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Memory is a necessity for human individuality and allows humans to “draw on experience and use the power of prediction to decide how they will respond to future events” (Sousa, p. 71, 2022). Memories are formed when a group of neurons fire together when activated. “Neuron A receives a stimulus, which causes it to set off Neuron B, and if Neuron A fires again soon, a link is established. Later, Neuron A can just fire weakly to set off Neuron B. The firing of Neurons A and B may set off neighboring Neurons C and D. If this happens repeatedly, the four cells become a network and will fire together in the future – forming a memory” (Sousa, p. 73, 2022). The brain is where memories are stored and the amount of what can be remembered is unlimited. Like any muscle in the body, the brain also seems to improve with use. This means that with use, the brain can increase in size, increase its branches, and increase its ability to form more complex networks (Sousa, p. 71, 2022). The brain goes through significant changes when it stores new information as the result of learning. Storing gives rise to new neural pathways and strengthens existing pathways (Sousa, p. 71, 2022). The brain’s attention system selects the appropriate input and processes it. With subsequent rehearsal and practice, it encodes the information or skill into long-term memory, where it is stored. Later, the memory can be retrieved, and the brain decides how to act. Information can eventually be lost through the process of forgetting (Sousa, p. 71, 2022).  Memories are stored in pieces and distributed in sites throughout the brain, not all in one place. Activating these sites simultaneously brings together a recollection of our thoughts and experiences surrounding any item or experience (Sousa, p. 73, 2022). The greater the number of connections that are made, the greater the understanding and meaning the learner can attach to the new learning. This will also lead to the new learning being stored in different networks. This process of increasing the connections and storing new learning throughout the brain gives the learner multiple opportunities to retrieve the new learning. The stages of memory are sensory/immediate, working and long-term. Sensory/immediate memory is important to the learning process because students wouldn’t be able to process the vast amount of information bombarding their senses without it. It acts as a way to quickly recognize patterns and acts as a bridge from stimuli to long-term storage. Working memory is important to the learning process because it is where information from our senses is actively processed, manipulated, and integrated with long-term memory to form new knowledge. Sensory/immediate and working memories are temporary, but some stimuli that are processed in these temporary memories are eventually transferred to long-term memory sites where they actually change the structure of the neurons so that they can last a lifetime (Sousa, p. 74, 2022). Long-term memory can be divided into declarative and nondeclarative memory. Declarative memory describes the remembering of names, facts, music, and objects and is processed by the hippocampus and the cerebrum (Sousa, p. 74, 2022). Declarative memory can be further divided into episodic memory, the memory of remembering, and semantic memory, the memory of knowing. Nondeclarative memory describes all memories that are not declarative memories – they do not require the intentional recall of experiences (Sousa, p. 75, 2022). Emotional memory fits in both categories – declarative and nondeclarative. Emotions can positively or negatively affect the acquisition of new learning because emotion drives attention, and attention drives learning and memory (Sousa, p. 77, 2022). Emotion effects learning in two distinct ways: one is the emotional climate in which the learning occurs, second is the degree to which emotions are associated with the learning content. A positive learning climate for students will lead to endorphins in the blood. Endorphins give feelings of euphoria and will stimulate the frontal lobes of the brain. A negative climate for students will lead to cortisol in blood. The cortisol will raise the anxiety levels in the brain and refocus the frontal lobes to the fight or flight response (Sousa, p. 78, 2022). Teachers must select instructional activities so that students will get emotionally connected to the content being taught. Long-term memory is essential for learning because it stores knowledge, skills, and experiences over extended periods, providing a foundation for acquiring new information and solving problems. Teachers with an understanding of the types of memory and how they form can select strategies that are more likely to improve the retention and retrieval of information.

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“Retention refers to the process whereby long-term memory preserves learning in such a way that it can locate, identify, and retrieve it accurately in the future” (Sousa, p. 79, 2022). This is not an exact process because it is influenced by the following factors: the degree that students will focus, the length and type of rehearsal, the critical attributes that were identified, the influence of prior learnings, and more. Rehearsal is “the continuing reprocessing of information” and it is a critical component in the transference of information from working memory to long-term storage (Sousa, p. 79, 2022). Rehearsal can be evaluated based on the amount of time devoted to it, and the type of rehearsal carried out – either rote or elaborative. The principle of learning called transfer describes a two-part process. The first part being transfer during learning and the second part being transfer of learning. Transfer during learning refers to the effect that past learning has on the processing and acquisition of new learning, and transfer of learning refers to the degree to which the learner applies the new learning in future situations (Sousa, p. 123, 2022).

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There are lasting impacts on the brain that affect the amygdala, the hippocampus, the prefrontal cortex, and the nervous system. If you are living with trauma, research shows that your amygdala doesn’t recognize the difference between a threat then and a threat now (Lebow, 2021). Since this is the part of the brain that puts you into fight-or-flight mode, this means that someone with trauma may have higher levels of stress or anxiety than someone not dealing with trauma. The hippocampus is the brain’s learning center. Research shows that the hippocampus is smaller and less active in people who have experienced trauma, which can create issues around memory and problem-solving (Lebow, 2021). People affected by trauma have a difficult time distinguishing between the past and the present which keeps them in a constant state of hyper awareness or emotional reactivity. The prefrontal cortex is the rational, decision-making area at the front of the brain. For those living with trauma, research shows that the prefrontal cortex is less active. This suppression can slow down the learning of new information that could help control fear (Lebow, 2021). When combined with an overactive amygdala, the prefrontal cortex can have a harder time overriding the fight-or-flight response in situations of perceived stress. Those affected by trauma may feel like they have a hard time controlling their fear response or struggle with logical thinking (Lebow, 2021). Because the nervous system is constantly in overdrive for people affected by trauma, their window of tolerance for stress is reduced. Compared to a person without a history of trauma, those with a traumatic history may find that they’re set off by smaller events or have a trauma response around an event when others might not (Lebow, 2021). People living with trauma also have to deal with a lack of motivation and feelings of energy depletion due to their bodies being hyperaware to the ‘perceived’ dangers around them. This makes it very difficult for the content being taught to move beyond sensory/immediate or working memory into long-term storage.

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Strategies to Improve Memory, Retention, &/or Transfer

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Strategies to Improve Memory, Retention, &/or Transfer

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There are many strategies that can be used to engage students’ memory processes to improve learning. The first type of memory engaged when learning is our short-term or working memory. Working memory is temporary storage with limited capacity. Generally speaking, the younger the student, the smaller the capacity. However, in a classroom full of students that are all the same age, there are varying working memory capacities in each student. Depending on the complexity of the task or direction being given, it is important to support students with different capacities for working memory by repeating directions, writing directions down, and supporting tasks with visuals (DiTullio, 2021). The second type of memory engaged while learning is long-term memory which has unlimited storage. Long-term memory can be categorized as explicit memory or implicit memory. Explicit memory uses the conscious recollection of information, experiences, and concepts while implicit memory is unconscious memory or performing activities without having the think about them, like riding a bike (DiTullio, 2021). Research shows that when information is presented in isolation or a random order, our brains have a very difficult time encoding it into our long-term memory and we forget a lot of what we learn over time. Several strategies supported by research can have a significant impact on a student’s ability to remember new learning. The first strategy recommended to improve memory is to activate student background knowledge prior to introducing new content. Background knowledge is extremely important because there may already be a neural pathway in the brain for the new information to connect to and strengthen (DiTullio, 2021). It is essential for those connections to be activated prior to new learning. A variety of examples of activating background knowledge include concept maps, word webs, K-W-L charts, think/pair/share activities, and videos. These strategies awaken previous knowledge, enhance the process of encoding new information, and improve working memory (DiTullio, 2021). Another strategy is to contextualize learning which makes learning relevant and interactive. It helps students if they don’t have to listen to a lecture for more than 10 minutes at a time because following a lecture uses the working memory, which has a limited capacity (DiTullio, 2021). During lectures, it is beneficial for educators to stop the lecture and have students turn and talk to a partner, do a demonstration, incorporate active/hands-on learning activities, summarize or draw a picture that encompasses the main points of the learning, or use concept/story mapping throughout the lesson. These strategies help students make connections which leads to more efficient encoding for long-term memory. Another strategy that improves memory, particularly for trauma-affected students, is meditation. One study conducted by researchers in Boston found that frequent meditation seemed to bolster the cerebral cortex of its subjects’ brains (Mendel, 2025). The cerebral cortex deals with learning, concentration, and memory. Regular meditation increases blood flow to the brain, which leads to a stronger network of blood vessels in the cerebral cortex and reinforces memory capacity (Mendel, 2025). Meditation is beneficial for all students, but particularly for students affected by trauma. By including meditation training into a class schedule regularly, students of all ages will see improvement in their memory. “Meditation training can enhance various cognitive processes, such as emotional regulation, executive control and attention, particularly sustained attention” (Mendel, 2025).

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Strategies to Improve Memory, Retention, &/or Transfer

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DiTullio, G. (2021, September 9). How to engage students' memory processes to improve learning. Eduptopia. https://www.edutopia.org/article/how-engage-students-memory-processes-improve-learning

Lebow, H. I. (2021, July 2). The science behind PTSD symptoms: How trauma changes the brain. PsychCentral. https://psychcentral.com/ptsd/the-science-behind-ptsd-symptoms-how-trauma-changes-the-brain

Mendel, B. (2025). Does meditation improve memory? Mindworks. https://mindworks.org/blog/does-meditation-improve-memory/

Sousa, David A. (2022). Chapter 3: memory, retention, and learning. How the Brain Learns (6th Ed., pp. 71-122). Grand Canyon University.

Sousa, David A. (2022). Chapter 4: the power of transfer. How the Brain Learns (6th Ed., pp. 123-154). Grand Canyon University.