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This visual simplifies and illustrates the complexities of Cognitive Theory. The theory itself involves intricate mental processes, this graphic makes it easy to understand,.

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I thought this YouTube video provided a strong overall summary, and it included several useful lists that could be applied when designing lessons.

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This was an interesting slideshow presentation created to explain cognitive development in different ages of children.

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Piaget Cognitive Development Rice Krispy Treat Style

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ABLE blog: thoughts, learnings and experiences

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Imagine trying to navigate a maze with a blindfold on. You bump into walls, make wrong turns, and eventually give up in frustration.

Now imagine standing in that same maze as the blindfold is removed. Suddenly, the path becomes clear, and the solution is within reach.

This is the power of cognitive learning. Understanding the mental processes that guide our learning experience can help us navigate the path to new knowledge and better retention.

Understanding cognitive learning theory (CLT), from its components to the different approaches that shape it, is essential to understanding how the human mind processes and stores information. Let's explore the basics of cognitive learning theory and its importance in understanding how people learn.

What is cognitive learning?

Cognitive learning is a branch of cognitive psychology that examines and interprets the learning process. In addition to studying how the human mind thinks, reasons, and remembers, it also looks at how these thought processes and external factors influence our learning experience.

The mental processes involved in cognitive learning can be broken down into three main categories - attention, memory, and problem-solving.

Attention: Paying attention involves focusing our cognitive resources on a particular stimulus or action. We rely on our attention to filter out irrelevant information and focus only on what is essential. Think of these processes as the gatekeepers of the human mind, allowing only the most vital information to pass through.

Memory: If attention is the gatekeeper, memory is the mind's storage room. Whether short-term, working, or long-term memory, this mental process allows us to store and recall information through encoding. Encoding is converting new knowledge into a usable form to keep in our minds.

Problem-solving: Cognitive learning also includes problem-solving, an essential skill for understanding our world. This is the toolbox of the human mind, allowing us to form hypotheses, test them, and apply new knowledge to similar situations. Through this mental process, we develop new skills and meaningful learning.

Understanding these cognitive learning processes allows us to gain insight into how our minds receive and process information. This insight can then be used to develop cognitive learning strategies for more effective learning.

What are schemas in cognitive learning?

Cognitive learning is a complex process involving many different components working together. The concept of schema is one of the most important foundational elements of the cognitive learning process.

According to cognitive psychology, a schema is a cognitive structure that helps the human mind organize and interpret the world. Think of it as a mental model we use to make sense of what we see, hear, smell, and feel. Schemas provide us with expectations about how things should be, allowing us to anticipate and respond to stimuli. For example, when we enter a dining room, our cognitive schemas give us an idea of what to expect - like chairs and a table, perhaps.

When new knowledge doesn't match our cognitive schemas, we may experience cognitive dissonance or confusion. This is why the cognitive learning process is so important - it helps us adjust our schemas to better understand and interpret the world around us.

Cognitive psychologists consider schemas to be the building blocks of effective learning. As we gain more experience and new knowledge, our schemas evolve, continuing the lifelong learning process and leading to meaningful learning.

What are the major cognitive learning theories?

Cognitive psychology is a complex field that contains several theories of how human minds process information and develop new knowledge. CLT can be understood from two perspectives: information processing theory and cognitive developmental theory.

Information processing theory

Information processing theory is a cognitive approach to understanding the human mind by comparing it to a sophisticated computer system. According to this theory, our brains store information, process it, and use it in specific stages, like a computer. Each step is associated with a mental process, such as attention, encoding, and retrieval.

Another key concept of this theory is the idea of working memory. This is where we hold the information used during learning, problem-solving, or other activities. As opposed to long-term memory, working memory is the mental process that allows us to keep things active in our minds for a short period.

Several key figures have contributed to the development of information processing theory, including George Miller, who first introduced the approach; John William Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin, who proposed the multi-store model; and Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch, who presented the model of working memory.

Information processing theory is fundamental in the cognitive learning process because it provides a framework for understanding how we acquire, process, store, and use information. It helps us understand how the human mind works and how we can use that understanding to improve learning and problem-solving skills.

Cognitive developmental theory

Another primary theory of cognitive psychology is the cognitive development theory. Developed by Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, this theory suggests that cognitive development occurs in stages and is structured by interactions with the learning environment.

According to Piaget's theory, the learning experience begins with a basic set of cognitive schemas that we use to interpret and interact with external factors. As we grow and continue learning new things, we construct and revise our understanding using two basic mental processes:

Assimilation: According to cognitive development theory, we interpret reality according to the internal models we've developed from prior experience. Assimilation is how we incorporate new knowledge into our existing schemas or mental frameworks. For example, an employee is trained on new software and can quickly learn how to use it by relating it to their background knowledge in software.

Accommodation: The human mind can update its cognitive structure to integrate new concepts through accommodation. For example, if the same employee learned that the new software has different key commands than their previous software, the employee would have to update their cognitive schema to include the new knowledge.

Cognitive development is integral to cognitive learning theory because it provides a framework for how the human mind builds and revises an understanding of the world. Furthermore, since the theory suggests that cognitive development occurs over time, this provides guidance on how and when to present new concepts for effective learning.

What is the difference between cognitivism and constructivism?

Two popular types of learning approaches in cognitive learning theory are cognitivism and constructivism. Although they have some similarities, these learning processes also have significant differences. The primary difference is in their focus on how new knowledge is acquired.

In constructivism, the learner actively constructs new knowledge using previous knowledge as a foundation. This theory emphasizes active participation and social interaction as key elements in the learning process. In contrast, cognitivism says that we learn new knowledge by processing information in the brain. It focuses on the human mind's cognitive structure, such as how information is encoded, stored, recalled, and used.

Cognitive learning theory combines these two perspectives by acknowledging that mental processes and active knowledge construction are both essential to the learning experience. We can understand new information better when we are aware of how our minds work, and actively participating in the learning process results in more meaningful learning. In this way, cognitive learning theory provides a holistic approach to understanding the complexities of how the human mind learns.

Try these 5 cognitive learning strategies for self-learning

Knowledge of CLT can enhance learning in a wide variety of contexts, including self-study. Here are five examples of cognitive learning theory in action and how you can use these cognitive learning strategies to improve your own learning process.

1. Self-directed learning

Cognitive learning theory emphasizes the importance of self-directed learning, an active process in which the learner finds, plans, and manages resources to gain new knowledge or skills. By taking an active role in the learning process, students can construct their own learning experience and connect new information to their prior knowledge.
Take action:

Be an active participant in your own learning.

Explore subjects that interest you, actively engage with the material, and reflect on new knowledge.

Own your learning experience for more effective learning.

2. Active recall

Active recall is a powerful technique for improving long-term memory and retention. By actively recalling information, learners engage in mental processes such as encoding and retrieval. This learning process can help them store and retrieve information more effectively.

Take action: To practice active recall during the learning process, create flashcards or quiz yourself on the new concepts you're studying. Try different techniques to strengthen retention, such as spaced repetition or elaborative rehearsal.

3. Elaborative rehearsal

Elaborative rehearsal is a cognitive learning strategy in which learners link new knowledge to existing knowledge to commit new concepts to long-term memory. Elaborating on the material provides opportunities for learners to make associations and enhance understanding.

Take action: For more effective learning, practice paraphrasing new concepts in your own words to draw connections between old and new knowledge. Spend time discussing the material with peers or writing summaries to help you deepen your understanding.

4. Mental imagery

Another useful cognitive learning strategy is the use of mental imagery. This learning process involves using visual images to strengthen long-term memory. By creating vivid mental images, the human mind can make mental associations to remember the material. This can enhance effective learning for abstract concepts or memorization of long strings of data.

Take action: During the learning process, try creating visual or auditory associations in your mind to represent new information. Mind maps, diagrams, and other cognitive tools can also help explore new concepts in depth.

5. Chunking

Miller's view of information processing suggests that for effective learning, the human mind can only process seven pieces of information at a time (plus or minus two). By chunking complex material into manageable pieces, learners can make it easier to retain information in long-term memory.

Take action: Optimize the learning process by simplifying complex material into manageable pieces. Organize your notes into related groups, or learn new skills in steps. In addition, practice active recall on each chunk of information you're learning to aid in retention.

Unlock the power of learning with cognitive learning theory

Cognitive learning theory offers a comprehensive understanding of how the human mind acquires new knowledge. By grasping the thought processes that guide our own learning and applying cognitive learning strategies, we can improve our ability to develop, process, and retain new concepts in long-term memory. Real-world application of these techniques can lead to a more effective, meaningful, and memorable learning experience. With cognitive learning theory, we can unlock our full potential and navigate the self-learning process with ease.

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Examples of cognitive learning theory & how you can use them

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Explore the basics of cognitive learning theory, its importance in understanding the way people learn, and how to apply it to your own self-learning strategies.

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Cognitive Learning Theory: Definition & Examples | University of Phoenix

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Cognitive learning theory, which focuses on the internal processes surrounding information and memory, is one of the most adaptable of the five major learning theories. Read on to learn how understanding cognitive learning can help educators and students alike.

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I found an article about Cognitivism on a site called Structural Learning; whose purpose is for showing a variety of learning styles for instructors. This venn diagram chart in the article compares Cognitivism and Constructivism.

https://www.structural-learning.com/post/cognitivism-learning-theories

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While the video is a bit cheesy, it gives a brief overview of cognitivism and provides a scenario in which the theory is applied in the classroom, which I found helpful in understanding the theory.

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Though this is a site for a company that provides online corporate training sessions, this article contains a good overview of Gagne's Nine Levels of Learning, which was outlined in the cognitivism section in Saunders and Wong (2020). The infographic above illustrates the Nine levels and within the article, there is an explanation chart that gives an example associated with each level.

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Not many can say they have changed the way humans learn, but Robert M. Gagné can. His Nine Events of Instruction is a uniquely powerful framework that has been adopted by educators and trainers around the world.

This model has proven to be an effective approach for promoting deeper understanding, improved knowledge retention, and successful skill acquisition.

Gagné's framework suggests that successful training programmes guide learners through nine distinct stages. By step nine, they will have achieved true mastery over the topic at hand.

In this article, we'll explore Gagné's Nine Events of Instruction in detail and review how you can apply it when training your learners online. Ready to level up your learning? Then let's get started!

Who Was Robert Gagné?

Robert Gagné (1916 - 2002) was an American educational psychologist who helped to advance the science of instruction and learning. He began researching effective instruction whilst training pilots for the U.S. Air Corps in World War II.

He is best known for his book 'The Conditions of Learning' (1965). It was in this book that he published his findings on the steps needed to promote effective learning. We still discuss these steps to this day.

Later on, Gagné applied his instructional theory to computer-based learning and investigated the role of multimedia content within training.

Gagné's work has had a significant impact on educational psychology, instructional design and learning and development. As John H. Curry notes, 'almost 60 years later, Gagné's work still serves as the basic framework all instructional designers who use systematic processes follow'.

Gagné's Nine Events of Instruction

Gagné's Nine Events of Instruction are also known as Gagné's Nine Conditions of Learning, Gagné's Taxonomy of Learning, Gagné's Nine Levels of Learning and even the Gagné Assumption. To keep things simple, we refer to the model as 'Gagné's Nine Events of Instruction'.

Gagné's model revolutionised learning and development programmes and education as a whole. After his research, Gagné was able to break the learning process down into three distinct categories. He then broke these categories down further into nine events of learning:
Preparation Instruction and Practice Assessment and Transfer
Gagné's model posits that learners move through nine stages when undergoing an instructional experience. Educators can use these steps to maximise learning impact. For instance, you could apply the Nine Events of Instruction as follows:

These 'events' can take place during a classroom training session, a single eLearning unit or even a curriculum. The key lies in ensuring that all nine steps happen across the learning journey.

Research on The Nine Events of Instruction

Unfortunately, there's no single definitive study that proves that the Nine Events of Instruction improves learning outcomes. However, as with many other learning theories and models, research does suggest its effectiveness and it's clearly aligned with established learning principles.

Studies have been conducted in specific contexts, such as nursing education. The study showed that ratings of instructor mastery and effectiveness improved 'significantly'. The minimum overall lowest course grade also increased from 66% to 70%.

Another study found Gagné's approach 'to be a systematic strategy to improve classroom instruction across various disciplines'.

Perhaps the problem lies in the application. According to research conducted by Cynthia Higgins, subject matter experts typically only apply 50% of the nine events. How can we assess the model's effectiveness if we're not using it properly?

The Benefits

Gagné's model provides us with a structured approach to instructional design. By breaking the learning process down into nine distinct events, it offers a clear framework for you to follow when creating your training programme.

By encouraging your learners to apply new information in realistic and relevant contexts, you can improve knowledge retention and performance. John Dewey would be proud!

Applying Gagné's Nine Events of Instruction

Let's explore Gagné's Nine Events of Instruction separately to see how they could be facilitated through a modern learning programme, or by using learning technology solutions, such as an LMS or learning app.

Level 1: Gaining Attention (Reception)

➮ Level 1 Explained

WOW! BAM! POW! Did that get your attention? While this might not be the best approach, gaining attention is an essential first step for any learning process.

As such, start your training journey by ensuring your learners are with you from the get-go. Remember, our attention spans are limited, so this is a finite resource.

➮ Implementing Level 1

To capture your learner's attention, you'll need two things: a 'trigger' (in the BJ Fogg sense) and a clear benefit statement. An internal marketing campaign is a good place to start. You'll then need to keep these learners engaged.

Luckily, today's modern learning solutions come with a wide variety of engagement tools. For example, here are a few popular attention grabbers:

Email or Push Notifications: Looking for a trigger? You can create and send email or push notifications to drum up excitement for your upcoming training programme or as a countdown to new learning content.

Images: The human eye can process 36,000 visual messages every hour. Visuals can even improve learning by up to 400%. As such, make sure your learning platform and eLearning content is as eye-catching as possible.

Videos: Employees are 75% more likely to watch a video than they are to read text. This is just one of many reasons to begin your training with a video introduction.

Level 2: Informing Learners of the Objective (Expectancy)

➮ Level 2 Explained

You'll then need to inform your learners of what to expect from their training. What objectives will you cover? What will they know at the end of the experience that they didn't before?

Similarly, you should let them know what you expect from them as learners. This will help them set expectations and formulate their learning journey.

➮ Implementing Level 2

Answer the WIIFM ('what's in it for me') question to describe what your learners will get out of the learning experience. Take care to highlight the benefits of your training programme and any associated rewards and recognition.

You can use your online learning platform to communicate with your learners. For example, Growth Engineering LMS empowers you to set up social Clubs where you can share your goals and objectives with your learners.

Level 3: Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning (Retrieval)

➮ Level 3 Explained

The next stage focuses on activating prior knowledge to facilitate learning. As we've seen from the forgetting curve, we forget 90% of everything we learn within a week. This retrieval process helps us to fight back and crush the curve.

Relating the topic at hand back to a similar experience your learners have had helps you to build a bridge from the old to the new. This link gives your learners a solid foundation to build on.

➮ Implementing Level 3

Effectively linking new information to prior knowledge requires a good understanding of your teams' current skills and knowledge levels. This can be achieved through a training needs analysis (TNA).

You can also use discussion groups and workbook exercises to ask your learners to reflect upon their previous experiences. This will start the recall process and enable you to better personalise your training content.

Level 4: Presenting the Stimulus (Selective Perception)

➮ Level 4 Explained

You have gained your learner's attention, informed them of the subject matter, and you have helped them relate to the subject. Now you're ready to present your new content to your learners.

As such, this level focuses on presenting new information (what Gagné calls 'the stimulus') to your learners in an effective manner.

➮ Implementing Level 4

Presentation matters. Keep learners captivated by providing a variety of content formats. Similarly, make sure your training materials are engaging and interactive. Consider incorporating:

Level 5: Providing Learning Guidance (Semantic Encoding)

➮ Level 5 Explained

Now that you have delivered the content, you can't afford to simply rest on your laurels. You have to identify and fill in any knowledge gaps that still prevail. This is the stage where you add additional context to the stimulus you've presented.

After all, without spaced repetition, your learners are unlikely to remember information successfully, regardless of the quality of your training materials.

➮ Implementing Level 5

Ultimately, you need to help your team learn more effectively by enabling spaced repetition and a focus on relevancy.

A great way to improve knowledge retention is by implementing scenario-based learning. This is an immersive approach where you put learners in a situation where they can make decisions and apply their knowledge in a safe environment.

Narrative-based learning is also a hugely popular way of ensuring that your content has staying power. In fact, if you weave a narrative into your learning, you're x20 times more likely to retain the information.

Level 6: Eliciting Performance (Responding)

➮ Level 6 Explained

Do you remember at school when your teacher went around the class and asked questions based on your homework? Perhaps you were looking out the window, trying your hardest to avoid eye contact?

They were trying to ensure you could demonstrate your knowledge of what they taught you. In fact, eliciting performance is an essential part of any training programme.

➮ Implementing Level 6

If your content teaches a new skill or process, you should ask your learners to demonstrate how to use it in real life. Role-playing exercises can help you to do this.

If your learners need to showcase their knowledge, you can create some quick-fire questions and embed them in your learning units. This way you're testing your learners whilst they absorb your content.

Level 7: Providing Feedback (Reinforcement)

➮ Level 7 Explained

Once you have elicited performance, it's essential that you communicate to your learners how well they did. As Ken Blanchard puts it, 'feedback is the breakfast of champions'.

If they answered a quiz question incorrectly, then your learners need to know how they can improve. On the other hand, if they passed with flying colours, they deserve to be rewarded and encouraged.

➮ Implementing Level 7

Provide positive or negative feedback depending on your learners' performance. Ensure that any constructive feedback points them in the right direction. Marking something as 'wrong' isn't enough.

Let them know how they can improve and provide useful resources to help them fill their knowledge gaps. If you notice that learners are struggling with particular topics, then consider providing additional support.

Level 8: Assessing Performance (Retrieval)

➮ Level 8 Explained

The eighth level of Gagné's model guides you to assess learner performance. In other words, they'll need to prove their knowledge by completing a test or an assignment.

Your approach should enable you to evaluate your learners' mastery of the subject at hand and whether they've achieved your learning objective.

➮ Implementing Level 8

You have various options when it comes to measuring performance on your digital learning tool. For instance, you could use in-unit quizzes, tests, short questionnaires, or assignments.

Looking to go beyond knowledge checks? Performance assessments (such as simulations, role-playing activities or practical demonstrations) help learners to showcase their newly acquired skills.

Level 9: Enhancing Retention and Transfer (Generalisation)

➮ Level 9 Explained

Congratulations, you've made it to the last stage. Gagné's last step is to transform learners into experts, by ensuring they can effectively transfer their newfound knowledge.

Research suggests that teaching others can be an effective way to solidify our own understanding (often referred to as ' the protégé effect'). Encouraging your learners to apply and share their knowledge helps you to achieve this outcome.

➮ Implementing Level 9

To pull this off, you'll need to create a high-performance learning culture fuelled by social learning. Your learners should have a place to go to interact with other team members, ask questions and share suggestions.

Not sure where to start? Live chat, social feeds, clubs and live streaming could be just the ticket. Check out the 8 social features you need on your learning management system.

Criticisms of The Nine Events of Instruction

The Nine Events of Instruction model, while widely used, has faced some criticism over the years. With that in mind, please consider the following points before adjusting your learning and development approach:

What's more, there's a lack of large-scale controlled studies that demonstrate the model's effectiveness in improving learning outcomes. Ultimately, more robust research is required to definitively establish its impact.

Final Words

Robert Gagné's Nine Events of Instruction helps instructional designers and learning practitioners to recognise that learning does not have to be an all-in-one experience.

Instead, think of your learning experiences as multi-stage blockbusters. This will allow you to enhance learner engagement and retention, rather than overwhelming learners with a single info-dump.

As a result, Gagné's model has been used as a successful template for training since its conception, and it continues to influence the industry.

By marrying it with modern learning technology solutions, you can create a structured training programme that changes behaviour and impacts learner performance. Eventful learning experiences await.
Gagné's Nine Events of Instruction is just one learning model among many. Get the full breakdown and unlock your training potential with 'Your Guide to Learning Theories & Models'. Download our white paper now.

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Gagné's Nine Levels of Learning Explained

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Not many can say they've changed the way we learn, but Robert M. Gagné most certainly can. Let's explore his Nine Levels of Learning!

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This book Teaching in a Digital Age discusses approaches to learning. This chapter criticizes behaviorism, noting that it does not take conscious thought and decision making processes into account.

Cognitivist thought includes considerations of mental processes, taking cues from cognitive psychology.

This chapter helped to break down cognitivist learning theory and its focus on domains of learning and teaching students how to learn.

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An obvious criticism of behaviourism is that it treats humans as a black box, where inputs into the black box, and outputs from the black box, are known and measurable, but what goes on inside the black box is ignored or not considered of interest. However, humans have the ability for conscious thought, decision-making, emotions, and the ability to express ideas through social discourse, all of which are highly significant for learning. Thus we will likely get a better understanding of learning if we try to find out what goes on inside the black box.

Cognitivists therefore have focused on identifying mental processes - internal and conscious representations of the world - that they consider are essential for human learning. Fontana ( 1981) summarises the cognitive approach to learning as follows:

' The cognitive approach ... holds that if we are to understand learning we cannot confine ourselves to observable behaviour, but must also concern ourselves with the learner's ability mentally to re-organize his psychological field (i.e. his inner world of concepts, memories, etc.) in response to experience. This latter approach therefore lays stress not only on the environment, but upon the way in which the individual interprets and tries to make sense of the environment. It sees the individual not as the somewhat mechanical product of his environment, but as an active agent in the learning process, deliberately trying to process and categorize the stream of information fed into him by the external world. ' (p. 148)

Thus the search for rules, principles or relationships in processing new information, and the search for meaning and consistency in reconciling new information with previous knowledge, are key concepts in cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychology is concerned with identifying and describing mental processes that affect learning, thinking and behaviour, and the conditions that influence those mental processes.

2.4.2 Cognitivist learning theory

The most widely used theories of cognitivism in education are based on Bloom's taxonomies of learning objectives (Bloom et al., 1956), which are related to the development of different kinds of learning skills, or ways of learning. Bloom and his colleagues claimed that there are three important domains of learning:

cognitive (thinking)

affective (feeling)

psycho-motor (doing).

Cognitivism focuses on the 'thinking' domain. In more recent years, Anderson and Krathwohl (2000) have slightly modified Bloom et al.'s original taxonomy, adding 'creating' new knowledge:

Bloom et al. also argued that there is a hierarchy of learning, meaning that learners need to progress through each of the levels, from remembering through to evaluating/creating. As psychologists delve deeper into each of these cognitive activities to understand the underlying mental processes, it becomes an increasingly reductionist exercise (see Figure 2.4.3 below).

2.4.3 Applications of cognitivist learning theory

Cognitive approaches to learning, with a focus on comprehension, abstraction, analysis, synthesis, generalization, evaluation, decision-making, problem-solving and creative thinking, seem to fit much better with higher education than behaviourism, but even in school/k-12 education, a cognitivist approach would mean for instance focusing on teaching learners how to learn, on developing stronger or new mental processes for future learning, and on developing deeper and constantly changing understanding of concepts and ideas.

Cognitive approaches to learning cover a very wide range. At the objectivist end, cognitivists consider basic mental processes to be genetic or hard-wired, but can be programmed or modified by external factors, such as new experiences. Early cognitivists in particular were interested in the concept of mind as computer, and more recently brain research has led to a search for linking cognition to the development and reinforcement of neural networks in the brain.

In terms of practice, this concept of mind as computer has led to several technology-based developments in teaching, including:

intelligent tutoring systems, a more refined version of teaching machines, based on breaking down learning into a series of manageable steps, and analysing learners' responses to direct them to the most appropriate next step. Adaptive learning is the latest extension of such developments;

artificial intelligence, which seeks to represent in computer software the mental processes used in human learning (which of course if successful would result in computers replacing many human activities - such as teaching, if learning is considered in an objectivist framework);

pre-determined learning outcomes, based on an analysis and development of different kinds of cognitive activities, such as comprehension, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation;

problem-based learning, based on an analysis of the thinking processes successful problem-solvers use to solve problems;

instructional design approaches that attempt to manage the design of teaching to ensure successful achievement of pre-determined learning outcomes or objectives.

Cognitivists have increased our understanding of how humans process and make sense of new information, how we access, interpret, integrate, process, organize and manage knowledge, and have given us a better understanding of the conditions that affect learners' mental states.

References

Anderson, L. and Krathwohl, D. (eds.) (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives New York: Longman

Atherton J. S. (2013) Learning and Teaching; Bloom's taxonomy, retrieved 7 May 2019

Bloom, B. S.; Engelhart, M. D.; Furst, E. J.; Hill, W. H.; Krathwohl, D. R . (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay Company

Fontana, D. (1981) Psychology for Teachers London: Macmillan/British Psychological Society

Activity 2.4 Defining the limits of cognitivism

1. What areas of knowledge do you think would be best 'taught' or learned through a cognitivist approach?

2. What areas of knowledge do you think would NOT be appropriately taught through a cognitiv ist approach?

3. What are your reasons?

Feedback to come

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Teaching in a Digital Age - Second Edition

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An obvious criticism of behaviourism is that it treats humans as a black box, where inputs into the black box, and outputs from the black box, are known and measurable, but what goes on inside the black box is ignored or not considered of interest.

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This was a short breakdown on the history of cognitivism, information processing, and the schemas included in this learning theory.

This video does include how attention and memory impact problem solving. Notably, this video has a criticism of cognitivism being an oversimplification of human cognition and how it separates thought from social cultural contexts. Cognition is not an individual process but something that is impacted by social and cultural environments (situated cognition).

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This website gives and overview of the cognitive processes this learning theory focuses on, approaches that can be used to facilitate learning using this style, and the key implications.

This website, helpfully, links several videos and some podcasts as well. I thought it was a good resource because it gives the options of reading, watching, or listening about cognitivism.

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Library Services: Learning at university: Cognitivism

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Library Services: Learning at university: Cognitivism

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This article from Educational Technology dives into how much memory and information being processed plays a part in Cognitivism. One of the more interesting facts listed in the article was how its roots dated back to the 1950s; when research done on other cognitive processes and models began to shape the learning theories we know now.

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Cognitivism offers insight into how our minds process information and convert it into knowledge. This approach shifts our focus from visible actions to the internal cognitive processes at play. This article will explain the importance of cognitivism and illustrate how it can be used to improve the learning experience. So whether you are a student aiming to enhance your learning capabilities or an educator looking to upgrade your instructional methods, an understanding of cognitivism can help you achieve your goals.

What is cognitivism

The theory of cognitivism centers on how information is processed within the mind. It goes beyond observable behavior, emphasizing the internal mental processes that occur in learning. Cognitivism theory asserts that learners play an active role in information processing, and so there is a focus on developing areas such as knowledge, memory, thinking, and problem-solving. Integrating cognitivist principles into education involves adapting instructional strategies to match up with these internal cognitive processes.

The history of cognitivism goes back to the late 1950s. At this time, a notable change began to unfold in learning theory, steering away from traditional behavioral models towards ideas more based on cognitive sciences. This shift marked a departure from the exclusive focus on observable behavior, prompting psychologists and educators to highlight the significance of cognitive processes, and central to this change were new beliefs surrounding concepts such as critical thinking, problem-solving, language acquisition, and also the complex realm of information processing.

In recent times, cognitivism has become more and more embedded into instructional design. Many psychology and education specialists, consciously rejecting entrenched behavioristic assumptions, have embraced the psychological principles derived from the cognitive sciences. This means that, in the modern classroom, students are not just seen as passive recipients of information but are encouraged to be actively engaged in mental processing. This deliberate departure from the conventional has been met with widespread recognition. Whether characterised as a learning revolution or a gradual evolutionary process, there is a consensus that cognitive theory now stands at the forefront of prevailing learning theories. Rather than just manipulating the materials presented, contemporary approaches prioritize directing student engagement and interaction within instructional systems (1).

See also: Cognitive Apprenticeship

How Does Learning Occur?

In the contested landscape of learning theories, cognitivism is positioned on the rationalist end of the epistemology spectrum, prioritizing the acquisition of knowledge and internal mental structures.

Cognitive theories put forward the belief that the nuanced processes underpinning learning must be understood and prioritised. This means thinking about how information is received, organized, stored, and retrieved by the mind. Therefore, in cognitivism, the spotlight is not just on the actions of the learner, but also on understanding what they know and the mechanisms through which their knowledge is acquired. As mentioned, the learner is perceived as an active participant, engaging in mental activities that involve internal coding and structuring (2).

Supporters of cognitivism see the brain as an information processor similar to a computer, operating on self-developed algorithms for information processing and decision-making. In this process, individuals acquire and store their knowledge, forming schema (a mental framework) in their long-term memory. However, this knowledge is not randomly stored. Instead, it is subconsciously organized into categories, facilitating the retrieval of pertinent information when needed.

Memory, according to cognitivists, is one of the most crucial areas of interest, so the processes and conditions that enhance memory are key to the understanding of how we learn. Contrary to some study methods, cognitivists advocate for tasks like 'retrieval practice', where learners practice recalling information from memory, citing its effectiveness in improving memory and, consequently, allowing for better learning outcomes (3).

Furthermore, tests, which are sometimes viewed skeptically by some in education, are often supported by cognitivists. To them, tests serve a dual purpose as retrieval practice and diagnostic tools, allowing teachers and students to pinpoint gaps or weaknesses in knowledge. Additionally, cognitivists endorse strategies like 'spaced practice', recognizing that the brain's effectiveness in recalling information improves when intervals are introduced.

Another cornerstone of cognitivist philosophy is problem-based learning, which asserts that attempting to solve problems before being taught the solution cultivates deeper learning, even if errors are part of the process. This holistic perspective on learning from a cognitive position not only shows the complexities of mental processes but also provides practical insights for educators and learners attempting to understand the concept of knowledge acquisition (4).

See also: Jean Piaget and His Theory & Stages of Cognitive Development

Which Factors Influence Learning?

In terms of the dynamics of learning, both cognitivism, which focuses on mental processes and internal structures, and behaviorism, which centers on observable behaviors shaped by external stimuli, underscore the crucial role played by environmental conditions. Cognitivism, in particular, explores how learners actively process information internally. For both theories, instructional strategies take center stage, with explanations, demonstrations, and examples believed to be very important in guiding students through the learning journey. Similarly, the value of practice, coupled with corrective feedback, is thought to be crucial in both these theoretical perspectives.

While these shared elements align the two theories in some ways, key differences occur in the perception of the learner's role. For example, cognitivism introduces a distinctive perspective, stressing the 'active' nature of the learner. Here, the focus shifts beyond simply giving answers to questions. Instead, mental activities like planning, goal-setting, and organizational strategies that precede the answering of a question are prioritized.

Interestingly, cognitive theories go even further, asserting that environmental cues and instructional components alone cannot completely explain learning outcomes in instructional situations. This is an important distinction to the ideas of behaviorism. Instead, cognitivism pays attention to how learners code, transform, store, and retrieve information. Furthermore, beyond the cognitive side of things, the psychological factors of learners are also considered. Thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes are recognized as influential elements woven into the experience of learning. So it is not just about what is presented externally. Cognitivism is equally about the internal landscape of the learner (5).

At the heart of the cognitive approach lies a transformative agenda, which is to change the learner. The emphasis is not on a transaction of knowledge. In contrast, the idea is to intentionally develop skills and strategies that empower the learner in their educational journey.

See also: Constructivist Learning Theory

What is the Role of Memory?

As previously mentioned, learning depends on memory, and so effective storage is key. Educators and designers play an important role in guiding learners to effectively organize information within their memory. The teacher's task is not just to impart knowledge; they also need to help students improve their own memory and learn how to create organized spaces for holding information. However, this can be difficult due to the well-knows challenges of memory, like forgetting due to interference or absence of cues. This means that addressing these issues is integral to meaningful learning retention (6).

How Does Transfer Occur?

When a learner can skilfully apply new knowledge across varied contexts, the phenomenon of 'transfer' is said to be occurring. To do this, a learner must first develop an organized knowledge base built on rules and concepts. This focus on the dynamics of memory storage is a key characteristic of cognitivism.

Crucial to this development is the role of prior knowledge, acting as a guiding force that sets boundary constraints for recognizing similarities and differences in new information. To be clear, this is not just about storing knowledge in memory. The successful use of transfer also depends on retaining the practical applications or uses of that knowledge and recognizing how it can be applied in new contexts.

For example, think of 'transfer' like a chef using their cooking skills in different kitchens. To transfer knowledge well, learners need to organize what they know into rules and concepts, just like a chef organizes recipes. Imagine the chef skilfully moving from making French food to Asian dishes, noticing what is similar and different. Similarly, learners who are good at 'transfer' apply what they know in different situations by using their organized knowledge. This is like the chef using their cooking skills in new kitchens, showing how knowledge can be useful in different ways (7).

See also: Bloom's Taxonomy

What Types of Learning Are Best Explained by This Position?

Cognitive theories are particularly effective in explaining complex forms of learning, such as reasoning and problem-solving, due to cognitivism's focus on mental structures. Unlike behaviorism, which focuses on observable behaviors, cognitivism looks into the internal cognitive processes that drive learning. In the realm of complex learning, understanding intricate concepts, reasoning through problems, and applying knowledge in diverse contexts are mental activities that align with the key principles of cognitive theories. The focus on how information is received and processed within the mind allows cognitive theories to provide comprehensive insights into the processes involved in complex learning tasks.

However, despite theoretical distinctions, both cognitive and behavioral perspectives are similar in that their ultimate goal is to facilitate efficient and effective transferral of knowledge to students. To achieve this goal, both theories employ shared strategies: simplification and standardization. Knowledge is distilled into fundamental building blocks, with extra details discarded for streamlined transfer. Whether in workshops on management skills or other learning contexts, information is presented in a digestible format. For example, think about a situation where participants in a workshop on mastering effective communication skills are provided with information that is broken down into manageable parts for quick and easy understanding. In this type of class, behaviorists would concentrate on crafting an environment that enhances this transfer, while cognitivists would highlight the importance of using efficient mental strategies for processing the information.

See also: Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura

What Basic Assumptions and Principles of This Theory Are Relevant to Instructional Design?

When designing learning experiences based on cognitivism, it is important to embrace certain fundamental principles. Firstly, the active involvement of learners is paramount. Therefore, it is important to create activities and tasks that prompt learners to actively engage, analyze, and apply knowledge rather than passively receive it.

Secondly, hierarchical analyses play a vital role. Recognizing and illustrating prerequisite relationships among concepts through cognitive tasks ensures that learners comprehend foundational concepts before progressing to more complex ones.

Similarly, the structure, organization, and sequencing of information are essential considerations. Careful attention must be given to the order in which learners encounter new concepts. This is because the sequence in which information is presented significantly influences how individuals build their mental frameworks and understand the relationships between different concepts. A well-thought-out structure helps learners to connect new information with their existing knowledge, creating a more cohesive and meaningful understanding of the subject matter (8).

Lastly, as in behaviourism, the creation of learning environments conducive to making connections is also important. Such environments should encourage students to relate new information to their existing knowledge, allowing for a holistic understanding. By integrating these principles into instructional design, one can create effective learning experiences that align with the core tenets of cognitivism.

See also: Backward Design

How Should Instruction Be Structured?

As mentioned, cognitive theories advocate for meaningful knowledge construction, urging instructors to help learners organize and relate new information to existing mental structures.

For effective instruction from a cognitive standpoint, emphasis should be placed on connecting lesson content to a student's existing mental structures, or schema. Moreover, information should be strategically organized, allowing for connections between new and existing knowledge.

To make this work, the responsibilities of teachers and learning designers include understanding the diverse learning experiences of individuals, determining effective ways to structure new information based on prior knowledge, and ensuring feedback is given after practice.

For example, in a situation where a manager is teaching a new employee how to perform a cost-benefit analysis, instead of presenting this task in isolation, the manager might cleverly connect this new task to familiar processes like budgeting or decision-making. This cognitive approach taps into the new member of staff's existing knowledge, making the learning experience smoother and more memorable. This is an example of helping a learner to navigate through a well-known path to understand and apply a new concept.

The cognitive approach not only reduces processing requirements but also enhances the effectiveness of recall cues (triggers that help retrieve information from memory). Furthermore, it recognizes the importance of context in learning, aligning with the idea that meaningful connections contribute to a more robust and lasting understanding.

See also: Instructional Design Models and Theories

Conclusion

The cognitivist perspective on learning puts forward the idea that learners actively engage in the learning experience through cognitive processes. Because of the diversity in learning objectives and student abilities in different contexts, instructional designers need a working understanding of various instructional theories. While there is no singular theory that universally applies, the principles of cognitivism offer valuable frameworks for instructional designers to construct effective learning environments tailored to the diverse needs of learners.

In short, cognitivism matters because it digs into how our minds work. In education and design, it is the backbone, shaping methods that not only 'teach' but actually get our brains working effectively.

References:

1. Winn, W. (1990). Some implications of cognitive theory for instructional design. Instructional Science, 19, 53-69.

2. Garnham, A. (2019). Cognitivism. In The Routledge companion to philosophy of psychology (pp. 99-110). Routledge.

3. Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (2013). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance improvement quarterly, 26(2), 43-71.

4. Al-Jarrah, T. M., Mansor, N., Talafhah, R. H., & Al-Jarrah, J. M. (2019). The application of metacognition, cognitivism, and constructivism in teaching writing skills. European Journal of Foreign Language Teaching.

5. Kolb, D. A., Boyatzis, R. E., & Mainemelis, C. (2014). Experiential learning theory: Previous research and new directions. In Perspectives on thinking, learning, and cognitive styles (pp. 227-247). Routledge.

6. Olson, M. H., & Ramírez, J. J. (2020). An introduction to theories of learning. Routledge.

7. Anderson, J. R. (2013). Cognitive skills and their acquisition. Psychology Press.

8. Paas, F., Van Gog, T., & Sweller, J. (2010). Cognitive load theory: New conceptualizations, specifications, and integrated research perspectives. Educational psychology review, 22, 115-121.

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Cognitivism Learning Theory, Strategies and Examples - Educational Technology

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Cognitivism offers insight into how our minds process information and convert it into knowledge. This approach shifts our focus from visible actions to

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A short video showing how this K-12 instructor mapped out how Cognitivism works. This video in general is a good visual example on how a person's memory can work as a mental model of information being taught to them. I think this works alongside other visual representations of other learning models, not only as a way of showing a mental model in action but also explaining the description of what Cognitivism is.

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Cognitivism theory of learning explained with mind map

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This is an interactive infographic that explores three main learning theories with cognitivism highlighted in the green boxes. It gives a food overview of the process and selecting the boxes gives additional information about the term or phrase in the box. It includes the idea of cognitive overload and information processing, which were referenced by Saunders and Wong (2020).