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The final measure of fitness is Flexibility. Flexibility is defined as the ability to move muscles and joints through their full range of motion. One way to measure flexibility is to see how close one comes to touching the toes with legs straight.

Flexibility of muscles and joints will help prevent injury and maintain mobility with aging. Of particular concern, is flexibility in the posterior thigh and low back. Lack of flexibility in these areas increases the risk of chronic low back pain.

Increasing Flexibility

Stretching will increase flexibility. It is important that stretching is done slowly with gradual increases in the range of motion. The stretch should be sustained from 10 to 30 seconds, and should not cause pain. Stretching exercises need to be performed at least 3 times a week. It is safer to stretch muscles that are already warm. Stretching is best performed after the aerobic phase or between sets of resistance exercises performed in both the muscular endurance and strength phases of the general fitness exercise prescription.

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Muscular Strength is another measure of fitness, and is categorized into 2 types:

1. Static Strength...How much weight you can hold in place.

2. Dynamic Strength...How much weight you can move. It is desirable to be strong in order to perform heavy work with less chance for injury. Maintaining strength is more difficult with age and the increasing loss of lean weight.

Increasing Strength

Strength can be increased through static contractions, as in isometric exercise, or by low repetition isotonic exercises. For a beginner, one set of 12 repititions done with high intensity will work well. For more advanced trainees, three sets of an exercise in a 7-12 rep range, will initiate optimal strength gains, when performed 2-3 times a week.

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The second type of endurance one must develop to be physically fit is Muscular Endurance. Muscular Endurance is defined as the ability of your muscles to perform contractions for long periods of time. The number of curl ups one can perform, for example, is a measure of abdominal endurance.

Improving Muscular Endurance

Generally, the performance of  resistance exercises enhances the endurance of the muscles involved. The muscular endurance phase of a general fitness exercise prescription may include the performance of a circuit routine consisting of multiple exercises targeting different muscle groups.

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Cardiorespiratory Endurance is the prolonged ability of your heart and lungs to supply muscles with nutrients and oxygen. Aerobic exercise like biking, jogging, and swimming enhance cardiorespiratory endurance, and performance can be measured for speed, duration and distance.

Building endurance promotes higher energy levels. Aerobic exercise also burns calories and fat to keep your weight under control. A fit cardiorespiratory system lowers the risk of death from heart attacks, strokes, and pulmonary disease.

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The US Center for Disease Control instead suggests at least 30 min/d of moderate-intensity exercise most days of the week while maintaining sensible portion sizes.

The good news is that many of the foods that help prevent disease also seem to help with weight control-foods like whole grains, vegetables, fruits, and nuts. And many of the foods that increase disease risk-chief among them, refined grains and sugary drinks-are also factors in weight gain.Conventional wisdom says that since a calorie is a calorie, regardless of its source, the best advice for weight control is simply to eat less and exercise more.

There’s growing evidence that specific food choices may help with weight control. The good news is that many of the foods that are beneficial for weight control also help prevent heart disease, diabetes, and other chronic diseases. Conversely, foods and drinks that contribute to weight gain—chief among them, refined grains and sugary drinks—also contribute to chronic disease.

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The benefits of physical activity and its positive influence on health, emotional well-being, and self esteem, are well supported. Students who regularly engage in physical activity have higher self-esteem, report an improved external appearance, are less preoccupied with body measurements, receive more positive feedback from social surroundings and are significantly healthier, both physically and emotionally, than non-active students

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Nutrition and athletic performance

Nutrition can help enhance athletic performance. An active lifestyle and exercise routine, along with eating well, is the best way to stay healthy.

Eating a good diet can help provide the energy you need to finish a race, or just enjoy a casual sport or activity. You are more likely to be tired and perform poorly during sports when you do not get enough:

Calories

Carbohydrates

Fluids

Iron, vitamins, and other minerals

Protein

Recommendations

The ideal diet for an athlete is not very different from the diet recommended for any healthy person.

However, the amount of each food group you need will depend on:

The type of sport

The amount of training you do

The amount of time you spend doing the activity or exercise

People tend to overestimate the amount of calories they burn per workout so it is important to avoid taking in more energy than you expend exercising.

To help you perform better, avoid exercising on an empty stomach. Everyone is different, so you will need to learn:

How long before exercising is best for you to eat

How much food is the right amount for you

CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are needed to provide energy during exercise. Carbohydrates are stored mostly in the muscles and liver.

Complex carbohydrates are found in foods such as pasta, bagels, whole grain breads, and rice. They provide energy, fiber, vitamins, and minerals. These foods are low in fat.

Simple sugars, such as soft drinks, jams and jellies, and candy provide a lot of calories, but they do not provide vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients.

What matters most is the total amount of carbohydrates you eat each day. A little more than half of your calories should come from carbohydrates.

You need to eat carbohydrates before you exercise if you will be exercising for more than 1 hour. You might have a glass of fruit juice, a cup (245 grams) of yogurt, or an English muffin with jelly. Limit the amount of fat you consume in the hour before an athletic event.

You also need carbohydrates during exercise if you will be doing more than an hour of intense aerobic exercise. You can satisfy this need by having:

Five to 10 ounces (150 to 300 milliliters) of a sports drink every 15 to 20 minutes

Two to three handfuls of pretzels

One-half to two-thirds cup (40 to 55 grams) of low-fat granola

After exercise, you need to eat carbohydrates to rebuild the stores of energy in your muscles if you are working out heavily.

People who exercise or train for more than 90 minutes should eat or drink more carbohydrates, possibly with protein, 2 hours later. Try a sports bar, trail mix with nuts, or yogurt and granola

For workouts lasting less than 60 minute, water is most often all that is needed.

PROTEIN

Protein is important for muscle growth and to repair body tissues. Protein can also be used by the body for energy, but only after carbohydrate stores have been used up.

But it is also a myth that a high-protein diet will promote muscle growth.

Only strength training and exercise will change muscle.

Athletes, even body builders, need only a little bit of extra protein to support muscle growth. Athletes can easily meet this increased need by eating more total calories (eating more food).

Most Americans already eat almost twice as much protein as they need for muscle development. Too much protein in the diet:

Will be stored as increased body fat

Can increase the chance for dehydration (not enough fluids in the body)

Can lead to loss of calcium

Can put an added burden on the kidneys

Often, people who focus on eating extra protein may not get enough carbohydrates, which are the most important source of energy during exercise.

Amino acid supplements and eating a lot of protein are not recommended.

WATER AND OTHER FLUIDS

Water is the most important, yet overlooked, nutrient for athletes. Water and fluids are essential to keep the body hydrated and at the right temperature. Your body can lose several liters of sweat in an hour of vigorous exercise.

Clear urine is a good sign that you have fully rehydrated. Some ideas for keeping enough fluids in the body include:

Make sure you drink plenty of fluids with every meal, whether or not you will be exercising.

Drink about 16 ounces (2 cups) or 480 milliliters of water 2 hours before a workout. It is important to start exercising with enough water in your body.

Continue to sip water during and after you exercise, about 1/2 to 1 cup (120 to 240 milliliters) of fluid every 15 to 20 minutes. Water is best for the first hour. Switching to an energy drink after the first hour will help you get enough electrolytes.

Drink even when you no longer feel thirsty.

Pouring water over your head might feel good, but it will not get fluids into your body.

Offer children water often during sports activities. They do not respond to thirst as well as adults.

Teenagers and adults should replace any body weight lost during exercise with an equal amount of fluids. For every pound (450 grams) you lose while exercising, you should drink 16 to 24 ounces (480 to 720 milliliters) or 3 cups (720 milliliters) of fluid within the next 6 hours.

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People who suffer from addiction often have one or more accompanying medical issues, which may include lung or cardiovascular disease, stroke, cancer, and mental disorders. Imaging scans, chest X-rays, and blood tests show the damaging effects of long-term drug abuse throughout the body. For example, research has shown that tobacco smoke causes cancer of the mouth, throat, larynx, blood, lungs, stomach, pancreas, kidney, bladder, and cervix. In addition, some drugs of abuse, such as inhalants, are toxic to nerve cells and may damage or destroy them either in the brain or the peripheral nervous system.

What are some effects of specific abused substances?

Nicotine is an addictive stimulant found in cigarettes and other forms of tobacco. Tobacco smoke increases a user’s risk of cancer, emphysema, bronchial disorders, and cardiovascular disease. The mortality rate associated with tobacco addiction is staggering. Tobacco use killed approximately 100 million people during the 20th century, and, if current smoking trends continue, the cumulative death toll for this century has been projected to reach 1 billion.²⁴

Alcohol consumption can damage the brain and most body organs. Areas of the brain that are especially vulnerable to alcohol-related damage are the cerebral cortex (largely responsible for our higher brain functions, including problem solving and decision making), the hippocampus (important for memory and learning), and the cerebellum (important for movement coordination).

Marijuana is the most commonly abused illegal substance. This drug impairs short-term memory and learning, the ability to focus attention, and coordination. It also increases heart rate, can harm the lungs, and can increase the risk of psychosis in those with an underlying vulnerability.

Prescription medications, including opioid pain relievers (such as OxyContin® and Vicodin®), anti-anxiety sedatives (such as Valium® and Xanax®), and ADHD stimulants (such as Adderall® and Ritalin®), are commonly misused to self-treat for medical problems or abused for purposes of getting high or (especially with stimulants) improving performance. However, misuse or abuse of these drugs (that is, taking them other than exactly as instructed by a doctor and for the purposes prescribed) can lead to addiction and even, in some cases, death. Opioid pain relievers, for instance, are frequently abused by being crushed and injected or snorted, greatly raising the risk of addiction and overdose. Unfortunately, there is a common misperception that because medications are prescribed by physicians, they are safe even when used illegally or by another person than they were prescribed for.

Inhalants are volatile substances found in many household products, such as oven cleaners, gasoline, spray paints, and other aerosols, that induce mind-altering effects; they are frequently the first drugs tried by children or young teens. Inhalants are extremely toxic and can damage the heart, kidneys, lungs, and brain. Even a healthy person can suffer heart failure and death within minutes of a single session of prolonged sniffing of an inhalant.

Cocaine is a short-acting stimulant, which can lead users to take the drug many times in a single session (known as a “binge”). Cocaine use can lead to severe medical consequences related to the heart and the respiratory, nervous, and digestive systems.

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In general, physical exercise is characterized as a planned, organized, and repeated body movement that aims to promote or maintain physical fitness. The most common physical exercises include aerobics (brisk walking and running) and mind-body exercises (Tai Chi Quan, Qigong, and Yoga). Compared to methadone and buprenorphine drug-replacement therapies, physical exercise has been recognized as a potential add-on treatment for SUD. For example, studies showed that subjects with regular physical exercise showed lower rates of SUD compared to people with less exercise, and regular physical exercise in adolescence provided a preventive effect on alcohol and illicit drug use in adulthood.

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By using the principles of training as a framework we can plan a personal training programme that uses scientific principles to improve performance, skill, game ability and physical fitness.

A successful training programme will meet individual needs which are personal fitness needs based on age, gender, fitness level and the sport for which we are training. A successful training programme will also include exercise in the correct heart-rate target zone.

The key principles when planning a programme are:

Specificity – training must be matched to the needs of the sporting activity to improve fitness in the body parts the sport uses.

Overload - fitness can only be improved by training more than you normally do. You must work hard.

Progression – start slowly and gradually increase the amount of exercise and keep overloading.

Reversibility – any adaptation that takes place as a result of training will be reversed when you stop training. If you take a break or don’t train often enough you will lose fitness.

In planning a programme, use the FITT principles to add the detail:

Frequency - decide how often to train.

Intensity - choose how hard to train.

Time - decide for how long to train.

Type - decide which methods of training to use.

You should also consider the principle of moderation. It is important to have rest periods which allow the body to adapt. Too much training (overtraining) can lead to injury.

Methods of training

Training can be aerobic or anaerobic.

Aerobic training improves cardiovascular fitness. Photo courtesy of BBC Sport

In aerobic exercise, which is steady and not too fast, the heart is able to supply enough oxygen to the muscles. Aerobic training improves cardiovascular fitness.

Anaerobic exercise is performed in short, fast bursts where the heart cannot supply enough oxygen to the muscles. Anaerobic training improves the ability of the muscles to work without enough oxygen when lactic acid is produced.

Specific training methods can be used to improve each fitness factor.

Weight training improves muscular strength, endurance and power

Circuit training involves performing a series of exercises in a special order called a circuit. Each activity takes place at a 'station'. It can be designed to improve speed, agility, coordination, balance and muscular endurance.

Continuous training involves working for a sustained period of time without rest. It improves cardio-vascular fitness.

Cross training involves using another sport or activity to improve your fitness. It happens when an athlete trains in a different environment. For example a volleyball player uses the power training for that sport to help with fitness for long jump.

Fartlek training or 'speed play' training involves varying your speed and the type of terrain over which you run, walk, cycle or ski. It improves aerobic and anaerobic fitness.

Interval training involves alternating between periods of hard exercise and rest. It improves speed and muscular endurance.

Weight training uses weights to provide resistance to the muscles. It improves muscular strength (high weight, low reps), muscular endurance (low weight, high reps, many sets) and power (medium weight and reps performed quickly).

Altitude training (AQA only) is aerobic training high above sea level, where oxygen levels are lower. It is used to increase aerobic fitness quickly.

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http://www.livingstrong.org/articles/Endurance-Strength-and-Flexibility.htm

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/pe/exercise/1_exercise_principles_rev1.shtml

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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3406229/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3597731/

https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002458.htm

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https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugs-brains-behavior-science-addiction/addiction-health