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Vernallis talks about how editing is more frequent in music videos than in film and often fits in with the rhythm of the song. Editing can include special effects such as transitions, made noticeable for the audience. As the song’s pace quickens, it is conventional to match the music video to the pace as well so that is flows.

In film or TV, editing follows a continuous structure, whereas music videos tend to go against this, in order to grab the audience’s attention. This is because it entertains them more, maintains interest and a good pace. Ways in which this is achieved can be by jump cuts, for example.

Music videos stand out in comparison to other media formats because of ‘rules’ that are broken, such as the common use of jump cuts, where these would not be seen in the majority of TV shows. They are far more creative in that sense.

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Andrew Goodwin: Dancing in the Distraction Factory

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Andrew Goodwin: Dancing in the Distraction Factory

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Goodwin states that there is a relationship between the lyrics and the visuals, usually with the visuals conventionally illustrating, amplifying or perhaps contradicting the lyrics.

Additionally, music videos predominantly use multiple close-ups of the main artist or vocalist. This would help the viewers to recognise the face of the artist and become more familiar with them.

In music videos, voyeurism also plays a major part, mainly in regard to females.

Intertextual references are used where other media texts are made present.

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Hip Hop gives black female rappers a voice, allowing them to address and challenge their representation.

The art of sampling (reusing one ‘sample’ of a song as an instrument) is often used within this genre of music. With its emphasis on rhythm, rap music, it has the ‘sonic space’ to repeat or disrupt by using rupture, flow and layering.

This theory links in critically with Bell Hooks: The colour codes, where lighter skinned women are considered more desirable and are the initial represented idea of ‘beauty’. She says that black women are objectified and sexualised within hip hop. Tricia Rose would disagree as she believes that due to hip hop’s origins, it means black women can change their representations and be seen how they want.

Hip hop gives the audience an insight into black females and sometimes their history, giving them a voice and encouraging empowerment amongst them.

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Men and women are depicted in different ways as women are objectified in all media aspects, such as magazines, and music videos.

Males are assumed to be the spectators and so they are ones to please and flatter, by using the image of women to do so.

Females are ‘surveyors’ -  they are made to be self conscious and particularly aware of her own presence; females are their own surveyors.

Females are also ‘surveyed’ - men survey women; they see women’s actions as an indication as to how she would like to be treated. They appear, men make a judgment, then act on it.

Therefore, females are both active and passive in their representation.

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Dyer argues that a star, being the artist, is thought to have two representations which contradict each other.

The first being: ‘a star is both ordinary and extraordinary’, meaning they have to be represented like a regular, everyday person so that the audience can relate to them.

However, they must also have something the ordinary people – the audience – do not have. For example, having a particular personality trait that stands out such as confidence or even be something seemingly negative like rebellious. This helps them to be idolised and fans and to be more likable and successful.

The second is: ‘a star is both present and absent’. This relates to the star being present in the form of conversation, social media, merchandise, audience’s identity and their style. An example of this could be hairstyles or fashion which audiences copy, therefore, promoting the star and increasing their popularity. These traits act as a sales point and a branding for the star.

They are also absent; out of reach and put on a pedestal so not actually there and are represented in a way in which their personality is exaggerated - being the ‘star’ is different to being themselves, ultimately.

The star is made to be ‘better’ than the audience but still approachable, likeable and relatable to an extent.

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Maffesoli’s concept of ‘Urban tribes’ is where there are sub groups of similar tastes, considered to be outside the ‘norm’.

These stereotyped groups have their own styles and ideologies as well as norms and valuesas an overview. For example, the sub group ‘grunge’ are typically dressed in flannels, baggy t shirts and ripped jeans or tights and with their roots showing, giving them a ‘careless’ and ‘cool’ vibe. Therefore, stereotypes allow for people to make assumptions of the person so if someone is to dress a certain way, they can be categorized into a sub group, along with people of similar traits.

These ideas are then taken and portrayed within music videos by use of catchwords and branding, associated with the groupand music.

He argues that social existence is based on tribal groups, orientated towards the culture of consumerism. This is why we associate certain personality traits just from the way someone visually appears.

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She believes that women are objectified in the media; they’re viewed not as humans but as objects, admired for their physical appearance only.

She says females are looked at with a “male gaze”, where  audiences view them from a male, heterosexual perspective. For example, a scene purely focused on a women’s body. In music videos this can be seen with editing effects to heighten the viewing, by using slow motion.

There are only two roles which women in the media play; the first being a ‘virgin’ character and the second, a ‘whore’ character. It is known as the ‘virgin/whore dichotomy’.

The female within media often only exists because of her relation to the male, in feelings or actions.

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Judith Butler: Performative Nature of Gender

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Judith Butler: Performative Nature of Gender

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She argued that gender is fluid and changeable and that we ‘perform’ it differently depending on the situation we are in. This is because stereotypically, females are seen as weak, feminine and expressive, so when someone is to take on a parenting role, they are seen as the ‘mother’, therefore, a female role.

Whereas, men are typically dominant, masculine and hard working. Roles such as a police officer or boss would therefore be seen as ‘manly’ and a male role.

Butler would say as jobs are not gender specific, females are able to actively reinforce the ‘male’ gender in a situation of arrest, for example, as it is required for the police to take dominance in that sort of situation, despite their gender identity.

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The four c’s stand for: cross cultural consumer characteristics. This theory was developed by an American advertising company. It is used to categorise consumers into ways in which they use media texts.

The four types are the mainstreamers, aspirers, reformers and succeeders.

Mainstreamers are the largest group of people within the categorised system so the wide audience range means the media can be quite flexible and isn’t narrowed down too much. They are said to live in the everyday and make choices dependant on other people rather than themselves. They respond well to well known items and branding and strive for security.

Aspirers are those who want to achieve the best and put a lot of thought into what they’re seeing or hearing. They’re effected by other people’s views, however and so are seen by others as superficial. They strive for status and want to be above all other c’s.

Reformers are those who value independence and individuality; they’re the most anti materialistic as they wont buy something just because it is hyped, advertised or new. By others, they are seen as being intelligent. Their core need in life is enlightenment.

Succeeders have a strong element of self confidence about them. They have clear, set goals and are well organised. This results in them being in high status as they are thought of as able to take on responsibility. They seek the best as well as reward and prestige. They strive for control, as a main factor.

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Blumler and Katz: Uses and Gratifications

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Blumler and Katz: Uses and Gratifications

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This is based on a model which explains what audiences use media to gain and satisfy specific needs. It’s based on what the people do with media, by using media to integrate it in their own lives.

The main structure of this model is that audiences use and gratify a fulfilment, being either identification, education, entertainment or social interaction.

In identity, it’s about being able to relate to the person in media, such as the artist. This can be achieved by aspiration to be like them or engaging in the same values.

Education is about the ability to understand and learn from the media text.

The entertainment aspect is that consumerism should involve escapism; the user can temporarily enter a different world with no worries or troubles.

Being able to start up a conversation concerning the media text, where it may lead to friendships or spark debates is what the social interaction part is about.