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What are your plans for the remaining weeks of the teaching year? Perhaps you have a group of tired students who need to be productively engaged after a period of study leave? It's an ideal time for project work. At best, projects can be exciting, personalised learning journeys. But the process can be fraught with difficulties and challenges. What, then, are the keys to success?
Focus
If project work is going to be more than simply a ragbag collection of unrelated activities, there needs to be a clear central objective. Research projects should begin with a specific question that the student is seeking to answer, or a testable hypothesis. I find that practical projects work best when they respond to a set design brief or commission.

It is fine for students to start the process with vague ideas about what they are trying to achieve. But these ideas need to focus on a central point, so that their work is coherent and has clear direction.

I start by asking students what interests them. What are their hobbies? What are their aspirations for future work or further study? I then suggest that they pick a project that fits in with those aims or interests. If a boy in my class says that he would like to do a project on football (a popular choice), I'll have a discussion with him about current issues in the footballing world. Moving from a general topic to a specific question such as, "Will the impact of goal-line technology improve football?" is a big step forwards.
Research
Whether a student is writing a dissertation on the ethics of cloning, putting on a performance of scenes from Hamlet for year 9 students, or designing a model skatepark, the first thing to be done, once the objectives are clear, is to gather information about ideas, techniques, history, influences and so on.

I see many projects on questions connected to bioethics and genomics. Suppose a student is researching the question, "Is it ethical to use human embryonic stem cells for research purposes?" Following some initial research, I chat with them about how they intend to lay out the research section of their project. What will the titles for the various sections be - scientific background, ethical issues, religious controversies, political implications, and so on?

Once the headings are decided, students then add the research and link sources to each area to create a well synthesised review of research. I usually recommend they use some journal articles. One of the best starting points is the OpenDOAR repository of open-access sources.
Structure
Students really benefit from being given a model for the different structural elements of a project. A basic structure is reflects the design cycle itself: plan, research, develop, review. You may want to add in further elements as you see fit. Well-produced dissertations, for example, typically include an abstract, introduction, literature review, discussion and conclusion. Students may not be aware of what counts as a good model for structure; timely advice from the supervisor can really help them with the process.

In my experience, most students are more comfortable writing about what other people think, and they tend to be nervous about putting forward their own opinions. I explain, though, that their project should contain their own ideas: they need to argue for their own point of view. Once they have got past the research stage, I sometimes use an interview, which could be a peer-interview, to help them work out their own ideas. What is the central question in their project? What different answers do people give? What is their point of view? How would they argue for it? Does the research evidence support their viewpoint? What do they think is the strongest argument against their view, and how would they answer it?
Thinking skills
What I most enjoy, when supervising projects, is seeing students develop their skills in critical thinking and the expression of their own ideas. Project work naturally leads into argument, whether that's about the interpretation of data, the validity of a philosophical viewpoint, or something as concrete as the design of the set for the school play. There are so many alternative possible ways to go, students have to think critically and evaluate the merits of different possibilities.

The Extended Project Qualification (EPQ), which embodies this approach, was recently described by Elizabeth Truss MP as: " the best of education, in that it is rigorous and demanding as well as adaptable and fun." With appropriate facilitation and planning, project work can be so much more than a time-filler at the end of the year. It can become the point at which the rhetoric about independent learning turns into reality.
Dr John L Taylor is head of philosophy and director of critical skills at Rugby School and the author of Think Again: A Philosophical Approach to Teaching. Follow him on Twitter @DrJohnLTaylor.
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A guide to project work: supporting students in independent learning

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What are your plans for the remaining weeks of the teaching year? Perhaps you have a group of tired students who need to be productively engaged after a period of study leave? It's an ideal time for project work. At best, projects can be exciting, personalised learning journeys.

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Building Student Collaboration and Agency

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Effective Group Work in College Science Classrooms

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Video #14 Group Work Why does group work always seem break down? Some students take over the project while others sit back and watch. The workers are unhappy because they don't feel like the work is divided fairly. The hitchikers are unhappy because they feel their opinion and ideas aren't wanted.

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Cite this guide: Brame, C.J. & Biel, R. (2015). Setting up and facilitating group work:
Using cooperative learning groups effectively. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from http://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/setting-up-and-facilitating-group-work-using-cooperative-learning-groups-effectively/.

Many instructors from disciplines across the university use group work to enhance their students' learning. Whether the goal is to increase student understanding of content, to build particular transferable skills, or some combination of the two, instructors often turn to small group work to capitalize on the benefits of peer-to-peer instruction. This type of group work is formally termed cooperative learning, and is defined as the instructional use of small groups to promote students working together to maximize their own and each other's learning (Johnson, et al., 2008).

Cooperative learning is characterized by positive interdependence, where students perceive that better performance by individuals produces better performance by the entire group (Johnson, et al., 2014). It can be formal or informal, but often involves specific instructor intervention to maximize student interaction and learning. It is infinitely adaptable, working in small and large classes and across disciplines, and can be one of the most effective teaching approaches available to college instructors.

What can it look like?

Informal cooperative learning groups
In informal cooperative learning, small, temporary, ad-hoc groups of two to four students work together for brief periods in a class, typically up to one class period, to answer questions or respond to prompts posed by the instructor.

Additional examples of ways to structure informal group work
Think-pair-share
The instructor asks a discussion question. Students are instructed to think or write about an answer to the question before turning to a peer to discuss their responses. Groups then share their responses with the class.
Peer Instruction
This modification of the think-pair-share involves personal responses devices (e.g. clickers). The question posted is typically a conceptually based multiple-choice question. Students think about their answer and vote on a response before turning to a neighbor to discuss. Students can change their answers after discussion, and "sharing" is accomplished by the instructor revealing the graph of student response and using this as a stimulus for large class discussion. This approach is particularly well-adapted for large classes.
Jigsaw
In this approach, groups of students work in a team of four to become experts on one segment of new material, while other "expert teams" in the class work on other segments of new material. The class then rearranges, forming new groups that have one member from each expert team. The members of the new team then take turns teaching each other the material on which they are experts.
Formal cooperative learning groups
In formal cooperative learning students work together for one or more class periods to complete a joint task or assignment (Johnson et al., 2014). There are several features that can help these groups work well:

The instructor defines the learning objectives for the activity and assigns students to groups.

The groups are typically heterogeneous, with particular attention to the skills that are needed for success in the task.

Within the groups, students may be assigned specific roles, with the instructor communicating the criteria for success and the types of social skills that will be needed.

Importantly, the instructor continues to play an active role during the groups' work, monitoring the work and evaluating group and individual performance.

Instructors also encourage groups to reflect on their interactions to identify potential improvements for future group work.

This video shows an example of formal cooperative learning groups in David Matthes' class at the University of Minnesota:

There are many more specific types of group work that fall under the general descriptions given here, including team-based learning, problem-based learning, and process-oriented guided inquiry learning.

What's the theoretical underpinning?

The use of cooperative learning groups in instruction is based on the principle of constructivism, with particular attention to the contribution that social interaction can make. In essence, constructivism rests on the idea that individuals learn through building their own knowledge, connecting new ideas and experiences to existing knowledge and experiences to form new or enhanced understanding (Bransford, et al., 1999). The consideration of the role that groups can play in this process is based in social interdependence theory, which grew out of Kurt Koffka's and Kurt Lewin's identification of groups as dynamic entities that could exhibit varied interdependence among members, with group members motivated to achieve common goals. Morton Deutsch conceptualized varied types of interdependence, with positive correlation among group members' goal achievements promoting cooperation.

Lev Vygotsky extended this work by examining the relationship between cognitive processes and social activities, developing the sociocultural theory of development. The sociocultural theory of development suggests that learning takes place when students solve problems beyond their current developmental level with the support of their instructor or their peers. Thus both the idea of a zone of proximal development, supported by positive group interdependence, is the basis of cooperative learning (Davidson and Major, 2014; Johnson, et al., 2014).

Cooperative learning follows this idea as groups work together to learn or solve a problem, with each individual responsible for understanding all aspects. The small groups are essential to this process because students are able to both be heard and to hear their peers, while in a traditional classroom setting students may spend more time listening to what the instructor says.

Cooperative learning uses both goal interdependence and resource interdependence to ensure interaction and communication among group members. Changing the role of the instructor from lecturing to facilitating the groups helps foster this social environment for students to learn through interaction.

Is there evidence that it works?

David Johnson, Roger Johnson, and Karl Smith performed a meta-analysis of 168 studies comparing cooperative learning to competitive learning and individualistic learning in college students (Johnson et al., 2006). They found that cooperative learning produced greater academic achievement than both competitive learning and individualistic learning across the studies, exhibiting a mean weighted effect size of 0.54 when comparing cooperation and competition and 0.51 when comparing cooperation and individualistic learning. In essence, these results indicate that cooperative learning increases student academic performance by approximately one-half of a standard deviation when compared to non-cooperative learning models, an effect that is considered moderate. Importantly, the academic achievement measures were defined in each study, and ranged from lower-level cognitive tasks (e.g., knowledge acquisition and retention) to higher level cognitive activity (e.g., creative problem solving), and from verbal tasks to mathematical tasks to procedural tasks. The meta-analysis also showed substantial effects on other metrics, including self-esteem and positive attitudes about learning. George Kuh and colleagues also conclude that cooperative group learning promotes student engagement and academic performance (Kuh et al., 2007).

Springer, Stanne, and Donovan (1999) confirmed these results in their meta-analysis of 39 studies in university STEM classrooms. They found that students who participated in various types of small-group learning, ranging from extended formal interactions to brief informal interactions, had greater academic achievement, exhibited more favorable attitudes towards learning, and had increased persistence through STEM courses than students who did not participate in STEM small-group learning.

The box below summarizes three individual studies examining the effects of cooperative learning groups.

What are approaches that can help make group work effective?
Preparation Articulate your goals for the group work, including both the academic objectives you want the students to achieve and the social skills you want them to develop. Determine the group conformation that will help meet your goals.
In informal group learning, groups often form ad hoc from near neighbors in a class.

In formal group learning, it is helpful for the instructor to form groups that are heterogeneous with regard to particular skills or abilities relevant to group tasks. For example, groups may be heterogeneous with regard to academic skill in the discipline or with regard to other skills related to the group task (e.g., design capabilities, programming skills, writing skills, organizational skills) (Johnson et al, 2006).

Groups from 2-6 are generally recommended, with groups that consist of three members exhibiting the best performance in some problem-solving tasks (Johnson et al., 2006; Heller and Hollabaugh, 1992).

To avoid common problems in group work, such as dominance by a single student or conflict avoidance, it can be useful to assign roles to group members (e.g., manager, skeptic, educator, conciliator) and to rotate them on a regular basis (Heller and Hollabaugh, 1992). Assigning these roles is not necessary in well-functioning groups, but can be useful for students who are unfamiliar with or unskilled at group work.
Choose an assessment method that will promote positive group interdependence as well as individual accountability.
In team-based learning, two approaches promote positive interdependence and individual accountability. First, students take an individual readiness assessment test, and then immediately take the same test again as a group. Their grade is a composite of the two scores. Second, students complete a group project together, and receive a group score on the project. They also, however, distribute points among their group partners, allowing student assessment of members' contributions to contribute to the final score.

Heller and Hollabaugh (1992) describe an approach in which they incorporated group problem-solving into a class. Students regularly solved problems in small groups, turning in a single solution. In addition, tests were structured such that 25% of the points derived from a group problem, where only those individuals who attended the group problem-solving sessions could participate in the group test problem. This approach can help prevent the "free rider" problem that can plague group work.

The University of New South Wales describes a variety of ways to assess group work, ranging from shared group grades, to grades that are averages of individual grades, to strictly individual grades, to a combination of these. They also suggest ways to assess not only the product of the group work but also the process. Again, having a portion of a grade that derives from individual contribution helps combat the free rider problem.
Helping groups get started Explain the group's task, including your goals for their academic achievement and social interaction. Explain how the task involves both positive interdependence and individual accountability, and how you will be assessing each.
Assign group roles or give groups prompts to help them articulate effective ways for interaction. The University of New South Wales provides a valuable set of tools to help groups establish good practices when first meeting. The site also provides some exercises for building group dynamics; these may be particularly valuable for groups that will be working on larger projects.

Regularly observe group interactions and progress, either by circulating during group work, collecting in-process documents, or both. When you observe problems, intervene to help students move forward on the task and work together effectively. The University of New South Wales provides handouts that instructors can use to promote effective group interactions, such as a handout to help students listen reflectively or give constructive feedback, or to help groups identify particular problems that they may be encountering.

Assessing and reflecting

In addition to providing feedback on group and individual performance (link to preparation section above), it is also useful to provide a structure for groups to reflect on what worked well in their group and what could be improved. Graham Gibbs (1994) suggests using the checklists shown below.

The University of New South Wales provides other reflective activities that may help students identify effective group practices and avoid ineffective practices in future cooperative learning experiences.

References

Bransford, J.D., Brown, A.L., and Cocking, R.R. (Eds.) (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Bruffee, K. A. (1993). Collaborative learning: Higher education, interdependence, and the authority of knowledge. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Cabrera, A. F., Crissman, J. L., Bernal, E. M., Nora, A., Terenzini, P. T., & Pascarella, E. T. (2002). Collaborative learning: Its impact on college students' development and diversity. Journal of College Student Development, 43(1), 20-34.

Davidson, N., & Major, C. H. (2014). Boundary crossing: Cooperative learning, collaborative learning, and problem-based learning. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 25 (3&4), 7-55.

Dees, R. L. (1991). The role of cooperative leaning in increasing problem-solving ability in a college remedial course. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 22(5), 409-21.

Gokhale, A. A. (1995). Collaborative Learning enhances critical thinking. Journal of Technology Education, 7(1).

Heller, P., and Hollabaugh, M. (1992) Teaching problem solving through cooperative grouping. Part 2: Designing problems and structuring groups. American Journal of Physics 60, 637-644.

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., and Smith, K.A. (2006). Active learning: Cooperation in the university classroom (3 rd edition). Edina, MN: Interaction.

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., and Holubec, E.J. (2008). Cooperation in the classroom (8 th edition). Edina, MN: Interaction.

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., and Smith, K.A. (2014). Cooperative learning: Improving university instruction by basing practice on validated theory. Journl on Excellence in College Teaching 25, 85-118.

Jones, D. J., & Brickner, D. (1996). Implementation of cooperative learning in a large-enrollment basic mechanics course. American Society for Engineering Education Annual Conference Proceedings.

Kuh, G.D., Kinzie, J., Buckley, J., Bridges, B., and Hayek, J.C. (2007). Piecing together the student success puzzle: Research, propositions, and recommendations (ASHE Higher Education Report, No. 32). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Love, A. G., Dietrich, A., Fitzgerald, J., & Gordon, D. (2014). Integrating collaborative learning inside and outside the classroom. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 25(3&4), 177-196.

Smith, M. E., Hinckley, C. C., & Volk, G. L. (1991). Cooperative learning in the undergraduate laboratory. Journal of Chemical Education 68(5), 413-415.

Springer, L., Stanne, M. E., & Donovan, S. S. (1999). Effects of small-group learning on undergraduates in science, mathematics, engineering, and technology: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 96(1), 21-51.

Uribe, D., Klein, J. D., & Sullivan, H. (2003). The effect of computer-mediated collaborative learning on solving ill-defined problems. Educational Technology Research and Development, 51(1), 5-19.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

This teaching guide is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

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Group work: Using cooperative learning groups effectively

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by Cynthia J. Brame and Rachel Biel Print Version Cite this guide: Brame, C.J. & Biel, R. (2015). Setting up and facilitating group work: Using cooperative learning groups effectively. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from http://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/setting-up-and-facilitating-group-work-using-cooperative-learning-groups-effectively/. Many instructors from disciplines across the university use group work to enhance their students' learning.

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With No Child Left Behind (NCLB) off the table for at least 32 states in the U.S., accountability measures will be left to states and local school systems. NCLB has been clear about closing achievement gaps between groups of students considered at risk. To ensure that there is an ongoing focus on school improvement, accountability should continue to be rigorous and focused on achievement gaps along with whole school improvement.

Clear accountability systems have to be in place at seven different levels to ensure student success now and in the future. Goals, beliefs, values, visions and actions must be aligned similar to what one may find in a balanced scorecard. If these things are not operating in tandem, then the system may be doomed to fail.

The seven levels of accountability for student success are: 1) state; 2) school system; 3) school; 4) principal; 5) teachers; 6) parents; and 7) students.

Level 1: STATE

All states should have a strong plan in place to measure accountability. Out of the 32 states approved for No Child Left Behind waivers, eight states have a conditional waiver, meaning they have not yet satisfied the Obama administration's requirements for a new principal/teacher evaluation system, incorporation of College and Career Readiness Standards and other stipulations. If these states are granted waivers, it is imperative that they have a plan in place so that all educators, parents, students and other stakeholders understand how schools will be monitored and what criteria will be used to determine school improvement.

Many of the states that have received No Child Left Behind waivers have developed impressive accountability plans.

According to the Kentucky Department of Education, their new accountability model is a more robust - next generation model that holds all schools and school systems accountable for improving student performance and creates four performance classifications that determine consequences and guide interventions and supports. School and system classifications are based on the following measures: 1) Achievement (Content Areas are reading, mathematics, science, social studies and writing.); 2) Gap (percentage of proficient and distinguished) for the Non-Duplicated Gap Group for all five content areas; 3) Growth in reading and mathematics (percentage of students at typical or higher levels of growth); 4) College Readiness as measured by the percentage of students meeting benchmarks in three content areas on EXPLORE at middle school; 5) College/Career-Readiness Rate as measured by ACT benchmarks, college placement tests and career measures and 6) Graduation Rate.

Level 2: SCHOOL SYSTEM

For school systems located in states where NCLB is still active, the accountability standards remain the same: required scores in key subject areas, test participation rates at 95 percent, attendance, graduation rates and adequate performance of special populations such as disadvantaged students and students with disabilities. What will be the accountability of school systems in states with waivers? The measures should certainly be well aligned to the state accountability plan components that we monitor and hold systems accountable for. In many cases, the new accountability measures growth over a period of time. Superintendents, boards of education and school system leaders will need to be visionary, progressive thinkers who are well versed about what is happening around the country and how to keep their school system on the cutting-edge of transformation.

A strong strategic plan that communicates the school system vision, mission, goals, beliefs, values and objectives should be transparent for all to see. The metrics embedded in it should communicate what the system is holding itself accountable for. There has to be a whole school system focus on building a culture of continuous improvement.

Curriculum, instruction, assessment and professional learning are critical success indicators for school systems. All levels of system operation have to link back to improvement of student achievement. High expectations must be in place for school system leaders, principals, teachers, students and their parents.

Level 3: SCHOOL

An important question for a school to ask: "How do we know if our students are successful and what actions will we take if they are not?" Schools with an answer to this question and an accountability plan in place will have the greatest level of success. Generally, the school improvement plan is the accountability plan for the school. It outlines the same components one would find in a school system strategic plan; it is clear about the actions that will take place to address the question posed earlier. There should be an action plan for improving each content area based on current school realities or baseline data from the most recent school assessments; a professional development plan aligned to the action plans; a technology plan; a plan for improving student attendance and parent involvement; and a plan that outlines how data will be utilized, analyzed and interpreted.

Ensuring student success in schools means holding teachers and other staff accountable for quality work directly impacting student achievement. Identification of root causes for lack of student success and aggressive interventions to address areas of weakness must be implemented. Use of research-based practices in all key areas of instruction, leadership and school operation should be evident in schools aiming for high levels of student success. Innovation and creativity are not only encouraged but celebrated.

Level 4: PRINCIPAL

It is often said that principals must be strong instructional leaders. That is only part of what principals should know and be able to do. They also must be change agents, capable of dealing with vast ambiguities; human relations gurus; school culture shapers; savvy budget administrators; and outstanding performance managers. If principals are knowledgeable, courageous and willing to hold everyone accountable for keeping their students at the center of everything they do, success is bound to follow.

An effective principal is needed in every school building of a school system striving for excellence in education. These principals understand the complexity of their position, perform duties and responsibilities at a high level, and are able to multi-task, fitting all of the interconnected pieces of school life together for the good of their students. They are results-driven and accept no excuses from anyone. Success is the only option and mediocrity is simply not acceptable in a school run by a strong leader.

Many states have new leader accountability instruments that will be used to evaluate system and building level leaders. Principals operating at the proficient to exemplary level of these accountability systems will have the most positive impact on student achievement.

Level 5: TEACHERS

Research is clear about the damage an ineffective teacher can do. It can take years of instruction with an effective teacher to turn that damage around. Schools and school systems will need a laser-like focus on building the capacity of teachers through strong induction programs, job-embedded professional learning, support for implementation of the new Common Core Performance Standards with accompanying assessments and teacher evaluation programs linked to student achievement outcomes. Teaching children at a high level of proficiency should be the core work of every teacher.

All teachers should continue to be highly qualified to teach the subjects and grade levels they are assigned. Use of varied instructional strategies, effective assessment techniques, data utilization and integration of technology are a given for teachers who want their students to be successful. Teachers should be held accountable; however, their success begins with holding students accountable for learning what is taught.

Level 6: PARENTS

The outside curriculum of children does matter. This curriculum has to do with how they spend their time away from school, what they value, the support systems they have in place and how parents involve themselves in the school. What is learned in schools can be easily unlearned if not sufficiently enforced at home, in the community, ingrained in character and properly supported.

Parents need the requisite skills to help their children succeed in school. The local school and school systems should provide these skills through parent education workshops, parent involvement meetings, adult education classes and engagement in volunteerism. The Search Institute's 40 Developmental Assets is a good starting point, along with the six types of parent involvement established by Joyce Epstein.

The chances of children being successful increase when their parents are fully vested in the school community; capable of monitoring school work; communicating effectively with teachers; and able to identify resources to help with social, emotional health issues and other impediments to school success.

Level 7: STUDENTS

Students must be taught to be responsible and take ownership for their education. Personalized learning environments are significant when it comes to establishing schools where students can thrive and be successful. Working with teachers who understand the importance of building relationships cannot be overemphasized. We must remain steadfast in our mission to prepare 21st century students in our country to compete in a global economy. Failing to do so will be detrimental to not only the individual child, but to our future as a nation.

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Seven Levels of Accountability for Student Success

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With No Child Left Behind (NCLB) off the table for at least 32 states in the U.S., accountability measures will be left to states and local school systems. NCLB has been clear about closing achievement gaps between groups of students considered at risk.

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Active Learning Classrooms: Sharing responsibility for learning

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Organizational Theory and Teamwork in Classroom

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Organizational Theory and Teamwork in Classroom

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In 1938, John Dewey, the influential philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer wrote that "All genuine education comes through experience." Along with many other business educators I take his words very seriously, so much so that I designed a course on Organization Theory that simulates the experience of real organizations for undergraduate business students. The basic structure of the class is as follows. Before they arrive in class on the first day, every student is assigned to one of six organizations. Each organization elects its own leaders, designs its own culture, and competes with other in-class organizations on weekly exercises. Each week the best organizations earn bonus points.

The effects of this course structure on student behavior are remarkable. Triumphs are met with cheers and exchanges of high-fives; defeats produce emotions that range from good-natured annoyance to anger. Sometimes the members of organizations form such strong bonds that they meet outside of the classroom for social activities, such as a trip to a bowling alley or to the student pub. Other times the tension between organization members leads to conflict. Of course, these things can and do happen in the so-called "real world," and the consequences of success and failure in business organizations are usually greater than a lost bonus point. Hopefully, having experienced these things first in a classroom setting, students will be better prepared to deal with them during their careers.

For those who would like to learn more details about this course, a paper entitled "Putting "Organizations" into an "Organization Theory" course: A Hybrid CAO Model for Teaching Organization Theory," which details the structure and development of the course, will soon be published in the Journal of Management Education.

- Dr. David R. Hannah, Associate Professor, Management and Organization Studies

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Organizational Theory and Teamwork in the Classroom

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In 1938, John Dewey, the influential philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer wrote that "All genuine education comes through experience." Along with many other business educators I take his words very seriously, so much so that I designed a course on Organization Theory that simulates the experience of real organizations for undergraduate business students.

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Forming, Storming, Norming and Performing.

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Teamwork Theories: the STAR Team Model

There are numerous teamwork theories all with features to commend them, but how do you decide which might help in getting teams to work effectively?

For example it would be helpful to know the answer to the following questions:

How do teams develop?

Where do you need to place your emphasis as a leader to develop a team?

How does the leader's role vary as a team develops?

What needs to be put in place to help teams work in their context and surrounding?

To help answer these questions we bring together three strands of teamwork theories in our own model, the STAR team model:

Firstly ideas about the stages of team development (stages).

The best known of which is Tuckman's model which we discuss in our article: teamwork theory.

Secondly, leadership theories for teams, particularly situation specific leadership, which varies at different stages of the team development. (situation)

Thirdly theories that relate to the context and environment of teams and teamwork, recognizing that teams don't exist in isolation; they are affected by many outside factors. (surroundings)

STAR Team Model

The Star team model provides the substance (or content) to the stages, situation and surroundings of the teamwork theory mentioned above. It helps to determine what a team and team leader need to focus on.

As we suggested in our article: teamwork in the workplace:

"Good team leadership is about creating the conditions that allow ideas and people to flourish, people to come together and performance to flow. When you balance developing people's strengths, with building good relationships and connections between people, in the pursuit of challenging and meaningful team goals you are moving a long way towards encouraging effective teamwork in the workplace."

The STAR team performance model brings together teamwork theories with some of the main principles of the happy manager. Focusing on individual strengths particularly when in the pursuit of goals that are meaningful to make a difference is a crucial building block for being happier. It's a similar story with our relationships and "connectedness" to others. The strengths of our relationships have repeatedly been found to be the strongest links to finding happiness in life.

So there is a good chance that developing this kind of teamwork in the workplace will also create a happier place to work.

Effective teamwork in the workplace happens when:

Individuals flourish as they use and develop their . This is a focus on individual strengths and identifying where an individual's best contribution can be made.

People come together building relationships and as they work together well results in effective .

When individual strengths and teamwork come together in pursuit of meaningful goals then performance starts to flow naturally and that are meaningful and rewarding to the team are achieved.

Team leaders need to ensure that they A lign the strengths of individuals, with effective teamwork and a focus on meaningful Results. This forms the basis of our model for effective teams; we call it the STAR team performance model (Strengths, Teamwork, Alignment, Results). We think it can help create the conditions for effective teams and a happier workplace.

A Wider Perspective

The balance and emphasis between strengths, teamwork and results will vary for different stages of team development. The STAR team performance model thus can act as a guide to leaders by recognising that different aspects of the model will need emphasising at different stages of the team development cycle.

For example during the initial phase of team formation it is important to develop the purpose of the team, and clarify the results expected of the team, alongside of course developing the other two other areas

However, a wider perspective is needed: team leaders and their teams not only have to be aligned, but the team also needs to be aligned to surrounding factors outside the team. For a team to be effective the environment within which it is situated must also be considered.

There are three outside elements we feel need to be assessed to help teams to be effective:

Other teams: The role of team members and the team leader in building networks outside of their own team is crucial as the effectiveness of one team may well be dependent on the performance of another team.

Organisation -How does the team link more widely in the organization: are structures, systems and support in place?

Outside factors - How does the team interact with customers, partners, suppliers and competitors?

We think the principles of creating a happier workplace when combined with the three strands of teamwork theories begin to develop a more comprehensive team performance model.

If you do have the time to read more on this topic, why not go to our teamwork articles. A good place to start might be to think through why is teamwork important , or you may want to think about how you define teamwork or reminding yourself of the benefits of teamwork.

Putting Teamwork Theories to Work

This is one of the articles in our teamwork series. But for some practical tips on teamwork theories, look at our great-value guides (below), or at our Team Building Exercises for all team stages teams...
Team Building Exercises and Team Stages
The exercises in this guide are grouped according to our team stages model. Remember, each team is unique and needs to be led through several developmental stages. These include:
Creating a new team or taking over an existing team
Exercises for all team stages!

Exercise 1: Being a TEAM together

Exercise 2: True or false

Exercise 3: Who does what in a team?

Exercise 4: Getting the mix right

Exercise 5: Doing something for the first time

Exercise 6: Two years from now

Developing a team

Exercise 7: A clearer vision

Exercise 8: Mad, sad or glad

Exercise 9: Seeing the bigger picture

Exercise 10: Positive feedback

Exercise 11: Conflicting views

Performing and achieving results with a team

Exercise 12: Did you notice?

Exercise 13: Limiting beliefs

Sustaining team performance

Exercise 14: Scarce resources

Exercise 15: Keeping going

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There are numerous teamwork theories all with features to commend them, but how do you decide which might help in getting teams to work effectively? For example it would be helpful to know the answer to the following questions: How do teams develop?

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It is probably not surprising that one of the most consistent findings in educational research demonstrates that the more time students spend engaged during instruction, the more they learn (Gettinger & Ball, 2007). Schlechty (2002) defined the five levels of student engagement so we can learn to gauge student interest and increase the effectiveness of our structured literacy instruction.

Five Levels of Student Engagement

Authentic Engagement-students are immersed in work that has a clear meaning and immediate value to them (reading a book on a topic of personal interest)

Ritual Compliance-the work has little or no immediate meaning to students, but there are extrinsic outcomes of value that keep them engaged (earning grades necessary for college acceptance)

Passive Compliance-students see little or no meaning in the assigned work but expend effort merely to avoid negative consequences (not having to stay in during recess to complete work)

Retreatism-students are disengaged from assigned work and make no attempt to comply, but are not disruptive to the learning of others

Rebellion-students refuse to do the assigned task, act disruptive, and attempt to substitute alternative activities

Measuring Engagement in the Classroom

The level of student engagement can vary from student-to-student, and lesson-to-lesson so it can be difficult to get a general feel for how engaged a class is as a whole. To that end, Schlechty (2002) also outlined three categories that can be used to measure the level of engagement for an entire classroom.
The Engaged Classroom
In the engaged classroom, you will observe that all students are authentically engaged at least some of the time or that most students are authentically engaged most of the time. Passive compliance and retreatism are rarely observed and rebellion is non-existent.
The Compliant Classroom
The compliant classroom is the picture of traditional education. This type of classroom is orderly and most students will appear to be working so it would be easy to infer that learning is taking place. However, while there is little evidence of rebellion, retreatism is a very real danger as it is very common in the compliant classroom.
The Off-Task Classroom
Retreatism and rebellion are easily observed in the off-task classroom. This type of classroom is each-student-for-them-self so you will see some degree of authentic and ritual engagement, along with passive compliance as well. Teachers in the off-task classroom spend most of their time dealing with rebelling students rather than teaching lessons that engage.

Seven Student Engagement Strategies

Student engagement is a byproduct of effective instruction that has major payoffs. When students are engaged during explicit phonics instruction they learn and retain more information. Student engagement during reading instruction also increases the likelihood that your students will become passionate about reading. So, how can you increase the amount of time that students in your class are engaged during reading instruction? Here are some suggestions:

1. Use the 10:2 method. For every 10 minutes of instruction allow the students 2 minutes to process and respond to the instruction or reading material. This can be done in various ways: have them write about what they have learned or read, have them ask or write down questions they have about what they have read or learned, or have students discuss the lesson or reading material with a partner.

2. Incorporate movement into your lessons. Require students to respond to a question about a reading passage or lesson by moving to a certain spot in the room, writing on whiteboards, or standing (or sitting) when they are done thinking about the question, etc.

3. Pick up the pace. One misconception is that we must go slow for students to really understand and engage in a lesson or story. There is a lot of evidence that shows that when teaching and reading are done at a brisk pace, students have more opportunities to engage, respond, and move on to the next concept or idea (Carnine & Fink, 1978; Williams, 1993; Ernsbarger et al., 2001).

4. Provide frequent and effective feedback.Correct students as they learn new decoding skills or reading strategies. Be sure students know how to use each strategy correctly so they experience success and mastery.

5. Allow students 5-7 seconds of 'think time' when asking a question about a story or reading passage. At the end of the time draw a random name to answer the question.

6. At the end of a lesson have students use the 3-2-1 method of summarizing by having students record three things they learned, two interesting things, and one question they have about what was taught or read. Allow time to share their findings with a peer.

7. Periodically pause mid-sentence when teaching and require students to fill in the blanks.

Learn more about teaching reading strategies ›

Pinterest Reference Guide:

Conclusion

At the end of one of my recent day-long trainings, a teacher approached me and said, "This was a great training. I know, because I didn't get my knitting needles out one time." Whether we are teaching young people or adults, it is important to keep in mind that student engagement is more than just listening. If we are constantly monitoring the level of student engagement in our classroom we can consciously work to increase the amount of time that students are involved in learning and expect greater success in our teaching.

Related Articles
Five Ways to Activate Student Attention, Anticipation, & Interest During a Lesson The 4 C's of Effective Instruction That Boost Student Engagement What is phonics instruction? >Misconceptions About Phonics Instruction - #2 - Phonics Instruction is Boring
Interested in learning more about Early Literacy? Explore our free educational resources to learn how you can help the young readers in your life! Take a look at one of our Reading Horizons reviews (from California - the state).

*Carnine. D., & Fink, W. T. (1978). Increasing the rate of presentation and use of signals in elementary classroom teachers. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11, 35-46.

*Ernsbarger, S. C., Tincani. M. J., Harrison,T. J., Frazier-Trotman, S., Simmons-Reed, E., & Heward. W. L. (2001, May). Slow teacher/fast teacher: Effects on participation rate, accuracy, and off-task behavior by pre-K students during small-group language lessons. Paper presented at the 27th Annual Convention of the Association for Behavior Analysis. New Orleans. LA

*Gettinger, M., & Ball, C. (2007). Best practices in increasing academic engaged time. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 1043-1075). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

*Schlechty, P. (2002) Working on the Work. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Do you follow the Reading Horizons Twitter and Facebook pages? What about the Reading Horizons LinkedIn company page or our Reading Horizons Pinterest boards? Find us on social media for the latest in literacy education.

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How to Measure and Increase Student Engagement During Reading Instruction

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Reading is fundamental to all learning and is crucial for your students' future success. Researchers have found that the more students are engaged during instruction, the more they learn. So, can you be sure your students are engaged during reading instruction?

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Photo credit: US Department of Education via flickr (CC BY 2.0)

Classroom discussions have been a staple of teaching forever, beginning with Socrates. I have taught using discussions, been a student in discussions, and observed other teachers' discussions thousands of times -- at least. Some have been boring, stifling or tedious enough to put me to sleep. Others have been so stimulating that I was sad to see them end. The difference between the two is obviously how interesting the topic is, but equally important is the level of student participation.

It's not enough for students to simply pay attention -- they need to be active participants to generate one of those great discussions that end far too quickly for both the teacher and students. The worst types of discussions are serial one-on-one talk between a student and teacher, leaving the rest of the class out of the process. Many students stop listening, begin to fade or disengage during this flawed procedure.

The best discussions keep everyone active, either by sharing or thinking. Even those students who rarely, if ever, contribute can still participate in other ways. Here are five of my favorite ways to design discussions in a dynamic and exciting manner.

1. Lightning Rounds

Just the name "lightning round" suggests energy. Make it even more dramatic by playing up the concept of speed, fun and excitement. Have your discussion questions prepared in advance so that you can ask them faster. Short-answer questions obviously work best for this technique. Students have 30 seconds (or a more appropriate time for your particular class) to answer. They can either answer or pass -- and no negativity is associated with passing. Ask the questions rapidly while growing the anticipation for each next question by imitating quiz show lightning rounds: "Are you ready for the next question? Here it comes." Ask the question before calling on a student so that all students must be ready to answer. The lightning round should take no longer than ten minutes, the approximate time that the energy begins to diminish.

2. Throw the Ball

Do not intercept the ball.

Do not throw the ball at another student.

Do not try to break anything in the class with the ball.

When you ask a discussion question, call on students by letting them catch a ball. With young children, you can use a beach ball and roll it to students in a circle. Older students can catch a beach ball or nerf football. This way of calling on students can either be a lot of fun and full of energy, or it can be a disaster. Be sure to keep the throwing distance short enough to prevent chaos. Make the rules clear and stop if they are broken:

In spite of the potential danger with using a ball, I have seen this done with much success and great student involvement. A variation that is safer and fun for grades 1-3 is to pass a teddy bear to the student who will answer the next question.

3. Group Answers

Two commonly used discussion techniques can be put together to allow a discussion that involves everybody at the same time. One is to form small groups of about three students. When the teacher asks a discussion question, every group has a small discussion of its own to come up with an answer. Questions of complexity work best with this method. Add to that the use of small cards with each having a method of group identification. After allowing enough time for each group to develop its answer, randomly pick a card and let that group give their answer. You can pick more than one card for each question. When the answer has been completed, put the used card back in the deck, so that no group can relax and think that their turn is over.

4. Agreements

Keep each question going longer by engaging more students in the discussion. When the first student answers a question, ask another student if he or she agrees or disagrees with that answer. Then ask another student, and keep going until at least five students have participated in each question.

5. Questionnaires

A fun way to discuss famous people or fictional characters is to choose someone you are studying. Divide the class into groups of two or three, and have each group come up with three to five questions they would like to ask that person in an interview style. All group members should agree on all the questions. Each group then passes their questions to another group so that all groups have someone else's questions. Each group then has the task of answering one question in writing, with full agreement, and in a way they imagine the person might answer. Papers are changed until all questions are answered. Then encourage each group to share their questions and the answers they received.

One final point about good discussions: most students can easily hear the teacher, but depending on room arrangement, it can often be difficult for students to hear each other. Have you ever tried to follow a press conference on television when you could not hear the question, only the answer? Our response ranges from frustration to giving up listening. Be sure to repeat student answers if any class member can't hear it.

I'm sure that every reader has either a variation of these discussion methods or some great ones of your own. I hope that many of you are willing to add yours to my humble list. Let's create a dynamic discussion of ideas in this space.

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5 Ways to Make Class Discussions More Exciting

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Classroom discussions have been a staple of teaching forever, beginning with Socrates. I have taught using discussions, been a student in discussions, and observed other teachers' discussions thousands of times -- at least. Some have been boring, stifling or tedious enough to put me to sleep.

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Teachers are continually looking for ways to enhance student collaboration in the classroom. Student collaboration can add much-needed variety to the standard, traditional lecture style of teaching. Classroom collaboration also encourages communication and cooperation among students and in effect allows them to teach one another. In some instances, students actually understand the material better when it is explained by their peers.

Another significant benefit of collaborative learning is the positive bonding experience that occurs among the members of each group when everyone is contributing to a common goal. During cooperative activities in your classroom, be sure to take the time to circulate among the groups. Check in and facilitate understanding as needed. Encourage all students to participate in some way to really enhance the collaborative benefits.

Group demographics

Consider the size and makeup of each group as you assign members and create roles. Ideal collaborative learning allows for the group to work cooperatively while individual students are able to retain their creativity and accountability. Every student should play an important role in the group and be able to benefit from their duties and place in the group.

In some cases, and for some assignments, it might make sense for students with similar abilities to be grouped together. In other instances, groups comprised of students with differing skill levels could benefit both the students and the project. Sometimes the stronger students will be able to teach and benefit the others, and all of them will benefit from their various strengths and talents.

One of the goals of collaborative learning is to highlight the fact that all students have something to contribute, and finding the most beneficial role for them benefits the group as a whole. The Global Development Research Center recommends assigning specific roles to qualified students for specific activities they are suited for. Determining what tasks or duties students are predisposed to may take some time and observation. Some suggested roles within a group might be:

Leader or manager: Responsible for keeping the group on-task and overseeing each component of the activity

Secretary or recorder: Takes notes and the minutes of meetings

Artist/Creative director: Makes drawings, diagrams or illustrations as needed

Monitor: Watches the time, distributes and collects equipment, keeps work area tidy

Introducing new curriculum

A University of Manitoba study has found that collaborative activities are even more effective when the class is introduced to new material or starts a new unit in the classroom. When introducing a new idea or concept, take the opportunity to break up the class into discussion groups of two or three. After 10 minutes, ask for a representative from the group to share what they talked about. This model works especially well with more subjective or open-ended concepts.

Hands-on projects

Organizing collaborative activities that involve creating or building something can be a very effective learning tool. Pairs or groups can work together to bring something from the idea phase all the way to completion, and every student involved will know they have played a role. From building a visual vignette from history, to creating a game related to social studies, to constructing a realistic, over sized model of a microscopic organism from science class, the collaborative students and the final results will make an impact. Students are also far more likely to retain what they've learned.

Collaborative learning

Collaborative learning works best when brand new material is being taught. Ideally, the material should be easily divided into roughly equal parts. One example would be dividing the elements and components of a country's history into assignments for groups in your class. Assign each group a distinct chunk of the teaching and some suggestions related to how to explore it. Once they are through, have the group demonstrate or present what they have learned to the class. By the end of this collaborative activity, your students should have a fairly complete picture of the new material or teaching.

Collaborative learning is a fun and energizing break for students from the more traditional teacher-lecture model of education. Student collaboration in the classroom is an excellent educational enhancement. Collaborative lessons will make a memorable impact on your students, and they are well worth the time and effort to plan and implement.

Tags: Engaging Activities

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4 Methods to Enhance Student Collaboration in the Classroom

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Teachers are continually looking for ways to enhance student collaboration in the classroom. Student collaboration can add much-needed variety to the standard, traditional lecture style of teaching. Classroom collaboration also encourages communication and cooperation among students and in effect allows them to teach one another.