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The Native American tribes such as the Cherockee and Choctaw tribes were forced out of their homes and made to move west of the Mississippi. While the US government said that they would trade the eastern occupied land for the western, most Native Americans did not think they would be forced to leave their home. As a result, most died by the hands of the US army or by disease, famine, cold, from their move. Almost a century later, however, the Choctaw and Cherokee school system was praised highly by the US government. Two of the main reasons are the bilingual focussed education and their high college graduate rate. Their school system produced a tribe that was 100% literate, which was higher than the white populations of Texas and Arkansas.

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Cultural Transformation and Forced Migration of Africans

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Cultural Transformation and Forced Migration of Africans

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The first part of chapter 3 explains the history of slavery and how this lead to deculturalization. During the African diaspora, the enslavement of Africans was sparked by colonialism. Africans were taken to unfamiliar countries and were deprived of education which lead to their deculturalization. The enslavers deprived Africans of education in order to prevent them from learning about abolitionists and assimilating into society. This section emphasizes the role that Europeans and the withholding of education had in the process of the deculturalization. Issues of language and traditions also contributed to these differences in culture and caused Africans to continue to be discriminated against.

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-early americans treating natives like savages/animals

-strip away their cultural practice of sharing and teach them the desire of accumulating property, capitalism; no more hunting, more farming and husbandry

-white colonizers “rejected the idea of a multicultural society” and “advocated the creation of a unified American culture”

-standardized american english

-trail of tears, segregated school systems, forbidding interracial marriage to protect the “purity” of the white race

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To decrease the cost of plantations for sugar, tobacco, rice, and cotton, plantation owners enslaved Africans as labor. The plantation owners used brutal punishments to control the Africans. Deculturalization: they needed the Africans to depend on their owners, so they took away their identities by giving them new names, purposely not letting them communicate (resulting in no common language among the Africans). They were forbidden to learn and read and would be harshly punished if they were found literate. They still risk their life to learn to read.

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In the first part of this chapter, Spring introduces the origin of deculturalization for Asian Americans. The progressive invasion was originated from the typical images about their groups, inducing coolie, model minority, and gook. According to Spring, the coolie image depicts the Asian workers willing to work endless hours at low wages and accept substandard living conditions. Yet, the model minority image criticizes and suppresses the spirits of other minority groups by emphasizing the perseverance and endeavor of Asian Americans. These disparaging images of Asians cause negative stereotypes, significantly blocking equal educational opportunities among Asian Americans. Since they were denied access to public schools, the California legislature established a segregated school for Chinese and Mongolian students as an alternative solution, while Chinese in Mississippi were required to attend “colored” schools with Native Americans and Mexican Americans.

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In the first part, the author talks about the main issue of the great civil rights movement is school segregation and cultural and linguistic genocide. Some Native Americans, Mexican families cannot forget their lands are taken away by others. They wanted public schools to maintain and teach Spanish and Native American languages and to provide positive images of their cultural traditions. Also, Asian Americans want equal education opportunities. However the process of equality is not easy. In 1950, integration efforts resulted in the killing of civil rights workers, church bombings, and race riots. That because lots of people still think that Protestant Anglo-American culture should be the dominant U.S. culture.

Liberation Movement

In order to support Liberation Movement, in 1960,  the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, which stated: “All peoples have the right to self-determination; by virtue of that right they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development.”
In 1960, the United Nation published Convention Against Discrimination in Education.

School Desegregation
"School desegregation and civil rights legislation were not the products of a benign government but were the result of tremendous struggle and public demonstrations. "

In 1955, the Supreme Court issued an enforcement decree requiring school desegregation.

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African American immigrants were denied the right to become U.S. citizens. The government created segregated institutions, suggested unequal rights, and permitted slavery because African Amercians were not born either natively in the United States or in the class that qualified the citizen rights under Constitution. Although ideas like removing the word "white" from racial equality laws were mentioned, it was still denied by most of the people at that time.

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Fourteenth Amendment: Citizenship and Education

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Fourteenth Amendment: Citizenship and Education

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The Fourteenth Amendment was created to grant and protect U.S. citizenship of African Americans. The government should provide equal education and voting rights to every person, and they should receive the same and equal opportunities. However, even though the law had been implemented, African Americans did not experience equalities until the late 1900s since segregated perceptions and institutions still existed in some states in the United States.

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the Asian community has faced racial-discrimination in the US in the 19th and 20th century. the government even passed through some Asian Exclusion Act to legalize such inequality. even Chinese children were not allowed to go to normal public high schools with other kids. This unfair treatment stems from the influx of Chinese workers. They work harder and ask for less money than the locals. However, this diligence also led to the loss of the interests of the local people. As a result, the wave of opposition to the Chinese also forced the government to pass many racially discriminatory bills to restrict the Chinese. In terms of education, Chinese students cannot even enjoy the same treatment as Americans. While Chinese and Americans do the same jobs and pay the same taxes, they are treated differently when they receive government benefits.

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Missionary educators viewed Native Americans as “foreign heathens” and wanted them to learn English, as English-speaking people “possessed the greatest knowledge.” Even when Sequoyah, a Native Cherokee, created an alphabet that could translate the Cherokee language into a written form, it was not well received by missionaries because the missionaries didn’t know the Cherokee language, and refused to learn it. This shows that even though the Cherokee had become literate, the true purpose of missionary education was to make Native Americans more like Europeans, instead of helping them foster a culture of their own.

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Section 4: Mexican American Educational Issues

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Section 4: Mexican American Educational Issues

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Part 1: Mexican Americans in America faced two primary forms of educational racism in the late 19th and early 20th century: assimilationist and exterminationalist racism on the part of White American politicians and citizens. It was common practice for public schools to disallow the usage of Spanish in schools in an effort to naturalize students, erasing their culture and attempting to replace it with “American” culture. At the same time, many of these schools did not have mandatory attendance for Mexican students, as many politicians and farmers believed that their time was better spent laboring on farms and contributing to economic growth. In order to cope with these issues, Mexican immigrants would send their children to Catholic schools that offered bilingual education. Another source of schooling was segregating schooling for Mexican students, which naturally received a lower standard of quality when compared to White American schools - books, for example, would be refuse from White schools. There were overall low attendance rates in schools for Mexican students, whether by days attended or hours attended, as both familial economic needs and White racism saw Mexican students as laborers instead of children.
Part 2: The League of United Latin American Citizens, or LULAC was formed by Middle-class Mexican American citizens to protest school segregation in Texas. Their core message was to uphold cultural pride and traditions while also integrating into American society by reflecting American values, which they used when challenging cases of school segregation. They were successful at the individual case level, but were unable to reflect significant statewide change at the time. Notably, California laws decreed that the segregation of various POC immigrant groups was legal, and similar Mexican-American educational rights groups fought similar legal battles. The Civil Rights movement, fought on this front by LULAC and the NAACP saw the end of legal school (and general) segregation, as well as the inclusion of Mexican cultural elements in textbooks and curricula. However, as is often the case, the actual implementation of these victories came long after their legal precedent.

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As early as 1850 to 1860, the first Chinese migrants moved to California for the gold rush and were hired as railroad workers with low payment in California. Because of cultural and linguistic differences, European Americans generalized all Chinese, Japanese, Korean and some other countries’ people as “Asian”, and classified them as Native Americans who had absolutely no citizenship rights. With the increasing number of Asian immigrants, Asian people were perceived as inferior races who threatened whites’ economic and political domination. As a result, Asian Americans were denied educational opportunities. As the tension between Chinese and white communities arose, the California school code of 1872 completely prohibited Chinese people from attending American public schools for 13 years. As for Japanese, the establishment of the private Japanese language school in Hawaii was restricted because it hindered the Americanization of Japanese American children. The government declared the necessity for American citizens to be taught to read and write and think in one language, calling for the closing of the Japanese language schools and successfully got support from the U.S. Supreme Court in several years.

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Historically, the U.S. government has marginalized and erased the culture and history of Native Americans through the education system. This began with the Naturalization Act of 1790, denying NAs citizenship in the U.S, and continued with genocidal policies such as the Indian Removal Act of 1830. After granting Native Americans U.S. citizenship in 1924, the deculturalization of Native Americans primarily occurred through oppressive educational policies, such as abusive boarding schools Native Americans children were forced to attend. The U.S. government simultaneously viewed Native Americans as “children that needed to be protected from evil” as well as “uncivilized” ‘savages,’ a perspective which reverberates through policies which were simultaneously genocidal, marginalizing, and demeaning. - Ari Lohr

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While coming into contact with Native people, European colonizers noticed the differences between their own society/civilization and what they believed to be a “lack of” civilization in Native societies. They took these differences and placed their way of life, culture, and language as superior to Native life. Some examples provided in the text include differences in child-rearing (European: authority, discipline, obedience vs. Native: care, “permissive,” “coddling”); differences in family structures (European: Nuclear family, patriarchal, gender and gender roles as derived from binary “sex” vs.  Native: Clan, gender not influencing work or roles in society); and differences in purpose (European: work to accumulate wealth, individualism vs. Native: work to sustain self, family, community–not in excess–interconnectedness, community). Because of their sense of superiority, European colonizers attempted to transmit their way of life onto Native peoples who resisted. This resistance led European colonizers to take children away from their families and place them in boarding schools to undergo “total cultural transformation.” A final sentiment from this section is that although Native people are Native to “America,” they were considered domestic foreigners who had no rights on their own land.

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Freedom in Northern States / Educational Segregation

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Freedom in Northern States / Educational Segregation

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Freedom in Northern States: It took much effort and time to officially abolish slavery in the Northern States. Petitions against slavery began during the Revolution and this movement to abolish slavery picked up in action in many Northern states. Starting with Pennsylvania (1778), New Jersey (1778), New York (1785), and Massachusetts, these states decided to gradually abolish slavery by passing bills and taking other government actions. However, even after years of starting the process to abolish slavery (1830), there were still many enslaved Africans in Northern States.

Educational Segregation: After abolishing salvery, it was apparent that there was a difference between freedom and equality when African American leaders and abolitionist groups made efforts to provide educational opportunities for freed slaves in Northern States. Education (reading and writing in English) that were provided to freed slaves served to replace African culture with American culture. Even if education was available to African Americans, there was harsh racial segregation and resistance to integrate schools for both grade school and higher education. People petitioned against integration, refused to send their kids to school with African Americans, and attacked schools that African Americans went to.

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The first boarding school for Native American children was opened in Pennsylvania in 1879 by Richard Pratt. Pratt believed that Native Americans needed to be “civilized” and viewed his boarding school as a way to help them become part of “civilization.” 25 non-reservation boarding schools opened in the United States between then and 1905. At these schools, Native American students were taught about American history and government without a Native American perspective. They were forced to celebrate patriotic American holidays and learn English instead of their native languages. These schools also had horrific living conditions and students were often forced to partake in  hard labor after their lessons.

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One of the struggles for equal educational opportunities took place in Boston, after the Massachusetts Education Act of 1789 was passed. This law required towns to provide children with elementary education for half the year, and grammar schools in communities with over 200 families. There were no laws excluding black children from attending public schools at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Although black children were allowed to attend the schools, very few actually went. The low attendance was due to the low economic conditions of the black population and the aggression and hostility black children faced in public schools. In 1798, a Committee of African Americans asked for a separate school system to “protect their children from the prejudice of white children”. This request was denied because the Boston School Committee thought other minority groups would have the same request. As a result, the black community had to open their own separate private school. The school committee changed their mind in 1806 and used public funds and donations to open a segregated school. The African American community was in support of this idea to protect their children from the prejudice in the public school system. Soon after, in the 1820s, the African American community noticed the segregated education system did not have the same quality of education as the white schools. The teachers were not as qualified, the building wasn’t maintained, and the quality of education was not to the same standard as the white schools. The African American community fought for the same quality of education and gained the support of Black abolitionist David Walker who rejected the idea of ‘separate but equal’. Walker concluded that segregated schools were a way for whites to keep the African American community ignorant. In 1849, protests about segregated schools gained attention by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court. In 1855, the segregation issue in Massachusetts was resolved, and schools were integrated without black students facing backlash.

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Deculturalization is an attempt to replace cultures deemed as inferior. Great Britain has a long history of trying and succeeding to civilize its populations, desiring to spread Anglo-Saxon culture. Cultural superiority has historically lead to colonial expansion. North America, especially towards its treatment towards Native American populations shows that spread is majorly fueled by racial superiority that provides  "justification" to force minority groups into deculturalization through several methods implemented in schools: denial of education, cultural genocide, assimilation, cultural pluralism, and hybridity.

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Historically, the U.S. government has marginalized and erased the culture and history of Native Americans through the education system. This began with the Naturalization Act of 1790, denying NAs citizenship in the U.S, and continued with genocidal policies such as the Indian Removal Act of 1830. After granting Native Americans U.S. citizenship in 1924, the deculturalization of Native Americans primarily occurred through oppressive educational policies, such as abusive boarding schools Native Americans children were forced to attend. The U.S. government simultaneously viewed Native Americans as “children that needed to be protected from evil” as well as “uncivilized” ‘savages,’ a perspective which reverberates through policies which were simultaneously genocidal, marginalizing, and demeaning. - Ari Lohr

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Asian Americans: Educating the “Model Minority”. 

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Asian Americans: Educating the “Model Minority”. 

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The “model minority “image of Asian Americans is an underrepresentation of the whole Asian Americans community. In fact, this new public image is a story appearing in the December 1966 issue of U.S. News and World Report titled “Success Story of One Minority in the U.S.” Meanwhile, this image is also used as a powerful example of the success of the American creed in resolving the racial issue.

Asian Americans: Language and the Continued Struggle for Equal Educational Opportunity

The language barrier is indeed a form of unequal treatment in the U.S. Education System. For students who can’t speak English or with limited English skills, it’s impossible for them to own the equal educational opportunity

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Multicultural Education, Immigration, and the Culture Wars

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Multicultural Education, Immigration, and the Culture Wars

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The culture wars were reignited by the multiculturalism movement. One's argued that incorporating histories and cultures into the curriculum empowers immigrant culture and self-esteem. In addition to that, textbooks and classroom instruction were affected by the multiculturalism movement, and multicultural education was considered to be a fundamental education because multilingual could provide many cultural viewpoints. Schools emphasized a single group's history and culture, and educate from that group's point of view. In ethnocentric schooling, the cultural viewpoint is a crucial idea. Jawanza Kunjufu, a supporter of ethnocentric education, contended that the intrinsic racism of white-dominated institutions hampered African American education.

However, Schlesinger believed that the universal use of English and common beliefs originating from this white Anglo-American Protestant heritage united the culture of the United States historically. Mutual respect, individual rights, tolerance of differences, and individual engagement in governance are among the key ideas he cites. He suggested a unified curriculum that brings together people from many ethnic backgrounds around shared ideals. Given this perspective, it's not unexpected that proponents of core values education, particularly Afrocentric education, would oppose ethnocentric education. Schlesinger was opposed to the concept of teaching history to youngsters to instill a feeling of self-worth in them.

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Issues Regarding Mexican-American Citizenship (Barbara)

Previously the Mexican population consisted of mostly Native Americans or mestizos (European ancestry)

After the Mexican-American war in 1848, the conversation of citizenship for Mexican Americans and other Hispanic groups came to light

Post Mexican-American War, Mexico demanded that the US leaders grant US citizenship for the Mexicans living in the newly US land

This caused an ongoing conflict among the leaders of Mexico & the US

Issues Regarding Puerto Rican Citizenship (Jules)

At the same time that Puerto Rico was fighting Spanish colonization, America began to occupy the country

Puerto Rico was forcibly colonized by the US in the late 19th - early 20th century, after the Spanish-American war

US wanted to subjugate Puerto Ricans to protect American-owned assets in South America

Plantations, military bases, etc.

Congress ignored Puerto Rican pleas to vote on their US citizenship, instead passing the Jones Act in 1917 that mandated US citizenship for all Puerto Ricans

Jones Act abolished Puerto Rican legislative independence and mandated Puerto Rican participation in the US military draft, but did not give Puerto Ricans the right to vote

This partial citizenship was not amended until the Voting Rights Act of 1965

Puerto Rican American Educational Issues (Jules)

During the Spanish-American war, Puerto Rican liberation movement prioritized independence from Spain, but American forces eventually took control of the country

Puerto Rican resistance to US control is still present today, but not as prevalent.

Education was used as a tool to indoctrinate next generation into American culture

Used in tandem with military occupation

Educational policy was designed to deculturalize Puerto Rican children

Worked to replace Spanish national language with English

Built allegiance to American flag

American educational policies in Puerto Rico exemplify how schools can be weaponized to colonize and subjugate a population

Summary List of Americanization Policies in Public Schools in Puerto Rico (Zichen)

America tries to use several policies to americanize Puerto Rico, including studying American culture, celebrating American holidays, using the same educational system as American(book, teachers, teaching style), and replacing Spanish with English.

Public school students are forced/encouraged to follow these policies, while during Brumbaugh’s tenure, Puerto Rican resistance to U.S. educational policies began to appear in the teachers’ magazine.

The main idea of the resistance is to criticize the force of “replacing Spanish with English”, such as the policy ask school to transfer Spanish to English in the short-term(dividing students by English score, requiring teachers to teach in English)

In 1912, Puerto Rican teachers organized the Teachers Association to resist the policies of the commissioner of education, and they required to use Spanish to teach students while still keep English as a course.

In 1915, resistance to the imposition of English sparked a student strike at Central High School in San Juan, which reflected a rising wave of Puerto Rican nationalism and calls for independence.

1921-1930, as commissioner, Huyke imposed Americanization programs with a vengeance.

Increasing school policies eventually resulted in the Padin Reform of 1934, which restricted English-language instruction to high school and made content instruction in the upper-elementary grades in Spanish.

Language problems could only be solved by giving more power of self-autonomy.

Commonwealth status gave Puerto Rican Americans greater control of their school systems, and consequently Spanish was restored in the schools.

Conclusion: Methods of Deculturalization (Serena)
Native Americans, Mexican Americans, and Pureto Rican Americans resisted the deculturalization programs while struggled to pass cultural traditions and languages to the next generation. There exists divided loyalty citizenship. While Patriotic programs seem effective with above three groups, many Native Americans and Pureto Rican Americans still cling to natinolist sentiments.
The mixed results of Deculturalization methods: Segregation and isolation-used with Native Americans. Forced change of language-while created more severe resistance by dominated groups. Curriculum content that reflects the culture of the dominant group-alienate children from the schools. Textbooks that reflect the culture of the dominant group. Denial of cultural and religious expression by dominated groups. Use of teachers from dominant groups-cultural role models. Attempts at deculturalization were countered in the 1950s and the 1960s by the civic movement.

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CH6: Reverend Martin Luther King, Native American 

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CH6: Reverend Martin Luther King, Native American 

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Martin Luther king

CORE is a major organization in the cilvil rights movement in 1900s. The two basic doctrines of the early CORE movement were commitment to racial integration and the use of Christian nonviolent techniques. King were deeply influenced by Thoreau’s theory and Gandhi’s work, he made nonviolent confrontation the civil rights’ mean tactic. He turned the bus boycott into a fuse, organized the SCLC. As the civil rights demonstrations increased in intensity, national leaders worked for federal legislation to end segregation. The legislation were intended to end school segregation and provide authority for implementing the Brown decision. Besides, it also established the precedent for using disbursement of government money as as means of controlling education policies.

Native Americans

Native Americans wanted to regain control of their Children’s education and restore their cultural heritage and languages due to the federal Indian policy which is focused on termination of tribes and reservations. With Indian and White cilvil rights activists’ efforts, the Rough Rock Demonstration School were build. At the school, Navajo parents controlled their children’s education. The school worked to preserve the Navajo language and culture. Native American self=determination was aided by the development of a Pan-Indian movement.

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The final part of the chapter summarizes the historical background and legal context regarding Native American tribes and their deculturalization. Because Europeans viewed Native Americans as culturally and racially inferior, European conquerors and early U.S. government officials were able to justify their conquest and theft of Native American territories. These sentiments were weaved into educational schemes to deculturalize Native Americans in order for them to give their lands to Anglo-American immigrants. The erasure and oppression of Native American culture has persisted for many years and many laws were passed that enabled discrimination towards Native Americans. For example, President Thomas Jefferson thought it was critical to instill in Indians the drive to acquire property and renounce the tribal practice of sharing. Jefferson, like other proponents of Native American civilization, associated the establishment of the nuclear family with a desire for property (Spring, pg 28). President Jefferson sought to alter Native American ideals on the economy, governance, family relationships, and property, as well as to instill a desire to purchase manufactured things. For Jefferson and many Anglo-Saxon white men, civilizing Native Americans meant enslaving them to an economy based on rising production and demand for new things.
-Nataly Salazar

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The term “Latino” and “Hispanic” have different formations and identifications. Despite the language issue, there are other complex factors such as the meaning of Hispanic in context of the commemoration of the EL Dia de la Ra.

Hispanic includes all people living in areas not under the control of the US or Canada, more associated with Spanish culture.

Latino, it is now Latin American, includes all people who speak Latin-based languages.

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In the section “Bilingual Education: Language and Culture Wars Continued,” Spring discusses the development of language wars from the 1960s to the 1980s. Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Native Americans fought for bilingual education since they believed that language represented their culture. In addition, groups like La Raza Unida were dedicated to protecting rights and preserving culture. By the 1980s, political parties were debating over bilingual education. Democratic Party, supported by ethnic groups, chose to promote bilingual education; Republican Party, on the other hand, opposed bilingual education and supported making English the official language. Even though civil rights groups and professional organizations put in tremendous efforts, the voices of making English the official language still grew to the national level.

In the conclusion section, Spring reveals that the problems in the educational systems mentioned above still exist today. Springs believed the international organizations could be one of the solutions, and the equality in education can only be achieved when the educational rights amendment is added to the U.S. Constitution.

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The first boarding school for Native American children was opened in Pennsylvania in 1879 by Richard Pratt. Pratt believed that Native Americans needed to be “civilized” and viewed his boarding school as a way to help them become part of “civilization.” 25 non-reservation boarding schools opened in the United States between then and 1905. At these schools, Native American students were taught about American history and government without a Native American perspective. They were forced to celebrate patriotic American holidays and learn English instead of their native languages. These schools also had horrific living conditions and students were often forced to partake in  hard labor after their lessons.