# data[].attributes.body
Issues raised:
Whether the deed was void under section 2, 10[5], 11[6], of Indian Contract Act, 1872 or not?
Whether the defendant was liable to return the amount of loan which he had received by him under such deed or mortgage or not?
Whether the mortgage commenced by the defendant was voidable or not?

Principle of law:
Any contract with a minor or an infant is neither valid nor voidable but is void ab-initio. Section 64[7]of Indian Contract Act,1872 is only applicable in the case, where the parties entering in contact are competent to make such contract and is not applied to cases where there is no contract made at all. The legal acts done by an representative or any knowledge of an agent means that such acts done or having knowledge of anything is of his principal.

Judgement:
According to he verdict of Trial Court, such mortgage deed or contract that was commenced between the plaintiff and the defendant was void as it was accomplished by the person who was an infant at the time of execution of mortgage.

Conclusion:
In Mohori Bibee V/S Dharmodas Ghose, at the end it can be concluded that any agreement or deed in which minor is party to it or is included in such contact by any way, such deed or agreement shall be declared null and void because such agreement is no agreement in the eyes of law. Any agreement with an infant cannot be administered against them. In cases minors parents or custodians shall not be liable for the dealings done by the minor without their consent or knowledge.

# data[].attributes.body
A case in 1904 cited in the determination of the dissolution of a partnership. If any partners have a debit balance on their capital accounts at the end of the dissolution of a partnership, they must make the necessary contribution to the partnership. However, if a partner is insolvent, the other partners will have to bear the loss. In the event of the insolvency of a partner any losses should be shared in the ratio of the last agreed capital balances before the dissolution took place. This is known as the Garner v Murray rule. Many partnership agreements specifically exclude this rule, however, and agree instead that any such deficit will be borne in the profit-sharing ratio.

The Case:
Garner, Murray and Wilkins were equal partners with unequal capitals. The assets of the firm on dissolution, after satisfying all the liabilities to creditors and advance from partners was insufficient to repay the capitals in full.  Nothing could be recovered from Wilkins owing to insolvency.
Decision of the Case:
The solvent partners are only liable to make good their share of deficiency, and that the remaining assets should be divided among them in the proportion of their capitals.
Effects of the Case:
The solvent partner should contribute to the deficiency of capital in cash of their share only and not the insolvent partner’s share. The net effect is that the deficiency of capital of the insolvent partner gets distributed among the solvent partners in the ratio of their last agreed capitals.
Criticism of the Rule:
It does not apply when the firm is having only two partners. It considers only the book capitals of the partners, ignoring the private assets of the solvent partners. If a partner contributed more capital than that of the other partners, he will have to bear more burden than the other partners who had contributed less capital. If a partner having zero capital balance or debit balance, will not have to bear the deficiency of the insolvent partner. Introduction of cash by the solvent partners to make good their share of loss on realization is unnecessary, when the balance of capital accounts of the solvent partners are sufficient to bear the deficiency of insolvent partner.
Applicability of Garner vs. Murray Rule in India:
Section 48 of Indian Partnership Act 1932 is similar to the Section 44 of the Partnership Act in Great Britain and further there has been no case law in India to deal with such situations. So, in India these are applicability with respect to following considerations: Garner vs. Murray is applicable only when there is no agreement between the partners for sharing the deficiency in capital account of insolvent partner. Realization loss should be divided in the profit sharing ratio in the usual manner. The solvent partners should bring in cash to make good the loss on realization. Final debit balance of insolvent partner should be distributed amongst the solvent partners in proportion in their last agreed capital. A solvent partner having debit balance in capital account will not share any loss due to insolvency of a partner.

# data[].attributes.body
Partnership by estoppel means that a person who is not technically a partner can be held liable as a general partner would be for any debts and damages owed to a third party.
One can be held liable as a partner by estoppel if the following has occurred:

He/ She has given a third party the impression that he/she is a partner when one is really not (this can be verbally or implied by actions), and

That third party extended credit, goods or services to the company, based on their belief that one were in fact a partner

Also, generally a partner by estoppel is created when someone is:

Taking an active role by participating in the management of the company, or

Permitting the company to use his/her name to do business.

Difference between a Nominal Partner and a Partner by estoppel:
Nominal partner is a partner who allows the use of his/her name by a firm but does not contribute to its capital. He does not share the profits or losses of the firm. On the other hand, A person can be regarded as a 'partner by estoppel', if he or she through his/her actions or behavior, leaves an impression on third parties that he or she is a partner in a particular firm. This means that if a person behaves in a manner that makes third parties consider this individual as one of the actual partners, then he or she is regarded as a ‘partner by estoppel’.

# data[].attributes.body
1.Comes under control of Local Govt and local laws
2. No protection for name
3. No fund raising through shareholding
4. Cannot use suffixes like pvt ltd, LLP etc
5. Registration and maintainence cost is low

# data[].attributes.body
On the basis of the following points, a firm and company can be differentiated-
1. Meaning
2. Governing Act
3. How is it created
4. Registration
5. Minimum number of persons
6. Maximum number of persons
7. Audit
8. Management of the concern
9. Liability
10. Contractual Capacity
11. Minimum Capital

# data[].attributes.body
1. Contract for Partnership- Partnership is the result of a contract. It does not arise from status, operation of law or inheritance.

2. Maximum No. of Partners in a Partnership is 20

3. Carrying on of Business in a Partnership- The parties must have agreed to carry on a business.   The term “business” is used in its widest sense and includes every trade, occupation or profession. Therefore, if the purpose us to carry on some charitable work, it will not be a partnership.
4. Sharing of Profits- The agreement to carry on business must be with the object of sharing profits amongst all the partners. The partners may however, agree to share the profits in any ratio they like.
5. Mutual Agency in a Partnership- Every partner is both an agent and principal for himself and other partners, i.e. he can bind by his acts the other persons and can be bound by the acts of other partners.

# data[].attributes.body
1. Agreement/Contract between partners- For there to be a partnership between two or more persons there has to be an agreement of partnership between them.
2. Profit Sharing- Sharing of profits is an aspect of the true test of a partnership. However, profit sharing is only a prima facie evidence of a partnership. The Act does not consider profit sharing as a conclusive evidence of a partnership. This is because there are cases of profit sharing that are still contradictory to a partnership.
3. Mutual Agency- This is the truest test of a partnership, it I the cardinal principle of a partnership. So if a partner is both the principle as well as an agent of the firm we can say that mutual agency exists. This means that the actions of any partner/s will bind all the other partners as well.

# data[].attributes.body
1.Comes under control of Ministry of corporate Affairs
2. Protection for name of company
3. Can raise funds through shareholding
4. Can use suffixes like pvt ltd, LLP etc
5. Registration and maintenance cost is high

# data[].attributes.body
Min capital: 5,00,000
Min 7 members and no limit on max members
Min 3 directors
No restriction on appointment of directors
Transferable shares
Invitation to subscribe for shares is allowed
Managerial remuneration cannot exceed 11% of net profit
Can start business after obtaining certificate of commencement

# data[].attributes.body
Min capital: 1,00,000
Min 2 members and max 50 members
Min 2 directors
No restriction on appointment of directors
Non-transferable shares
Restriction on invitation to subscribe for shares
No restriction on managerial remuneration
Can start business without obtaining certificate of commencement

# data[].attributes.body
Legal entity separate from its owners with limited liability

# data[].attributes.body
Two or more owners sharing operations and financial responsibility

# data[].attributes.body
Owned and managed by one individual

# data[].attributes.body
1) With the consent of all the partners a minor may admitted to the benefits of the firm.

2) The minor has the right to share in the property and the profits of the firm as may be agreed upon.

3) Such a minor's share is liable for the acts of the firm, but the minor is not personally liable for any such act.

4) Such minor may not sue the partners for an account or payment of his share of the property or profits of the firm, save when severing his connection with the firm, and in such case the amount of his share shall be determined by a valuation made as far as possible in accordance with the rules.

5) At any time within six months of his attaining majority, or of his obtaining knowledge that he had been admitted to the benefits of partnership, whichever date is later, such person may give public notice.

6) where such person becomes a partner,—

(a) his rights and liabilities as a minor continue up to the date on which he becomes a partner, but he also becomes personally liable to third parties for all acts of the firm done since he was admitted to the benefits of partnership, and

(b) his share in the property and profits of the firm shall be the share to which he was entitled as a minor.

# data[].attributes.body
1) Right to take part in business:
All the partners of a partner company have the right to       participate in the business conducted by the company, because the partnership business is the business of the partners, and their management powers are generally coexisting.

2) Right of access to books:
Each partner of the organization, regardless of active or sleep partner, has access to any books of the partner company. The Partner reserves the right to examine and obtain a copy thereof if necessary.

3) Right to remuneration:
No partner is entitled to receive any pay in addition to his partner among the profits of the company for participating in the business of the company.

4) Right to share profits:
Partners are entitled to share equally all the profits earned in the business. Similarly, the risks to the partner company also contribute equally.

5) Right to interest:
Generally, a partner is not entitled to claim the interest on capital. He/ She can entitle the interest on money (capital) only when the following conditions are satisfied:

1. Express Agreement thereto effect, or the practice of specific partnership or

2. any commercial practice to that effect; Or

3. a legal provision that qualifies for such interest.

Interest on Advances:
Suppose a partner gives an advance to the company in addition to the amount of capital he owes, in which case the partner is entitled to receive interest at the rate of 6% per annum.

# data[].attributes.headline
Is "agreement" necessary for Partnership?

# data[].attributes.subject
Is "agreement" necessary for Partnership?

# data[].attributes.body
No requirement for a written partnership agreement.

But, Limited Liability Partnerships do have a written agreement requirement.

Is "registration" necessary for Partnership?
Not mandatory under law. The firm may be registered any time.

Definition of "Partnership"
"The relation between persons who have agreed to share profits of the business carried on by all or any of them acting for all"

# data[].attributes.headline
Can partnership agreements be made without Consideration?

# data[].attributes.subject
Can partnership agreements be made without Consideration?

# data[].attributes.body
Yes

# data[].attributes.body
Although a partnership agreement may be oral, yet it is always healthier to have it in writing. Such an agreement-in-writing is called a ‘Partnership Deed’.

# data[].attributes.body
Name of the firm;

Names and addresses of the partners;

Nature and scope of business and place(s) of business of the firm;

Date of commencement and duration of partnership;

The amount of capital to be initially contributed by each partner;

Provision for future capital and loans by partners to the firm;

Ratio in which profits and losses are to be shared amongst the partners;

Rules regarding operation of accounts, and arrangement for audit and safe custody of funds;

Interest on partners’ capital, partners’ loans, and interest, if any, to be charged on drawings made by the partners;

Salaries, commission, and remuneration, if any, payable to partners;

Accounting period and the date on which final accounts are to be prepared;

Rights, powers, and duties of the partners;

Rules relating to the admission, retirement, or expulsion of partners;

Valuation of goodwill on admission, retirement, and death of a partner;

Mode of dissolution of the firm;

Settlement of accounts on the dissolution of the, firm, etc.; and

The arbitration clause for the amicable settlement of disputes among the partners.

# data[].attributes.body
From the duration point of view, a partnership may be classified into two categories, namely, partnership at will and particular partnership.

# data[].attributes.body
Active or ostensible partner

Dormant or sleeping partner

Nominal partner

Partner-in-profits only

Sub-partner

Partner by estoppel or holding out.

# data[].attributes.body
Where no provision is made by the partners for the duration of their partnership, or for the determination of their partnership, the partnership is said to be ‘partnership at will’.

# data[].attributes.body
A person who enters into partnership by agreement and takes active part in the conduct of the partnership business so as to produce in third parties a reasonable belief that he is a partner is called an active or ostensible partner.

# data[].attributes.body
When a partnership is formed for a specific venture, or for a particular period, it is called a particular partnership. Such a partnership is automatically dissolved on the completion of the venture, or on the expiry of the period.

# data[].attributes.body
A nominal partner is one who just lends his name to the firm without any material interest in the firm’s business. A nominal partner neither contributes to the capital of the firm nor shares the profits (or losses) nor takes part in the management of the firm.

# data[].attributes.body
Where a partner agrees to share his profits in the firm with a third person, that third person is known as a ‘sub-partner’. A sub-partner, however, is in no way connected with the firm, for lack of privity of contract between the two and, hence, has no rights or duties towards the firm and does not carry any liability for the debts of the firm as well. For the same reason, he cannot bind the firm or other partners by his acts.

# data[].attributes.body
A partner-in-profits as the term indicates is one who is entitled to a share in the profits of a partnership without being liable for losses, if any. A person who has sufficient funds to introduce towards the capital of the firm but is not inclined to take risk may be admitted to the partnership firm by mutual agreement amongst other partners.

# data[].attributes.body
A dormant or sleeping partner is one who invests funds in the firm’s business and has a share in the profits of the firm but does not actively participate in the functioning and management of the business.