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A gene drive is a type of genetic engineering technique that modifies genes so that they don’t follow the typical rules of heredity. Gene drives dramatically increase the likelihood that a particular suite of genes will be passed onto the next generation, allowing the genes to rapidly spread through a population and override natural selection.

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1. Explained the steps of the cell cycle and the stages involved in each step; including interphase and mitotic stage.

2. Explored the process of apoptosis.

3. Summarized and identified the major events that occur during mitosis and cytokinesis.

4. Described the basic characteristics of a cancer cell.

5. Distinguished between the structure of a prokaryotic and eukaryotic chromosome.

6. Described the phases of meiosis and the major events that occur during each phase.

7. Compared and contrasted the effects of asexual and sexual reproduction on genetic variation.

8. Examined how crossing over and independent assortment contribute to genetic variation.

9. Contrasted the differences between mitosis and meiosis.

10. Examined any changes in the chromosomal structure and number.

11. Described Gregor Mendel’s experiments and why he is considered the “father of genetics”.

12. Constructed and used a Punnett square to genotypic ratios of offspring.

13. Explained Mendel’s law of separation and law of independent assortment.

14. Explained the inheritance pattern of traits when more than two alleles for the trait exist; including incomplete dominance, codominance, sex linked traits, pleiotropy and polygenic traits.

15. Identified the chemical structure of DNA as defined by the Watson and Crick model, including the historical significance of its discovery.

16. Examined the steps involved in the replication of DNA in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

17. Examined the central dogma of molecular biology, and thus be able to identify the amino acids sequence from a strand of DNA.

18. Described the events that occur during transcription and translation.

19. Examined the different roles of tRNA, mRNA and rRNA in the central dogma of molecular biology.

20. Described the structure of the eukaryotic chromosome and how it is packaged inside a nucleus.

21. Identified the mechanisms used to regulate prokaryotic genes.

22. Summarized the levels of control of gene expression in eukaryotic cells.

23. Identified some of the techniques used in the field of biotechnology and genomics.

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Interphase

G1 phase – Phase that takes place between mitosis and the beginning of replication of the genetic material of the cell. The cell is metabolically active and continues to grow without replicating its DNA.

S phase (Synthesis) – DNA replication takes place and the centriole divides into two centriole pairs in the cells which contain centriole.

G2 phase  – RNA, proteins, other macromolecules required for multiplication of cell organelles. Spindles form, and cell growth are produced as the cell prepares to go into the mitotic phase.

Prophase - The first stage in mitosis, DNA is condensed centrioles appear,  The microtubules reach out and grab the chromosomes of DNA.

Metaphase - The chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell.

Anaphase - Chromosomes' identical halves are pulled to each cell.

Telophase - Chromosomes are pulled toward each centriole, and a divide forms in the cell. The chromosomes will eventually get a nuclear envelope formed around them, and become their own cells.

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Process that occurs in multicellular when a cell intentionally “decides” to die. This often occurs for the greater good of the whole organism, such as when the cell’s DNA has become damaged and it may become cancerous.

Cell shrinks

Cell fragments

Cytoskeleton collapses

Nuclear envelope disassembles

Cells release apoptotic bodies

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Cytokinesis is the division of the parental cell cytoplasm into two parts to form two daughter cells.

Mitosis is the division of the parental nucleus into two genetically identical daughter nuclei in order to produce two daughter cells.

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Cancer- Introduction and characteristics of cancer cell

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Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic chromosomes structure

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Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic chromosomes structure

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The main difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene structure is that the prokaryotic gene structure consists of operons and clusters of several related genes. However eukaryotic gene structure does not contain operons.

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Meiosis is a process that takes a diploid cell with two sets of chromosomes to haploid cells ones with a single set of chromosomes. In humans, the haploid cells made in meiosis are sperm and eggs. When a sperm and an egg join in fertilization, the two haploid sets of chromosomes form a complete diploid set: a new genome.

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During Asexual reproduction an exact genetic copy of the parent organism is produced. Unlike sexual reproduction, asexual reproduction only introduces genetic variation into the population if a random mutation in the organism's DNA is passed on to the offspring.

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Independent assortment is a genetic term that refers to the variation of chromosomes, or genetic information, during sex cell division. This variation allows for genetic differentiation in offspring.

Crossing over also accounts for genetic variation, because due to the swapping of genetic material during crossing over, the chromatids held together by the centromere are no longer identical. So, when the chromosomes go on to meiosis II and separate, some of the daughter cells receive daughter chromosomes with recombined alleles.

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During cell division, an entire chromosome may be lost and the cell will lack all of these genes. The causes behind these chromosome abnormalities and the consequences they have for the cell and the organism is the subject of this section.

If the chromosome is altered, but still retains the three critical features of a chromosome (centromeres, telomeres, and origin of replication), it will continue to be inherited during subsequent cell divisions, however the daughter cell may not retain all the genes.

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Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who discovered the basic principles of heredity through experiments in his garden. Mendel's observations became the foundation of modern genetics and the study of heredity, and he is widely considered a pioneer in the field of genetics because he identified the fundamentals laws of inheritance and calculated their statistical probabilities

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Mendel Law of Separation and Independent Assortment

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Mendel Law of Separation and Independent Assortment

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Gregor Mendel’s law of separation states that the two alleles for each trait segregate, or separate, during the formation of gametes, and that during the formation of new zygotes, the alleles will combine at random with other alleles. The law of separation ensures that a parent, with two copies of each gene, can pass on either allele.

The law of independent assortment states that the alleles of two or more different genes get sorted into gametes independently of one another. The allele a gamete receives for one gene does not influence the allele received for another gene.

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Codominance, Incomplete dominance, sex linked traits, pleiotropy, and polygenic traits

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Codominance, Incomplete dominance, sex linked traits, pleiotropy, and polygenic traits

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• Codominance: both alleles of a gene are equally expressed in a heterozygote (example: type AB blood has genotype IAIB and fully functional A and B protein)
• Incomplete dominance: a heterozygote has an intermediate phenotype between both homozygote parents (example: white flower and red flower make a pink flower)
• Incomplete penetrance: dominant alleles that are either not always or partially expressed
• Pattern of inheritance in which a trait is controlled by several allelic pairs, each dominant allele has a quantitative effect on the phenotype and the effects are additive; examples: skin color, height, prevalence of diabetes

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The structure of DNA, as represented in Watson and Crick's model, is a double-stranded, antiparallel, right-handed helix. The sugar-phosphate backbones of the DNA strands make up the outside of the helix, while the nitrogenous bases are found on the inside and form hydrogen-bonded pairs that hold the DNA strands together.

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Replication of DNA in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

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Replication of DNA in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

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DNA in Eukaryotes is made up of double wrecked linear molecules. The quantity of eukaryotic DNA is about fifty times more than prokaryotic DNA. Furthermore, eukaryotic DNA is densely filled with histones within the cell’s nucleus. As a result, DNA replication happens in three stages: initiate, elongate, and terminate.

1. The replication of DNA begins at a specific position on the DNA molecule. It’s the origin of replication. The enzymes allow their contents to be duplicated. They do this by uncoiling their double helix at the source.

2. Following that, each strand of the helix separates from the other. This exposes the previously unpaired bases, which may be used as templates for new strands.

3. A tiny fragment of RNA – ribonucleic acid is used as a primer. Then, additional nucleotide bases that correspond to the unpaired bases may be collected. To make two daughter strands adjacent to each parent strand.

4. The enzymes, which are DNA polymerases, subsequently finish this process. It results in the production of two DNA molecules due to the procedure. They are comparable to one another and their parent molecule.

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During the process of transcription, the strands of DNA are used to build RNA, a substance essential for DNA and protein production. Transcription rewrites the information found in stored DNA molecules into the new molecule of RNA.

Translation synthesizes proteins, which are essential in various bodily functions. The method in which the information found in mRNA molecules is used in making protein. Translation is where the code for protein production is found.

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1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) copies the genetic instructions from DNA in the nucleus, and carries the instructions to the cytoplasm.

2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) helps form ribosomes the organelle where proteins are assembled.

3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings amino acids to ribosomes, where they are joined together to form proteins.

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DNA is wrapped around proteins known as histones to form structures called nucleosomes. The histones are evolutionarily conserved proteins that are rich in basic amino acids and form an octamer. The DNA (which is negatively charged because of the phosphate groups) is wrapped tightly around the histone core. This nucleosome is linked to the next one with the help of a linker DNA.

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Prokaryotes gene regulation occurs by turning off and on of the genes transcribing in units of Operons.

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Gene expression in eukaryotes is influenced by a wide variety of mechanisms including the loss, amplification, and rearrangement of genes. Genes are differentially transcribed, and the RNA transcripts are variably utilized. Multigene families regulate the amount, the diversity, and the timing of gene expression.

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Contains one YY, two Yy and one yy, so the genotypic ratio is 1 : 2 : 1. If Y is dominant and y is recessive, there are only two phenotypes because YY and Yy have the same phenotype.

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Central dogma is the passing of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein. Transcription is the information transfer between DNA and RNA. During transcription, helicase unwinds the DNA helix.