# data[].attributes.body
Assignment from class to split articles and come together for a discussion.

# data[].attributes.body
Article shared in class about pesticides for growing bananas.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
"First we were enslaved. Then we were poisoned." That's how many on Martinique see the history of their French Caribbean island that, to tourists, means sun, rum, and palm-fringed beaches. Slavery was abolished in 1848. But today the islanders are victims again - of a toxic pesticide called chlordecone that's poisoned the soil and water and been linked to unusually high rates of prostate cancer.

"They never told us it was dangerous," Ambroise Bertin says. "So people were working, because they wanted the money. We didn't have any instructions about what was, and wasn't, good. That's why a lot of people are poisoned." He's talking about chlordecone, a chemical in the form of a white powder that plantation workers were told to put under banana trees, to protect them from insects.

Ambroise did that job for many years. Later, he got prostate cancer, a disease that is commoner on Martinique and its sister French island of Guadeloupe than anywhere else in the world. And scientists blame chlordecone, a persistent organic pollutant related to DDT. It was authorised for use in the French West Indies long after its harmful effects became widely known.

"They used to tell us: don't eat or drink anything while you're putting it down," Ambroise, now 70, remembers. But that's the only clue he and other workers in Martinique's banana plantations in the 1970s, 80s and early 90s had about the possible danger. Few if any were told to wear gloves or masks. Now, many have suffered cancer and other illnesses.

Chlordecone is an endocrine disrupter, meaning it can affect hormonal systems.

One of the world's leading experts on the chemical, Prof Luc Multigner, of Rennes University in France, says epidemiological studies have shown increased risk of premature births and increased risk of adverse brain development in children at the exposure levels people in Martinique and Guadeloupe face through contaminated food consumption.

He also says: "There is enough toxicological and experimental data to conclude that chlordecone is carcinogenic."

Following a detailed study Prof Multigner and colleagues conducted on Guadeloupe in 2010, he estimates chlordecone is responsible for about 5-10% of prostate cancer cases in the French West Indies, amounting to between 50 to 100 new cases per year, out of a population of 800,000.

Chlordecone stays in the soil for decades, possibly for centuries. So more than 20 years after the chemical ceased to be used, much of the land on Martinique cannot be used for growing vegetables, even though bananas and other fruit on trees are safe.

Rivers and coastal waters are also contaminated, which means many fishermen cannot work. And 92% of Martinicans have traces of chlordecone in their blood.

"You try to have a healthy kind of life. So maybe you will limit the effects of the poison. But you are not sure," says historian Valy Edmond-Mariette, aged 31. "My friends and I were asking ourselves: do we really want children? Because if we give them breast milk, maybe they will have chlordecone in their blood. And I think nobody should be asking themselves this kind of question, because it's awful."

Production of chlordecone was stopped in the United States - where it was marketed as Kepone - as far back as 1975, after workers at a factory producing it in Virginia complained of uncontrollable shaking, blurred vision and sexual problems. In 1979, the World Health Organization classed the pesticide as potentially carcinogenic.

But in 1981 the French authorities authorised chlordecone for use in banana plantations in the French West Indies - and even though it was finally banned in 1990, growers lobbied for - and got - permission to carry on using stocks until 1993.

That's why - for many Martinicans - chlordecone stirs up painful historical memories. "A lot of people talk about chlordecone like a new kind of slavery," says Valy, whose own ancestors were enslaved. For two centuries, until 1848, Martinique was a colony that depended on the production of sugar by enslaved people. And in the late 20th Century, some of the big banana growers who used chlordecone were the direct descendants of those slave-owning sugar exporters, part of a small white minority known as the békés.

"Those are still the same group of people who have uncontested domination of the land," says Guilaine Sabine, activist in a grassroots organisation called Zero Chlordecone Zero Poison. As well as campaigning for free blood tests for everyone on the island, members of the group have taken part in a new wave of protests over the last year aiming to draw attention to businesses that activists say have profited from the production and use of toxic pesticides. The demonstrations have been small, and some protesters have been convicted of violence against the police. But they reflect wider anger over the slow pace of France's response to the chlordecone catastrophe.

It was only in 2018 - after more than 10 years of campaigning by French Caribbean politicians - that President Emmanuel Macron accepted the state's responsibility for what he called "an environmental scandal". He said France had suffered "collective blindness" over the issue. A law to create a compensation fund for agricultural workers has now been passed. But payouts haven't started yet.

Martinique is an integral part of France, but one of the island's MPs, Serge Letchimy, says it would never have taken the state so many years to react if there had been pollution on the same scale in Brittany, for example, or elsewhere in European France. "The issue is how overseas territories get treated. There's contempt, distance, condescension, lack of respect."

Prof Multigner says the original documents of the official body that authorised use of the pesticide in 1981 have disappeared for unknown reasons, hampering attempts to investigate how the decision was taken.

But the state's representative on Martinique, Prefect Stanislas Cazelles, insists there was no discrimination against the islanders.

"The Republic is on the side of the oppressed, of the weakest here, just as in the European part of France," he says.

The state is working to find ways to decontaminate the land - some scientists think chlordecone can potentially be biodegraded quite quickly - and ensure there is no trace of the pesticide in the food chain. And the prefect hopes the independent commission that will judge compensation claims will generally rule in favour of former farm workers who say they are victims of the pesticide.

Ambroise, who worked with chlordecone for so many years, had an operation to remove his cancer in 2015. But he still suffers from thyroid disease and other problems that may be connected to chlordecone's known effects on the hormonal system.

Meanwhile the historian, Valy, had blood cancer when she was just 25. Her doctor does not think it was due to chlordecone. But Valy says no-one can be sure.

Worrying about the effects of the pesticide, she says, can be exhausting. "But in the end, you can't control everything. You have to admit that to some extent, you're poisoned, so you just deal with it."

On Sunday 3 May, the government of Nicolas Maduro announced Venezuela's armed forces had repelled an armed incursion. Operation Gideon was a deeply flawed coup attempt. But what would compel exiled Venezuelans and former US Special Forces soldiers to join a plan that, from the outset, looked like a suicide mission?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Caribbean islands poisoned by a carcinogenic pesticide

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
"First we were enslaved. Then we were poisoned." That's how many on Martinique see the history of their French Caribbean island that, to tourists, means sun, rum, and palm-fringed beaches. Slavery was abolished in 1848. But today the islanders are victims again - of a toxic pesticide called chlordecone that's poisoned the soil and water and been linked to unusually high rates of prostate cancer.

# data[].attributes.body
Diving into how an expert opinion is made.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Academic disputes are different from bar fights. At a House hearing last month, someone suggested to Sarah Green she meet Richard Tol, a climate change economist who had attacked her research moments before in front of a panel of lawmakers. Green declined politely, with a wry smile.

Tol, a professor of economics at Britain's University of Sussex, had no idea Green was in the hearing room. The two have never met, although they have been tussling in obscure journals.

The point of contention is a peer-reviewed study published last year by Green, a chemistry professor at Michigan Technological University; John Cook, a research fellow at the Global Change Institute at the University of Queensland in Australia; and 10 other scientists who blog under the collective name of Skeptical Science. The scientists examined 4,014 abstracts on climate change and found 97.2 percent of the papers assumed humans play a role in global warming (ClimateWire, May 16, 2013).

That statement quickly got boiled down in the popular media to a much simpler message: that 97 percent of scientists believe climate change is caused by humans. President Obama tweeted the 97 percent consensus. Comedian John Oliver did a segment on it that went viral on the Internet.

Predictably, climate change skeptics challenged the study. The Skeptical Science group fended off their attacks. Then fame beckoned. The paper has been downloaded more than 200,000 times, making it among the most popular scientific studies of 2013.

Lately, the Skeptical Science researchers have been battling a rear guard attack from within the climate science community itself. Some social scientists, political scientists, climate change communicators-and Tol-question whether informing people of a scientific consensus serves any purpose.

To them, climate change is no longer a debate over science. The latest surveys show that 89 percent of Democrats, 79 percent of independents and 70 percent of Republicans already believe global warming is happening and is at least partly caused by human actions.

Rather, the climate debate is now ethical and political; it comes down to what Americans are willing to do today to address a problem that will largely affect their grandchildren. In this realm of moral choice, the 97 percent consensus can be polarizing, said Dan Kahan, a professor of psychology at Yale University.

He brandishes as proof a video by the group Organizing for Action (OFA), which was once Obama's re-election campaign. The implicit message is that the people who disagree with 97 percent of scientists must be very stupid, Kahan said.

"We live in a world where the people who make the videos like the OFA one have attached a meaning to this argument-97 percent of scientists [believe in human-caused global warming]," he said. "It's a bumper sticker, and it says "fuck you" on it."

A road paved with good intentions and footnotes
Cook, 42, began Skeptical Science (SkS) in 2007 as a database of peer-reviewed studies rebutting climate skeptics. Since then, SkS has grown into one of the most highly trafficked blogs on climate science. Its content is used in classrooms, textbooks, public lectures and documentaries.

There's no doubt that Cook regards climate change as a moral issue.

"As a father, I realized that we are handing over a world to our children that is worse than the world we were given," he said over the phone from Brisbane, Australia. "And as a Christian, I saw climate change as a social justice issue."

Propelled by that burden, as well as the more real-world needs of his Ph.D. thesis, Cook immersed himself in climate communication. He wanted to help effect climate action, which has been spectacularly hard to achieve even as world leaders have met and disbanded at successive United Nations meetings over the past two decades. In the U.S., Republicans have blocked any sort of climate progress.

Cook thinks that politicians are not acting because the public is not pressuring them enough. If people realize that the majority of scientists agree on human-caused climate change, they will absorb that knowledge like empty vessels and become more convinced of the threat, he said. They will then be more amenable to picking up their phones and calling their legislators.

"If the public think that climate scientists agree about what is causing global warming, then the public thinks we need to act on it," he said. "If the public thinks scientists disagree, then we might as well wait until the scientists work it out before we do anything about it."

The idea is not new; several studies over the past 10 years have found a scientific consensus on climate change. Naomi Oreskes, a historian of science at Harvard University, in 2004 found that 75 percent of published studies supported anthropogenic global warming. Since then, six other studies have been published with widespread media attention.

And yet, the chain of events Cook mentioned, where people hear of the scientific consensus and call their lawmakers, has not happened. In fact, consensus messaging over the past decade has not convinced any more or any fewer Americans to believe in global warming.

Cook thinks the failure is partly because the consensus studies were not publicized enough. Another reason, he believes, is that American minds have been poisoned by climate contrarians like Frank Luntz, a Republican strategist under President George W. Bush, who advised skeptics to create an illusion of scientific discord and challenge established climate scientists. Such messaging has made people think the scientific consensus is much lower than it is in reality, Cook said. He calls this phenomenon the "consensus gap."

'Closing that consensus gap'
So, in 2011, Cook decided to do one more consensus study and promote the heck out of it. He collected 11,944 papers from the ISI Web of Science database that contained the words "global warming" or "global climate change." He and 11 Skeptical Science volunteers went through the abstracts and coded the authors' positions on anthropogenic global warming. Cook set it up as a video game, almost, where five abstracts would pop up on screen and the volunteers would code them and then hit "go." Then five more would pop up.

Green, the professor from Michigan Technological University, was the most prolific and coded about half the abstracts.

"It was winter in Michigan so I'd just come home and do them, and my husband was out of town, sometimes I'd do 50, sometimes I'd do five, sometimes I'd do more," she said, sipping on iced hibiscus tea on a muggy day in Washington, D.C.

Green and her colleagues found 4,014 papers that endorsed global warming, rejected global warming or explicitly stated they did not hold a position on it. Of these papers, 97.2 percent endorsed the "consensus" that global warming is human caused.

Once results were in, Cook put together a publicity strategy.

"There's no point in doing scientific research if you are not looking to publicize it," he said. "A part of what we were doing was closing that consensus gap, and the consensus gap is delaying climate action. We wanted it to have a tangible impact."

He published the study in the open access journal Environmental Research Letters. The co-authors released press releases through their universities to media in the U.S., United Kingdom, Australia and Canada. They publicized findings through Twitter and Facebook. And a public relations firm, SJI Associates, volunteered to design a website.

The blowback began soon enough from the climate skeptic community. Soon after came challenges from the scientific community. Tol, the economics professor at the University of Sussex, was among the most vehement.

What is a consensus?
Tol attacked the Cook study partly because of his personality. He takes to controversy like a fly to a jam sandwich. Most scientists preface comments about the latest Tol controversy with some variation of, "I actually like Tol."

Tol dislikes, in principle, the idea of a consensus. After all, the point of science is to challenge accepted wisdom and refine it, a process that runs somewhat counter to the idea of a consensus.

"I'm a hopeless romantic for the Enlightenment: I'd rather convince people with arguments than with an appeal to authority or consensus," Tol said via email.

One of the problems with Cook's appeal to authority is this: So far, no one has quantified the consensus among natural scientists on global warming. In fact, it cannot be done easily, said Jon Krosnick, a social psychologist at Stanford University who has been studying communication strategies for decades.

While the Cook study may quantify the views expressed in published literature, it does not establish the beliefs of any defined group of scientists, Krosnick said.

"How do you determine who qualifies to be surveyed and who doesn't qualify?" he asked. "Personally, I haven't seen anyone accomplish that yet."

The response has led to some head scratching by Cook and his colleagues.

"I expected the criticism from climate deniers because they've been attacking the consensus for 20 years," Cook said. "I'm a bit disappointed that scientists who accept the consensus and who are trying to work towards climate action are criticizing this method of communication because the reason why we did it was based on a lot of social science research."

In a laboratory experiment, scientists interviewed 90 people in Perth, Australia, and asked them to estimate the scientific consensus on global warming. The subjects said that only 70 percent of scientists agreed on climate change. The scientists then informed the subjects that the consensus was closer to 97 percent.

Upon receiving that information, some people more strongly believed in climate change.

How big is the middle?
So, what kinds of people are receptive to the message? People in the middle, ones who are uncertain in their beliefs, Cook said.

There is just one problem with this theory: The middle is sparsely populated.

Just 26 percent of Americans who believe in climate change are in it, said Krosnick, who computed the statistics for ClimateWire. And just 10 percent of Americans who disbelieve in climate change may switch sides and become believers, he said.

Kahan of Yale University disagreed with Cook that people, even in the middle, will change their minds when exposed to consensus messaging. In fact, most people are already broadly aware of the scientific consensus on climate change, he said.

To prove this point, Kahan tested Republicans and Democrats on their scientific knowledge of global warming. He found that an overwhelming majority of both Republicans and Democrats know scientists believe CO2 causes global temperatures to rise. They also know that scientists believe that human-caused global warming leads to coastal flooding, rising temperatures and other ill effects.

And yet, when questioned outright, even highly educated Republicans underestimated the scientific consensus on climate change.

Kahan thinks this is because the question "What do scientists believe?" no longer measures people's climate knowledge. Rather, it indicates their ideology and worldview. The conflation is due to inflammatory advertising using the 97 percent consensus message that has politicized the message.

"I don't think it is conceivable that people who are highest in science literacy know less about climate change than other people," he said. "They know more. If you measure that, you would find that out. But instead, if you want to measure who they are, you will find out who they are."

That is why, outside laboratory conditions, the consensus message has not worked over the past decade, Kahan said.

A new question arises: 'So what?'
Even assuming the consensus message does work, it will not necessarily lead to climate action by policymakers, said Mike Hulme, professor of climate and culture at King's College London.

"Even if one takes the Cook et al. study at face value then how does a scientific consensus of 97.1 percent make policy-making about climate change any easier?" he wrote in an upcoming book on the consensus that he shared with ClimateWire.

A majority of Americans already believe in climate change and support climate policy, but this has not budged the political needle. Hulme argues that climate policy-and indeed, action on popular initiatives like gun control or immigration-requires more than just broad public support. It requires getting people with different worldviews and perspectives on climate change together at the government level to consider solutions, he wrote.

In the political theater, people with different visions for the future should be able to discuss policy without polarizing messages, he wrote. In other words, dissent is welcome.

As for Cook of the SkS group, he roughly agrees with Hulme that people ought to be working on solutions to the climate problem. But he thinks that attacks by credible scientists on the consensus can act as a roadblock on the path toward action.

In fact, the most challenging week for the SkS group was when Tol challenged its paper on Capitol Hill, Cook said. After that hearing, Republican lawmakers issued a press release saying the Cook paper had been "debunked."

"[Tol] has even said there is no doubt in his mind that there is an overwhelming scientific consensus, so everyone is a little bit amused by the fact that he agrees with our results and yet he has been attacking our research," he said.
Reprinted from Climatewire with permission from Environment & Energy Publishing, LLC. www.eenews.net, 202-628-6500

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How to Determine the Scientific Consensus on Global Warming

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Academic disputes are different from bar fights. At a House hearing last month, someone suggested to Sarah Green she meet Richard Tol, a climate change economist who had attacked her research moments before in front of a panel of lawmakers. Green declined politely, with a wry smile.

# data[].attributes.body
Look at different statistics of areas and what percentages of people have conditions based on geographical area.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Information by Location | Washington Tracking Network (WTN)

# data[].attributes.body
A teacher talking about links and aspects of the NGSS standards could be improved and how they fit into the justice centered learning today.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Play the whole episode by clicking the play button below or finding on your podcast platform:
Subscribe to our Newsletter for updates and blog posts right in your inbox. Daniel Morales-Doyle talks with us today about the powerful impact of a justice-centered science pedagogy. He gives examples of what this looks like throughout different grade bands. He specifically shares a high school chemistry unit he taught in Chicago. In the show notes, find his research and similar articles of the impact of justice centered science pedagogy. Join our Facebook Group and let us know what you think of this episode. And remember, you're phenomenal!

01:30 - 05:30 Introduction to Daniel and justice-centered science pedagogy

05:30 - 08:30 Examples of justice-centered science pedagogy in the classroom

08:30 - 14:00 The impact of justice-centered science pedagogy for the students

14:00 - 24:30 How NGSS does (and doesn't) promote equity in science and the ideology behind NGSS

24:30 - 36:30 More examples of justice-centered science units

36:45 - 37:45 Final words of advice from Daniel

"I think of justice-centered science pedagogy as an approach to teaching science that assumes that inequity in science education is the most important problem in science education but also that it's not an isolated or technical problem. Instead it's a deeply rooted historical and political problem that we can't tinker our way out of. So it assumes that we can only work for equity in science education if our teaching and our work is aligned or connected with broader struggles for social justice" [02:05-02:45] Daniel Morales-Doyle

"It's a hopeful outlook. We believe in the power of young people to work with those of us who aren't so young anymore in intergenerational ways to imagine better futures. And so the work of justice-centered science pedagogy is really about how does learning science factor into that?" [14:00 - 14:15] Daniel Morales-Doyle

"Obviously probably the most urgent social justice science issue that we could take up in our curriculum would be that of climate change. But I really want to push science teachers to think about climate justice and that those least responsible for climate change are also the ones most vulnerable to its impacts. And that climate isn't a technical problem and can't be solved by technical means. It's a problem that defies disciplinary boundaries and is going to require complex social political and scientific interventions." [35:00 - 35:35] Daniel Morales-Doyle

"There's always a danger when we take up sociopolitical issues in science class of communicating a technocratic ideology to the studentswhere they think we can science or engineer our way out of things. And we can't science or engineer our way out of things, especially things that science and engineering are at the root of. We have to seek solutions that are sociopolitical in nature. It's a thin line that we walk between helping students see the power of science to transform our world and also helping them to see the limitations and the ways in which we have to be engaged members of our communities first and foremost. " [35:35 - 36:10] Daniel Morales-Doyle

Find us on iTunes

Find us on Google Play
Be sure to subscribe to this podcast so you stay up to date on all our future episodes. Or sign up for email notifications of podcast episodes.
Find us on Stitcher

Find us on Spotify

We'd love to feature NGSS or Framework teachers and experts on our podcast. Contact us at [email protected] .

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
059: Justice‐Centered Science Pedagogy with Daniel Morales-Doyle

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Play the whole episode by clicking the play button below or finding on your podcast platform: Subscribe to our Newsletter for updates and blog posts right in your inbox. Daniel Morales-Doyle talks with us today about the powerful impact of a justice-centered science pedagogy. He gives examples of what this looks like throughout different grade bands.

# data[].attributes.body
Link to nsta... National Science Teaching Association

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Next Gen Navigator

Investigating Environmental Racism in the High School Biology Classroom

1. NSTA

2. Blog

3. Investigating Environmental Racism in the High School Biology Classroom

By Jason Foster

Posted on 2020-05-26

I once taught my ecology unit with a very canonical, traditional structure. But I am passionate about antiracism, and wanted to center my teaching on this practice. Now my units are based on justice-centered phenomena, ones that encourage my students to ask complicated questions about the role of science in their community.

Learning About Environmental Racism and Local Contaminants

One major application of solving "real-world" problems is examining a social/racial phenomena in ecology called environmental racism. We collectively begin the year by investigating local textile factories and their possible waste contamination and the areas where they are located. Using Google Maps, set to satellite mode, my students very quickly notice factory location to major water systems and nearby neighborhoods, which tend to have predominantly Black and Latinx populations. They also use Google maps (satellite mode) to hypothesize the various pathways improperly used or stored contaminants could take from the factories to nearby areas where people and other organisms can be affected. Google satellite mode affords students the ability to use topography to identify water runoff routes.

Students use their background knowledge from class discussions about water cycles and historical maps researched online to locate water tables in the areas. In some cases, students found that some textile companies had already been penalized for recent or past environmental contamination in that area. They initiate conversations around who has a voice, who has agency, and who can and cannot use their voices for change.

Developing Justice-Centered Science Units

I developed this unit and others on justice-centered phenomena (like DNA evidence and mass incarceration) because I want to be an antiracist in my teaching. This work is deeply personal to me. It is impactful and empowering for my students. Teachers tend to ask me, "So where do you start?" While this is a great question, the social/racial projects I teach are personal to me and my students. It's much like DNA in that way: We have some similarities in that we (educators) have a responsibility to do this work for our communities and students, but where to start really differs from person to person.

Resources

Jason Foster is a National Board Certified Instructor in the biological sciences. He teaches at Evanston Township High School in Evanston, Illinois, and is engaged in University of Illinois at Chicago's MSE Ph.D. program in Curriculum and Instruction, Racial Equity. Foster has taught biology for 15 years.

Note: This article is featured in the May 2020 issue of Next Gen Navigator, a monthly e-newsletter from NSTA delivering information, insights, resources, and professional learning opportunities for science educators by science educators on the Next Generation Science Standards and three-dimensional instruction. Click here to sign up to receive the Navigator every month.

The mission of NSTA is to promote excellence and innovation in science teaching and learning for all.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Investigating Environmental Racism in the High School Biology Classroom | NSTA

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Next Gen Navigator NSTA Blog Investigating Environmental Racism in the High School Biology Classroom By Jason Foster Posted on 2020-05-26 I once taught my ecology unit with a very canonical, traditional structure. But I am passionate about antiracism, and wanted to center my teaching on this practice.

# data[].attributes.body
Website to find resources for credible science stories.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Copy of Shannon Deacon Copy of Climate Change

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Copy of Shannon Deacon Copy of Climate Change

# data[].attributes.body
This is full of resources and videos to help talk through climate change and really study it as a teacher. Be educated deeply on the content to teach.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Copy of Shannon Deacon Copy of Climate Change

# data[].attributes.headline
Research Paper that the Popular News Article Draws from

# data[].attributes.subject
Research Paper that the Popular News Article Draws from

# data[].attributes.body
This is the study that the article loosely bases it's claims on

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
World J Mens Health. 2020;38:e56. English.
Published online Nov 03, 2020. https://doi.org/10.5534/wjmh.200170

Copyright © 2020 Korean Society for Sexual Medicine and Andrology

¹Department of Urology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA.

²Department of Pathology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA.

³The Interdisciplinary Stem Cell Institute, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA.

⁴John P Hussman Institute for Human Genomics, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA.

Email: Correspondence to: Ranjith Ramasamy. Department of Urology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, 1120 NW 14th St, #1551 Miami, FL 33136, USA. Tel: +1-305-243-6090, Fax: +1-305-243-6597, Ramasamy@miami.edu

Received September 18, 2020; Revised October 13, 2020; Accepted October 21, 2020.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

Purpose

To evaluate the presence and analyze the pathological changes within the testes of patients who died or recovered from severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (COVID-19) complications.

Materials and Methods

Testis tissue was collected from autopsies of COVID-19 positive (n=6) and negative men (n=3). Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues were stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and subjected to immunofluorescence for angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE-2) expression. Fluorescent-labeled tissue slides were imaged on a quantitative pathology scope with various zoom levels allowing for qualitative and quantitative interpretation. Tissue from four COVID-19 positive autopsy cases and a live seroconverted patient was imaged with transmission electron microscopy (TEM).

Results

H&E histomorphology showed three of the six COVID-19 biopsies had normal spermatogenesis while the remaining three had impaired spermatogenesis. TEM showed the COVID-19 virus in testis tissue of one COVID-19 positive autopsy case and the live biopsy, H&E stain on the same autopsy case demonstrated interstitial macrophage and leukocyte infiltration. Immunofluorescent stained slides from six COVID-19 positive men demonstrated a direct association between increased quantitative ACE-2 levels and impairment of spermatogenesis.

Conclusions

The novel COVID-19 has an affinity for ACE-2 receptors. Since ACE-2 receptor expression is high in the testes, we hypothesized that COVID-19 is prevalent in testes tissue of infected patients. This study suggests the male reproductive tract, specifically the testes, may be targets of COVID-19 infection. We found an inverse association between ACE-2 receptor levels and spermatogenesis, suggesting a possible mechanism of how COVID-19 can cause infertility.

INTRODUCTION

The novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19) first appeared in Wuhan, China in December 2019, and has since become a global pandemic [, 1]. This novel coronavirus has resulted in over 6 million confirmed cases and more than 370,000 deaths within the first 6 months of spread, confirmed cases as of this writing (August 23, 2020) has reached 23,057,288 globally ( https://covid19.who.int/). COVID-19 initially appeared exclusively as a respiratory tract infection. As our understanding of the virus grew, it became apparent that the virus additionally affects other organs of the human body, such as the liver, kidneys, and gastrointestinal tract. There is a male preponderance for the virus and early studies showed worse disease severity and duration in men compared to women. This preponderance has resulted in an increased incidence of the disease and morbidity rate in men that is double that of women [ 2]. The 2005 SARS-CoV virus, a respiratory virus part of the same family as the SARS-CoV-2 virus, was also investigated regarding its effects on testes tissue. Xu et al [ 3] found that all six patients who died of SARS-CoV displayed widespread germ cell destruction with few to no spermatozoon, thickened seminiferous tubule basement membranes, as well as lymphocyte and macrophage infiltration. They suggested orchitis is a complication of SARS-CoV. Previous studies have found that deceased COVID-19 men displayed testicular tissue injury in association with inflammatory infiltrates on light microscopy. COVID-19 was detected via reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR); however, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) failed to identify the virus [ 4]. Other groups have detected COVID-19 in autopsy testes tissue via RT-PCR, TEM, and immunohistochemistry [ 5]. Studies have managed to find COVID-19 in the ejaculate of acutely infected men via RT-PCR while others have failed to detect the virus via similar methods [ 6 7]. Although much has been discovered about the novel coronavirus, there remains mixed findings regarding the pathogenesis of the COVID-19 virus in the male reproductive system that need to be researched.

Pathological studies have shown that the primary target organ of COVID-19 is the lungs. It is believed that this is due to an increased expression of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE-2) receptors in lung tissue, of which COVID-19 has a high affinity of binding and subsequent entry [, , , , , , , 8 9 10]. Studies have shown the potential risk of COVID-19 impacting and damaging other organs that express ACE-2 receptors, including the heart, kidneys, bladder, oral cavity, esophagus, and ileum [ 9 11 12]. Interestingly, the ACE-2 receptor is widely expressed in the testes [ 13]. It has been found that in prior to viral entry via ACE-2 the SARS-CoV-2 viral spike proteins must be primed via the transmembrane protease, serine 2 (TMPRSS2). Androgens via the androgen receptor are the only known transcription promoters for the TMPRSS2 gene [ 14 15]. Since both ACE-2 as well as TMPRSS2 have been shown to be expressed in testis tissue, via single-cell and single-nucleus RNA-seq studies, we believe the high androgen environment of the testes will allow for viral entry [ 16]. In addition, multiple studies have reported that the use of renin-angiotensin system inhibitors has neither been shown to confer any protective effects, nor impact testing positive rates or mortality [ 17 18 19]. Additionally, it has been shown that viruses, such as human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B virus, and mumps, can cross the blood-testis barrier and cause viral orchitis resulting in infertility and cancer [ 20]. In this study we hypothesized that the SARS-CoV-2 virus can be present in the testis and impact spermatogenesis. We also evaluated the association between ACE-2 receptor levels and impact on spermatogenesis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

1. Materials

Autopsy specimens of testis were obtained from six consecutive men (cases 1-6) who died of SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia, either alone or in relation to preexisting comorbidities, in Miami, FL, USA. Additionally, one testis biopsy was obtained from a live patient who was previously diagnosed with SARS-CoV-2 and subsequently seroconverted. All seven patients tested positive for COVID-19, via nasal swab test, immediately prior to their death, collection, or upon arrival to the medical examiner department. Three COVID-19 negative specimens of testis were taken as controls (cases C1-C3). All COVID-19 negative cases died of accidental causes, such as severe intracerebral hemorrhage following a fall (case C1), suspected overdose (case C2), and aspiration leading to asphyxiation (case C3). All control cases tested negative for SARS-CoV-2.

2. Tissue processing and staining

Both COVID-19 positive as well as negative control cases were immediately fixed with formaldehyde upon receipt per the Miami Dade County Medical Examiner Department protocols. Autopsy and testis tissue collection occurred 24-48 hours after the body was received by the medical examiner. All collected autopsy tissue was fixed in 10% buffered formalin for 48 hours for infection disease control reasons according to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) guidelines. Formalin-fixed tissue was paraffin embedded. Samples were cut to 4-micron sections and stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E). After dewaxing and rehydrating, sections were covered with 1× terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT) balance buffer before being incubated at room temperature for 15-30 minutes. This was followed by the addition of TdT-labeled reaction mixture with enzyme and incubated at 37℃ for 1 hour. Tris-buffered saline (TBS) instead of TdT enzyme was applied for negative control. Sections were rinsed with TBS between incubations at room temperature with stop solution for 5 minutes, 3% H ₂O ₂ for 5 minutes, and blocking buffer for 10 minutes. Peroxidase streptavidin conjugate was added at room temperature for 30 minutes. Slides were rinsed with TBS again, and incubated for color reaction with 3,3′-Diaminobenzidine (DAB) solution at room temperature for 10-15 minutes. Slides were counterstained with hematoxylin for 30 seconds. Slide evaluation and image analysis were performed under a light microscope at 200× magnification.

For fluorescent microscopy, paraffin sections of the testis were deparaffinized with xylene, hydrated with a series of alcohol solutions, and rinsed one time with Milli-Q water. They were then boiled for 20 minutes in 0.1 M Citrate Buffer in a microwave (800 W) for antigen retrieval. The specimens were cooled for 20 minutes at room temperature, washed four times with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) (1×) (cat# 14190-144; Gibco, Rockville, MD, USA), and then incubated with 10% Normal Donkey Serum for 60 minutes at room temperature. After rinsing, the slides were incubated with ACE-2 Rabbit mAb (cat# 4355S; Cell Signaling, Danvers, MA, USA) and MERS-CoV Spike Protein S2 Mouse mAb (cat# 40070-MM11; Sino Biological, Wayne, PA, USA). The primary antibodies were diluted in PBS with Tween-20 (1:200) overnight at 4℃. The next day, the sections were washed two times with PBS and then incubated with Alexa Fluor 568 (cat# A10042; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) Donkey anti-Rabbit Secondary Antibody and Alexa Fluor 568 (cat# A10037; Thermo Fisher Scientific) Donkey anti-Mouse Secondary Antibody. These secondary antibodies were diluted 1:200 in 10% Normal Donkey Serum for 1 hour at 37℃, and then washed in PBS. After a final wash in PBS, the sections were finally dehydrated, fixed, and cover slips were applied with Antifade mounting media (cat# H-1200; Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA, USA).

3. Microscopic evaluation

Four of the six autopsy patients and the one live testis biopsy patient had tissue that underwent TEM imaging. Samples were fixed in 2% glutaraldehyde in 0.05 M phosphate buffer and 100 mM sucrose, post-fixed overnight in 1% osmium tetroxide in 0.1 M phosphate buffer, dehydrated through a series of graded ethanols, and embedded in a mixture of EM-bed/Araldite (Electron Microscopy Sciences, Hatfield, PA, USA). A total of 1 µm thick sections were stained with Richardson's stain for observation under a light microscope. A total of 100 nM sections were cut on a Leica Ultracut-R ultramicrotome (Leica, Wetzlar, Germany) and stained with uranyl acetate and lead citrate. The grids were viewed at 80 kV in a JEOL JEM-1400 transmission electron microscope (JEOL, Tokyo, Japan) and images captured by an AMT BioSprint digital camera (AMT, Woburn, MA, USA).

4. Histomorphological evaluation

The testicular tissue was assessed similar to a fertility biopsy assessment. We additionally recorded the presence of inflammation and its compartmentalization within the testis. When evaluating sperm on histology the term normal spermatogenesis was used only when there was full spermatogenesis in in most of the tubules. If full spermatogenesis was not visualized in all the tubules, then the term abnormal spermatogenesis was applied and histological findings were described according to McLachlan et al [ 21].

5. Statistical analysis

The difference between mean values of COVID-19 and control groups was analyzed by Student t-test (Graphpad Prism 8 Software; Graphpad Software, San Diego, CA, USA), the level of significance was determined to be p<0.05. All slides were assessed in a double-blinded fashion.

6. Ethics statement

The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the University of Miami Miller School of Medicine (IRB No. 20150740). Informed consent was waived by the IRB.

RESULTS

1. Clinical demographics

The COVID-19-positive autopsy patients' ages ranged from 20 to 87 years old (n=6, mean=56 years old). The COVID-19-negative patients' ages ranged from 28 to 77 years old (n=3, mean=57 years). The average length of time from the first positive COVID-19 test to death was 11 days, (range=2-36 days), with one case tested postmortem ( Table 1). The age of the live patient with antibody seroconversion post-COVID-19 infection was 28 years old.

2. Pathological findings

We found that three of the six COVID-19 positive men who underwent autopsy had normal spermatogenesis, while the remaining 3 men had various abnormalities of spermatogenesis. In addition to the above, COVID-19 positive case 4 was found to have lymphocytic and macrophage infiltration. All other COVID-19 cases displayed no signs of inflammation. Table 2 presents pathological results of the 9 testes examined post-mortem. Under TEM, we observed spiked viral particles in one of the four COVID-19-positive autopsy patients (case 4) and the one live testis biopsy patient that we believed to be that of COVID-19 ( Fig. 1). This autopsy patient had associated findings of macrophage and lymphocyte infiltration on H&E histomorphological analysis ( Fig. 2).

ACE-2 receptor expression was quantified through immunofluorescence. In COVID-19-positive patients with normal spermatogenesis, ACE-2 receptor expression was noted to be significantly decreased when compared to COVID-19-positive patients with impaired spermatogenesis (p<0.05) ( Fig. 3 , 4 , 5). The COVID-19-positive patients with impaired spermatogenesis and higher levels of ACE-2 receptor expression demonstrated a mixture of findings including Sertoli cell only pathology, hypospermatogenesis, early maturation arrest, and sclerosis of the seminiferous tubules. Whereas the patients with decreased ACE-2 receptor expression displayed between 95% to 100% normal spermatogenesis.

DISCUSSION

The SARS-CoV-2 virus is known to affect the lungs, heart, kidneys, and liver; however, little is known about the pathogenesis of the virus in the testes. In our study we used various imaging studies to better understand the changes in testicular tissue in COVID-19-positive men. We observed what we believed to be SARS-CoV-2 viral particles in the testis tissue under TEM (, Fig. 1). Two of the five samples that underwent TEM displayed spiked viral particles that ranged in size from 0.083-0.0898 µm consistent with previously published literature on SARS-CoV-2 [ 22 23]. Of those two samples one was from a patient who was previously COVID-19 positive but had subsequently seroconverted prior to testis biopsy collection. Suggesting that the presence of COVID-19 in the testes is not simply due to hematogenous spread during active infection. Additionally, when all six COVID-19-positive samples were subjected to immunofluorescence it was found that the density of ACE-2 receptors were inversely proportional to the level of spermatogenesis seen on pathological examination ( Fig. 3). Our study suggests the possibility that men with higher ACE-2 receptor levels who become infected with the COVID-19 virus may be at greater risk for impaired spermatogenesis. Damage to cells involved in spermatogenesis by the COVID-19 virus could be the reason why men with greater ACE-2 receptor expression were found to have impaired spermatogenesis, while men with poor ACE-2 receptor expression had normal spermatogenesis. Of note, we found that all three COVID-19 negative control cases displayed impaired spermatogenesis. We believe this is due to age in the cases of C1 and C3. In the case of C2, this younger individual was found after a suspected drug overdose, and it is possible that the delay between time of death to time of fixation could have impacted the quality of tissue and level of spermatogenesis.

Other groups have studied the presence and impact of COVID-19 on testicular tissue. Bian [, 5] showed that SARS-CoV-19 can be detected post-mortem via RT-PCR, immunohistochemistry, and TEM in many tissues, including testis, however testis tissue collection was via percutaneous, minimally invasive autopsy. Similar to our study, Bian [ 5] found that COVID-19 positive men showed various degrees of spermatogenesis destruction and testicular tissue injury. One recent study investigated the effects of the COVID-19 virus on testis tissue and found that the virus causes tissue damage and causes lymphocytic infiltration. RT-PCR was able to detect the virus in one of 12 cases; however, TEM did not show the presence of the virus or its impact on normal spermatogenesis [ 4]. Pan et al [ 7] found that 19% of men presented with scrotal discomfort suggestive of viral orchitis around the time of their confirmatory COVID-19 testing. Measurement, via RT-PCR, of SARS-CoV-2 in the semen of 34 adult Chinese men recovering from COVID-19 did not detect the virus in ejaculate. Additionally, the authors found low ACE-2 receptor expression in convalescing COVID-19-positive men and no evidence of ACE-2 and TMPRSS2 receptor co-expression in the testes tissue [ 7]. Li et al [ 6] found that 6 out of 38 men who were COVID-19-positive had identifiable virus in their semen via RT-PCR. A greater proportion of positive semen samples were in acutely infected men (26.7%) as compared to men recovering from COVID-19 (8.7%). Thus far there is no data indicating fertility would be impacted by the virus [ 6]. Additionally, the association of increased cytokine levels seen in COVID-19 infection may be similar to the increased cytokine levels caused by mumps orchitis [ 24 25]. These studies with opposing results reveal the unknown nature of COVID-19 on the testes and semen. The implications are important as there may be concerns for infertility and/or sexual transmission in infected patients.

The possibility that COVID-19 damages the testes and impacts fertility, either through an inflammatory orchitis or some other process, warrants gonadal function evaluation in men infected with COVID-19, or who have recovered from COVID-19, and desire fertility [, 26]. Sperm banking should be offered; however, preliminary assessment and molecular confirmation of the absence of COVID-19 in seminal fluid in asymptomatic men should be performed, as viruses stored in liquid nitrogen have been shown to retain their pathogenic properties [ 27 28]. Prior studies have shown this preliminary evaluation to aid in the safety of sperm cryopreservation [ 29]. Still, larger cohorts of current or previously COVID-19 infected men are needed to confirm the safety of cryopreservation and assisted reproduction techniques in this population.

In this study we attempted to address the question of the presence of SARS-CoV-2 virus in the testes and the possible concerns it may present. Our study is unique in that we incorporated histomorphology to look for the presence of orchitis and impacts to spermatogenesis, similar to Xu et al [ 3] when they studied the SARS-CoV virus in 2006. To date, we are the first US study to show the presence of the SARS-CoV-2 virus in testis tissue via TEM. We are also the first to associate the level of ACE-2 receptor expression to changes in spermatogenesis in COVID-19-positive men. The strengths of this study are the diverse representation of men across many races and ages, as well as the ability to show the SARS-CoV-2 virus in testes tissue. In addition, finding identical spiked viral particles in a biopsy of the seminiferous tubules of a living patient who was previous COVID-19 positive; however, seroconverted four weeks later helps to preclude the idea that the presence of the SARS-CoV-2 virus in testis tissue of acutely infected men was due to hematogenous spread and not productive infection.

This study is limited by the small sample size and inability to assess the long-term consequences of the SARS-CoV-2 virus on spermatogenesis. Further studies are needed to strengthen the findings of this study in light of conflicting results from previous published studies. To confirm the TEM findings, we attempted to detect the presence of amplified DNA on PCR; however, we were unable to perform this due to lack of sufficient tissue and cDNA. Next steps involve sequencing genomic DNA from the testes of acutely infected COVID-19 patients to show that SARS-CoV-2 sequences have entered the genome of the cells. Possible follow-up studies include comparing COVID-19 positive men to controls with other (non-COVID) causes of acute respiratory distress syndrome, allowing for the definition of COVID-19 specific findings versus those due to having a general systemic illness. Future studies are required with respect to identifying any impact on testis function after chronic infection or resolution of COVID-19 in men.

CONCLUSIONS

The presence of SARS-CoV-2 viral particles in the testicular tissue fills a fundamental gap in knowledge of the affected organs and possible sequalae of COVID-19 in men. The findings of this study could be the first step in discovering impacts to fertility or the possibility of sexual transmission of the virus. On the basis of these preliminary findings, we believe that COVID-19 can penetrate the blood-testis barrier and enter the testis in some men. Presence of the virus can still be identified in the testis after patients have seroconverted. ACE-2 receptor density in testis tissue may be a factor influencing the extent of damage to cells responsible for spermatogenesis, with higher ACE-2 expression possibly leading to poorer spermatogenesis. However, further experiments are needed to validate this association. The relationship between possible visual viral particles on TEM and leukocyte infiltration suggests the COVID-19 virus may enter the testis and potentially cause orchitis. Further studies need to be undertaken to better understand the effects of this virus on reproductive organs.

Notes

Conflict of Interest:The authors have nothing to disclose.

Author Contribution:

Conceptualization: JKA, RR.

Data curation: EI, HA.

Formal analysis: HA.

Funding acquisition: RR.

Investigation: JKA, KYC, KK, HA.

Methodology: JKA, EI, RR.

Project administration: RR.

Resources: KSD, OAI, ONK, HA.

Supervision: RR.

Validation: HA.

Visualization: JKA.

Writing - original draft: JKA.

Writing - review & editing: KYC, HA, RR.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was supported by the Miami CTSI - Clinical and Translational Science Institute (UL1TR002736).

The authors would like to acknowledge Dr. Emma Lee as well as the rest of the Miami-Dade County Medical Examiner Department for their assistance with the procurement of autopsy testes biopsies. The authors would like to acknowledge Vania Almeida and the University of Miami Transmission Electron Microscopy Core for assistance with the generation of EM images.

References

Hasöksüz M, Kiliç S, Saraç F. Coronaviruses and SARS-COV-2. Turk J Med Sci 2020;50(SI-1):549-556.

Bian XW. Autopsy of COVID-19 patients in China. Natl Sci Rev 2020;7:1414-1418.

Cui H, Wu F, Fan Z, Cheng X, Cheng J, Fan M. The effects of renin-angiotensin system inhibitors (RASI) in coronavirus disease (COVID-19) with hypertension: a retrospective, single-center trial. Med Clin (Engl Ed) 2020;155:295-298.

Prasad S, Potdar V, Cherian S, Abraham P, Basu A. ICMR-NIV NIC Team. Transmission electron microscopy imaging of SARS-CoV-2. Indian J Med Res 2020;151:241-243.

Figure 3

Table 1

Clinical features of the six severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (COVID-19) positive autopsy cases as well as the three COVID-19 negative autopsy cases selected as controls. All comorbidities were diagnosed prior to hospitalization and/or death.

NA: not applicable, T2DM: type 2 diabetes meletus, CVD: cardiovascular disease, HTN: hypertension, SUD: substance use disorder, GERD: gastroesophageal reflux disease, T1DM: type 1 diabetes meletus, CHF: congestive heart failure, CKD: chronic kidney disease, CLD: chronic liver disease, SOB: shortness of breath.

Table 2

Histomorphological analysis of spermatogenesis in the six severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (COVID-19) positive autopsy cases as well as the three COVID-19 negative control autopsy cases.

-: not applicable .

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Histopathology and Ultrastructural Findings of Fatal COVID-19 Infections on Testis

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
World J Mens Health. 2020;38:e56. English.Published online Nov 03, 2020. https://doi.org/10.5534/wjmh.200170 Copyright © 2020 Korean Society for Sexual Medicine and Andrology 1Department of Urology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA. 2Department of Pathology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
News - Atrazine Ban Would Spell Disaster for Illinois Economy | Heartland Institute.pdf

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
A new study by the University of Miami Miller School of Medicine has discovered potential impacts COVID-19 can have on male fertility and sexually transmitted diseases.

Researchers looked at tissue from autopsies of six men who died from the COVID-19 infection and found the virus was still in their testicles.

They also found COVID-19 in the testicles of a 28-year-old male patient who had the coronavirus and recovered without showing symptoms.

"We also identified the presence of the virus in a man who underwent a testes biopsy for infertility but had a previous history of COVID-19," said Dr. Ranjith Ramasamy, an associate professor and director of reproductive urology at the Miller School.
FAUCI CALLS PFIZER CORONAVIRUS VACCINE FINDINGS 'EXTRAORDINARY,' REPORT SAYS
"So the patient tested negative and was asymptomatic after having COVID-19 but still showed the presence of the virus inside the testes. The finding is novel, remarkable, and certainly worthy of further exploration," added Dr. Ramasamy.

The study went on to question how much of the virus is needed to be present in the testes to be detected in semen, and which can be sexually transmitted.

"I'm fairly certain, just like mumps, about 20 to 30% of men are going to have some sort of affected fertility in their future," Dr. Ramasamy said.

More research must be conducted in order to fully understand how testis tissue responds to COVID-19, but this current study is a step forward in better understanding the virus.
CLICK HERE FOR FULL CORONAVIRUS COVERAGE
Dr. Ramasamy recommended that men of all ages who had COVID-19 and are suffering from testicular pain should see a urologist.

"Testicular pain along with other symptoms could be a sign that COVID-19 has entered the testis, and if men are thinking about fertility and/or low testosterone either at present or in the future, they should get their testosterone levels evaluated with a blood test and sperm parameters evaluated with a semen analysis," according to Dr. Ramasamy.
Click for more from NYPost.com.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Coronavirus can affect male fertility, researchers say

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A new study by the University of Miami Miller School of Medicine has discovered potential impacts COVID-19 can have on male fertility and sexually transmitted diseases. Researchers looked at tissue from autopsies of six men who died from the COVID-19 infection and found the virus was still in their testicles.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Find out what you're REALLY serving your kids.

Brent Hofacker/Shutterstock

Eat a traditional ice cream cone in the summer, and you'll need to lick quick to make sure the treat doesn't end up melting down your hand. Reach for an ice cream sandwich instead, and the ice cream seemingly magically stays intact longer. You might even recall a 2014 trend in which viral videos kept calling out Walmart for its ice cream sandwiches that wouldn't even melt when it was 80°F (or hotter). Something seems unnatural about an ice cream that refuses to melt, but you might be surprised by what's really behind its practically heat-proof capabilities.

In theory, all you'd really need to make ice cream is milk, cream, sugar, and flavoring. As delicious as that is, it wouldn't hold up well for mass-produced ice cream sandwiches. Companies (and consumers) don't want the ice cream to melt so quickly that you're left with two cookies covered in sticky, liquid ice cream, so they add a few ingredients that keep them intact longer. In fact, Japanese scientists have even invented an ice cream that will never melt.

Bare-bones ice cream in the freezer would inevitably lead to ice crystals because of its water content. Most packaged ice cream-whether it's in a tub or sandwiched between two cookies-contains ingredients called emulsifiers that bind water to fat to prevent ice crystals. One type of emulsifier is called a stabilizer, and they go a step further by helping to keep the texture consistent, even under the hot sun. On an ingredients list, you might find the emulsifiers and stabilizers guar gum, calcium sulfate, carob bean gum, or mono- and diglycerides. They're different chemicals with the same goal: to hold moisture in so the ice cream doesn't turn to goop. Ice cream sandwiches generally contain more of those additives than hand-scooped versions, which is also why their texture also tends to be a bit foamier.

If you're worried about sticking with "ingredients you recognize," additives like diglycerides and calcium sulfate might conjure up images that belong in a lab, not your kitchen. Even natural ingredients like guar gum, which comes from legumes, might give you pause if you've heard about its use (and misuse) in weight-loss efforts. Guar gum is high in fiber, which can keep you full and move things along in your digestive tract, but it's been banned in weight-loss products because high doses can block up the esophagus and the small intestine. Find out more things that food manufacturers aren't telling you.

Of course, the FDA takes any of those nasty side effects into account, and the amount you'd find in an ice cream sandwich isn't enough to cause those sorts of problems. Meanwhile, mono- and diglycerides, along with calcium sulfate, are generally recognized as safe. While we commend anyone willing to dole their own scoops of ice cream onto cookies as a more natural alternative, there's no reason to fear your kids' safety if they want to indulge in a store-bought treat. All that a slow melt rate means is less cleanup for you. Next, find out why grape ice cream is impossible to find.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
This Is Why Most Ice Cream Sandwiches Just Won't Melt

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Find out what you're REALLY serving your kids. Brent Hofacker/Shutterstock Eat a traditional ice cream cone in the summer, and you'll need to lick quick to make sure the treat doesn't end up melting down your hand. Reach for an ice cream sandwich instead, and the ice cream seemingly magically stays intact longer.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Top 3 Tools for Teaching Middle School Math Virtually

# data[].attributes.body
Class Discussion on reviewing scientific articles and discussion on science.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Copy of What is a Scientific Argument? (Week 5)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
In the nearly two centuries since German physician Carl Wunderlich established 98.6°F as the standard "normal" body temperature, it has been used by parents and doctors alike as the measure by which fevers -- and often the severity of illness -- have been assessed.

Over time, however, and in more recent years, lower body temperatures have been widely reported in healthy adults. A 2017 study among 35,000 adults in the United Kingdom found average body temperature to be lower (97.9°F), and a 2019 study showed that the normal body temperature in Americans (those in Palo Alto, California, anyway) is about 97.5°F.

A multinational team of physicians, anthropologists and local researchers led by Michael Gurven, UC Santa Barbara professor of anthropology and chair of the campus's Integrative Anthropological Sciences Unit, and Thomas Kraft, a postdoctoral researcher in the same department, have found a similar decrease among the Tsimane, an indigenous population of forager-horticulturists in the Bolivian Amazon. In the 16 years since Gurven, co-director of the Tsimane Health and Life History Project, and fellow researchers have been studying the population, they have observed a rapid decline in average body temperature -- 0.09°F per year, such that today Tsimane body temperatures are roughly 97.7°F.

"In less than two decades we're seeing about the same level of decline as that observed in the U.S. over approximately two centuries," said Gurven. Their analysis is based on a large sample of 18,000 observations of almost 5,500 adults, and adjust for multiple other factors that might affect body temperature, such as ambient temperature and body mass.

The anthropologists' research appears in the journal Sciences Advances.

"The provocative study showing declines in normal body temperature in the U.S. since the time of the Civil War was conducted in a single population and couldn't explain why the decline happened," said Gurven. "But it was clear that something about human physiology could have changed. One leading hypothesis is that we've experienced fewer infections over time due to improved hygiene, clean water, vaccinations and medical treatment. In our study, we were able to test that idea directly. We have information on clinical diagnoses and biomarkers of infection and inflammation at the time each patient was seen.

While some infections were associated with higher body temperature, adjusting for these did not account for the steep decline in body temperature over time, Gurven noted. "And we used the same type of thermometer for most of the study, so it's not due to changes in instrumentation," he said.

Added Kraft, "No matter how we did the analysis, the decline was still there. Even when we restricted analysis to the <10% of adults who were diagnosed by physicians as completely healthy, we still observed the same decline in body temperature over time."

A key question, then, is why body temperatures have declined over time both for Americans and Tsimane. Extensive data available from the team's long-term research in Bolivia addresses some possibilities. "Declines might be due to the rise of modern health care and lower rates of lingering mild infections now as compared to the past," Gurven explained. "But while health has generally improved over the past two decades, infections are still widespread in rural Bolivia. Our results suggest that reduced infection alone can't explain the observed body temperature declines."

It could be that people are in better condition, so their bodies might be working less to fight infection, he continued. Or greater access to antibiotics and other treatments means the duration of infection is shorter now than in the past. Consistent with that argument, Gurven said, "We found that having a respiratory infection in the early period of the study led to having a higher body temperature than having the same respiratory infection more recently."

It's also possible that greater use of anti-inflammatory drugs like ibuprofen may reduce inflammation, though the researchers found that the temporal decline in body temperature remained even after their analyses accounted for biomarkers of inflammation.

"Another possibility is that our bodies don't have to work as hard to regulate internal temperature because of air conditioning in the summer and heating in the winter," Kraft said. "While Tsimane body temperatures do change with time of year and weather patterns, the Tsimane still do not use any advanced technology for helping to regulate their body temperature. They do, however, have more access to clothes and blankets."

The researchers were initially surprised to find no single "magic bullet" that could explain the decline in body temperature. "It's likely a combination of factors -- all pointing to improved conditions," Gurven said.

According to Gurven, the finding of lower-than-expected body temperatures in the U.S., and the decline over time, had a lot of people scratching their heads. Was it a fluke? In this study, Gurven and his team confirm that body temperatures below 98.6°F are found in places outside the U.S. and the U.K. "The area of Bolivia where the Tsimane live is rural and tropical with minimal public health infrastructure," he noted. "Our study also gives the first indication that body temperatures have declined even in this tropical environment, where infections still account for much morbidity and mortality."

As a vital sign, temperature is an indicator of what's occurring physiologically in the body, much like a metabolic thermostat. "One thing we've known for a while is that there is no universal 'normal' body temperature for everyone at all times, so I doubt our findings will affect how clinicians use body temperature readings in practice" said Gurven. Despite the fixation on 98.6°F, most clinicians recognize that 'normal' temperatures have a range. Throughout the day, body temperature can vary by as much as 1°F, from its lowest in the early morning, to its highest in the late afternoon. It also varies across the menstrual cycle and following physical activity and tends to decrease as we age.

But by linking improvements in the broader epidemiological and socioeconomic landscape to changes in body temperature, the study suggests that information on body temperature might provide clues to a population's overall health, as do other common indicators such as life expectancy. "Body temperature is simple to measure, and so could easily be added to routine large-scale surveys that monitor population health," Gurven said.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
human biology; obesity; fitness; spirituality; intelligence; mental health; early climate; anthropology; origin of life

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A drop in temperature: Researchers examine the decline in average body temperature among healthy adults over the past two decades

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In the nearly two centuries since 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit (37.0 degrees Celsius) was established as the standard 'normal' body temperature, it has been used as the measure by which fevers have been assessed. Over time, however, lower body temperatures have been widely reported in healthy adults -- for example, in recent studies in the UK and the US.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
By Deena Beasley

(Reuters) - The likelihood that a coronavirus infection will prove fatal has dropped by nearly a third since April due to improved treatment, researchers at the University of Washington's Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) said on Thursday.

In the United States, COVID-19 now kills about 0.6% of people infected with the virus, compared with around 0.9% early in the pandemic, IHME Director Dr. Christopher Murray told Reuters.

He said statistics reflect that doctors have figured out better ways to care for patients, including the use of blood thinners and oxygen support. Effective treatments, such as the generic steroid dexamethasone, have also been identified.

Experts have struggled to accurately measure a crucial metric in the pandemic: the fatality rate, or percentage of people infected with the pathogen who are likely to die. The difficulty is exacerbated by the fact that many people who become infected do not experience symptoms and are never identified.

IHME said it had been using an infection-fatality rate (IFR) derived from surveys after accounting for age. Older people are at much higher risk of dying from COVID-19 than younger people.

"We know the risk is profoundly age-related. For every one year of age, the risk of death increases by 9%," Murray said.

The Seattle institute, an influential source of COVID-19 forecasts, said it has also determined that the fatality rate for COVID-19 is worse in communities with high levels of obesity.

The group said it has now switched to an IFR that varies over time - declining since the first pandemic wave in March and April by around 0.19% per day until the beginning of September.

It also varies across locations as a function of obesity prevalence, and continues to vary based on population distribution by age.

IHME said its analysis of age-standardized fatality rates from more than 300 surveys suggests a 30% decline since March/April.

Despite that positive trend, infections and hospitalizations have spiked across the country in recent weeks. The group said its modeling suggests 439,000 cumulative U.S. deaths by March 1, and a peak of daily deaths in mid-January at 2,200.

(Reporting By Deena Beasley; Editing by Bill Berkrot)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
COVID-19 fatality rate down 30% since April, study finds

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In the United States, COVID-19 now kills about 0.6% of people infected with the virus, compared with around 0.9% early in the pandemic, IHME Director Dr. Christopher Murray told Reuters. Experts have struggled to accurately measure a crucial metric in the pandemic: the fatality rate, or percentage of

# data[].attributes.body
Classification of a study type based on the method in which the data was collected and how.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.authors[].name
National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Categories of Experimental Design Applicable to Human Health

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Deacon Copy of Copy of  Causal Link Assignment

# data[].attributes.body
Link to Google Doc for Assignment.

# data[].attributes.headline
Evaluating Scientific Arguments with Slow Thinking Article

# data[].attributes.subject
Evaluating Scientific Arguments with Slow Thinking Article

# data[].attributes.headline
Big Scientific Issue Concept Map Rough Draft

# data[].attributes.subject
Big Scientific Issue Concept Map Rough Draft

# data[].attributes.headline
Big Issue Overview and Letter to a Legislator

# data[].attributes.subject
Big Issue Overview and Letter to a Legislator

# data[].attributes.headline
The Nature of Science in the Next Generation Science Standards

# data[].attributes.subject
The Nature of Science in the Next Generation Science Standards

# data[].attributes.headline
Science vs. Society Initial Ideas Venn Diagram

# data[].attributes.subject
Science vs. Society Initial Ideas Venn Diagram

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Breakout Room Science vs. Society Venn Diagram - Google Jamboard

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Breakout Room Science vs. Society Venn Diagram

# data[].attributes.body
Can be used to make concept maps and Venn diagrams, with real-time collaboration.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Create a shared vision.

Quickly visualize your team's processes, systems, and organizational structure. Intelligent diagramming lets you visualize complex ideas faster, clearer and more collaboratively.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Lucidchart is the intelligent diagramming application where seeing becomes doing. With this intuitive, cloud-based solution, everyone can work visually and collaborate in real time while building flowcharts, mockups, UML diagrams, and more. Sign up for free now.

# data[].attributes.body
Jamboard is G Suite's digital whiteboard that offers a rich collaborative experience for classrooms.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Sketch ideas and lessons whiteboard-style on the incredibly responsive and accurate stunning 55-inch, 4k display. Drop images, add notes, and grab assets directly from the web, or pull in work from Docs, Sheets, and Slides - all while collaborating with students or classmates from anywhere.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Google Jamboard: Collaborative Digital Whiteboard | Google Workspace for Education - Google for Education

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A collaborative, digital whiteboard makes it easy to create without boundaries and share ideas in real time. Jamboard moves the whiteboard to the cloud.

# data[].attributes.body
Has 67 STEM teaching tools. Topics cover equity, NGSS strategies, talk strategies, place-based instruction, etc.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The STEM Teaching Tools site has tools that can help you teach science, technology, engineering and math (STEM). We are currently focused on supporting the teaching of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) . Each tool is focused on a specific issue and leverages the best knowledge from research and practice.

# data[].attributes.body
Include the URL to your copy of Google Slides Weekly Reflections.

# data[].attributes.body
This was a group assignment to talk about portions of the toolkit available.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Copy Deacon Copy of Evolution Assignment 

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Is the Data Dirty or Clean? Breakout Groups

# data[].attributes.body
Create your own classroom and assign videos and such for students.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
PBS LearningMedia | Teaching Resources For Students And Teachers

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Inspire your students with thousands of free teaching resources including videos, lesson plans, and games aligned to state and national standards.

# data[].attributes.headline
Scientific Debates Outline of Assignment

# data[].attributes.subject
Scientific Debates Outline of Assignment

# data[].attributes.body
Tanograms, NGSS Standards

# data[].attributes.body
Berkeley resource library that The mission of Understanding Science is to provide a fun, accessible, and free resource that accurately communicates what science is and how it really works.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
Understanding Science - How science REALLY works...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Understanding Science - How science REALLY works...

# data[].attributes.body
Understanding Science Website

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Professor Moriarty and Understanding Science Website

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
What do I like about the Understanding Science website, https://undsci.berkeley.edu/? The glossary of terms. Also, why and how might I use it as well.

# data[].attributes.body
Wonder of Science

# data[].attributes.body
https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/12z5KQjomsGML6XZ6g0RUSZv3hUcCOwCQj80QFf60ZUo/edit?usp=sharing

# data[].attributes.headline
A Brazilian city devastated by COVID-19 may have reached herd immunity

# data[].attributes.subject
A Brazilian city devastated by COVID-19 may have reached herd immunity

# data[].attributes.body
Science News

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Brazilian city of Manaus was hit hard by COVID-19. At the peak of its epidemic in late spring, the city of over 2 million people had 4.5 times as many deaths as expected for that time of year. Hospitals and cemeteries struggled to keep up, and mass graves were dug to bury the dead. But then, cases and deaths steadily declined, despite a relaxing of social distancing measures.

That trajectory has prompted some researchers to suggest that Manaus has reached herd immunity. In a report posted September 21 at medRxiv.org that has yet to be peer reviewed, researchers propose that herd immunity developed in the city after 44 to 52 percent of the population was infected at the epidemic's peak, and that slowed subsequent spread of the virus.

"These are the highest [infection] levels I've seen," says Elitza Theel, a clinical microbiologist at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minn., who wasn't involved in the study. That high infection rate may very well have impacted the trajectory of the epidemic. "That is how herd immunity works," she says. "But it comes at a high cost ... their death rate was very high."

Herd immunity occurs when enough people become immune to an infectious disease, either through infection or a vaccine, causing an epidemic to slow down as the pathogen is starved of susceptible hosts ( SN: 3/24/20). Scientists are still working out what the herd immunity threshold would be for COVID-19; most estimates are around 40 to 60 percent of a population.

The precise threshold likely varies from region to region, but virtually all of the globe remains well below this threshold, experts say. Most of the United States remains in the single digits, though around 20 percent of the population in parts of New York City may have already contracted the virus.

To investigate whether herd immunity developed in Manaus, researchers from Brazil and the United Kingdom turned to blood donations, looking for antibodies to SARS-CoV-2, the coronavirus that causes COVID-19. Blood donations aren't a random sample of the population. They tend to come from healthy, asymptomatic adults, and so could miss infections in older people who may be more vulnerable to infection, as well as in kids. Still, the donations offer a way to measure seroprevalence, the proportion of a population that's been exposed to a virus and has developed antibodies against it.

Researchers tested about 800 to 1,000 blood donations each month from February to August, and attempted to control for potential confounding factors, such as the sensitivity of different tests and the fact that antibodies can wane over time ( SN: 4/28/20). They also tested blood donations from São Paolo, another Brazilian city. "This is one of the best papers that I've seen that really does try to account waning antibody levels over time" and other factors, Theel says.

In Manaus, the prevalence of antibodies to the coronavirus in blood donors hovered below 1 percent early on in the pandemic, the team found. In April, it rose to 4.8 percent and then rocketed to 44.2 percent in May and reached a peak of 51.8 percent in June, a trajectory that roughly followed the curve of accumulating deaths.

After that peak, seroprevalence fell, reaching 30 percent in August, a consequence of both waning antibody levels in people already infected and lower transmission rates, the researchers say.

While social distancing measures probably helped slow the spread of the virus, the team argues that high population immunity played a bigger role in curbing the epidemic. As of August, the researchers estimate 66 percent of the population had been infected. Whether the city will avoid another outbreak remains to be seen, and will depend in part on how long protective immunity lasts.

The researchers warn that their findings can't be directly translated to other cites because of differences in factors such as demographics, behavior and adherence to social distancing measures.

Why Manaus may reached herd immunity when other cities haven't remains unclear. São Paolo for instance, a bustling city of over 12 million, never topped 14 percent seroprevalence despite both cities implementing similar social distancing measures, the analyzed blood donations show. The study authors point to Manaus' lower socioeconomic conditions, more crowded housing and reliance on boat travel, as factors that could have accelerated the spread of the virus there.

The researchers estimate close to 4,000 people died from COVID-19 in Manaus, a high death toll for a city where only 6 percent of the population is over 60. The city had an infection fatality rate between 0.17 and 0.28 percent, the study suggests. The costs of reaching herd immunity via infection in other cities, especially where there are more older people could be much, much higher. Estimates of São Paolo's infection fatality rate range as high as 0.72 percent.

Overall, Manaus' experience reveals "that an unmitigated outbreak will lead to very significant morbidity and mortality," says Bill Hanage, an epidemiologist at Harvard University, "which is basically what we've been saying since February."

Questions or comments on this article? E-mail us at feedback@sciencenews.org

Jonathan Lambert is the staff writer for biological sciences, covering everything from the origin of species to microbial ecology. He has a master's degree in evolutionary biology from Cornell University.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A Brazilian city devastated by COVID-19 may have reached herd immunity

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Brazilian city of Manaus was hit hard by COVID-19. At the peak of its epidemic in late spring, the city of over 2 million people had 4.5 times as many deaths as expected for that time of year. Hospitals and cemeteries struggled to keep up, and mass graves were dug to bury the dead.

# data[].attributes.body
Lindsey

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Big Scientific Issue Proposal and Letter Assignment

# data[].attributes.body
Shannon

# data[].attributes.body
https://padlet.com/leise_gunkel/89etjw4omc0v5p4y

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Science and Society Journal Padlet Assignment

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Breakout Room Science vs. Society Venn Diagram - Google Jamboard

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The version of the browser you are using is no longer supported. Please upgrade to a supported browser. Dismiss

# data[].attributes.body
Website for current events in science. An option to keep in tune with the happenings in science.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Science News features daily news articles, feature stories, reviews and more in all disciplines of science, as well as Science News magazine archives back to 1924.

# data[].attributes.body
Kids show on PBS to help young kids start to engage with science.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
(Image: © Courtesy of Pipeline Studios, © SHOE Ink)

Young children who are just starting to explore the world around them often have plenty of questions, and a new animated series from PBS Kids not only encourages endless questions, but it also shows youngsters how they can use science to find answers.

In "Elinor Wonders Why," an inquisitive bunny named Elinor leads her friends in adventures around Animal Town. Along the way, they encounter new challenges and discover mysteries of the natural world that they've never seen before and don't understand.

But Elinor and her animal companions also find that observation and investigation can help them piece together clues to find solutions and solve problems - just like scientists do.

Both of the "Elinor Wonders Why" co-creators - Jorge Cham and Daniel Whiteson - brought a science background to the series. Cham, also the creator of the nerdy online comic "Piled Higher and Deeper" (PHD Comics), formerly taught at Caltech and conducted research on neural implants. Whiteson, a physics professor at the University of California, Irvine, researches exotic particles using the Large Hadron Collider at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in Geneva, Switzerland.

The pair previously co-authored the humorous popular science book "We Have No Idea: A Guide to the Unknown Universe" (Riverhead Books, 2017), about unanswered questions in physics. For "Elinor Wonders Why," they wanted a show that also confronted unknowns, but at a level suitable for preschool-age kids, Cham told Live Science.

"Kids have lots of questions about everything, they want to know how everything works," Cham said. "This was an opportunity to create something that gives kids confidence about that - and gives them mental tools that they can use in situations when they have questions."

Empowering curiosity

The questions posed in each episode by Elinor and her best friends - a bat named Ari and an elephant named Olive - had to be questions that kids would be likely to ask, Whiteson explained. But the questions also had to be ones that kids could solve for themselves through investigation and .

"It's really about empowering the audience's own curiosity," Whiteson said. "We tended to focus on questions that you could see the kids answering themselves with their own observations. They could use simple science techniques like taking notes, comparing things and doing experiments, to find answers to their own questions."

In one episode, while Elinor and her friends are camping out in her backyard, they learn to silently communicate with each other after watching the flashing signals of glowing fireflies. Another episode explores the different ways that animals keep themselves clean, after Ari declares that he has decided to stop taking baths.

"We believe nothing is beyond being able to explain it to somebody," Cham said. "It's just a matter of finding the right language and how to approach it."

The natural world isn't a one-size-fits-all experience. Some children live near parks or have backyards, while others learn about plants and animals through interactions in their homes. As Cham and Whiteson imagined Elinor investigating science, they created stories that would be accessible to audiences regardless of their access to nature.

"We have episodes where it's just about seeing birds out your window, or growing plants on your balcony," Whiteson said. "The same theme of curiosity and enjoyment and wonder of nature can be applied when all you have is a window."

"Elinor Wonders Why" is available to stream on the PBS Kids website.
Originally published on Live Science.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
'Elinor Wonders Why' teaches kids to explore science by asking questions

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
(Image: © Courtesy of Pipeline Studios, © SHOE Ink) Young children who are just starting to explore the world around them often have plenty of questions, and a new animated series from PBS Kids not only encourages endless questions, but it also shows youngsters how they can use science to find answers.

# data[].attributes.body
Website provided in class that could be used as a resource for current events.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Daily discoveries, groundbreaking research and fascinating science breakthroughs that impact you and the wider world, reported by our expert journalists.

# data[].attributes.body
Website provided in class that could be used as a resource for current events.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Copyright 1995-2023 ScienceDaily or by other parties, where indicated. All rights controlled by their respective owners. Content on this website is for information only. It is not intended to provide medical or other professional advice. Views expressed here do not necessarily reflect those of ScienceDaily, contributors or partners. Financial support for ScienceDaily comes from advertisements and referral programs.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
ScienceDaily: Your source for the latest research news

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Breaking science news and articles on global warming, extrasolar planets, stem cells, bird flu, autism, nanotechnology, dinosaurs, evolution -- the latest discoveries in astronomy, anthropology, biology, chemistry, climate & environment, computers, engineering, health & medicine, math, physics, psychology, technology, and more -- from the world's leading universities and research organizations.

# data[].attributes.body
Website provided in class that could be used as a resource for current events.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Science News, Discoveries and Breakthrough Scientific Research - HuffPost Science

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Join the discussion with top scientists on the latest news in spaceflight, brain/body research, evolution and the influence of science on culture.

# data[].attributes.body
Link to NGSS.

# data[].attributes.body
(10 Points)

5 of your online resources can be from class, and the other 5 should be ones you found on your own. Include 2-4 sentences description of the resource.

# data[].attributes.headline
Include assignments and readings here that address this objective/are evidence of your learning. 

# data[].attributes.subject
Include assignments and readings here that address this objective/are evidence of your learning. 

# data[].attributes.body
(10 Points)

# data[].attributes.headline
Include assignments and readings here that address this objective/are evidence of your learning. 

# data[].attributes.subject
Include assignments and readings here that address this objective/are evidence of your learning. 

# data[].attributes.body
(10 Points)

# data[].attributes.headline
Include assignments and readings here that address this objective/are evidence of your learning. 

# data[].attributes.subject
Include assignments and readings here that address this objective/are evidence of your learning. 

# data[].attributes.body
(10 Points)

# data[].attributes.headline
Include assignments and readings here that address this objective/are evidence of your learning. 

# data[].attributes.subject
Include assignments and readings here that address this objective/are evidence of your learning. 

# data[].attributes.body
(10 Points)

# data[].attributes.body
Include the URL to your copy of Google Slides Weekly Reflections.

# data[].attributes.body
Include a link to your Science and Society Initial Ideas completed Week 1.

# data[].attributes.body
Mutual Respect
"Pineapple" Safe Word, lol

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
SD Copy of Values & Tenets for Ideal Classroom