# data[].attributes.headline
Title: White and Beautiful: An Examination of Skin Whitening Practices and Female Empowerment in China

# data[].attributes.subject
Title: White and Beautiful: An Examination of Skin Whitening Practices and Female Empowerment in China

# data[].attributes.body
Source:  Columbia university library
DOI: /10.7916/D8125S64

credibility Evaluation: Group 1

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
White and Beautiful: An Examination of Skin Whitening Practices and Female Empowerment in China

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In recent years, the prevalence of skin whitening products has increased tremendously among Asian women. The cultural desire for pale skin can be attributed to the phenomenon of colorism, the "discriminatory treatment of individuals falling within the same 'racial' group on the basis of skin color" (Herring, 2002).

# data[].attributes.headline
Title: When skin tone scars: The hurt of colorism among Asian-Americans

# data[].attributes.subject
Title: When skin tone scars: The hurt of colorism among Asian-Americans

# data[].attributes.body
Source:  Phy.org
Credibility Evaluation: Group 9
Source bias:  no bias
Factual report: very factual, the author has credentials
comment: this article is used for reference on how colorism effects Thai people

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UVM Sociology professor Nikki Khanna with an array of commonly available whitening creams. Credit: Andy Duback

The seeds for Nikki Khanna's new book, "Whiter: Asian American Women on Skin Color and Colorism," were planted when the UVM Sociology professor was a child growing up in suburban Atlanta.

On Saturday mornings Khanna, the daughter of an Indian father and white mother, would often shop with her parents at the local Indian grocer. At her eye level were boxes upon boxes of whitening creams with light-skinned Indian models promising "total fairness" and "complete whitening."

"Whitening creams were everywhere and still are, and I was deeply affected by them," she says.

Khanna's early scholarship focused on mixed race identity, particularly among black-white biracial Americans, but she always knew she wanted to return to the topic of colorism within her own community, in part because of her childhood memories but also because the subject was so little explored.

Though colorism-defined as prejudice or discrimination against individuals with a darker skin tone, typically among people of the same ethnic or racial group -affects just about every part of the non-white world, Khanna says, most research, including her own, has focused on African Americans and Latinos, with very few studies on Asian Americans.

The issue has stayed under the radar, Khanna says, because "Asian Americans, and Asians generally, are hesitant to talk about it."

Khanna knew she wanted to bring this well kept secret out into the open by giving a voice to Asian Americans who had been affected by colorism, but how she would do it was unclear, especially since she hoped for representation from many different Asian ethnic groups.
Social call
As with so many other things in 2020, social media provided a channel to reach this target groop.

"I decided I would put out a call that I was working on a book and that I was really interested in hearing personal stories -particularly from women, since they tend to be the most affected by colorism," she says. She posted to relevant Facebook groups, promoted the book among her colleagues, many of whom also posted to their networks, and used word of mouth to reach people who might not have seen the queries.

She had no idea what to expect. But then the essays started pouring in.

"I was so excited because as I was reading the essays, I felt a connection with the women," she says. "I also realized these women have so many things in common with each other, and there aren't a lot of spaces where you see their stories," she says.

She picked the strongest 30 essays, with an eye to diversity. Some essayists are academics, most are not, and they range in age from 22 to 62. They or their families come from many different Asian countries, from Pakistan to Cambodia to Japan to Vietnam. Some of the women included in the book are also mixed-race, like Khanna, adding another dimension to the issue of skin color among Asian Americans.

The essays naturally grouped themselves into six themes, Khanna found, from those that examined the often unwanted privilege light skin confers, to writings on "aspirational whiteness," to essays that focused on the anti-black attitudes common in many Asian American communities.

All of the essays are poignant expressions of personal experiences, and many are full of hurt, recalling words Khanna heard as a child about dark-skinned Indian women: "It's a shame. She's going to have a hard time getting married. No one is going to want to marry her."

in an essay from the book titled Too Dark, Miho Iwata writes, "When I was a little girl, my dark complexion was somewhat acceptable. However, having dark skin as a woman in Japan is seen as very problematic. My mom would make comments such as "You are already old, so you should take care of your skin'; "Tanning will give you more 'aging spots' and your face already looks dirty with shimi [a Japanese term for dark spots/freckles but it literally means 'stains']." My peers would also make comments about my dark skin, and some of them tried very hard to convince me to stay out of the sun and to make sure to wear sunscreen all the time."

What is the allure of whiteness?

"Sometimes it's not about Caucasian-ness," she says. "In many parts of Asia, light skin is associated with upward mobility and higher classes. The notion is that, if you have light skin, you must be wealthy or you're successful. Darker skinned people are seen as the people work the fields."

For others however, particularly those from post-colonial countries, whiteness is often revered. In those contexts, Khanna says, "Skin whitening cannot be completely separated from the elevated status given to white people."

Khanna's goals for the book go beyond the academic.

"I want to contribute academically with this research since this topic is rarely explored," she says. "But even more, my hope is that the book sparks conversation about skin color. I don't think this is something Asians and Asian Americans often talk openly about. I also hope that many women read the book and see themselves in it. They aren't alone."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
When skin tone scars: The hurt of colorism among Asian-Americans

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The seeds for Nikki Khanna's new book, "Whiter: Asian American Women on Skin Color and Colorism," were planted when the UVM Sociology professor was a child growing up in suburban Atlanta. On Saturday mornings Khanna, the daughter of an Indian father and white mother, would often shop with her parents at the local Indian grocer.

# data[].attributes.headline
Title: Why So Many Thais Have Chinese Ancestry

# data[].attributes.subject
Title: Why So Many Thais Have Chinese Ancestry

# data[].attributes.body
Source:  Culture trip

Credibility Evaluation: Group 9
Source bias:  little to no bias
Factual report: not very factual, the author has no credentials
comment: this article is used for the purpose of learning only

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
A rich history

What are considered modern-day Thai people today actually emigrated from China into Thailand a long time ago. Between the 8th and 10th centuries, the Tai people - that's descendants of those who spoke a common Tai language - migrated from China down throughout Southeast Asia, with many settling in Thailand. Initially based in the north of the country, they eventually spread further south, settling in the central plains of the country. Today, those descended from the initial Tai migrants make up the vast majority of the Thai population, but it's the second largest group who have been perhaps the most influential - the Thai-Chinese ethnic group.

Establishing a Thai-Chinese ethnic group

As early as the 13th century, Chinese traders were known to come to the Kingdom of Ayutthaya (one of the many kingdoms that now makes up modern-day Thailand) to do business. The two countries also shared a common goal, or enemy - that of Burma. Burma's military was powerful, posing a threat to both Ayutthaya and China, and so China also sent armies south to Ayutthaya in an attempt to quash the Burmese threat. With the Burmese eventually repelled, King Taksin - himself of Chinese origin - encouraged Chinese immigration and trade. The Chinese came, often with capital, and gradually their influence grew as they continued to trade and own businesses throughout the kingdom. Towards the end of the 19th century and at the start of the 20th century, Chinese immigration into Thailand was high, with many of those making the move men who then went on to marry Thai women. The population of Chinese in Thailand more than tripled between the 18th and 19th century, and accounted for as much as 12.2% of the population in 1932.

It wasn't just the numbers of Thai-Chinese that grew in Thailand, but the influence of this group, too. Many businesses and industries began to be dominated by Thai-Chinese. As the 19th century went on, the Thai-Chinese controlled much of the shipping sector, and wielded significant power when it came to exports, having a large hand in the sugar, fish, rice and rubber industries. This influence only grew further, and the mid-20th century saw 50 Thai-Chinese families control between 80-90% of the overall market capitalisation of the economy.

The influence of the Thai-Chinese also spread to politics. Many Prime Ministers of Thailand have Chinese ancestry, including Thaksin and Yingluck Shinawatra and Abhisit Vejjajiva. Chinese culture is also evident at all levels of Thai society, with Chinese New Year celebrated by millions of people, and Chinese temples found throughout the country.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A rich history What are considered modern-day Thai people today actually emigrated from China into Thailand a long time ago. Between the 8th and 10th centuries, the Tai people - that's descendants of those who spoke a common Tai language - migrated from China down throughout Southeast Asia, with many settling in Thailand.

# data[].attributes.headline
Title: The Roots of Colorism, or Skin Tone Discrimination

# data[].attributes.subject
Title: The Roots of Colorism, or Skin Tone Discrimination

# data[].attributes.body
Source: ThoughtCo.

Credibility Evaluation: Group 9
Source bias:  No bias
Factual report: fairly trustworthy, since its from a well known blog
comment: used to see learn about how colorism is still a trend in countries

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
How does colorism play out in America? An old children's rhyme captures the definition of colorism and its inner workings:

"If you're black, stay back;
If you're brown, stick around;
If you're yellow, you're mellow;
If you're white, you're all right."

Colorism refers to discrimination based on skin color. Colorism disadvantages people with darker skin while privileging those with lighter skin. Research has linked colorism to smaller incomes, lower marriage rates, longer prison terms, and fewer job prospects for darker-skinned people. Colorism has existed for centuries, in and out of Black America. It's a persistent form of discrimination that should be fought with the same urgency as racism.

In the United States, colorism evolved when the enslavement of people was common practice. Enslavers typically gave preferential treatment to enslaved people with fairer complexions. While dark-skinned enslaved people toiled outdoors in the fields, their light-skinned counterparts usually worked indoors at far less grueling domestic tasks.

Enslavers were partial to light-skinned enslaved people because they often were family members. Enslavers frequently forced enslaved women into sex, and the light-skinned children of enslaved people were the telltale signs of these sexual assaults. While enslavers didn't officially recognize their mixed-race children, they gave them privileges that dark-skinned enslaved people didn't enjoy. Accordingly, light skin came to be viewed as an asset in the community of enslaved people.

Outside the United States, colorism may be more related to class than to white supremacy. Although European colonialism has undoubtedly left its mark worldwide, colorism is said to predate contact with Europeans in Asian countries. There, the idea that white skin is superior to dark skin may derive from ruling classes typically having lighter complexions than peasant classes.

While peasants became tanned as they labored outdoors, the privileged had lighter complexions because they didn't. Thus, dark skin became associated with lower classes and light skin with the elite. Today, the premium on light skin in Asia is likely tangled up with this history, along with cultural influences of the Western world.

Enduring Legacy

Colorism didn't disappear after the institution of slavery ended in the U.S. In Black America, those with light skin received employment opportunities off-limits to darker-skinned Black Americans. This is why upper-class families in Black society were largely light-skinned. Soon, light skin and privilege were linked in the Black community.

Upper-crust Black Americans routinely administered the brown paper bag test to determine if fellow Black people were light enough to include in social circles. "The paper bag would be held against your skin. And if you were darker than the paper bag, you weren't admitted," explained Marita Golden, author of "Don't Play in the Sun: One Woman's Journey Through the Color Complex."

Colorism didn't just involve Black people discriminating against other Black people. Job advertisements from the mid-20th century reveal that Black people with light skin clearly believed their coloring would make them better job candidates. Writer Brent Staples discovered this while searching newspaper archives near the Pennsylvania town where he grew up. In the 1940s, he noticed, Black job seekers often identified themselves as light-skinned:

"Cooks, chauffeurs, and waitresses sometimes listed 'light colored' as the primary qualification-ahead of experience, references, and the other important data. They did it to improve their chances and to reassure white employers who...found dark skin unpleasant or believed that their customers would."

Why Colorism Matters

Colorism yields real-world advantages for individuals with light skin. For example, light-skinned Latinos make $5,000 more on average than dark-skinned Latinos, according to Shankar Vedantam, author of " The Hidden Brain: How Our Unconscious Minds Elect Presidents, Control Markets, Wage Wars and Save Our Lives."﻿﻿ A Villanova University study of more than 12,000 Black women imprisoned in North Carolina found that lighter-skinned Black women received shorter sentences than their darker-skinned counterparts.﻿﻿ Research by Stanford psychologist Jennifer Eberhardt found that darker-skinned Black defendants were twice as likely as lighter-skinned Black defendants to get the death penalty for crimes involving white victims.﻿﻿

Colorism also plays out in the romantic realm. Because fair skin is associated with beauty and status, light-skinned Black women are more likely to be married than darker-skinned Black women. "We find that the light-skin shade as measured by survey interviewers is associated with about a 15 percent greater probability of marriage for young Black women," said researchers who conducted a study called "Shedding 'Light' on Marriage."﻿﻿

Light skin is so coveted that whitening creams continue to be best-sellers in the U.S., Asia, and other nations. Mexican-American women in Arizona, California, and Texas have reportedly suffered mercury poisoning after using whitening creams to bleach their skin. In India, popular skin-bleaching lines target both women and men with dark skin. That skin-bleaching cosmetics persist after decades signals the enduring legacy of colorism.

Additional References

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Origins of Colorism and How This Bias Persists in America

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
How does colorism play out in America? An old children's rhyme captures the definition of colorism and its inner workings: "If you're black, stay back; If you're brown, stick around;If you're yellow, you're mellow;If you're white, you're all right." Colorism refers to discrimination based on skin color.

# data[].attributes.headline
Title: Colorism and educational outcomes of Asian Americans: evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health

# data[].attributes.subject
Title: Colorism and educational outcomes of Asian Americans: evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health

# data[].attributes.body
Source:  Springerfoundation
DOI: 10.1007/s11218-015-9327-5

credibility Evaluation: Group 1

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References

1. Harris, K. M., Halpern, C. T., Whitsel, E., Hussey, J., Tabor, J., & Entzel, P., et al. (2009). The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health: Research design [Web document]. ( http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/addhealth/design).

2. Jones, T. (2013). Significance of skin color in Asian and Asian-American communities: Initial reflections. U. C Irvine Law Review, 3, 1105-1123.

3. Osborne, J. W. (2010). Improving your data transformations: Applying the Box-Cox transformation. Practical Assessment, Research and Evaluation, 15(12), 1-9.

4. Wagatsuma, H. (1967). The social perception of skin color in Japan. Daedalus, 96(2), 407-443.

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Affiliations

Department of Sociology and Anthropology, The University of Texas-Pan American, 1201 W. University Drive, Edinburg, TX, 78539-2999, USA

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Igor Ryabov

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Ryabov, I. Colorism and educational outcomes of Asian Americans: evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Soc Psychol Educ 19, 303-324 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-015-9327-5
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Keywords

Colorism

Educational attainment

Asian Americans

Gender

Ethnic origin

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Colorism and educational outcomes of Asian Americans: evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Using a nationally representative longitudinal data set, the current study examines the link between colorism and educational attainment of Asian American young adults. Three levels of educational attainment are used as outcomes: high school diploma, some college and a Bachelor's degree or higher.

# data[].attributes.headline
Title: Mental Health Effects of Colorism in the Black Community

# data[].attributes.subject
Title: Mental Health Effects of Colorism in the Black Community

# data[].attributes.body
Source:  Mind path care center

Credibility Evaluation: Group 9
Source bias:  No bias
Factual report: fairly credential
comment: used to see learn about how colorism effects health

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
by Anna Yoni Jeffries

One great oversight of our modern generation is that we turn a blind eye to the subconscious colorism that occurs in our society. Colorism within the African American community is defined as the attitude among African Americans discriminating against other African Americans because of their skin complexion - for instance, being too light or too dark. The form of racial discrimination known as colorism dates back to slavery, and has been systematically passed through various elements of our culture. It implies that lighter skin and straight hair are better, and successful men should marry women who fit this standard. Colorism can also happen within other communities, as I'll explain below. Much research has shown how racial discrimination negatively affects African-Americans' mental health, contributing to depression and anxiety.

Colorism plays a huge role in the low self-esteem of Black America from individuals to relationships, and even expands into societal status. Colorism occurs both interracially and intraracially. Interracial colorism is when a member of one racial group discriminates based on the skin color of a member belonging to a different racial group, and intraracial colorism involves a member of a racial group discriminating a member of the same racial group based on skin color. Both forms of colorism impact the black community by causing division, and can contribute to negative mental health effects.

Colorism has a long history in the United States. During our country's period of enslaving people, those enslaved people with lighter skin or more European features were given favorable treatment. This strategy was intended to cause separation within the enslaved community, pitting darker-skinned people against lighter skinned people. Later, in the early 1900s, another strong example was the establishment of the brown paper bag test within African American communities. This discriminatory act required that an individual's skin color was the same color or lighter than a brown paper bag in order for that person to receive privileges. Fraternities and sororities used the brown paper bag test to determine whether or not you could enter. Marita Golden, author of Don't Play in the Sun: One Woman's Journey Through the Color Complex says, "The paper bag would be held against your skin. And if you were darker than the paper bag, you weren't admitted." This test was very popular in fraternities and sororities at the HBCU Howard University.

Another example is "the doll tests," first done in the 1940s, with results that have since been replicated. African American psychologists Dr. Kenneth Clark and Dr. Mamie Clark gave African American children two dolls: one that was white and one that was painted black. The children were asked questions like: "Which one is the ugly doll?", "Which one has a nicer color?", "Which one is the bad doll?" The study showed that amongst the African American children, the majority preferred the white baby doll to the black baby doll. The white baby doll was associated with positive attributes like "smart" or "pretty," while the black baby doll was associated with negative attributes. This study, along with its remodels, proves that words such as, "beautiful, good, positive, etc." are associated with white or lighter skin individuals. Many American studies since the 1940s have replicated these findings, proving that these damaging associations are not a thing of the past.

Because of these associations, people of color often desire lighter skin, straighter hair, etc. To fulfill these desires, skin toners, skin bleachers, hair relaxers, and straight hair extensions are used. These markets, which promote white supremacy, are being promoted through media and magazines. According to Dr. Yaba Blay, who has studied these issues extensively, there are specific reasons why African and African-American woman use such products: to remove blemishes and imperfections and to counteract the effects of the sun, to appear and feel clean, to appear white, European, and "beautiful," to please a partner, grab attention, or attract potential mates, to impress peers, appear sophisticated and modern, and gain economic and social mobility. These reasons tie together the key factors of interracial and intraracial colorism: discrimination, self-deprivation, self-hatred, white supremacy, social conditioning, etc.

These ideas of wanting to be accepted, or wanting to be "beautiful," are relatable, yet very concerning. There shouldn't be limitations on which skin tone is beautiful or not. Commentary such as, "You're pretty for a dark-skinned girl," or, "She is beautiful because she is light-skinned," are insulting and belittling. People of color often associate darker persons of their racial group with poverty and unattractiveness. Having lighter skin and being mixed with Native American, black, and white, I too have been a victim of colorism. People automatically assumed that I felt I was "better" than others because I had "good hair" and fair skin.

It's past time to change this. We can begin by talking more about it, and by talking about how it affects our mental health. Exposing the multiple influences of intraracial stigmas could spark conversation and enlighten the black community on how interracial and intraracial colorism affect the subconscious. Subsequently, we could teach those who are affected by intraracial colorism to unlearn their self-prejudices and to praise the beauty of their genetic makeup, and to accept themselves without the dramatization of altering their features. In order to progressively oust interracial colorism, we have to unite and work together as a community to end colorism.

IF YOU OR A LOVED ONE STRUGGLE WITH STRESS, ANXIETY OR DEPRESSION RELATED TO DISCRIMINATION OR IDENTITY ISSUES, OUR PROVIDERS CAN HELP! CLICK HERE TO FIND A SPECIALIST NEAR YOU OR CALL US AT 877-876-3783.

__________________________________________________

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Mental Health Effects of Colorism in the Black Community | MindPath Care Centers

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
by Anna Yoni Jeffries One great oversight of our modern generation is that we turn a blind eye to the subconscious colorism that occurs in our society. Colorism within the African American community is defined as the attitude among African Americans discriminating against other African Americans because of their skin complexion - for instance, being too light or too dark.

# data[].attributes.headline
Title: Early English Trade and Settlement in Asia, 1602–1690

# data[].attributes.subject
Title: Early English Trade and Settlement in Asia, 1602–1690

# data[].attributes.body
Source:  Springerfoundation
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-349-00046-3_4

credibility Evaluation: Group 1

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Abstract

THE English colonies of the seventeenth century were founded by a variety of agencies and assumed many forms. There was, however, a basic distinction between the plantation colonies of the North American seaboard and those of the West Indies, on the one hand, whether deriving from proprietary grants to noblemen or from company charters, and on the other hand, the system of forts and factories adopted by the London merchant companies which enjoyed the national monopoly of trade with West Africa and Asia. The scale of settlement was totally different, and so was the economic function. The white population of Barbados, for example, was about 37,000 by 1643, although it fell to 20,000 later in the century as land came to be concentrated in the hands of a planter oligarchy.' The Royal African Company's merchants and soldiers in West Africa did not exceed 330 at any time during the century, ² while the East India Company's establishment in Asia was probably about one thousand men in 1668-90. The difference was not only numerical. The presence of Englishmen in Barbados, Maryland or Virginia was proof per se of local English sovereignty and colonisation. The opening of simple factories or trading posts in Asia did not confer local sovereignty upon the East India Company, nor were the factors who resided there colonists.

Keywords

Seventeenth Century English Company East India Company Asian Government Naval Blockade

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Further Reading

1. Collections of Documents

1. Letters received by the East India Company from its Servants in the East, ed. F. C. Danvsrs and W. Foster, 6 vols (1896-1902), brings together the extant letters from the various Asian factories in 1602-17, drawn primarily from the Original Correspondence series at the India Office Library, London.

2. The Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series, East Indies, 1513-1634, ed. W. Noel Sainsbury, 6 vols (1862-92), summarises the Court Minutes of the Company, the letters of the factors in Asia, and diplomatic papers relating to the Company until 1634.

3. A Calendar of the Court Minutes etc. of the East India Company, 1635-1679, ed. E. B. Sainsbury, II vols (Oxford, 1907-38) [CCM], carries the publication of the Court Minutes to its present limit. They include occasional policy decisions, as well as routine sales, price lists, the dispatch of ships and goods, the raising of capital and the election of officers. Vol I of the Court Minutes has been published

4. verbatim as The Dawn of British Trade to the East Indies, 1599-1603, ed. H. Stevens (1886) and vol IA

5. as The First Letter Book of the East India Company, 1600-1619, ed. Sir G. Birdwood and W. Foster (1893; reprint 1965).

6. The English Factories in India, 1618-1669, ed. W. Foster, 13 vols (Oxford, 1906-27)

7. The English Factories in India ( New Series), 1670-1684, ed. Sir C. Fawcett, 4 vols (Oxford, 1936-54) [EFI], are a magnificent collection of almost all the documentary material originating in the Indian factories in this period. Considerable attention is also paid to Persia, although this declines after c. 1660. All references to Indonesia and the Far East after 1623 have been omitted unless the Indian factories are directly involved. Each volume has a masterly introduction and commentary.

8. Records of the Relations between Siam and Foreign Countries in the 17th Century ( 1607-1700), published by the Council of the Vajiranana National Library, 5 vols (Bangkok, 1915-21). These volumes have no introduction or commentary, but the documents of the second half of the century are particularly valuable. A better source for English activities in Siam in 1612-23 is Letters Received by the East India Company [above, p. 1071 or W. H. Moreland, Peter Floris, his Voyage to the East Indies, 1611-1615(1934.

9. The British in West Sumatra, 1685-1825, ed. J. Bastin (Kuala Lumpur, 1965) includes documents describing early English settlement at Benkulen. There is an excellent general introduction. A more extensive collection can be found

2. Secondary Works

1. Bal Krishna: Commercial Relations between India and England, 1601 to 1757 (1924).

2. A series of extracts from the Company's letters to India in 1685-9 which casts indirect light on Sir Josiah Child's policy. Khan also discusses Child's role in The East India Trade in the Seventeenth Century (Oxford, 1923), but there seems to be no adequate study of the development of policy in London at this time.

Authors and Affiliations

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Early English Trade and Settlement in Asia, 1602-1690

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
THE English colonies of the seventeenth century were founded by a variety of agencies and assumed many forms. There was, however, a basic distinction between the plantation colonies of the North American seaboard and those of the West Indies, on the one hand, whether deriving from proprietary grants to noblemen or from company charters, and on the other hand, the system of forts and factories adopted by the London merchant companies which enjoyed the national monopoly of trade with West Africa and Asia.

# data[].attributes.headline
Title: Portrayal of Minorities in the Film, Media and Entertainment Industries

# data[].attributes.subject
Title: Portrayal of Minorities in the Film, Media and Entertainment Industries

# data[].attributes.body
Source: Ethic of development in global environment
Credibility Evaluation: Group 6 (News and Topical Stories from Quality Sources)
Source Bias: no bias
Factual Reporting: High
Comment: use as information of the treatment of minority

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
PORTRAYAL OF MINORITIES IN THE FILM, MEDIA AND ENTERTAINMENT INDUSTRIES

# data[].attributes.headline
Title: Can Emerging Markets Tilt Global Product Design? Impacts of Chinese Colorism on Hollywood Castings

# data[].attributes.subject
Title: Can Emerging Markets Tilt Global Product Design? Impacts of Chinese Colorism on Hollywood Castings

# data[].attributes.body
Source:  MELANIN FOUNDATION
DOI: 10.1287/mksc.2018.1089

credibility Evaluation: Group 1

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
In various cultural and behavioral respects, emerging market consumers differ significantly from their counterparts of developed markets. They may thus derive consumption utility from different aspects of product meaning and functionality. Based on this premise, we investigate whether the economic rise of emerging markets may have begun to impact the typical one-size-fits-all design of many international product categories. Focusing on Hollywood films, and exploiting a recent relaxation of China's foreign film importation policy, we provide evidence suggesting that these impacts may exist and be nonnegligible. In particular, we show that the Chinese society's aesthetic preference for lighter skin can be linked to the more frequent casting of pale-skinned stars in films targeting the Chinese market. Implications for the design of international products are drawn.

Data and the online appendix are available at https://doi.org/10.1287/mksc.2018.1089.

Article Information

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Received:April 24, 2017

Accepted:December 19, 2017

Published Online:June 01, 2018

Copyright © 2018, INFORMS
https://doi.org/10.1287/mksc.2018.1089

Title:Can Emerging Markets Tilt Global Product Design? Impacts of Chinese Colorism on Hollywood Castings

Authors:

Publication:Marketing Science

Keywords

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Can Emerging Markets Tilt Global Product Design? Impacts of Chinese Colorism on Hollywood Castings

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In various cultural and behavioral respects, emerging market consumers differ significantly from their counterparts of developed markets. They may thus derive consumption utility from different aspects of product meaning and functionality. Based on this premise, we investigate whether the economic rise of emerging markets may have begun to impact the typical one-size-fits-all design of many international product categories.

# data[].attributes.headline
Title: WHY IS SKIN LIGHTENING A WORLDWIDE TREND?

# data[].attributes.subject
Title: WHY IS SKIN LIGHTENING A WORLDWIDE TREND?

# data[].attributes.body
Source:  The dermatology specialist

Credibility Evaluation: Group 9
Source bias:  No bias
Factual report: fairly factual
comment: used to see learn about the origin of how colorism became popular

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Author: Dr. Bobby Buka

Skin lightening, sometimes called skin bleaching, is a startlingly popular trend across the world. There are a number of treatments and products sold for this purpose, not all of which are advisable or even safe for your skin.

To some, the reasoning behind this market may seem mysterious. Silly as it is, we always appear to want what we don't (or can't) have! In the US and other Western nations, naturally pale women often darken themselves in tanning beds with harmful UV lights that could lead to premature aging or even cancer. Many people with naturally darker skin seek the very opposite, going to extreme measures to brighten their complexions.

Where skin lightening is popular

Though it may not seem prevalent in the US, NPR reports that at a global level skin lightening products make up one-half of the entire cosmetics industry . Japan, Africa, the Middle East, and Latin America are all places where lightning is popular . Both men and women use the creams, and it's marketed for face, hands, and even private parts! In China, CBS reports the industry for whitening is worth billions , with people wanting to distinguish themselves as light to show off, find better jobs, or lure in romantic partners (who might be in for a surprise). In India, people purchased more lightening products than Coca-Cola .

Some cultures might place a high value on light skin tones as a sign of social status for reasons that date back to colonialism or other major moments in a country's history. Celebrities, media, and the prominent people in power can also have an effect. Discriminating based on skin tone is called , a term coined by Alice Walker in 1982. Though it seems old-fashioned, the popularity of whitening products has only increased since then.

How skin whitening works

Unsafe, or downright hazardous chemicals used in skin lightening products have caused some countries to ban all skin lightening products altogether. The toxic ingredients that are banned by the FDA in the US may appear in cremes and serums abroad, so be cautious about bringing anything home from vacations. In some cases the whitening products use mercury, which can cause mercury poisoning, liver damage, and fetal damage in pregnant women.

In the US, many products use hydroquinone, retinoic acid, or even natural products. Hydroquinone is safe in smaller doses as a topical skin brightener. For over the counter creams and gels, allergic reactions and other negative consequences (including wasting your money!) are still possibilities.

What it's not

Blotchy skin and uneven pigmentation can come about in several ways. Patients can be born with skin discolorations, or acquire them over time from sun exposure, acne, or even bug bites. Solar lengito, commonly known as sun spots, are common on the face, neck, hands, and chest. Fabric that chafes against the skin can also cause discoloration, especially around the armpits.

Women can also experience hyperpigmentation during pregnancy, when increased estrogen can cause melasma, which are gray or brown patches that are especially common on the face. Redness can come from sun exposure, dryness, or rosacea. Each situation depends on a person's particular skin, and some are more frequent in people with darker skin tones or of certain genetic backgrounds. A dermatologist can diagnose the cause, and provide safe treatments when necessary.

Skin tones make us human

Everyone deserves to feel beautiful. Changing one's skin color is a major choice, and something that doesn't change the person inside. We can embrace the characteristics that make us interesting and unique while still striving for the best version of them.

In India, the film star Nandita Das launched a campaign called Dark is Beautiful . In Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire and South Africa the governments have enforced restrictions on all bleaching products to protect consumers from harmful and sometimes carcinogenic ingredients. Whether it's celebrity-led or government-led, people should feel proud putting their natural best face forward.

What to do

Sunscreen can help prevent some types of pigmentation from forming in the first place. In some cases, such as pregnancy or birth control, the fluctuations in hormones can balance out. Exfoliating, moisturizing, and avoiding picking at spots can help. In a dermatologist's office, there are peels, laser treatments, and other procedures which can reduce or eliminate pigmentation.

It's very important to have a professional determine the cause of changes to skin tone. Spots can be cancerous, and it's always important to rule out medical issues before proceeding with a change or treatment.

Bright, clear, radiant skin in any color can be beautiful. Work with what you're born with, ask your dermatologist how to safely treat it, and all shades can shine.
For cosmetic and medical inquiries, make an appointment with The Dermatology Specialists today!

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Why is Skin Lightening a Worldwide Trend? - The Dermatology Specialists

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Skin lightening, sometimes called skin bleaching, is a startlingly popular trend across the world. There are a number of treatments and products sold for this purpose, not all of which are advisable or even safe for your skin. So why is it so popular?

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Title: 'Colorism' reveals many shades of prejudice in Hollywood

# data[].attributes.subject
Title: 'Colorism' reveals many shades of prejudice in Hollywood

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Source: NBC news
Credibility Evaluation: Group 6 (News and Topical Stories from Quality Sources)
Source Bias: LEFT-CENTER BIAS
Factual Reporting: These media sources have a slight to moderate liberal bias.  They often publish factual information

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The breakthrough representation of minorities in Hollywood blockbusters has ignited a frequently overlooked discussion about whether prejudice isn't just about the color of a person's skin, but the shade.

"Colorism," the idea that light-skinned minorities are given more privilege than their darker-skinned peers, is a centuries-old concept that many insiders say remains pervasive in the entertainment industry. The instant reckoning of social media has brought prominence to the issue and on Tuesday the ABC sitcom "black-ish," known for not shying from heavier topics, confronted it.

In the episode "Black Like Us," parents Dre and Bow (played by Anthony Anderson and Tracee Ellis Ross) are appalled when they see that daughter Diane (Marsai Martin) appears darker in her poorly lit classroom photo. Their outrage sparks a tense conversation within the family.

"We felt that this was the year to just put it on our shoulders and see what we can do and hope at the very least we can get people to talk about it openly," said co-showrunner Kenny Smith.

Executive producer Peter Saji, who is light-skinned and of mixed-race, wrote the episode, drawing from his own experiences as well as research.

"There is a light-skinned privilege that I never really wanted to admit I felt or experienced. I sort of grew up: 'Oh, we're all black. We all experience the same struggle,'" he said.

More often when movies and television shows ignite conversations about colorism, it's unintentional.

In 2016, a furor erupted over a trailer showing actress Zoe Saldana portraying singer and activist Nina Simone. Saldana's skin was darkened and she wore a prosthetic nose.

When images from "Ralph Breaks the Internet" came out last year, it appeared Princess Tiana, Disney's first black princess, had a lighter complexion and sharper features. Anika Noni Rose, who voices Tiana, met with animators and spoke about how important it was that dark-skinned girls see themselves represented. The studio also consulted the civil rights group Color of Change.

"They had to spend some real money to actually fix this. They recognized the problem, they listened and they worked to change it," said Color of Change executive director Rashad Robinson.

The issue isn't unique to black people. In India's Bollywood film industry, the starring roles tend to go to lighter-skinned actors, many of whom endorse products promoting fairer skin.

The movie "Crazy Rich Asians" left some Asian-Americans disappointed by a lack of brown or dark-skinned actors.

Meanwhile, "Roma" director Alfonso Cuaron received praise for casting Yalitza Aparicio in the lead role of an indigenous maid. The character is more at the forefront than her lighter-skinned Mexican employer.

For African-Americans, bias toward lighter-skinned people dates back to slavery. Skin complexion sometimes determined what type of jobs slaves were assigned or if, post-slavery, they were worthy of receiving an education. In later decades, universities, fraternities and other institutions were known for using the "brown paper bag" test: Those with skin lighter than the bag were in.

"It's part of white supremacy, or holding up whiteness over other backgrounds," Robinson said. "It has deep implications, historical implications in the black community from beauty standards to professional opportunities to how families have treated one another."

The problem also exists within the music industry. Mathew Knowles, who managed daughters Beyoncé and Solange and Destiny's Child, said it's no accident that most of the recent top-selling black artists are lighter-skinned like Mariah Carey and Rihanna. He said Beyoncé often got opportunities that darker-skinned artists probably wouldn't.

"There's another 400 that are of a darker complexion ... that didn't get a chance at Top 40 radio," Knowles said. "They got pigeonholed that they were black and in the 'black division,' and they got pigeonholed in just R&B, black radio stations."

Knowles, himself darker skinned, said his own mother instilled in him that darker skinned women were less desirable. It's a perception that he thinks is starting to shift.

"We have to have social courage to speak up about this stuff and stop being quiet about it," Knowles said. "The only way we change is to be uncomfortable and truthful about our feelings and beliefs."

That is a strategy that Smith, the "black-ish" co-showrunner, also agrees with.

"With anything it's always best to have a truthful conversation," Smith said.

Follow NBCBLK on Facebook, Twitter and Instagram

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'Colorism' reveals many shades of prejudice in Hollywood

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The breakthrough representation of minorities in Hollywood blockbusters has ignited a frequently overlooked discussion about whether prejudice isn't just about the color of a person's skin, but the shade. "Colorism," the idea that light-skinned minorities are given more privilege than their darker-skinned peers, is a centuries-old concept that many insiders say remains pervasive in the entertainment industry.

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Title: SKIN WHITENING AND ITS HEALTH IMPACTS

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Title: SKIN WHITENING AND ITS HEALTH IMPACTS

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Source:  MELANIN FOUNDATION
DOI: 10.1002/mar.21005

credibility Evaluation: Group 1

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Title: “Why Do Young Thai Women Desire White Skin?” Understanding Conscious and Nonconscious Motivations of Young Women in Bangkok

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Title: “Why Do Young Thai Women Desire White Skin?” Understanding Conscious and Nonconscious Motivations of Young Women in Bangkok

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Source: Wiley online library
DOI: 10.1002/mar.21005

credibility Evaluation: Group 1

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ABSTRACT

Skin whitening has been studied mainly using a postcolonial attitude analysis emphasizing conscious reasons behind skin bleaching. Studies dedicated to gaining a rich understanding of nonconscious motivations for skin whitening are scarce, especially in Asia. Therefore, two studies were conducted by using an innovative mix of research protocols to access to both conscious and nonconscious motivations. The studies were conducted among 92 female regular skin whitening users, aged 18-24 years, in Bangkok, Thailand. Study 1, among 42 women, used three‐combined qualitative research techniques of laddering, projective technique, and photo elicitation. Study 2 was conducted among 50 women to quantitatively test nonconscious motives implicitly associated with different white skin tones. The results revealed that motives are not linked to westernization. In a very competitive environment, light skin is seen as a strategic method to maintain men's loyalty, enhance self‐esteem, and guarantee career success. Managerial and methodological implications for marketers are discussed.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
"Why Do Young Thai Women Desire White Skin?" Understanding Conscious and Nonconscious Motivations of Young Women in Bangkok

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Skin whitening has been studied mainly using a postcolonial attitude analysis emphasizing conscious reasons behind skin bleaching. Studies dedicated to gaining a rich understanding of nonconscious motivations for skin whitening are scarce, especially in Asia. Therefore, two studies were conducted by using an innovative mix of research protocols to access to both conscious and nonconscious motivations.

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Title: The Persistent Problem of Colorism: Skin Tone, Status, and Inequality

# data[].attributes.subject
Title: The Persistent Problem of Colorism: Skin Tone, Status, and Inequality

# data[].attributes.body
Source: Wiley online library
DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-9020.2007.00006.x

credibility Evaluation: Group 1

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Colorism is a persistent problem for people of color in the USA. Colorism, or skin color stratification, is a process that privileges light‐skinned people of color over dark in areas such as income, education, housing, and the marriage market. This essay describes the experiences of African Americans, Latinos, and Asian Americans with regard to skin color. Research demonstrates that light‐skinned people have clear advantages in these areas, even when controlling for other background variables. However, dark‐skinned people of color are typically regarded as more ethnically authentic or legitimate than light‐skinned people. Colorism is directly related to the larger system of racism in the USA and around the world. The color complex is also exported around the globe, in part through US media images, and helps to sustain the multibillion‐dollar skin bleaching and cosmetic surgery industries.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Persistent Problem of Colorism: Skin Tone, Status, and Inequality

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Colorism is a persistent problem for people of color in the USA. Colorism, or skin color stratification, is a process that privileges light‐skinned people of color over dark in areas such as income, education, housing, and the marriage market. This essay describes the experiences of African Americans, Latinos, and Asian Americans with regard to skin color.

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Title: Chinese Migration and Settlement in a Thai Village

# data[].attributes.subject
Title: Chinese Migration and Settlement in a Thai Village

# data[].attributes.body
Source: Wiley online library
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2435.1988.tb00651.x

credibility Evaluation: Group 1

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Chinese Migration and Settlement in a Thai Village

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Click on the book chapter title to read more.

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Title: Williams: Colorism in the black community damages self-esteem

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Title: Williams: Colorism in the black community damages self-esteem

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Source:  The university daily kansan

Credibility Evaluation: Group 9
Source bias:  use of exaggerations terms, little bias
Factual report: trust worthy
Comment: used to see effect of colorism in america

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Some people grow up not having to worry about intense rejection. Their beauty is not news to them - it is not something they doubt. They are often confident, complimented and praised. Maybe they were just lucky enough to be born with all of this self confidence, or maybe they're told they're beautiful.

Others may not have this advantage and grow up with low self esteem, which can be further encouraged by social comparisons. They may realize they don't look like the people who are getting positive attention.

Society and our interactions with other individuals have a large impact on how we think about beauty. Though there is an ongoing cultural debate about beauty standards and media depictions of them, the conversation goes a lot differently within the black community.

Black people have distinct features that are judged and compared within their communities. Though these characteristics seem potentially positive, the constant comparisons have led to colorism in the black community, which is best explained by the National Conference for Community and Justice as discrimination based on preferences toward lighter skin within a certain race. Whether the actions that signify colorism are purposeful or not, they damage the self esteem of black people every day - especially black women.

The modern vision of black beauty is a light-skinned woman with an hourglass figure - possibly crafted by surgery - and loose, curly hair. If a woman can fit this exact description, then it is rumored that she is absolutely gorgeous and irresistible. People have their own types and preferences, of course, but do they have to hinge on excluding people based on the color of their skin?

I have heard too often that dark-skinned women are not pretty, or that they are crazy. Why does skin color affect beauty? What does skin color have to do with personality? Yes, it is a part of their identity, and it may even impact how they interact with certain people. But it has nothing to do with their overall disposition.

Negative stereotypes surrounding black women always seems to boomerang back to the dark-skinned demographic. Black women are perceived as angry, or as if they're upset with everyone. This stereotype is made prevalent in the media in works such as Tyler Perry's "Diary of a Mad Black Woman." In these common pieces of media, the women in question are often darked-skinned. However, passive victims in film, or women who are being treated unfairly, are typically beautiful light-skinned women - Chis Stokes' "'Til Death Do Us Part" is a perfect example of this.

This contributes to the narrative that dark-skinned women are unattractive, crazy and always angry, while light-skinned women are beautiful and need to be protected at all costs. This thought process is very damaging to the black community as a whole.

Perhaps we cannot pinpoint exactly where the division of skin tone in the black race started, but according to the National Conference for Community and Justice, it likely originated from the offspring of slaves and slave owners being treated better than darker slaves, with the lighter skinned slaves working in the house and the darker out in the field. Somehow, we chose to perpetuate the idea that darker skin is inferior.

Not only has it been ingrained in our minds by historic racism, but pop culture continues to help globalize this imbalanced perception of beauty between different shades. Many light-skinned women have noticed the divide as well, but still suffer stereotypes of their own because beauty in the black community seems to require meeting physical criteria of a beautiful black woman - including a specific and perfect figure. Being expected to have a body that is usually surgically created is something incredibly hard to deal with.

As we try to change, or completely eradicate beauty standards based on European features, we should focus on what is happening inside the black community and how detrimental colorism is to self esteem. Even if it does not impact other races, society as a whole should attempt to change how black women, and black men, are seen in the media.

We don't have to be mixed to be pretty.
Kelsi Williams is a freshman from Chicago, Illinois, studying journalism and mass communications.

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Williams: Colorism in the black community damages self-esteem

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Some people grow up not having to worry about intense rejection. Their beauty is not news to them - it is not something they doubt. They are often confident, complimented and praised. Maybe they were just lucky enough to be born with all of this self confidence, or maybe they're told they're beautiful.

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Title: The misbehaving jeks: the evolving regime of Thainess and Sino-Thai challenges

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Title: The misbehaving jeks: the evolving regime of Thainess and Sino-Thai challenges

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Source: Taylor and Francis online
DOI:  10.1080/14631360903189658

credibility Evaluation: Group 1

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This paper traces the evolving cultural-political regime based on the ethno-ideology of Thainess with which the Thai state controlled and contained the immigrant Chinese and their Thai-born descendants politically, and assimilated them culturally, while making use of their labour and entrepreneurship to develop Thai capitalism economically, through its absolutist, militarist and electocratic phases. It also sketches the challenges successively mounted to that regime by immigrant communists, radical democratic nationalists, and globalised capitalists, whose ethnic Chinese descent has yielded gradually over time to class and political identity in the context of successful cultural assimilation, changing international politics, growing wealth and economic crisis, coups, and political polarisation. Meanwhile, lurking in the background are the rural peasants and urban poor/marginalised population, whose majority vote and changing political loyalty may prove decisive in the outcome of the latest political contest.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The misbehaving jeks: the evolving regime of Thainess and Sino-Thai challenges

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This paper traces the evolving cultural-political regime based on the ethno-ideology of Thainess with which the Thai state controlled and contained the immigrant Chinese and their Thai-born descendants politically, and assimilated them culturally, while making use of their labour and entrepreneurship to develop Thai capitalism economically, through its absolutist, militarist and electocratic phases.

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Title: HOW THE CAMERA SEES COLOR Exploring Colorism and Identity in Early Hollywood Films

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Title: HOW THE CAMERA SEES COLOR Exploring Colorism and Identity in Early Hollywood Films

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Source:  Smithsonian

Credibility Evaluation: Group 9
Source bias:  No bias
Factual report: Very trust worthy
Comment: i used their information for my knowledge on colorism and the history regarding Hollywood culture and colorism

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National Museum of African American History and Culture

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Blockbuster films and television series such as Black Panther and Luke Cage have renewed conversations about colorism and identity in Hollywood.

Colorism, the discrimination against individuals based on their skin tone, has long influenced the opportunities available to African Americans. In response to this discrimination, historically, African Americans often found alternate ways to present themselves. Some actors moved outside the mainstream film industry while others played into stereotypes. The creation of race movies for and by African Americans in the early 1900s sought to offer more complex narratives and roles. The various ways African Americans responded to discrimination shaped the early film industry and documented a legacy of unequal representation.

Colorism not only occurs in different racial or ethnic groups but can happen within them as well. Colorism differs from racism in that racism is based on beliefs about the racial inferiority of a group. Racism can include systemic inequality, prejudiced attitudes, and discriminatory acts. Colorism is thought to only have negative implications for individuals of darker skin tone. However, lighter-skinned African Americans have been victims of colorism as well. The effects of colorism have proven to be damaging to the identity of black Americans by leading to internalized oppression in the black community. Moreover, the concept of identity, and how a person presents oneself in order to make a living, is not only an issue that has historically hindered black actors and actresses, but everyday black Americans as well.

The historic absence of African American actors and actresses in leading roles has been evident throughout the history of Hollywood films. When African Americans were cast, lighter skinned actors were preferred for more prominent roles. Roles for darker skinned individuals generally played on or amplified racist stereotypes. This placed both lighter and darker skinned African Americans in a situation where many felt as though they could not simply be black without being categorized. This identity crisis caused many lighter skinned African Americans to make attempts at passing for white in public settings in order to compete for more opportunities, which led to increased tensions in the black community.

In Langston Hughes' 1934 collection of short stories, The Ways of White Folks, one recurring theme is passing. When passing, black people with light skin tones would be considered as white based on their physical appearance. Passing became increasingly common during the Great Depression. In a stifled economy where it was difficult for whites to find jobs, African Americans found this task to be especially difficult.

In escaping the Jim Crow south, coming north and marrying my white father, she must have thought gaining white privilege was worth the price of losing family ties and her authentic self. The irony was that in gaining white privilege, in passing for white, the onslaught of racism was splayed open to her. Its ugly face could now be shared with her, a 'white' woman who would understand and possibly agree.
Gail Lukasik, 2017 Author of White Like Her: My Family's Story of Race and Racial Passing

Some African Americans passed for white as a means to either provide for their families, make a decent living, or to get a glimpse of white privilege. In Langston Hughes' The Ways of White Folks the narrator of the short story "Passing" says, "Ma, some white people certainly don't like colored people, do they? (If they did, then I wouldn't have to be passing to keep my good job)." He continues, "When I look at the colored boy porter who sweeps out the office, I think that that's what I might be doing if I wasn't light-skinned enough to get by" (Hughes 52). While the stories in Hughes' collection were fictional, they were certainly based on the experiences of African Americans in the United States at this time. The story of the Johnston family highlights the trials and tribulations of a family struggling with hiding their true identity in order to pass in society.

The image above depicts Dr. Albert C. Johnston, his wife Thyra Johnston, and their four children. The 1949 movie Lost Boundaries, was based on the story of Dr. Johnston's life. Dr. Johnston, a bi-racial radiologist who graduated with honors from the University of Chicago's Rush Medical School, unintentionally passed for white in the 1930s. After completion of his post-graduate work, Johnston could not find a job that would hire African Americans. Eventually, he was hired at Maine General Hospital in Augusta, Maine, the only place that did not inquire about his race. When he realized his associates and co-workers believed he was white, he maintained the secret of his actual identity for over a decade. His wife, who was one eighth black, understood her husband's predicament and kept his secret as well. In 1940, the United States Navy recruited Dr. Johnston but suspected him of having "colored blood." After Dr. Johnston admitted in the investigation to being partly black, the Navy refused him a commission. Stunned by the rejection, Dr. Johnson decided to tell his children about their background. However, this revelation did not impact the Johnson's role in society. The family continued to live in New Hampshire where Dr. Johnson operated his medical practice into the 1960s.

We never intended to pass for white, it just happened accidentally.
Thyra Johnson

Albert Jr., Dr. Johnston's son, revealed his family's story to movie producer Louis de Rochemont a few years after he learned the truth from his parents. De Rochemont used the story as the inspiration for Lost Boundaries. The film depicts prominent white stars Mel Ferrer and Beatrice Pearson in the leading roles without the presence of any African Americans. This fact shows that even in a story about a family who was black, Hollywood producers still felt it was necessary to have an exclusively white cast. Dr. Johnston's story and the film Lost Boundaries are examples of the strain that passing puts on family relationships and the measures African Americans who passed for white took to ensure their identities remained a secret.

For those who were not light skinned enough to pass for white, many African Americans turned to other means of altering their skin tone. Oftentimes, even lighter skinned actresses and actors would have to have their makeup done in a way to make them appear even lighter. While advertisements for race films promoted the fact that there would be an "all colored cast," lobby card advertisements often made African American actors and actresses not only appear lighter skinned, but almost white. The action of something as simple as lightening an actor's skin tone proved to have serious implications. As black owned theaters grew, people across the country were exposed to these exaggerated films and advertisements. Many young children and teenagers of darker complexion began to think that it was "bad," "evil," or "dirty" to have dark skin, so some turned to harmful chemicals for the purposes of lightening their skin.

As white and a few lighter skinned actors and actresses were the stars of most Hollywood films in the early 1900s, darker skinned individuals had few opportunities to perform on screen. When they did, it was primarily to play on racist stereotypes and preconceived notions about black people. Lincoln Perry, considered by many to be the first African American movie star, is a prime example of how Hollywood often exploited darker skinned individuals to tell a false narrative of how all black people looked and acted. Perry was best known for his stage persona Stepin Fetchit, an incomprehensible, laughing, dancing fool. In real life, Perry was an intelligent man who used the demand for black foolishness and inferiority on the big screen in order to make a living.

Not every dark skinned individual wanted or was able to pass for white. Many black actors and actresses, whether they wanted to be or not, were subjected to skin appearance alterations, including blackface. Blackface is the use of makeup to exaggerate skin tone and facial features used in the entertainment industry to present a stereotypical and racist image. In The Song of Freedom, a movie starring Paul Robeson, the use of blackface darkens the cast's skin tones throughout the film, including Robeson himself. The goal of these films was to portray African Americans as uncivilized, savage, and comical beings.

When African American audiences grew tired of seeing themselves portrayed in such stereotypical and racist ways, they decided to take matters into their own hands. Between the 1910s and 1950s, African American movie theaters grew in popularity by featuring race movies. Race movies were produced for all black audiences and often featured an all-black cast. Race movies made it a priority to combat the stereotypical roles usually made available to black actors and actresses. Instead, they specialized in portraying black actors and actresses in a way that black viewers could actually relate to.

Oscar Micheaux, a pioneer in the race film industry, directed and produced over forty feature films throughout his career, gaining support from black people across the country. Race movies such as The Homesteader by Micheaux, depicted African Americans in a way that they could realistically see themselves. Micheaux founded the Micheaux Film and Book Company in 1918, to produce films focused on African American audiences. His most well-known films include Within Our Gates, The Exile, and Lying Lips. Micheaux tackled race relations head on in his films, but even he was criticized by other black Americans for preferring lighter skinned actors and actresses. Although he cast African Americans, many of the stars in Micheaux's films were very fair skinned. While race films were still influenced by colorism, they did present a greater variety in the depictions of and opportunities for African Americans. The popularity of race films underscores how great the desire was for films showing realistic representations of African Americans.

I have always tried to make my photoplays present the truth, to lay before the race a cross section of its own life, to view the colored heart from close range. My results might have been narrow at times, due perhaps to certain limited situations, which I endeavored to portray, but in those limited situations, the truth was the predominant characteristic. It is only by presenting those portions of the race portrayed in my pictures, in the light and background of their true state, that we can raise our people to greater heights.
Oscar Micheaux, January 24, 1925 Philadelphia Afro-American

While hundreds of race films were produced in the early twentieth century, they were excluded from mainstream acclaim. Although African Americans responded in creative and resourceful ways to discrimination during this period, colorism in Hollywood remains a pressing issue well into the twenty-first century. Black actors and actresses still find it difficult to find suitable acting roles and opportunities. In the last few years, the discussion about colorism in the film industry has picked up pace across the nation. To understand the tension surrounding African Americans in the film industry and Hollywood, it is important to understand the history of this relationship. Productions such as Black Panther show that we have come a long way in race relations in the film industry, but we certainly have much more work to do.
View objects relating to race films in the NMAAHC Collection
Written by Kye Farrow, Spring 2018 Robert F. Smith Fund Intern

Published on January 10, 2019

Resources
Lost Boundaries Colorism and Passing Early Black Films ​

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Blockbuster films and television series such as Black Panther and Luke Cage have renewed conversations about colorism and identity in Hollywood. Colorism, the discrimination against individuals based on their skin tone, has long influenced the opportunities available to African Americans. In response to this discrimination, historically, African Americans often found alternate ways to present themselves.

# data[].attributes.headline
Title: The Persistent Problem of Colorism: Skin Tone, Status, and Inequality

# data[].attributes.subject
Title: The Persistent Problem of Colorism: Skin Tone, Status, and Inequality

# data[].attributes.body
Source: Wiley online library
DOI:  10.1111/j.1751-9020.2007.00006.x
credibility Evaluation: Group 1

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
First published:

Get access to the full version of this article. View access options below.

Log in with Open Athens, Shibboleth, or your institutional credentials.

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Abstract

Colorism is a persistent problem for people of color in the USA. Colorism, or skin color stratification, is a process that privileges light‐skinned people of color over dark in areas such as income, education, housing, and the marriage market. This essay describes the experiences of African Americans, Latinos, and Asian Americans with regard to skin color. Research demonstrates that light‐skinned people have clear advantages in these areas, even when controlling for other background variables. However, dark‐skinned people of color are typically regarded as more ethnically authentic or legitimate than light‐skinned people. Colorism is directly related to the larger system of racism in the USA and around the world. The color complex is also exported around the globe, in part through US media images, and helps to sustain the multibillion‐dollar skin bleaching and cosmetic surgery industries.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Persistent Problem of Colorism: Skin Tone, Status, and Inequality

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
First published: Get access to the full version of this article. View access options below. Log in with Open Athens, Shibboleth, or your institutional credentials. If you have previously obtained access with your personal account, Please log in. Colorism is a persistent problem for people of color in the USA.

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Title: The Difference Between Racism and Colorism

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Title: The Difference Between Racism and Colorism

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Source:  Wikipedia

Credibility Evaluation: Group 9
Source bias:  no bias
Factual report: The website seems trustworthy, time is a well known blog.
Comment: i used their information for my knowledge on colorism and the history

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The Difference Between Racism and Colorism

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In the U.S. in particular, where we have an extremely diverse population, race still matters, but color matters, too.

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Title: European colonisation of Southeast Asia

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Title: European colonisation of Southeast Asia

# data[].attributes.body
Source:  Wikipedia

Credibility Evaluation: Group 9
Source bias:  no bias
Factual report: The website seems trustworthy, however there is an uncertainty factor due to the fact you do not know who is the author.
Comment: i used their information for my knowledge on colorism and the history

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The first phase of European colonization of Southeast Asia took place throughout the 16th and 17th centuries after the arrival of Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish and later French and British marine spice traders. Fiercely competitive, the Europeans soon sought to eliminate each other by forcibly taking control of the production centers, trade hubs and vital strategic locations, beginning with the Portuguese acquisition of Malacca in 1511. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries conquests focused on ports along the maritime routes, that provided a secure passage of maritime trade. It also allowed foreign rulers to levy taxes and control prices of the highly desired Southeast Asian commodities. By the 19th century, virtually all Southeast Asian lands had been forced into the various spheres of influence of European global players. Siam, which had served as a convenient buffer state, sandwiched between British Burma and French Indochina was the only country to avoid direct foreign rule. However, its kings had to contend with repeated humiliations, accept unequal treaties among massive British and French political interference and territorial losses after the Franco-Siamese War in 1893 and the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909.

The second phase of European colonization of Southeast Asia is related to the Industrial Revolution and the rise of powerful nation states in Europe. As the primary motivation for the first phase was the mere accumulation of wealth, the reasons for and degree of European interference during the second phase are dictated by geo-strategic rivalries, the need to defend and grow spheres of interest, competition for commercial outlets, long term control of resources and the Southeast Asian economies becoming more closely tied to European industrial and financial affairs by the late 19th century.

Advances in sciences, cartography, shipbuilding and navigation during the 15th to 17th centuries in Europe and tightening Turkish control and eventual shut down of the Eastern Mediterranean gateways into Asia first prompted Portuguese, and later Spanish and Dutch sea voyagers to ship around Africa in search of new trading routes and business opportunities. Niccolò de' Conti arrived in Southeast Asia as the earliest documented European in the early 15th century. By 1498 Vasco da Gama, who had sailed round the Cape of Good Hope, established the first direct sea route from Europe to India.

Central among the various plannings was to establish direct and permanent trade of the highly priced spices, that were native to Southeast Asia, included pepper, cloves, nutmeg, mace and cinnamon. Competition among the various nations was fierce and violence commonplace in order to secure exclusive access to the centers of production. Eventually, the Dutch and the Spanish wrestled control of it from the Portuguese in the 17th century. In the 18th century, the British, who became increasingly engaged in Southeast Asia over their interests in India, gained control of it from the Dutch.

Portugal was the first European power to establish a bridgehead in maritime Southeast Asia with the conquest of the Sultanate of Malacca in 1511. The Netherlands and Spain followed and soon superseded Portugal as the main European powers in the region. In 1599, Spain began to colonise the Philippines. In 1619, acting through the Dutch East India Company, the Dutch took the city of Sunda Kelapa, renamed it Batavia (now Jakarta) as a base for trading and expansion into the other parts of Java and the surrounding territory. In 1641, the Dutch took Malacca from the Portuguese. Economic opportunities attracted Overseas Chinese to the region in great numbers. In 1775, the Lanfang Republic, possibly the first republic in the region, was established in West Kalimantan, present-day Indonesia, as a tributary state of the Qing Empire; the republic lasted until 1884, when it fell under Dutch occupation as Qing influence waned.

Portuguese catholic missionaries arrived in the 16th century under royal patronage and founded churches throughout the region. The Dutch first sent Protestant ministers during the 17th century. Their objective was more the spiritual service to the local Dutch people, rather than conversion of native people. The Spanish mission succeeded with the complete Christianisation of the Philippines.

During the early 17th century the rivalling Dutch traders joined the Dutch East India Company, as the British founded the British East India Company, followed by France, where in 1664 the French East India Company was authorised by royal funding. These conglomerates of capital, ships, freely transferable shares and state power were characterised by many institutional innovations, significantly decreasing the financial risk of the individual merchants and share holders. An early form of the modern giant global corporations and the introduction of the stock market had trade volumes reach unprecedented levels. Governmental support, military and administrative privileges, coining, legal and real estate rights enabled these enterprises to act as the official representatives of their country of origin in Southeast Asia.

Initially, the British East India Company led by Josiah Child, had little interest in or impact on the region, and were effectively expelled following the Siam-England war (1687). Britain, in the guise of the British East India Company, turned their attention to the Bay of Bengal following the Peace with France and Spain (1783). During the conflicts, Britain had struggled for naval superiority with the French, and the need of good harbours became evident. Penang Island had been brought to the attention of the Government of India by Francis Light. In 1786, the settlement of George Town was founded at the northeastern tip of Penang Island by Captain Francis Light, under the administration of Sir John Macpherson; this marked the beginning of British expansion into the Malay Peninsula.

By the latter half of the 18th century, Europe experienced the full effects of the Industrial Revolution, as rapid advancements in science, industry and technology, had created a tremendous gap in relative power between the Europeans and the rest of the world, including Southeast Asia. Extensive use of machines to manufacture goods would increase European demand for raw materials on the one hand and lead to the accumulation of surplus goods on the other. Mutual economic dependence had become real by the 19th century, as Southeast Asia was now an integral provider of material and resources for the European economies. To keep pace with surplus output, European manufacturers pushed the development of markets in new territories, such as Southeast Asia, which led to the next phase of establishing imperial rule. Transformation of political institutions in the colonies aimed at the full consolidation of the monopoly markets by their European planners.

However, industrialisation took place against increasing competition among the European powers. This was encouraged by changes in the continental balance of power. The Napoleonic Wars unseated French power. The commercial and naval powers of Britain, which were unrivalled for a time, started to erode later on. Competition among European powers led to the practice of carving up the world into spheres of influence. There was also the need to fill 'vacuums' of territories that would otherwise fall under the influence of another competing European power.

The British temporarily possessed Dutch territories during the Napoleonic Wars; and Spanish areas in the Seven Years' War. In 1819, Stamford Raffles established Singapore as a key trading post for Britain in their rivalry with the Dutch. However, their rivalry cooled in 1824 when an Anglo-Dutch treaty demarcated their respective interests in Southeast Asia. British rule in Burma began with the first Anglo-Burmese War (1824-1826).

Early American entry into what was then called the East Indies (usually in reference to the Malay Archipelago) was low key. In 1795, a secret voyage for pepper set sail from Salem, Massachusetts on an 18-month voyage that returned with a bulk cargo of pepper, the first to be so imported into the country, which sold at the extraordinary profit of seven hundred per cent. In 1831, the merchantman Friendship of Salem returned to report the ship had been plundered, and the first officer and two crewmen murdered in Sumatra. The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 obligated the Dutch to ensure the safety of shipping and overland trade in and around Aceh, who accordingly sent the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army on the punitive expedition of 1831. President Andrew Jackson also ordered America's first Sumatran punitive expedition of 1832, which was followed by a punitive expedition in 1838. The Friendship incident thus afforded the Dutch a reason to take over Ache; and Jackson, to dispatch diplomatist Edmund Roberts, who in 1833 secured the Roberts Treaty with Siam. In 1856 negotiations for amendment of this treaty, Townsend Harris stated the position of the United States:

The United States does not hold any possessions in the East, nor does it desire any. The form of government forbids the holding of colonies. The United States therefore cannot be an object of jealousy to any Eastern Power. Peaceful commercial relations, which give as well as receive benefits, is what the President wishes to establish with Siam, and such is the object of my mission.

The phenomenon denoted New Imperialism, saw the conquest of nearly all Southeast Asian territories by the colonial powers. The Dutch East India Company and British East India Company were dissolved by their respective governments, who took over direct administration of the colonies. Only Siam managed to avoid direct foreign rule, although was compelled to political reforms and make generous concessions in order to appease the Western powers. The Monthon reforms of the late 19th century continuing up till around 1910, imposed a Westernised form of government on the country's partially independent cities called Mueang, such that the country could be said to have successfully colonised itself. Western powers did, however, continue to interfere in both internal and external affairs.

By 1913, the British crown had occupied Burma, Malaya and the northern Borneo territories, the French controlled Indochina, the Dutch ruled the Netherlands East Indies while Portugal managed to hold on to Portuguese Timor. In the Philippines, the 1872 Cavite Mutiny was a precursor to the Philippine Revolution (1896-1898). When the Spanish-American War began in Cuba in 1898, Filipino revolutionaries declared Philippine independence and established the First Philippine Republic the following year. In the Treaty of Paris of 1898 that ended the war with Spain, the United States gained the Philippines and other territories; in refusing to recognise the nascent republic, America effectively reversed her position of 1856. This led directly to the Philippine-American War, in which the First Republic was defeated; wars followed with the Republic of Zamboanga, the Republic of Negros and the Republic of Katagalugan, all of which were also defeated.

The Long Depression also intensified the competition among the European powers. This period of prolonged economic recession saw severe price deflation as well as factors unfavourable to trade. The European governments responded to this crisis by promoting home industries and minimising trade with other European countries. However, as domestic markets and export opportunities quickly became saturated, finding new markets for manufactured goods became more urgent. New colonies overseas, not exposed to the same economic conditions, provided the perfect solution.

During the mid-19th century, the Europeans had certain goals which they regarded as important in the humanitarian sense. One of these goals was expressed in the slogan, ' The White Man's Burden' (taken from a line in a poem by Rudyard Kipling), which was the mission to 'civilise' (uplift, advance) the 'less fortunate' and 'less gifted' people of Southeast Asia. Towards this end, they implemented policies providing educational and healthcare services. However, this humanitarian concern was influenced by political concerns, and sometimes arose more out of cultural arrogance than genuine sympathy.

Sometimes, the acquisition of colonies was an attempt to revive declining political and economic status rather than a show of power. France was preoccupied with expanding her colonial empire to recover from her humiliating defeat in the Franco-Prussian war. Britain, having lost her dominance in the world economy to newly industrialised countries such as Germany (Prussia united all the German states to form Germany in 1871 after the victory in the Franco-Prussian war) and the United States, saw empire-building as a necessary recourse. It was generally assumed that the establishment of colonies to protect existing trade links would prevent further decline of the European powers.

In the early phase, European control in Southeast Asia was largely confined to the establishment of trading posts. These trading posts were used to store the oriental products obtained from the local traders before they were exported to the European markets. Such trading posts had to be located along major shipping routes and their establishments had to be approved by the local ruler so that peace would prevail for trade to take place. Malacca, Penang, Batavia and Singapore were all early trading posts.

The role of the Europeans changed, however, in the industrialised phase as their control expanded beyond their trading posts. As the trading posts grew due to an increase in the volume of trade, demand for food supplies and timber (to build and repair ships) also increased. To ensure a reliable supply of food and timber, the Europeans were forced to deal with the local communities nearby. These marked the beginnings of territorial control. A good example is the case of Batavia. There, the Dutch extended control over parts of western Java and later to central Java and the east where rice was grown and timber found.

To ensure that trade flourish, the Europeans had to maintain political stability. Sometimes, they interfered with the internal affairs of the natives to maintain peace. The Europeans also tried to impose their culture on their colonies.

European interference has effected Southeast Asians on all major existential issues. Exploited by the colonial economic system, robbed of the vast regional resources and subjected to racial and ethnic discrimination on the one hand, yet witnessing the rapid transformation towards modernity, scientific and technical progress, the import of secular political and education systems and humane ideas, that contradicted the current colonial reality on the other. Perception of the political reality differed widely among the Southeast Asian regions and the early 20th century popular, communist movement leaders of Vietnam were notably optimistic and "predicted a blessed future in which automobiles and trains would no longer be uniquely Western", while Dutch author J.H. Boeke observed, that "societies like Indonesia were incurably dual".

Increased labour demand resulted in mass immigration, especially from British India and China, which brought about massive demographic change. The study of institutions for a modern democratic nation state with a state bureaucracy, courts of law, print media and modern education, sowed the seeds of the fledgling nationalist and independence movements among the colonial subjects. During the inter-war years, these nationalist movements grew and often clashed with the colonial authorities when they demanded self-determination.

The expansion of European dominance through colonialism was considered extraordinary as it affected the entirety of Southeast Asia significantly. Later on, more common features would emerge, such as the rise of nationalist movements, the Japanese occupation of Southeast Asia, and later the Cold War that engulfed many parts of the region. Taken altogether, it can be said that a common core of historical experiences existed, and that this core defined the region, thus justifying the use of the term 'Southeast Asia' to describe the region as a single entity.

Portuguese Malacca (1511-1641)

Dutch Malacca (1641-1824)

Federation of Malaya (under British rule, 1948-1963)

Spanish East Indies (1565-1898, 2nd longest European occupation in Asia, 333 years),

British Manila (1762-1764 , Shortly British occupation in Philippines, 2 years)

Insular Government of the Philippine Islands and Commonwealth of the Philippines, United States of America colony (1898-1946)

Siam (now Thailand) - was the only independent state in Southeast Asia, but had Britain sphere of influence in the north and south and France in the Northeast and East which were merely brief proposals that amounted to nothing much like the planned partition of the Qing and Ottoman Empires.

1. ^ "Treaty between Great Britain and Siam". The American Journal of International Law. 3 (4): 297-304. 1909. doi:10.2307/2212641. JSTOR 2212641.

2. ^ R. H. Major, ed. (1857), "The travels of Niccolo Conti", India in the Fifteenth Century, Hakluyt Society, p. 27 Discussed in Needham,Science and Civilisation in China, p. 452

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4. ^ "Regional patterns in the history of Southeast Asian Christianity" (PDF). John Roxborogh.

5. ^ A. J. Stockwell (21 October 1999). British Expansion and Rule in South-East Asia. Oxford scholarship. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198205654.001.0001. ISBN 9780191676734.

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7. ^ Crawfurd, John (August 2006) [First published 1830]. "Chapter I - Description of the Settlement.". Journal of an Embassy from the Governor-general of India to the Courts of Siam and Cochin China. Volume 1 (2nd ed.). London: H. Colburn and R. Bentley. image 52, p. 34. OCLC 03452414.

8. ^ Trow, Charles Edward (1905). "Introduction". The old shipmasters of Salem. New York and London: G.P. Putnam's Sons. pp. xx-xxiii. OCLC 4669778.

9. ^ Roberts, Edmund (Digitized 12 October 2007) (1837). "Introduction". Embassy to the Eastern Courts of Cochin-China, Siam, and Muscat: In the U.S. Sloop-of-War Peacock During the Years 1832-34. Harper & Brothers. OCLC 12212199.

10. ^ "1b. Harris Treaty of 1856" (exhibition). Royal Gifts from Thailand. National Museum of Natural History. 14 March 2013 [speech delivered 1856].

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14. ^ Pankaj Mishra (27 July 2012). "The ruins of empire: Asia's emergence from western imperialism". The Guardian. Guardian News.

15. ^ Norman G. Owen (2005). The Emergence Of Modern Southeast Asia: A New History - Industrialization and Its Implications. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 379-. ISBN 978-0-8248-2890-5.

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The first phase of European colonization of Southeast Asia took place throughout the 16th and 17th centuries after the arrival of Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish and later French and British marine spice traders. Fiercely competitive, the Europeans soon sought to eliminate each other by forcibly taking control of the production centers, trade hubs and vital strategic locations, beginning with the Portuguese acquisition of Malacca in 1511.

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Title: The Reality of Skin Bleaching and the History Behind It

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Title: The Reality of Skin Bleaching and the History Behind It

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Source:  Byrdie

Credibility Evaluation: Group 9
Source bias: no bias
Factual report: The website seems trustworthy
Comment: i used their information for my knowledge on colorism and the history

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Skin bleaching-aka the act of using substances, mixtures, or treatments to physically lighten one's skin tone-has been around for a long time, and it's developed into a billion-dollar international industry. However, the way the Western media has reported on this topic feels problematic: We often hear of skin bleaching happening in Ghana and the Caribbean, yet it's widely practiced everywhere, including in the United States, Southeast Asia, and India.

The act of lightening one's skin goes beyond the physical effect-it can also be incredibly detrimental to one's self-confidence and mental health. Just ask Senegalese supermodel Khoudia Diop, who shared with Byrdie that for years she hated her skin color because she was "so dark." Fortunately, she turned her biggest insecurity into her gift. "I look up to my mother because she's the only person in my family who did not bleach her skin," she says. "Skin-bleaching products are popular in my country because the notion is that lighter skin is beautiful. My mom is a woman who respects and loves herself and did not surrender to any beauty standards."

Yaba Blay, PhD, a professor, producer, and researcher, is one of the world's leading voices on colorism. Through her powerful work, she aims to disrupt the narrative and spread social consciousness. "Whether from the perspectives of Black folks or from those of whites, our communal voyeurism into skin bleaching tends to focus almost solely on the individuals who bleach their skin, and not the global institutions that make skin bleaching a viable option. And it's a problem," Blay wrote in a piece for , and this statement still holds true.

In regard to its deeply rooted history, the way it's misreported in the media, and the way we talk about it, Blay shares an outlook on skin bleaching that everyone needs to hear. Keep reading to hear what she has to say.

"My family is from Ghana. I grew up in New Orleans. I've always been acutely aware of colorism and how it functions. My maternal aunt passed away in her late 50s unexpectedly. Doctors said it was dementia, and I suspect it was because most of her adult life she bleached her skin. I wanted to investigate what the connection was between skin-bleaching products and health and I wanted to know the implications and impact it had on people.

"Our skin is dark for a reason, especially if you live in Africa. We need melanin to protect us from the sun's rage. When you use a chemical and ask your body to stop making the melanin, there are health implications. Your body can't be protected. In West Africa, we're seeing pathologies that aren't ours, like skin cancer. Historically, skin cancer is not as common within Black people because of our melanin. When we stop making melanin, we start suffering from skin cancer." That said, all skin types and tones can get skin cancer, irrespective of melanin or bleaching and therefore everyone should get skin checks as part of annual health visits.﻿﻿

The History of Skin Bleaching

"Historically, skin bleaching actually started in the Victorian era with the age of powder and paint, the precursor to us wearing foundation. European women were literally painting their faces with lead paint. Queen Elizabeth I was known to take arsenic complexion wafers, which were essentially little bits of poison to give her that ghostly look.

" White women were that invested in whiteness because it was their way of communicating purity. And at that time, race was being solidified as a concept and whiteness was being defined as pure. We all know that's not the case. But at the time, white women were performing this level of whiteness with products. From using the paint and the arsenic wafers, they began to get sick. So the practice was then exported to the Americas.

"When we start looking at skin bleaching across the world, particularly in the African diaspora, we see skin bleaching exploding around the time of independence, which is a bit ironic, right? But that was about the colonial powers and colonial countries using commodity racism-they were using whiteness as a way to sell products.

"More recently, with the Dove and Nivea scandal, there were accusations about their advertising. But if you research the history of soap in particular, there's a long history of commodity racism, which is using Black bodies as a way to demonstrate the potency of a product. You use a Black body as the 'before,' insert product, and they become white.

"At the time of so-called 'independence,' these European countries are flooding their colonial places with their products and using whiteness as a way to sell the products. People were attempting to gain some level of power and privilege that's associated with whiteness, and they started bleaching their skin in the '50s."

The Way Skin Bleaching Is Reported in the Media

"This isn't anything new-what's new is people's desire to report on this topic. This can be problematic for me as someone who's been researching this for many years since it was the topic of my dissertation. My discomfort with so-called 'diverse' or predominately white publications is that folks tend to criminalize and castigate people who bleach their skin. There tends to be an overwhelming focus on Black women particularly. The framing of the story is always interesting because people act surprised about this, and I don't understand why given the history of white supremacy in this country and across the world.

"We're reporting and interested in it now, but it's impossible for me to have a conversation devoid of history and critical analysis of white supremacy. Of course you're going to be surprised if you're unaware, because then it looks like suddenly out of nowhere here are these people of African descent who arbitrarily want white skin. You should absolutely believe that they would do that, particularly in the way that whiteness is projected, prioritized, and put on a pedestal all over the world. Of course people want access to that. And if you make a product and give them the option, some people are going to take it. This shouldn't be surprising.

"In the media as a whole, there's something about shock factor that becomes problematic. In a lot of ways, we use Black people-and Black women specifically-to feed our need to be shocked and to feel sorry for somebody. The question is, what are we reporting for? Do we really want to affect change? If we want to affect change, why aren't we talking to government officials? So what's the point? You want credit for doing something you're not really invested in changing. For me, the question in the reporting is what is the intention? If the intention is really about affecting change, we have to stop focusing on individuals and focus on institutions.

"This is not these women's 'fault.' Your interest shouldn't be in women and why they're doing it; your interest should be in why it's an option. And why are there entire corporations (many of which are based in New York) that feed off of making these products? Hydroquinone, for example, is banned from use, so they literally are making these products to dump them in the 'third world.' That's where our conversation should be. We question why people are doing it, but the question should be why are people making these products? There are no options for white people to darken their skin besides tanning.

"I take this position very strongly anytime anyone talks to me about skin bleaching. We can talk about the practice, but I also want to be clear that the issue isn't with the women or the people who practice-the issue is with the institution that supports and even encourages the practice-that's where our shock should be. Everyone wants to talk about skin bleaching, but who has the nerve to walk into a government space and call out this problem? This is an epidemic because you allow it. What are you going to do to change it?"

The Worldwide Epidemic of Skin Bleaching

"Skin bleaching is just as prevalent in America as it is everywhere else. In the United States, we hide under political correctness, so people aren't going to be as open about it. We don't have billboards here because the FDA has some level of enforcement of what can be advertised.

"For example, in Ghana, there's the Food and Drugs Board. On paper, it says skin-bleaching products are banned and we shouldn't be advertising these products. But if you walk right outside the Food and Drugs Board, you can find the products and you can see a billboard advertising skin bleaching. In the news a few years ago, people were applauding Ghana for banning skin bleaching, but that's such bullshit. Primarily because in the last 20 years, they've had these bans "on the books," but no one has enforced them.

"But if you open up a U.S. magazine where the audience is primarily Black women, you're going to see ads of products that are made to "even out skin tones." If you go to a beauty supply store right now, there are entire aisles dedicated to skin-bleaching products that I can find in Ghana and in Brooklyn. The fact that the shelves remain stocked lets us know that the product is as active as it is there. The difference is that people aren't as forthcoming in talking about it here because we have all this judgment. We have all these articles that portray a level of shock factor in regard to skin bleaching, so why would anyone here admit to doing it?

"In other places, there's something different about the space and context, so people don't hide behind political correctness in the ways that we do. What's important to me and my position is to make sure that we're not participating in the history of projecting all of this negativity and barbarism to these spaces out in the "third world" as if America is so much more developed. We get more coverage and there's more visibility in the Americas because people are trying to play it off differently, but you have loads of communities, particularly in New York City, and immigrant communities, who bring the practice with them. And the products are here for them to have access to.

"Ultimately, I think all over the world, it's about understanding the stronghold that white supremacy has on people's minds. And the ways that we continue to assign pivotal power to whiteness so people still want access to it. If we're going to talk about skin bleaching, we also have to talk about chemical hair relaxing, plastic surgery, and all of these things are on the spectrum when we're engaging how white supremacy impacts our body. It's because race is an in-your-face marker of difference. We focus more on skin bleaching more than anything else. For some reason we're much more surprised by skin bleaching than all the other things we all do on a day-to-day basis."

The Mistake Made When Talking About Skin Bleaching

"I wrote a piece for Ebony a few years ago calling us all out on the conversations we're having about skin bleaching. Like, if you want to talk about skin bleaching, let's talk about Black people who choose to live in all-white neighborhoods or send their kids to predominately white schools because we have internalized the idea that is better for our children-that's white supremacy. We have to understand how white supremacy functions before we begin to somehow investigate and understand skin bleaching. There are so many things that are like skin bleaching, and it just looks different."

How to Make a Difference

"The first step for us to change our thinking around skin bleaching. Skin bleaching isn't only happening in African communities. We're seeing it explored more in Southeast Asia. People tend to focus on Africa and the Caribbean, but it's so huge in India. The same way communities have had the power to push legislation with our issues should be our concern as opposed to pointing the finger. If you're interested in pushing for change, it has to be at the institutional level."

Read more of Yaba Blay's work and keep up with her projects and speaking engagements here.

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The Reality of Skin Bleaching and the History Behind It

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Skin bleaching-aka the act of using substances, mixtures, or treatments to physically lighten one's skin tone-has been around for a long time, and it's developed into a billion-dollar international industry. However, the way the Western media has reported on this topic feels problematic: We often hear of skin bleaching happening in Ghana and the Caribbean, yet it's widely practiced everywhere, including in the United States, Southeast Asia, and India.

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Title: Colorism in Asia: Blinded by Color

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Title: Colorism in Asia: Blinded by Color

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Source:  Iamtriangle

Credibility Evaluation: Group 9
Source bias: seems like no bias
Factual report: website is very shady, and the id is not secure.
Comment: i used their information for my knowledge on colorism and the negative effect of colorism

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While I was at the morning market with friends the other day, an incident occurred that really disturbed me. With my family were two other families, one of which have two adopted children -one from Vietnam and one from Ethiopia. We were strolling along, minding our own business, when, suddenly, an older woman came pushing through our group, mumbling. She then stood in front of me staring at something and talking to herself.

When I followed her gaze, I realized she was staring at my friend's very-dark-skinned, Ethiopian-American son. What she was mumbling, in Taiwanese, was, "That skin is so black." When she noticed me watching her, she directed her questions and comments at me, pointing at my friend's child. She even reached out to touch his kinky hair, asking if it had been permed. She ignored my polite requests for her to stop and continued to treat my friend's son as some kind of freak. She even waved a friend over, and together, the two of them pointed and stared and whispered. I positioned myself between my friend's son and the two women to keep them from bothering him even more.

This incident, followed shortly by the events in Charlottesville, Virginia, in the United States, jarred me to the core. Together, these incidents reminded me that skin color always has been, and always will be, an issue within many cultures around the world, where one's skin color plays a significant role in how one is perceived and received by the world.

Throughout my life, I also have heard comments about the color of my skin, mostly from my own family. Because my skin darkens easily when I'm in the sun, even for short periods of time, my parents would make comments about my "black skin" and joke that I was from Africa. Compared to my light-skinned cousin (whose appearance and mine were otherwise so similar that we had been mistaken for twins on multiple occasions), I was the less attractive one because of my skin color.

While living in Thailand and after our return to the United States, I also had gotten remarks on the darkness of my skin and had been schooled on how to keep my skin from darkening further. And everywhere we've visited in Asia, there is always a noticeable preference for the light-skinned westerners, not to mention the ubiquitous presence of skin-lightening products. I got to thinking about the role and effects of colorism-the difference in treatment of people based on societal meanings attached to skin color-in Asian societies.

Colorism in Asia

It is well-known the United States has a long and laden history of skin color and tone playing a major role in racial classification and differentiation within racial categories. Skin tone also is frequently and unfairly associated with positive and negative stereotypes -light skin tones equated with positive traits (intelligence, industry, and beauty, to name a few) and dark skin tones associated with negative traits (lack of intelligence, poverty, and laziness, for example)-with oftentimes heartbreaking and tragic consequences of self-fulfilling prophecies and promising futures cut short.

In comparison, the color and tone of one's skin is valued in a different, if not a similarly harmful, way in Asia. In this region of the world, fair skin historically has been viewed as a sign of beauty, implying higher social and economic status. Because those who worked outdoors, such as manual laborers and farmers, had darker skin, dark skin has come to be identified with being in a lower socioeconomic class. Conversely, fair skin became an indicator of a privileged life spent indoors. In other words, to be light-skinned is to be rich, while to be dark-skinned is to be from the working class.

While this belief may have been based on reality once upon a time, it is meaningless in our modern world. This outdated and stereotypical view of skin color not only has spawned a multi-million-dollar beauty industry shilling skin-lightening products to women, but it also can have real, harmful consequences- discriminatory acts when it comes to employment, education and marital prospects; inflation or deflation of a person's self-worth; and negative views of, and interactions between, people of different ethnicities and skin tones.

Negative Effects of Colorism

I have witnessed the negative effects of colorism play out many times during my time in Asia: Blond-haired and blued-eyed children refusing to acknowledge and interact with, even expressing a strong dislike of, the locals, after having been repeatedly mobbed, photographed, pawed and gawked at, and generally treated as objects while living in Asia; the children who are fair-skinned receiving more attention and even gifts, while others like my friend's son are ignored and neglected; and those who are fair-skinned growing up with an unjustified sense of self-worth and air of arrogance.

As for my friend's son, he is, luckily, very good-natured and able to ignore such rude comments and behaviors. Nevertheless, he is aware of, and affected by, how he is perceived and treated. In the few weeks I've known him, he has already commented to me several times, "This is what I hate about living in Taiwan." I'm angered and saddened to think that this child, who's funny, charming, and intelligent, will always be judged by his skin color first and his character and virtues second (or third...or never).

My son also has noticed this behavior (he, being half-Asian, looks more like the locals with darker skin). He doesn't relish the spotlight cast upon his fellow light-skinned friends simply because of their skin color, but he is envious that they (and sometimes their parents) receive what he perceives as privileges-special treats, discounts, etc.-that he doesn't. The few times he has been treated in the same way were when he was with my husband, who is Caucasian, without me.

Taking Action against Colorism

Having been in classes or situations in which he was the only non-Caucasian person, my son is well-aware of the differences between him and other American kids. As a preschooler, he remarked that he was the only Asian in his preschool class. We have discussed many times how one's skin color and appearance can affect the way one is treated. He is aware of, and understands, the superficiality of these measures of an individual. It is my hope that these discussions stay with him as he grows and experiences more instances of colorism and know that his value as a person is unrelated to his appearance or skin color.

Unfortunately, most people, especially those with fair skin, don't have these types of discussions with their children. Many people who receive special attention due to their appearance or skin color enjoy it or play to the locals' views of them, while many on the other end of the spectrum become insecure or doubtful of their own significance, further promoting the stereotypes associated with skin color.

For this reason, I urge everyone living in countries where they are different in appearance from the locals-regardless of their ethnicity, social status, or skin color-to be mindful of such unequal and unfair treatment from and by anyone; to educate themselves, their children, their colleagues, their neighbors, and their friends; and to take the time to learn about each other as human beings, so these myths surrounding skin color may be dispelled, making way for more equal treatment throughout the world.

As a Third Culture Kid, I was born in Taiwan, but raised in the United States, and have lived in over ten cities and towns in three different countries in my lifetime. In 2013, my husband and I decided to fulfill our lifelong dream of living abroad, and, together with our son, moved to and lived in Thailand for two years. I felt I had arrived "home" living abroad, and we were all bitten by the travel bug. Formally trained as an educator and lawyer, I have worked in the fields of education, editing, special education and disability rights advocacy, and veterans law.

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Colorism in Asia: Blinded By Color | I Am A Triangle

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While I was at the morning market with friends the other day, an incident occurred that really disturbed me. With my family were two other families, one of which have two adopted children -one from Vietnam and one from Ethiopia. We were strolling along, minding our own business, when, suddenly, an older woman came pushing through our group, mumbling.

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Title:  How did the term "Blue Blood" come about?

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Title:  How did the term "Blue Blood" come about?

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Source:  Quora

Credibility Evaluation: Group 9
Source bias:  depends on the person who answers, in this case little to none
Factual report: The website seems trustworthy, however, only some answers are usable
Comment: i used their information for my knowledge on colorism and the history

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How did the term "Blue Blood" come about?

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Answer (1 of 13): This term refers to European Royal nobility and is a metaphor that describes the profound blue appearance of the veins and skin. The term Blue Blood (aka sangre azul) has origins that may predate recorded history. It is very certain a number of factors may have created this te...

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Title: Thailand’s ‘English fever’, migrant teachers and cosmopolitan aspirations in an interconnected Asia

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Title: Thailand’s ‘English fever’, migrant teachers and cosmopolitan aspirations in an interconnected Asia

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Source:  Taylor and Francis online
DOI:  10.1080/01596306.2018.1435603
Credibility Evaluation: Group 1

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Over the past decade, growing numbers of foreign-born English speakers from the Global South have begun migrating to Thailand to seek work as teachers in the region's booming Teaching English as a Foreign Language industry. As citizens of so-called outer circle English-speaking countries (former British and American colonies in Asia and Africa), these migrants enter the highly competitive and racially stratified Asian Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages labor market at a significant disadvantage. In this paper I examine the growing demand for English education in Thailand and argue that it is best understood through an analysis of regional competition in a globally ascendant 'Asia'. Government responses have been marked by shifting and contradictory entry and employment requirements, resulting in uncertainty for foreigners seeking work as teachers in Thailand. However, this same uncertainty enables non-Western teachers to utilize Thailand as a site for migration and employment in ways not possible in other parts of the region.

Additional information

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

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Thailand's 'English fever', migrant teachers and cosmopolitan aspirations in an interconnected Asia

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Over the past decade, growing numbers of foreign-born English speakers from the Global South have begun migrating to Thailand to seek work as teachers in the region's booming Teaching English as a Foreign Language industry.

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Title: PREJUDICE IN EVERYDAY LIFE: THE EXAMPLE OF WHITE SKIN PREFERENCE 

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Title: PREJUDICE IN EVERYDAY LIFE: THE EXAMPLE OF WHITE SKIN PREFERENCE 

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Source:  Joana Stella Kompa Digital Education & Applied Psychology

Credibility Evaluation: Group 9
Source bias: no bias
Factual report: seems pretty factual from what i have seen
Comment: i used their information for my knowledge on colorism and the practice of skin whitening

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Why prejudice and stereotypes might be inevitable
When we talk about stereotypes and prejudice we could argue that they are, to some extent, inevitable. Our natural tendency to draw generalizations from particular social instances based on real group differences (Wright & Taylor, 2007, p.435) and conflicts (Sherif, 1966) creates stereotypes, both positive and negative. Who can honestly say to be entirely free of prejudice? Preconceived negative judgment of others appears unavoidable, especially under social conflict and social threat. Effects such as own-race-bias (Meyers & Twenge, 2013, p.334-335) and cultural ethnocentricity expressing pride and superiority (Tracy et al., 2013) are bound to create prejudice and might even be rooted in evolutionary programming (Hammond & Axelrod, 2006), although this is no scientific excuse for degrading others. Social identity theory supports the observation that we categorize and compare outgroups (Tajifel & Turner, 1979), which leads to over-generalization errors such as stereotyping. Lastly, the need for status, self-worth and belonging comes easier under threat for people with lower economic standing and fragile social disposition (Pettigrew et al., 1998), which makes it easier for prejudice to crystallize as shared defensive beliefs (Wright & Taylor, p.438).
An everyday scenario of discrimination: Why should whiter skin be better?
Some months ago I noticed an attractive young Indian woman with dark skin watching advertisements on a TV installed in the Bangkok city train. Suddenly an advertisement for a skin-whitening product came on, featuring fair-skinned Thai models going on forever how their skin improved from white to even more white. As for most of such commercials in Asian media that promote colourism (Leong, 2006, Mak, 2007, Krishen, 2014), they generally exclude dark skin models. The white women were portrayed of higher status, young, wealthy, carefree and happy. The Indian woman I observed frowned and the unhappy look that came over her face appeared as a salient, genuine response.

In Thailand where I live, dark skin complexion is primarily assigned to status. White skin is associated with the aristocracy and wealthy elites, whereby darker skin is associated with the rural Thai population who has to perform manual labor in the rice fields. Foreigners with dark skin, such as many Africans or Indians, are frowned upon by many Thais. Stereotype content is more associated with race, rather than status in these cases. Promoting that being white is the social norm (Crandall et. al., 2002, p.360) entails that the Indian woman I mentioned is excluded from it. Prejudice appears as a construct of mere group membership and group-properties (Sherif, 1948). In our case race is, besides status, a secondary stereotype defining intergroup boundaries in the advertisement. The ruling white elites themselves appear oblivious to their own public dominance and social asymmetry (Wright & Taylor, 2007, p. 443).

Subsequently, women with darker skin are subjected to stereotype threat and stigma consciousness (Meyers & Twenge, p.337, Wright & Taylor, p. 440), the constant fear of being identified as both, being of low social status and belonging to an undesired race that has been made fun of in other advertisements, e.g., as 'Blackface' (Bengal, 2014).

Ayu Saraswati (2010) argues from the analysis of women's magazines in Indonesia, that the ideal of whiteness has become representative of 'cosmopolitanness'. Yaba Amgborale Blay (2011) explains, from an African perspective, skin whitening as products from a long history of White supremacy. She concludes that skin whitening is an internalized projection by those exposed to white domination, colonization, and enslavement. White supremacy states that the white ideal equals the human ideal (Amgborale Blay, 2011, p.37).

Sylvia (2013) makes a good observation looking at Indian TV commercials when she writes that " [Skin Whitening] Advertisements suggest darkness is a problem. Advertisements portray women with dark skin as insecure due to their skin tone. Dark skin women are staged with sad facial expressions, their eyes do not look directly at the camera, and their body posture is poor. Women using the fairness product are portrayed as confident and transformed, because of their whiteness." (Sylvia, 2013, p.4).
A strategy for the reduction of discrimination: Changing the social and legal norms
Skin bleaching in Tanzania goes to extremes of causing cancers, liver and kidney failure (Lewis et al., 2012). Shresta (2013) concludes from an Indian perspective that "Clearly, colonial racist articulations of Indian primitiveness, social lag, and victimization cannot properly assess or curb the expansion of skin whitening as an industry or a practice. These logics cannot account for the transnational industrial beauty matrix that perpetuates ideals of whiteness/lightness as a marker of beauty, intelligence, employability, desirability, and worth." (Shresta, 2013, p.116). Shresta's assessment is compatible with the Indonesian findings on 'cosmopolitanness' based on a global beauty matrix. White skin associated with status has a long history. Elizabethan make-up is the prototypical Western example with Queen Elizabeth Ist setting the trend for the use of heavy make-up (Elizabethanera, 2014). Upper classes and royal families across cultures have been setting a clear signal and social norm of status expressed by white skin, looks and fashion.
References
Paluck and Green ask if social cues can induce conformity to tolerant norms (Paluck & Green, 2009, p. 360), a notion supported by group norm theory which explains attitude formation by the internalization of external norms (Crandall et al., 2002,p. 360). Creative solutions such as communicating inoculating media advertisements that promote tolerant norms as public messages (e.g., ' Real life is variety', 'Color anxiety creates unhappiness', 'Happy to be me' etc.) could support women with darker skin of becoming more confident of themselves and white women to become less anxious. Acceptance would be targeted towards stereotype contents of status and race. The Dove 'Real Beauty' campaign (Sarah, 2012) serves as a good example that this might just work. Enforcing ethical guidelines for the advertising industry is another strategy to support people of becoming more accepting of themselves, rather than to create damaging social hierarchies.

Amgborale Blay, Y. (2011). Skin Bleaching and Global White Supremacy: By Way of Introduction. Journal Of Pan African Studies, 4(4), 4-46.

Ayu Saraswati, L. L. (2010). Cosmopolitan Whiteness: The Effects and Affects of Skin-Whitening Advertisements in a Transnational Women's Magazine in Indonesia. Meridians: Feminism, Race, Transnationalism, 10(2), 15-41. doi:10.2979/meridians.2010.10.2.15

Bagenal, F. (2013, September 5). Blackface Dunkin' Donuts ad in Thailand brings racism accusation. Christian Science Monitor. p. N.PAG.

Crandall, C. S., Eshleman, A., & O'Brien, L. (2002). Social norms and the expression and suppression of prejudice: The struggle for internalisation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(3), 359-378

Elizabethanera (2014). Elizabethan Make-up. Retrieved from: http://www.elizabethan-era.org.uk/elizabethan-make-up.htm

Leong, S. (2006). Who's the fairest of them all? Television ads for skin-whitening cosmetics in Hong Kong. Asian Ethnicity, 7(2), 167-181. doi:10.1080/14631360600736215

Hammond, R. A.; Axelrod, R. (2006). "The Evolution of Ethnocentrism". Journal of Conflict Resolution 50 (6): 926-936. doi:10.1177/002200270629347

Krishen, A. S., LaTour, M. S., & Alishah, E. (2014). Asian Females in an Advertising Context: Exploring Skin Tone Tension. Journal Of Current Issues And Research In Advertising, 35(1), 71.

Lewis, K. M., Gaska, K., Robkin, N., Martin, A., Andrews, E., & Williams, J. (2012). The Need for Interventions to Prevent Skin Bleaching: A Look at Tanzania. Journal Of Black Studies, 43(7), 787-805. doi:10.1177/0021934712446701

Mak, A. (2007). Advertising Whiteness: An assessment of skin color preferences among urban Chinese. Visual Communication Quarterly, 14(3), 144-157. doi:10.1080/15551390701670768

Myers, D. G., & Twenge, J. M. (2013). Social psychology (11th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Paluck, E. L., & Green, D.P. (2009). Prejudice reduction: What works? A review and assessment of research and practice. Annual Review of Psychology, 60(1), 339-367.

Pettigrew, T.F., Jackson, J.S., Brika, J.B., Lemaine, G., Meertens, A.W., Wagner, U. & Zick, A. (1998). Outgoing prejudice in western Europe. European Review of Social psychology, 8, 241-273.

Sarah, B. (2012). Free Self-Esteem Tools?: Brand Culture, Gender, and the Dove Real Beauty Campaign. In , Commodity Activism : Cultural Resistance in Neoliberal Times (p. 39). New York: NYU Press.

Sherif, M. (1948). The necessity of considering current issues as part and parcel of persistent major problems: Illustrated by the problem of prejudice. International Journal of Opinion and Attitude Research, 2, 63-68.

Sherif, M. (1966). Group Conflict and Co-operation: Their Social Psychology. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Shrestha, S. S. (2013). Threatening consumption: managing US imperial anxieties in representations of skin lightening in India. Social Identities, doi: 10.1080/13504630.2012.753347

Sylvia, K (2013) Hegemonic Whiteness: A Qualitative Study of Fairness Advertisements in India. Retrieved from: http://journals.tdl.org/txstate/index.php/txstate/article/download/7066/6320

Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin and S. Worchel (Eds.), The Social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33-47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Tracy, J. L., Shariff, A. F., Zhao, W., & Henrich, J. (2013). Cross-cultural evidence that the nonverbal expression of pride is an automatic status signal. Journal Of Experimental Psychology: General, 142(1), 163-180. doi:10.1037/a0028412

Wright, S. C., & Taylor, D. M. (2007). The social psychology of cultural diversity: Social stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. In M. A. Hogg & J. Cooper (Eds.), The Sage handbook of social psychology (pp. 432-457). London, England: Sage.

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Prejudice in Everyday Life: The Example of White Skin Preference

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Why prejudice and stereotypes might be inevitable When we talk about stereotypes and prejudice we could argue that they are, to some extent, inevitable. Our natural tendency to draw generalizations from particular social instances based on real group differences (Wright & Taylor, 2007, p.435) and conflicts (Sherif, 1966) creates stereotypes, both positive and negative.

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Title: China’s White Skin Obsession Explained

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Title: China’s White Skin Obsession Explained

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Source:  Echinacities
Credibility Evaluation: Group 9
Source bias: Seemed bias towards china, always putting china in a positive light
Factual report: seems pretty factual from what i have seen
Comment: i used Mccool quote “白面书生” (báimiàn shūshēng): 白 (Bái) means white, blank/empty or clear; 面 (miàn) refers to the face; and 书生 (shūshēng) means scholar. The term can either refer to a young, beautiful-faced intellect – who has white skin because he doesn't need to work outdoors  – or a young, inexperienced person. In the former case, beauty is represented by 白 (bái)."

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China's White Skin Obsession Explained

China's apparent white skin obsession is often difficult for foreigners to understand. This phenomenon, however, has a longer history than we may realise and is not restricted to the Chinese.

Before I came to China I wasn't aware that people would actually want to look white. In the UK, we all go on holiday to Spain to tan up. We don't like pale, pasty-white skin. In China, however - as well as in many other Asia countries - having white skin is desired as it is associated with beauty, intelligence, class and status. Although this white skin obsession is now a billion US-dollar business, it's not a modern phenomenon.
The history
In China, as far back as the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD), white skin was desired for women of the court as it represented social prestige. Skin color related to the type of life a person lived: It showed that you didn't have to work toiling the fields but could sit in the shaded indoors.

The Chinese vision of beauty would continue to change over the centuries. During the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), a beautiful woman was proud of her hips and curvature - being plump was desirable. From the Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD), women's beauty shifted more to the androgynous. In the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912 AD), women were to be fragile and pale-faced. During the 1950s and 60s of the new China, however, women were back to looking like men again; they had short hair and were forbidden to wear make-up. Finally, thanks to the opening up of China, things have changed, yet again. It's all about big eyes, pointed chins and, yep, pale skin.

This obsession with white skin is not restricted to non-whites, however. During the Renaissance period (1400s-1600s AD), English women went to great lengths to achieve smooth, pale skin. They too wanted to avoid looking tanned, blemished or freckled, and wished to be associated with the upper classes who relaxed indoors.

Queen Elizabeth I was known for her pale skin, which she painted with mercury and vinegar to cover her small pox scars. This common use of mercury among women eventually led to the withering of the skin or even premature death. Other women went as far as cutting themselves and applying leeches in order to achieve a pale complexion.
Chinese white skin phrases
There are several well-known phrases that highlight the Chinese inclination towards white skin:

"白面书生" (báimiàn shūshēng): 白 (Bái) means white, blank/empty or clear; 面 (miàn) refers to the face; and 书生 (shūshēng) means scholar. The term can either refer to a young, beautiful-faced intellect - who has white skin because he doesn't need to work outdoors - or a young, inexperienced person. In the former case, beauty is represented by 白 (bái).

"白富美" (bái fùměi): "White, rich and beautiful", used to indicate a rich, beautiful woman, the pinnacle of desire. Again, beauty is signified by the character 白 (bái). For men, the parallel phrase is "高富帅" (gāofù shuài), "tall, rich and handsome".

Actually, not only do Chinese people want to be white-skinned, but white-skinned with rosy cheeks, as noted by the common phrase "白里透红" (bái lǐ tòu hóng).

More evident to the link between beauty and white skin is the traditional Chinese expression "一白遮三丑" (yī bái zhē sān chǒu), which could be translated directly as "one white covers up three uglinesses", meaning that white skin is all one needs to be beautiful, regardless of other factors, such as having a big nose, for example.
Modern adoption
The desire to achieve and maintain pale skin has led the Chinese to adopt certain behaviors, most of which can come across as strange to foreigners. It is quite standard to find people fully clothed on Chinese beaches or carrying umbrellas on glorious sunny days. Women, in particular, invest in skin whitening products in the form of lotions, pills and gels, which work by reducing the skin pigment melanin. It is not uncommon to hear a Chinese person abating themselves with, "I'm so black" when they are only just a tad tanned.

Scarily, the active ingredient in some Chinese skin lighteners is still mercury, which can cause serious psychiatric, neurological and kidney problems. Mercury is banned in the USA as an ingredient in skin lighteners. The skin whitening products sold there use hydroquinone, instead.

It is important to maintain as broad a perspective as one can when dealing with apparent cultural idiosyncrasies. I have argued that there is a socio-economic background which sheds light on the reasons why the Chinese, and Asian people in general, prefer lighter skin. But there is also a lot of money in the skin-lightening business, and the modern media, which itself capitalizes on the culture, does nothing but feed the cycle. And let's not forget that the same companies selling skin whitening products in Asia are selling skin tanning products in the West.

In closing, as China continues to develop and people become more consumerist and economically independent, I see no reason why the desire to express social status through skin tone will abate.

Warning： The use of any news and articles published on eChinacities.com without written permission from eChinacities.com constitutes copyright infringement, and legal action can be taken.

Keywords: China's white skin obsession

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China's White Skin Obsession Explained |外国人网| eChinacities.com

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China's White Skin Obsession Explained China's apparent white skin obsession is often difficult for foreigners to understand. This phenomenon, however, has a longer history than we may realise and is not restricted to the Chinese. Before I came to China I wasn't aware that people would actually want to look white.

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Title: Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History

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Title: Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History

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Source:  The MET

Credibility Evaluation: Group 9
Source bias:  No bias
Factual report:  trust worthy
Comment: used to see learn about the timeline of china

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The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History

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Overview

Reunited once again under the Northern Song dynasty, China maintains complicated relationships with the Liao in the northeast and the Xixia in the northwest. The former is overcome by the Jurchen, whose Jin dynasty controls North China while the Song continues to rule the south. Both succumb to the Mongols who rule China-as the Yuan dynasty-from 1271 until the establishment of the Ming in 1368. Despite harsh political realities, the Song dynasty is a brilliant era, shaping Chinese culture for centuries. The monumental landscape painting of the Northern Song and the quieter evanescent images of the Southern Song serve as models for later artists, as does the quest for self-expression that marks the Chinese literati under Mongol rule. Ceramics, both green-glazed celadon wares of the Song and the porcelains painted in underglaze blue during the Yuan, profoundly influence traditions throughout Asia. Metalwork, lacquer, textiles, and other luxuries are produced for domestic consumption and trade.

Key Events

ca. 1020
The Song government actively encourages the spread of schools, providing support through land.

1032-1227
The Xixia or Western Xia, a people of Tangut origin, control northwest China. Xixia paintings follow Chinese traditions, particularly in the depiction of landscape, and Tibetan Buddhist examples.

ca. 1044
The earliest formula for gunpowder (coal, saltpeter, and sulfur) is recorded.

ca. 1050
Printed books become widespread, and books and paper are exported to many lands.

ca. 1050-1101
Confucianism becomes a major governing ideology. The revival of this system is often associated with reformist factions; however, interest in Confucianism can also be attributed to a broader interest in reasserting native ideologies and traditions.

1100-1125
Huizong, the most famous emperor-aesthete in Chinese history, reigns. He is renowned as a painter and patron of the arts, but assessed as a weak ruler who loses the empire to the invading Mongols. A catalogue of his painting collection ( Xuanhe huapu), published in 1123, numbers some 6,000 works. Huizong is also famous for establishing a painting academy in 1104 and for his taste in ceramics, favoring blue/green-glazed Ru wares over the white-glazed Ding. The collecting of antiquities becomes fashionable during his reign. The study of ancient ritual bronzes, jade, and epigraphy flourishes, informing scholarship up to the present day.

ca. 1119
The first record of a compass, although magnetic north was known and used as early as the third century A.D.

1125-1234
The Jurchen of eastern Manchuria conquer Liao territories and move south into northern China, capturing the capital at Bianliang (modern Kaifeng) and forcing the Song court south.

1130-1200
Zhu Xi, one of the most influential Confucian thinkers, synthesizes major trends, selecting the four texts that define the tradition and its scholarship until the early twentieth century.

ca. 1150
The Song government prospers, advancing China's position as a major maritime power. Massive ships travel as far as the Malabar Coast of India and the Red Sea, exporting silk, porcelain, dye, and other luxuries.

1163
A synagogue is built in Kaifeng to serve merchants active in the caravan trade from Persia.

1269
The Tibetan monk 'Phagspa, a close advisor to Khubilai Khan, develops the Phagspa script for Mongolian.

ca. 1271
Khubilai Khan establishes an institute for Muslim astronomy, bringing Persian and Arab specialists to China.

ca. 1274
Using the captured Song fleet, Mongols attempt to invade Japan. The first advance is repulsed by a typhoon. A second massive invasion lands in 1281 and is defeated by another typhoon (known in Japanese as kamikaze) that strikes the island, destroying half the Mongol force of about 15,000 sailors and 900 vessels.

1285
An estimated 400,000 artisans are employed in government workshops and factories creating porcelains, textiles, metalwork, and other luxuries.

1331-1334
Possibly contracted by Mongol soldiers in Crimea, a plague epidemic devastates the population of North China. The same source may also be responsible for the European Black Death of 1348-49.

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China, 1000-1400 A.D. | Chronology | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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"Reunited once again under the Northern Song dynasty, China maintains complicated relationships with the Liao in the northeast and the Xixia in the northwest. The former is overcome by the Jurchen, whose Jin dynasty controls North China while the Song continues to rule the south.

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Source:  China.org
Credibility Evaluation: Group 9
Source bias: Seemed bias towards china, always putting china in a positive light
Factual report: pretty factual about information that has nothing to do with Chinese or China.
Comment: i used this blog as a reference in my "colorism and cosmetic industry" section.

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Today's China loves white skin. And no, it has nothing to do with race. The idea stems back to ancient China, around the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD), when farmers and laborers would work outside all day and as a result, would have dark, tanned skin. Conversely, royalty, or those who came from wealth, would spend their days inside, not having to labor in the sun. As such, white skin represented social prestige and became highly desirable. Many Chinese today still believe that white skin represents "the elite" and have taken a number of measures to ensure their skin stays beautiful and white.
An Asian thing?
China is not the only country to cherish light skin. In Japan, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam and South Korea one can find the same preference, as darker skin similarly represents a life of poverty and labor spent bent over in the fields in the hot sun. The same aesthetic could be found throughout much of the Western world, as well, in centuries past, and for essentially the same reasons.

Skin color is, of course, determined by the amount of melanin found in the top layers of skin. So we are all born with varying levels of melanin, which not only leads to the full range of skin colors throughout the world, but also impacts how light or dark each individual's skin can become. So although sun does have an effect on the shade of a person's skin, it is also largely genetic.

Generalizing once again, it's women more than men in Asia who prefer whiter skin. Though some men are certainly concerned about skin color and one can see plenty of fair-skinned young men depicted in popular media, a look at ads for skin-whitening products reveals that women are still the primary targeted consumers.
The solution: 'there's a product for that'
So how do people go about changing their skin color? There is, perhaps not surprisingly, a huge market for products that do just that. With today's technology, a plethora of methods exist to whiten skin, including bleaching agents and melanin-inhibiting chemicals such as hydroquinone, Alpha Hydroxy Acids (AHAs), and mercury-all of which are often put into lotions, creams, facial masks and even deodorant. According to an article published by Global Industry Analysts in 2016, the global market for skin lighteners is projected to reach US$23 billion by 2020.

Facial masks are already an essential step in many women's daily beauty routine, delivering moisturizing, cleansing or exfoliating benefits. However, in many parts of Asia, facial masks now offer whitening effects as well. Advertisements often depict a woman's face divided in half, with her dark skin in the "Before" picture and visibly whiter skin in the "After."

And of course, there's no better way to keep skin light than to block out the sun. During the summer in China, women often hide under umbrellas, or avoid any exposure to skin-darkening sunlight with long sleeves, full-length gloves, scarves, wide-brimmed hats, knee-high socks and face masks.
Language and health controversies
The idea of being "tan" very often gets translated using the word "black," which has a negative connotation in Chinese but can also come across to foreigners as being racially charged. Chinese students often tease each other for having "black" skin, and as they grow up, girls fall into the belief that white skin is beautiful, which is often affirmed by their peers. One controversial commercial for a laundry detergent a few years ago caused a stir, depicting a woman putting a black man in the laundry, to have him come out a pale-skinned Asian man.

Furthermore, a number of whitening products have potent and toxic chemicals, leading to many instances of women damaging their skin by trying to whiten it too much or too often. Essentially, these products peel away the outer layers of the skin, which can not only be painful, but can also increase the risk of skin problems due to sun exposure. But even this does not deter many consumers; as the old adage claims, "Beauty is pain."

The white skin issue in Asia is similar to the super skinny body type portrayed in the U.S. It's what gets marketed to the public, and as such, it's what young people aspire to look like. The same happens in China, with many of China's icons having very white skin and little girls (and boys) growing up wanting to look just like them.

The white-skinned obsession, then, is purely psychological, fueled by marketing, celebrities, and outdated beliefs. And despite the health risks and cost of these treatments, China's desire for white skin doesn't show signs of fading anytime soon.

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Today's China loves white skin. And no, it has nothing to do with race. The idea stems back to ancient China, around the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD), when farmers and laborers would work outside all day and as a result, would have dark, tanned skin.

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Title: China's love of white skin is cosmetic conceit with possible genetic roots

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Title: China's love of white skin is cosmetic conceit with possible genetic roots

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Source:  Journal of the Athena Center for Leadership Studies at Barnard College
DOI:  10.7916/D8125S64
Credibility Evaluation: Group 6
Source bias: LEFT-CENTER BIAS
Factual report: These media sources have a slight to moderate liberal bias.  They often publish factual information

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Just Saying by Yonden Lhatoo

Yonden Lhatoo says new research may suggest an ancient genetic link to Chinese people's obsession with porcelain-pale skin, but it's still cultural and social baggage that should be dropped

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China's love of white skin is cosmetic conceit with possible genetic roots

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Just Saying by Yonden Lhatoo Yonden Lhatoo says new research may suggest an ancient genetic link to Chinese people's obsession with porcelain-pale skin, but it's still cultural and social baggage that should be dropped

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Title: White and Beautiful: An Examination of Skin Whitening Practices and Female Empowerment in China 

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Title: White and Beautiful: An Examination of Skin Whitening Practices and Female Empowerment in China 

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Source:  Journal of the Athena Center for Leadership Studies at Barnard College
DOI:  10.7916/D8125S64
Credibility Evaluation: Group 1

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White and Beautiful: An Examination of Skin Whitening Practices and Female Empowerment in China

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In recent years, the prevalence of skin whitening products has increased tremendously among Asian women. The cultural desire for pale skin can be attributed to the phenomenon of colorism, the "discriminatory treatment of individuals falling within the same 'racial' group on the basis of skin color" (Herring, 2002).