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Platelets

Platelets are small fragments of bone marrow cells and are therefore not really classified as cells themselves.

Platelets have the following functions:

1. Secrete vasoconstrictors which constrict blood vessels, causing vascular spasms in broken blood vessels

2. Form temporary platelet plugs to stop bleeding

3. Secrete procoagulants (clotting factors) to promote blood clotting

4. Dissolve blood clots when they are no longer needed

5. Digest and destroy bacteria

6. Secrete chemicals that attract neutrophils and monocytes to sites of inflammation

7. Secrete growth factors to maintain the linings of blood vessels

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White blood cells

White blood cells (WBCs) are also known as leukocytes. They can be divided into granulocytes and agranulocytes. The former have cytoplasms that contain organelles that appear as coloured granules through light microscopy, hence their name. Granulocytes consist of neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils. In contrast, agranulocytes do not contain granules. They consist of lymphocytes and monocytes.

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Red blood cells

Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes, have two main functions:

1. To pick up oxygen from the lungs and deliver it to tissues elsewhere

2. To pick up carbon dioxide from other tissues and unload it in the lungs

An erythrocyte is a disc-shaped cell with a thick rim and a thin sunken centre. The plasma membrane of a mature RBC has glycoproteins and glycolipids that determine a person’s blood type. On its inner surface are two proteins called spectrin and actin that give the membrane resilience and durability. This allows the RBCs to stretch, bend and fold as they squeeze through small blood vessels, and to spring back to their original shape as they pass through larger vessels.

RBCs are incapable of aerobic respiration, preventing them from consuming the oxygen they transport because they lose nearly all their inner cellular components during maturation. The inner cellular components lost include their mitochondria, which normally provide energy to a cell, and their nucleus, which contains the genetic material of the cell and enable it to repair itself. The lack of a nucleus means that RBCs are unable to repair themselves. However, the resulting biconcave shape is that the cell has a greater ratio of surface area to volume, enabling O₂ and CO₂ to diffuse quickly to and from Hb.

The cytoplasm of a RBC consists mainly of a 33% solution of haemoglobin (Hb), which gives RBCs their red colour. Haemoglobin carries most of the oxygen and some of the carbon dioxide transported by the blood.

Circulating erythrocytes live for about 120 days. As a RBC ages, its membrane grows increasingly fragile. Without key organelles such as a nucleus or ribosomes, RBCs cannot repair themselves. Many RBCs die in the spleen, where they become trapped in narrow channels, broken up and destroyed. Haemolysis refers to the rupture of RBCs, where haemoglobin is released leaving empty plasma membranes which are easily digested by cells known as macrophages in the liver and spleen. The Hb is then further broken down into its different components and either recycled in the body for further use or disposed of.

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There are three major categories of plasma proteins, and each individual type of proteins has its own specific properties and functions in addition to their overall collective role:

1. Albumins, which are the smallest and most abundant plasma proteins. Reductions in plasma albumin content can result in a loss of fluid from the blood and a gain of fluid in the interstitial space (space within the tissue), which may occur in nutritional, liver and kidney disease. Albumin also helps many substances dissolve in the plasma by binding to them, hence playing an important role in plasma transport of substances such as drugs, hormones and fatty acids.

2. Globulins, which can be subdivided into three classes from smallest to largest in molecular weight into alpha, beta and gamma globulins. The globulins include high density lipoproteins (HDL), an alpha-1 globulin, and low density lipoproteins (LDL), a beta-1 globulin. HDL functions in lipid transport carrying fats to cells for use in energy metabolism, membrane reconstruction and hormone function. HDLs also appear to prevent cholesterol from invading and settling in the walls of arteries. LDL carries cholesterol and fats to tissues for use in manufacturing steroid hormones and building cell membranes, but it also favours the deposition of cholesterol in arterial walls and thus appears to play a role in disease of the blood vessels and heart. HDL and LDL therefore play important parts in the regulation of cholesterol and hence have a large impact on cardiovascular disease.

3. Fibrinogen, which is a soluble precursor of a sticky protein called fibrin, which forms the framework of blood clot. Fibrin plays a key role in coagulation of blood, which is discussed later in this article under Platelets.

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Proteins

These are the most abundant substance in plasma by weight and play a part in a variety of roles including clotting, defence and transport. Collectively, they serve several functions:

They are an important reserve supply of amino acids for cell nutrition. Cells called macrophages in the liver, gut, spleen, lungs and lymphatic tissue can break down plasma proteins so as to release their amino acids. These amino acids are used by other cells to synthesise new products.

Plasma proteins also serve as carriers for other molecules. Many types of small molecules bind to specific plasma proteins and are transported from the organs that absorb these proteins to other tissues for utilisation. The proteins also help to keep the blood slightly basic at a stable pH. They do this by functioning as weak bases themselves to bind excess H+ ions. By doing so, they remove excess H+ from the blood which keeps it slightly basic.

The plasma proteins interact in specific ways to cause the blood to coagulate, which is part of the body’s response to injury to the blood vessels (also known as vascular injury), and helps protect against the loss of blood and invasion by foreign microorganisms and viruses.

Plasma proteins govern the distribution of water between the blood and tissue fluid by producing what is known as a colloid osmotic pressure.

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Blood plasma

Blood plasma is a mixture of proteins, enzymes, nutrients, wastes, hormones and gases. The specific composition and function of its components are as follows:

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Blood is classified as a connective tissue and consists of two main components:Plasma, which is a clear extracellular fluidFormed elements, which are made up of the blood cells and plateletsThe formed elements are so named because they are enclosed in a plasma membrane and have a definite structure and shape. All formed elements are cells except for the platelets, which are tiny fragments of bone marrow cells.Formed elements are:Erythrocytes, also known as red blood cells (RBCs)Leukocytes, also known as white blood cells (WBCs)PlateletsLeukocytes are further classified into two subcategories called granulocytes which consist of neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils; and agranulocytes which consist of lymphocytes and monocytes.The formed elements can be separated from plasma by centrifuge, where a blood sample is spun for a few minutes in a tube to separate its components according to their densities. RBCs are denser than plasma, and so become packed into the bottom of the tube to make up 45% of total volume. This volume is known as the haematocrit. WBCs and platelets form a narrow cream-coloured coat known as the buffy coat immediately above the RBCs. Finally, the plasma makes up the top of the tube, which is a pale yellow colour and contains just under 55% of the total volume.

# data[].attributes.subject
Blood is classified as a connective tissue and consists of two main components:Plasma, which is a clear extracellular fluidFormed elements, which are made up of the blood cells and plateletsThe formed elements are so named because they are enclosed in a plasma membrane and have a definite structure and shape. All formed elements are cells except for the platelets, which are tiny fragments of bone marrow cells.Formed elements are:Erythrocytes, also known as red blood cells (RBCs)Leukocytes, also known as white blood cells (WBCs)PlateletsLeukocytes are further classified into two subcategories called granulocytes which consist of neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils; and agranulocytes which consist of lymphocytes and monocytes.The formed elements can be separated from plasma by centrifuge, where a blood sample is spun for a few minutes in a tube to separate its components according to their densities. RBCs are denser than plasma, and so become packed into the bottom of the tube to make up 45% of total volume. This volume is known as the haematocrit. WBCs and platelets form a narrow cream-coloured coat known as the buffy coat immediately above the RBCs. Finally, the plasma makes up the top of the tube, which is a pale yellow colour and contains just under 55% of the total volume.

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            The Bloo

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The Blood

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Blood has three main functions: transport, protection and regulation.TransportBlood transports the following substances:Gases, namely oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2), between the lungs and rest of the bodyNutrients from the digestive tract and storage sites to the rest of the bodyWaste products to be detoxified or removed by the liver and kidneysHormones from the glands in which they are produced to their target cellsHeat to the skin so as to help regulate body temperatureProtectionBlood has several roles in inflammation:Leukocytes, or white blood cells, destroy invading microorganisms and cancer cellsAntibodies and other proteins destroy pathogenic substancesPlatelet factors initiate blood clotting and help minimise blood lossRegulationBlood helps regulate:pH by interacting with acids and basesWater balance by transferring water to and from tissues

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Blood has three main functions: transport, protection and regulation.TransportBlood transports the following substances:Gases, namely oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2), between the lungs and rest of the bodyNutrients from the digestive tract and storage sites to the rest of the bodyWaste products to be detoxified or removed by the liver and kidneysHormones from the glands in which they are produced to their target cellsHeat to the skin so as to help regulate body temperatureProtectionBlood has several roles in inflammation:Leukocytes, or white blood cells, destroy invading microorganisms and cancer cellsAntibodies and other proteins destroy pathogenic substancesPlatelet factors initiate blood clotting and help minimise blood lossRegulationBlood helps regulate:pH by interacting with acids and basesWater balance by transferring water to and from tissues