bayard Swope. “Let us not be deceived,” he said, “we are today in the midst of a Cold War. Our
enemies are to be found abroad and at home. Let us never forget this: Our unrest is the heart of
their success.”
These revelations caused a potentially dangerous international crisis. Canadians targeted by
Soviet espionage worked in sensitive positions. They were privy to diplomatic, scientific and
military secrets. This included highly classified information concerning research on radar,
code-breaking and the atomic bomb. Several historians and critics consider the Gouzenko affair,
as it was known, to mark the beginning of the Cold War era. They also believe it set the stage for
the “Red Scare” of the 1950s. The Gouzenko affair led to widespread investigations in Canada,
the US and Great Britain. In Canada, 39 suspects were arrested and 18 were convicted. Some of
the most high-profile Canadians who were convicted included: Fred Rose, who was a member of Parliament; Sam Carr of the Labor-Progressive Party (see Communist Party of Canada); and
Canadian Army Captain Gordon Lunan.

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The Korean War, which took place between 1950-1953, was the first military action of the Cold War. It was triggered by the invasion of 75,000 North Korean troops on June 25, 1950 into South Korea. About 2 to 4 million people died during the Korean War. 70 percent of them are civilians. So far, no peace treaty has been signed.

The Korean War is a Civil War. Korea was once a unified kingdom that had stood for centuries. Until finally the system began to collapse, when Japan occupied Korea during the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905). The United Dynasty period in Korea ended in 1910. And Japan ruled Korea from 1910-1945.

When North Korea invaded South Korea on June 25, 1950, they received direct assistance from seasoned war veterans from the Chinese Civil War which had just ended in August 1949. North Korean troops then dominated the war, letting the world watch what happened next. .

The United States initially did not want to be involved in any invasion. They didn't want to get involved with North Korea, let alone China or the Soviet Union. But a momentous event on the world stage then made the US change their course.

On April 14, 1950, the 33rd US President, Harry S. Truman, received a document called National Security Council Paper Number 68 (NSC-68). The document was produced by the Department of Defense, State Department, CIA, and other agencies, the content of which was to advise the president to develop the defense industry: to counter what they saw as the threat of global communism. This suggestion then influenced Truman to take the next step.

So, on June 27, 1950, President Truman ordered US troops into South Korea to resist the invasion from North Korea. He stressed that democracy must be seen as far superior to communism.

And on December 16, 1950, President Truman declared communist imperialism a grave threat to democracy.The armistice for the Korean War signed on July 27, 1953 gave rise to a new border between North and South Korea. South Korea gained some additional territory and a demilitarized zone between the two countries. Even so, a formal peace agreement was never signed by either side.

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The attack on Pearl Harbour was a surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service upon the United States against the naval base at Pearl Harbor in Honolulu, Territory of Hawaii, before 08:00, on Sunday, December 7, 1941. The United States was a neutral country at the time; the attack led to its formal entry into World War II the next day. The Japanese military leadership referred to the attack as the Hawaii Operation and Operation AI, and as Operation Z during its planning.

Japan intended the attack as a preventive action. Its aim was to prevent the United States Pacific Fleet from interfering with its planned military actions in Southeast Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and those of the United States. Over the course of seven hours there were coordinated Japanese attacks on the U.S.-held Philippines, Guam, and Wake Island and on the British Empire in Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong.

The attack commenced at 7:48 a.m. Hawaiian Time or 18:18 GMT. The base was attacked by 353 Imperial Japanese aircraft (including fighters, level and dive bombers, and torpedo bombers) in two waves, launched from six aircraft carriers. Of the eight U.S. Navy battleships present, all were damaged, with four sunk. All but USS Arizona were later raised, and six were returned to service and went on to fight in the war. The Japanese also sank or damaged three cruisers, three destroyers, an anti-aircraft training ship, and one minelayer. A total of 188 U.S. aircraft were destroyed; 2,403 Americans were killed and 1,178 others were wounded. Important base installations such as the power station, dry dock, shipyard, maintenance, and fuel and torpedo storage facilities, as well as the submarine piers and headquarters building , also home of the intelligence section were not attacked. Japanese losses were light: 29 aircraft and five midget submarines lost, and 64 servicemen killed. Kazuo Sakamaki, the commanding officer of one of the submarines, was captured.

Japan announced declarations of war on the United States and the British Empire later that day (December 8 in Tokyo), but the declarations were not delivered until the following day. The British government declared war on Japan immediately after learning that their territory had also been attacked, while the following day (December 8) the United States Congress declared war on Japan. On December 11, though they had no formal obligation to do so under the Tripartite Pact with Japan, Germany and Italy each declared war on the U.S., which responded with a declaration of war against Germany and Italy. There were numerous historical precedents for the unannounced military action by Japan, but the lack of any formal warning, particularly while peace negotiations were still apparently ongoing, led President Franklin D. Roosevelt to proclaim December 7, 1941, "a date which will live in infamy". Because the attack happened without a declaration of war and without explicit warning, the attack on Pearl Harbor was later judged in the Tokyo Trials to be a war crime.

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The Chinese Revolution, also referred to as the Xinhai Revolution (meaning Metal Pig in the Chinese calendar), was a series of events that took place from October 10, 1911 with the Wuchang Uprising led by Sun Yat-sen of the Tongmenghui nationalist movement, and ended with the abdicating of Puyi, the last emperor of the Qing Dynasty on February 12, 1912. This revolution occurred due to the failure of the Qing Dynasty in modernizing and dispelling foreign influence in China.

After the Qing Dynasty was dissolved, the provisional government of the Republic of China was formed with Sun Yat-sen as its first president. However, Sun Yat-sen had to compromise with Yuan Shikai as the strongest warlord in China at the time, and the government gradually controlled Yuan Shikai who was unable to lead effectively and China was plunged into a period of civil war, first between the warlords, and then between the Kuomintang (nationalist party) and Gongchangdang (communist party). The Revolution in China, also referred to as the Xinhai Revolution (meaning Metal Pig in the Chinese calendar), was a series of events that took place from October 10, 1911 with the Wuchang Uprising led by Sun Yat-sen of the Tongmenghui nationalist movement, and ended with the abdicating of Puyi, the last emperor of the Qing Dynasty on February 12, 1912. This revolution occurred due to the failure of the Qing Dynasty in modernizing and dispelling foreign influence in China.

After the Qing Dynasty was dissolved, the provisional government of the Republic of China was formed with Sun Yat-sen as its first president. However, Sun Yat-sen had to compromise with Yuan Shikai as the strongest warlord in China at the time, and the government gradually controlled Yuan Shikai who was unable to lead effectively and China was plunged into a period of civil war, first between the warlords, and then between the Kuomintang (nationalist party) and Gongchangdang (communist party).

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Atomic Bombings Of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

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Atomic Bombings Of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

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The United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, in August 1945, the final stage of the Second World War. The United States dropped the bombs with the consent of the United Kingdom as stated in the Quebec Treaty. The two bombing operations that killed at least 129,000 people represented the first and only use of wartime nuclear weapons in history.

In the final year of World War II, the Allies were preparing to launch a costly invasion of mainland Japan. The United States previously carried out a bombing campaign that devastated many Japanese cities. The war in Europe ended after Nazi Germany signed the instrument of surrender on May 8, 1945. However, Japan refused to comply with Allied demands for unconditional surrender. The Pacific War continued. Together with Great Britain and China, the United States demanded that Japanese troops surrender in the Potsdam Declaration of 26 July 1945 or face "quick and great destruction". Japan ignored the ultimatum.

In July 1945, the Manhattan Project initiated by the Allies succeeded in carrying out an atomic bomb test in the desert of New Mexico. They produced nuclear weapons based on two designs in August.

On August 6, the US dropped a gun-type uranium atomic bomb (Little Boy) on Hiroshima. United States President Harry S. Truman called for Japan's surrender 16 hours later and warned of an "unprecedented rain of debris from the air on earth." Three days later, on August 9, the US dropped an imploded plutonium bomb (Fat Man) on Nagasaki. Approximately half of the victims in each city died on the first day. In the months that followed, many people died from the effects of burns, radiation sickness, and other injuries along with illness and malnutrition.

On August 15, six days after the bombing of Nagasaki and the Soviet Union declared war, Japan declared its surrender to the Allies. On September 2, Japan signed the instrument of surrender that automatically ended World War II. The effect of this bombing on Japan's surrender and its ethical reasons are still debated today.

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According to legend, Singapore was founded centuries ago when a prince from Sumatra
landed on the island and saw a lion. He took it as a good omen and founded a city called Singapura,
which means Lion City. The legend may or may not be true, In fact the name Singapura was not
recorded that the 16th century and Singapore was really only a trading post with a small population,
not a city.
Modern Singapore was founded in 1819 by Sir Stamford Raffles (1781-1826). Raffles
became a clerk for the British East India Company in 1795. He rose rapidly in the company. in
1805 he was sent to Penang and in 1811 he was made Lieutenant Governor of Java.
In 1818, Raffles was made governor of Bencoolen on the island of Sumatra. Raffles
believed the British should establish a base on the Straits of Malacca and in 1819 he landed on the
island of Singapore. The island consisted of swamps and jungle with a small population but Raffles
realized it could be made into a useful port.
At that time, two men were vying to become Sultan of the Empire of Johor, which
controlled Singapore. In 1812 the Sultan died and his two sons quarreled over the succession.
Raffles supported the older brother Hussein and recognized him as Sultan. Raffles made a deal
with him. The British East India Company was given Singapore in return for an annual payment.
In 1824 the Company was given the island in return for a lump sum of money.
The British established a new trading post at Singapore and it grew very rapidly. As well
as Europeans, Malays, Chinese, Indians and Arabs came to live and work there. By 1824 the
population had risen to 10,000.
In 1826, Singapore was joined with Melaka and Pelang to form the Straits Settlements. In
1867, Singapore became a Crown Colony ruled directly by the British government rather than the
East India Company. By 1870 the population of Singapore had risen to 100,000. Many grand
buildings were erected in Singapore in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Among them was the
Victoria Theatre & Concert Hall, which was built in 1862.
Several temples were built at that time, including the Thian Hock Keng Temple, which was
built in 1842. The Sri Marimman Temple was first built in 1823, but it was rebuilt in 1843. The
Sri Srinivasa Perumal Temple was built in 1855. The Leong San See Temple was built in 1917.
The Sakaya Muni Buddha Gaya Temple was built in 1927.
When the Suez Canal was built in 1869, Singapore became even more important as a
‘gateway’ between Europe and eastern Asia.

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On August 6, 1915, the Germans used poison gas to attack the opposing side defending the fort. The surviving Russian soldiers did not have gas masks and many were killed instantly. Thinking that all the surviving Russian soldiers had died, 7000 German soldiers approached towards the fort.

When the Germans had reached the first line of defense, they were met with a backlash from the remaining 100 or so Russian soldiers in uniforms covered in blood like the undead. Russian soldiers with peeling skin like burns and wearing blood stained clothes as gas masks coughed up blood. This horrific picture made the German soldiers think that they (Russians) were the ghosts of the soldiers they killed.

Finally the Germans withdrew in full only because of the counterattack of 100 soldiers who were hit by the poison gas, thanks to this action 7000 German infantry retreated back to their starting positions. After the victory the Russian army retreated to a better land. In the western press, the attack was called "The Attack of the Dead Man".

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Learn how to improve your Padlet skills. Get support if something's not right.

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history of the founding of the republic of turkey by mutafa kemal ataturk into modern turkey 

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history of the founding of the republic of turkey by mutafa kemal ataturk into modern turkey 

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The 1919 National Pact, one of the results of the Erzurum congress which brought Turkey into the Republic of Turkey. Reported by Portaljogja from a book entitled "Islam and Secularism in Modern Turkey" by H.A. Mukti Ali, 1994, p. 77. The Turkish National Pact came to the fore after Mustafa Kemal went to Anatolia. In this city, he planned the formation of a national army after landing in Samsun on June 19, 1919. The incident occurred four days after the Greek occupation of Izmir. Then invited delegates to a congress in Erzurum in July 1919 which was known as the Erzurum congress. At the congress which took place on July 23, August 19, 1919, the resolution of the National Pact was adopted. The resolution is the independence of the Turkish people's determination to fight for the nation. Mustafa Kemal's attitude like this made the government of Sultan Mehmed VI Vahideddin in Istanbul network with the activities carried out by Mustafa Kemal. Mustafa Kemal was summoned to the capital by the Sultan to be an honorary aide to the sultan for some time. Reported by Portaljogja from a book entitled History of Islamic Culture in Turkey by Syafiq.A. Mughni 1996 p. 147. Mustafa Kemal is trusted to prevent any openly anti-sultan activities. He refused the post and chose to become a civilian and political activity in Anatolia. In this city he founded the Association for the Defense of the Rights of East Anatolia. An association that works to defend the rights of the people of Anatolia and Rumelia. this is the association according to Syafiq. A. Mughni as a tool for Mustafa Kemal's future political struggle. In subsequent developments, the National Pact which was the result of the Erzurum conference was finally approved by a new member of the Osmaniyah parliament. The results of the Enzurum Conference were one of Mustafa Kemal's efforts to build a new Turkey under the name of the Republic of Turkey through the Turkish nationalist movement led by Mustafa Kemal. The results of the Erzurum Conference succeeded in influencing the government of the Sultan of Turkey to elect new members under pressure from the nationalist group, which consisted mostly of Kemalists. This is the beginning of the history of the founding of the Republic of Turkey which finally the Lausanne agreement of July 24, 1923 was signed, the National Pact was recognized by the world. One month later, on August 11, 1923, the new Assembly members elected Mustafa Kemal as President of Turkey and Fethi became Prime Minister. That's why the republic of Turkey was founded on the basis of a state with the capital city Ankara.