# data[].attributes.body
Deep respect for nature and animals.

Cyclical worldview.
Figurative language/parallelism.

# data[].attributes.body
Oral literature: epic narratives, creation myths, stories, poems, songs.

Use stories to teach moral lessons and convey practical information about the natural world.

# data[].attributes.body
"The Sequoia tree is named in honor of the Cherokee leader Sequoyah, who helped his people develop an alphabet."

https://www.factretriever.com/native-american-facts

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
94 Interesting Facts about Native Americans | FactRetriever.com

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
With over 500 tribes in the U.S., there is not one "Native American" anything. Learn more about various cultures with these interesting Native American facts.

# data[].attributes.body
Native Americans would use porcupine hairs to make hairbrushes.

https://www.factretriever.com/native-american-facts

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
94 Interesting Facts about Native Americans | FactRetriever.com

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
With over 500 tribes in the U.S., there is not one "Native American" anything. Learn more about various cultures with these interesting Native American facts.

# data[].attributes.headline
Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" colonies 1600-1800

# data[].attributes.subject
Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" colonies 1600-1800

# data[].attributes.body
1. Wrote mostly diaries and histories, which expressed the connections between God and their everyday lives.
2. South to "purify" the Church of England by reforming to the simpler forms of worship and church organization described in the New Testament.
3. Saw religion as a personal, inner experience.
4. Believed in original sin and "elect" who would be saved.
5. Used a plain style of writing.

# data[].attributes.headline
1507: Early Settlement of the first American colonies - Jamestown

# data[].attributes.subject
1507: Early Settlement of the first American colonies - Jamestown

# data[].attributes.headline
1741: Jonathan Edwards "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" 

# data[].attributes.subject
1741: Jonathan Edwards "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" 

# data[].attributes.body
William Bradford
-"Of Plymouth Plantation"

Anne Bradstreet (poetry)

John Edwards
-"Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God"

Edward Taylor
-"Huswifery"

# data[].attributes.body
"There was among the Puritans a general adherence to Reformed Calvinism."

https://www.samstorms.org/enjoying-god-blog/post/10-things-you-should-know-about-the-puritans

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
10 Things You Should Know about the Puritans

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
10 Things You Should Know about the Puritans

# data[].attributes.body
"The Puritans moved to America in order to practice their religion free from persecution."

https://www.ducksters.com/history/colonial_america/puritans.php

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kids learn about the history of the Puritans in colonial America including their beliefs, the Great Migration, Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.

# data[].attributes.body
"The Age of Reason"

"The Enlightenment"

1. Mostly comprised of philosophers, scientists, writing speeches and pamphlets

2. Human beings can arrive at truth (God's rules) by using deductive reasoning, rather than relying on the authority of the past, on religious faith, or intuition

# data[].attributes.body
Benjamin Franklin
—Autobiography

Patrick Henry
—"Speech to the Virginia Convention"

Thomas Paine
—"The Crisis"

Phyllis Wheatley
—poetry

The Constitution

The Bill of Rights

The Declaration of Independence

# data[].attributes.body
"The American Revolution was the United States' longest military conflict before the Vietnam War.

https://www.britannica.com/facts/American-Revolution

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Facts

Did You Know?

The American Revolution was the United States' longest military conflict before the Vietnam War.

Charles Cornwallis did not himself surrender at Yorktown; rather, claiming illness, he sent his deputy, Charles O'Hara.

Roughly 5,000 members of the Continental Army, 5 percent of the total number, were black.

United States American colonies Founding Fathers British Empire Articles of Confederation

Dig Deeper: More Articles That Discuss This Topic

Timeline

Key People

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
American Revolution (1775-83), insurrection by which 13 of Great Britain's North American colonies won political independence and went on to form the United States of America. The war followed more than a decade of growing estrangement between the British crown and many North American colonists.

# data[].attributes.body
Roughly 5,000 members of the Continental Army, 5 percent of the total number, were black.

https://www.britannica.com/facts/American-Revolution

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Facts

Did You Know?

The American Revolution was the United States' longest military conflict before the Vietnam War.

Charles Cornwallis did not himself surrender at Yorktown; rather, claiming illness, he sent his deputy, Charles O'Hara.

Roughly 5,000 members of the Continental Army, 5 percent of the total number, were black.

United States American colonies Founding Fathers British Empire Articles of Confederation

Dig Deeper: More Articles That Discuss This Topic

Timeline

Key People

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
American Revolution (1775-83), insurrection by which 13 of Great Britain's North American colonies won political independence and went on to form the United States of America. The war followed more than a decade of growing estrangement between the British crown and many North American colonists.

# data[].attributes.body
Charles Cornwallis did not himself surrender at Yorktown; rather, claiming illness, he sent his deputy, Charles O'Hara.

https://www.britannica.com/facts/American-Revolution

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Facts

Did You Know?

The American Revolution was the United States' longest military conflict before the Vietnam War.

Charles Cornwallis did not himself surrender at Yorktown; rather, claiming illness, he sent his deputy, Charles O'Hara.

Roughly 5,000 members of the Continental Army, 5 percent of the total number, were black.

United States American colonies Founding Fathers British Empire Articles of Confederation

Dig Deeper: More Articles That Discuss This Topic

Timeline

Key People

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
American Revolution (1775-83), insurrection by which 13 of Great Britain's North American colonies won political independence and went on to form the United States of America. The war followed more than a decade of growing estrangement between the British crown and many North American colonists.

# data[].attributes.body
On July 3, 1775, Washington assumed command of the American forces at Cambridge.

https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Revolution/Washington-takes-command#ref330049

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
American Revolution - Washington, Battles, Independence | Britannica

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
American Revolution - Washington, Battles, Independence: On July 3 George Washington assumed command of the American forces at Cambridge. The Battles of Trenton and Princeton occurred over a span of nine days (December 26, 1776–January 3, 1777); the victories restored American morale and renewed confidence in Washington. The Battles of Saratoga are often considered together as a turning point of the war in favour of the Americans.

# data[].attributes.body
"The American Renaissance"
1. Everything in the world, including human beings, is a reflection of the Divine Soul.

2. People can use their intuition to behold God's spirit revealed in nature or in their own souls.

3. Self-reliance and individualism must outweigh external authority and link conformity to tradition.

4. Important social and political movements include the Abolitionist, Utopian, and Women's Suffrage Movements

# data[].attributes.body
Transcendentalism

# data[].attributes.headline
Famous Authors and Works Transcendentalism 

# data[].attributes.subject
Famous Authors and Works Transcendentalism 

# data[].attributes.body
Ralph Waldo Emerson
—Nature
—"Self-Reliance"

Henry David Thoreau
—Walden
—Life in the Woods

Louisa May Alcott
—Little Women

# data[].attributes.body
The philosophy of transcendentalism arose in the 1830s in the eastern United States as a reaction to intellectualism. Its adherents yearned for intense spiritual experiences and sought to transcend the purely material world of reason and rationality.

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/the-early-republic/culture-and-reform/a/transcendentalism#:~:text=The%20philosophy%20of%20transcendentalism%20arose%20in%20the%201830s%20in%20the,world%20of%20reason%20and%20rationality.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Oops. Something went wrong. Please try again. | Khan Academy

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# data[].attributes.body
Some influential transcendentalists, such as Margaret Fuller, were early pioneers of feminism.

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/the-early-republic/culture-and-reform/a/transcendentalism#:~:text=The%20philosophy%20of%20transcendentalism%20arose%20in%20the%201830s%20in%20the,world%20of%20reason%20and%20rationality.

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Oops. Something went wrong. Please try again. | Khan Academy

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Cookies are small files placed on your device that collect information when you use Khan Academy. Strictly necessary cookies are used to make our site work and are required. Other types of cookies are used to improve your experience, to analyze how Khan Academy is used, and to market our service. You can allow these other cookies by checking the boxes below. You can learn more in our cookie policy

# data[].attributes.headline
Taking a stand, the 2023 Writers and Actors Strike

# data[].attributes.subject
Taking a stand, the 2023 Writers and Actors Strike

# data[].attributes.body
The WGA and AMPTP had been negotiating over pay, streaming residuals and other issues.

https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/business/story/2023-05-01/writers-strike-what-to-know-wga-guild-hollywood-productions

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Writers Guild of America and the Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers had been negotiating over pay, streaming residuals and other issues for a new contract to replace a three-year deal that expired May 1.

A majority of the WGA's membership voted in April to authorize a strike if an agreement wasn't reached.

On Monday evening, the boards of directors of the WGA's East and West coast divisions voted to call a strike effective 12:01 a.m. Tuesday.

The WGA says late-night talk shows would be among the first to be affected by a possible strike.

Southern California's production economy was upended during the last writers' strike, which lasted 100 days and happened in 2007-08.

Here's everything leading up to and what you need to know about a writers strike.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Writers' strike: What's at stake and how it could disrupt Hollywood

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
As the contract between the Writers Guild of America and the Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers expires, a strike has been called.

# data[].attributes.body
After a nearly five-month walkout, a tentative deal has been reached by the Writers Guild of America and the major Hollywood studios that would end a strike.

https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/business/story/2023-05-01/writers-strike-what-to-know-wga-guild-hollywood-productions

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Writers Guild of America and the Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers had been negotiating over pay, streaming residuals and other issues for a new contract to replace a three-year deal that expired May 1.

A majority of the WGA's membership voted in April to authorize a strike if an agreement wasn't reached.

On Monday evening, the boards of directors of the WGA's East and West coast divisions voted to call a strike effective 12:01 a.m. Tuesday.

The WGA says late-night talk shows would be among the first to be affected by a possible strike.

Southern California's production economy was upended during the last writers' strike, which lasted 100 days and happened in 2007-08.

Here's everything leading up to and what you need to know about a writers strike.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Writers' strike: What's at stake and how it could disrupt Hollywood

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
As the contract between the Writers Guild of America and the Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers expires, a strike has been called.

# data[].attributes.body
1. Valued feeling, intuition, idealism, and inductive reasoning.

2. Placed faith in inner experience and the power of the imagination.

3. Shunned the artificiality of civilization and sought unspoiled nature as a path to spirituality.

4. Championed individual freedom and the worth of the individual

5. Saw poetry as the highest expression of the imagination

6. Dark Romantics: used dark and supernatural themes/settings (Gothic style)

# data[].attributes.body
The War of 1812
1812-1815

California Gold Rush
1848-58

# data[].attributes.body
Washington Irving
—"Rip van Winkle"

Emily Dickinson
—poetry

Walt Whitman
—Leaves of Grass

Edgar Allan Poe
—"The Raven"

Nathaniel Hawthorne
—The Scarlet Letter

# data[].attributes.body
Romanticism emphasized the individual, the subjective, the irrational, the imaginative, the personal, the spontaneous, the emotional, the visionary, and the transcendental.

https://www.britannica.com/art/Romanticism#:~:text=It%20was%20also%20to%20some,the%20visionary%2C%20and%20the%20transcendental.

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Table of Contents

Table of Contents Ask the Chatbot a Question

Romanticism, attitude or intellectual orientation that characterized many works of literature, painting, music, architecture, criticism, and historiography in Western civilization over a period from the late 18th to the mid-19th century. Romanticism can be seen as a rejection of the precepts of order, calm, harmony, balance, idealization, and rationality that typified Classicism in general and late 18th-century Neoclassicism in particular. It was also to some extent a reaction against the Enlightenment and against 18th-century rationalism and physical materialism in general. Romanticism emphasized the individual, the subjective, the irrational, the imaginative, the personal, the spontaneous, the emotional, the visionary, and the transcendental.

Among the characteristic attitudes of Romanticism were the following: a deepened appreciation of the beauties of nature; a general exaltation of emotion over reason and of the senses over intellect; a turning in upon the self and a heightened examination of human personality and its moods and mental potentialities; a preoccupation with the genius, the hero, and the exceptional figure in general and a focus on his or her passions and inner struggles; a new view of the artist as a supremely individual creator, whose creative spirit is more important than strict adherence to formal rules and traditional procedures; an emphasis upon imagination as a gateway to transcendent experience and spiritual truth; an obsessive interest in folk culture, national and ethnic cultural origins, and the medieval era; and a predilection for the exotic, the remote, the mysterious, the weird, the occult, the monstrous, the diseased, and even the satanic.

Romanticism proper was preceded by several related developments from the mid-18th century on that can be termed Pre-Romanticism. Among such trends was a new appreciation of the medieval romance, from which the Romantic movement derives its name. The romance was a tale or ballad of chivalric adventure whose emphasis on individual heroism and on the exotic and the mysterious was in clear contrast to the elegant formality and artificiality of prevailing Classical forms of literature, such as the French Neoclassical tragedy or the English heroic couplet in poetry. This new interest in relatively unsophisticated but overtly emotional literary expressions of the past was to be a dominant note in Romanticism.

Romanticism in English literature began in the 1790s with the publication of the Lyrical Ballads of William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Wordsworth's "Preface" to the second edition (1800) of Lyrical Ballads, in which he described poetry as "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings," became the manifesto of the English Romantic movement in poetry. William Blake was the third principal poet of the movement's early phase in England. The first phase of the Romantic movement in Germany was marked by innovations in both content and literary style and by a preoccupation with the mystical, the subconscious, and the supernatural. A wealth of talents, including Friedrich Hölderlin, the early Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Jean Paul, Novalis, Ludwig Tieck, August Wilhelm and Friedrich von Schlegel, Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder, and Friedrich Schelling, belong to this first phase. In Revolutionary France, François-Auguste-René, vicomte de Chateaubriand, and Madame de Staël were the chief initiators of Romanticism, by virtue of their influential historical and theoretical writings.

The second phase of Romanticism, comprising the period from about 1805 to the 1830s, was marked by a quickening of cultural nationalism and a new attention to national origins, as attested by the collection and imitation of native folklore, folk ballads and poetry, folk dance and music, and even previously ignored medieval and Renaissance works. The revived historical appreciation was translated into imaginative writing by Sir Walter Scott, who is often considered to have invented the historical novel. At about this same time English Romantic poetry had reached its zenith in the works of John Keats, Lord Byron, and Percy Bysshe Shelley.

A notable by-product of the Romantic interest in the emotional were works dealing with the supernatural, the weird, and the horrible, as in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein and works by Charles Robert Maturin, the Marquis de Sade, and E.T.A. Hoffmann. The second phase of Romanticism in Germany was dominated by Achim von Arnim, Clemens Brentano, Joseph von Görres, and Joseph von Eichendorff.

By the 1820s Romanticism had broadened to embrace the literatures of almost all of Europe. In this later, second, phase, the movement was less universal in approach and concentrated more on exploring each nation's historical and cultural inheritance and on examining the passions and struggles of exceptional individuals. A brief survey of Romantic or Romantic-influenced writers would have to include Thomas De Quincey, William Hazlitt, and Charlotte, Emily, and Anne Brontë in England; Victor Hugo, Alfred de Vigny, Alphonse de Lamartine, Alfred de Musset, Stendhal, Prosper Mérimée, Alexandre Dumas, and Théophile Gautier in France; Alessandro Manzoni and Giacomo Leopardi in Italy; Aleksandr Pushkin and Mikhail Lermontov in Russia; José de Espronceda and Ángel de Saavedra in Spain; Adam Mickiewicz in Poland; and almost all of the important writers in pre-Civil War America.

Visual arts

In the 1760s and '70s a number of British artists at home and in Rome, including James Barry, Henry Fuseli, John Hamilton Mortimer, and John Flaxman, began to paint subjects that were at odds with the strict decorum and classical historical and mythological subject matter of conventional figurative art. These artists favoured themes that were bizarre, pathetic, or extravagantly heroic, and they defined their images with tensely linear drawing and bold contrasts of light and shade. William Blake, the other principal early Romantic painter in England, evolved his own powerful and unique visionary images.

In the next generation the great genre of English Romantic landscape painting emerged in the works of J.M.W. Turner and John Constable. These artists emphasized transient and dramatic effects of light, atmosphere, and colour to portray a dynamic natural world capable of evoking awe and grandeur.

In France the chief early Romantic painters were Baron Antoine Gros, who painted dramatic tableaus of contemporary incidents of the Napoleonic Wars, and Théodore Géricault, whose depictions of individual heroism and suffering in The Raft of the Medusa and in his portraits of the insane truly inaugurated the movement around 1820. The greatest French Romantic painter was Eugène Delacroix, who is notable for his free and expressive brushwork, his rich and sensuous use of colour, his dynamic compositions, and his exotic and adventurous subject matter, ranging from North African Arab life to revolutionary politics at home. Paul Delaroche, Théodore Chassériau, and, occasionally, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres represent the last, more academic phase of Romantic painting in France. In Germany Romantic painting took on symbolic and allegorical overtones, as in the works of Philipp Otto Runge. Caspar David Friedrich, the greatest German Romantic artist, painted eerily silent and stark landscapes that can induce in the beholder a sense of mystery and religious awe.

Romanticism expressed itself in architecture primarily through imitations of older architectural styles and through eccentric buildings known as "follies." Medieval Gothic architecture appealed to the Romantic imagination in England and Germany, and this renewed interest led to the Gothic Revival.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Romanticism | Definition, Characteristics, Artists, History, Art, Poetry, Literature, & Music | Britannica

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Romanticism is the attitude that characterized works of literature, painting, music, architecture, criticism, and historiography in the West from the late 18th to the mid-19th century. It emphasized the individual, the subjective, the irrational, the imaginative, the personal, the emotional, and the visionary.

# data[].attributes.body
Romanticism proper was preceded by several related developments from the mid-18th century on that can be termed Pre-Romanticism.

https://www.britannica.com/art/Romanticism

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Romanticism | Definition, Characteristics, Artists, History, Art, Poetry, Literature, & Music

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Romanticism is the attitude that characterized works of literature, painting, music, architecture, criticism, and historiography in the West from the late 18th to the mid-19th century. It emphasized the individual, the subjective, the irrational, the imaginative, the personal, the emotional, and the…

# data[].attributes.body
In addition to meeting future president Franklin Pierce while attending Maine’s Bowdoin College, Hawthorne was a fellow member of the class of 1825 with Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.

https://www.history.com/news/10-things-you-may-not-know-about-nathaniel-hawthorne

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
1. He was the college classmate of another famous writer-and a president.

In addition to meeting future president Franklin Pierce while attending Maine's Bowdoin College, Hawthorne was a fellow member of the class of 1825 with Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. The pair remained lifelong friends. Longfellow served as a pallbearer at Hawthorne's funeral and later penned the poem "The Bells of Lynn" in his honor.

2. He changed his last name in part to hide his family's dark past.

The novelist's great-great-grandfather, John Hathorne, was a leading judge of the Salem witch trials, and Hawthorne was haunted by his ancestor's shameful past. Some believe that shortly after graduating from Bowdoin, the author added a "w" to his last name in part to make the spelling match the pronunciation and also to disassociate himself from a figure of whom he wrote was "so conspicuous in the martyrdom of the witches, that their blood may fairly be said to have left a stain upon him."

3. Hawthorne was the founding member of a utopian commune.

In 1841, Hawthorne became a charter member of Brook Farm, an agricultural collective founded by Unitarian minister George Ripley near Boston. The author expected that farm life would free up more time for him to write, but he quickly soured on the Transcendental commune as he laboriously cut straw, milked cows and shoveled a hill of manure that Ripley called the "gold mine." Hawthorne's blistered hands hampered his writing, and he wondered how anyone could "expect pretty stories from a man who feeds pigs." Disillusioned, he left after just a few months at the commune, which later inspired his 1852 novel The Blithedale Romance.

4. He lived in the same houses as two other famed Transcendental authors.

In 1842, Hawthorne and his newlywed wife, Sophia, moved into the Old Manse in Concord, Massachusetts, a homestead in which Ralph Waldo Emerson had previously composed the first draft of "Nature," the essay that launched the Transcendental movement. Another Transcendental leader, Henry David Thoreau, planted an heirloom vegetable garden for the Hawthornes when they moved into the Old Manse. A decade later, the Hawthornes moved into another Concord house with a literary past-the Wayside, the childhood home of author Louisa May Alcott.

5. Zachary Taylor's election led to the publication of The Scarlet Letter.

Struggling financially as a writer, Hawthorne through his connections with the Democratic Party procured a political appointment in 1846 to be a Custom House surveyor in his hometown of Salem, Massachusetts. Following the 1849 inauguration of Zachary Taylor, the president's fellow Whig Party members accused Hawthorne of "corruption, iniquity and fraud." Hawthorne's fierce fight to retain his government job was covered by partisan newspapers around the country, but he was ultimately let go in June 1849. After his dismissal, the novelist immersed himself for months in writing The Scarlet Letter, considered by many to be his best work.

6. The Scarlet Letter was an instant bestseller-but not for the reason you think.

When The Scarlet Letter was published in the spring of 1850, the initial print run of 2,500 copies sold out in only 10 days. However, given the publicity that had surrounded Hawthorne's firing the year before, readers were initially less interested in the tale of Hester Prynne than they were in the novel's introduction, "The Custom-House," in which Hawthorne's barbed pen skewered his political enemies.

7. He served as an American diplomat.

Shortly after Hawthorne completed writing Tanglewood Tales in 1853, the Senate approved his nomination by the newly inaugurated Pierce to be a United States consul in Liverpool, England, among the most lucrative of diplomatic positions. During his four years in the diplomatic corps, Hawthorne did not publish any major works.

8. Hawthorne's youngest daughter has been proposed for sainthood.

Rose Hawthorne, who initially pursued a literary career like her father, converted to Roman Catholicism with her husband. Following the death of her 5-year-old boy and her husband, she moved into a tenement in an impoverished New York City neighborhood and began nursing incurable cancer patients. She then joined a religious order and became a nun, Mother Mary Alphonsa. In 1900, she co-founded the Dominican Sisters of Hawthorne to continue her work with impoverished cancer patients. In 2003, she was nominated for sainthood.

9. Hawthorne was separated from his wife for 142 years.

Seven years after Sophia Hawthorne buried her husband in Concord's Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, she passed away in London. She was interred an ocean away from her husband along with their daughter Una when she died in 1877. In 2006, the bodies of Hawthorne's wife and daughter were unearthed from London's Kensal Green Cemetery and reinterred next to his side.

10. A former president of the United States discovered Hawthorne dead.

With the author's health failing in the spring of 1864 as a likely result of gastrointestinal cancer, Hawthorne's old college friend, former president Franklin Pierce traveled with him to New Hampshire's White Mountains with the hope that the region's rarified air could be an elixir. On the evening of May 18 inside the Pemigewasset House hotel in Plymouth, New Hampshire, Hawthorne retired early after a dinner of toast and tea. During the night, Pierce awoke to check on his friend in the adjoining room. The former president placed his hand upon Hawthorne's forehead and found that he was dead. Pierce's presence fulfilled a passage in Hawthorne's novel The Blithedale Romance: "Happy the man that has such a friend beside him, when he comes to die!"

Fact Check

We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
10 Things You May Not Know About Nathaniel Hawthorne | HISTORY

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Explore 10 surprising facts about the famed American novelist.

# data[].attributes.body
When The Scarlet Letter was published in the spring of 1850, the initial print run of 2,500 copies sold out in only 10 days. However, given the publicity that had surrounded Hawthorne’s firing the year before, readers were initially less interested in the tale of Hester Prynne than they were in the novel’s introduction, “The Custom-House,” in which Hawthorne’s barbed pen skewered his political enemies.

https://www.history.com/news/10-things-you-may-not-know-about-nathaniel-hawthorne

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
1. He was the college classmate of another famous writer-and a president.

In addition to meeting future president Franklin Pierce while attending Maine's Bowdoin College, Hawthorne was a fellow member of the class of 1825 with Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. The pair remained lifelong friends. Longfellow served as a pallbearer at Hawthorne's funeral and later penned the poem "The Bells of Lynn" in his honor.

2. He changed his last name in part to hide his family's dark past.

The novelist's great-great-grandfather, John Hathorne, was a leading judge of the Salem witch trials, and Hawthorne was haunted by his ancestor's shameful past. Some believe that shortly after graduating from Bowdoin, the author added a "w" to his last name in part to make the spelling match the pronunciation and also to disassociate himself from a figure of whom he wrote was "so conspicuous in the martyrdom of the witches, that their blood may fairly be said to have left a stain upon him."

3. Hawthorne was the founding member of a utopian commune.

In 1841, Hawthorne became a charter member of Brook Farm, an agricultural collective founded by Unitarian minister George Ripley near Boston. The author expected that farm life would free up more time for him to write, but he quickly soured on the Transcendental commune as he laboriously cut straw, milked cows and shoveled a hill of manure that Ripley called the "gold mine." Hawthorne's blistered hands hampered his writing, and he wondered how anyone could "expect pretty stories from a man who feeds pigs." Disillusioned, he left after just a few months at the commune, which later inspired his 1852 novel The Blithedale Romance.

4. He lived in the same houses as two other famed Transcendental authors.

In 1842, Hawthorne and his newlywed wife, Sophia, moved into the Old Manse in Concord, Massachusetts, a homestead in which Ralph Waldo Emerson had previously composed the first draft of "Nature," the essay that launched the Transcendental movement. Another Transcendental leader, Henry David Thoreau, planted an heirloom vegetable garden for the Hawthornes when they moved into the Old Manse. A decade later, the Hawthornes moved into another Concord house with a literary past-the Wayside, the childhood home of author Louisa May Alcott.

5. Zachary Taylor's election led to the publication of The Scarlet Letter.

Struggling financially as a writer, Hawthorne through his connections with the Democratic Party procured a political appointment in 1846 to be a Custom House surveyor in his hometown of Salem, Massachusetts. Following the 1849 inauguration of Zachary Taylor, the president's fellow Whig Party members accused Hawthorne of "corruption, iniquity and fraud." Hawthorne's fierce fight to retain his government job was covered by partisan newspapers around the country, but he was ultimately let go in June 1849. After his dismissal, the novelist immersed himself for months in writing The Scarlet Letter, considered by many to be his best work.

6. The Scarlet Letter was an instant bestseller-but not for the reason you think.

When The Scarlet Letter was published in the spring of 1850, the initial print run of 2,500 copies sold out in only 10 days. However, given the publicity that had surrounded Hawthorne's firing the year before, readers were initially less interested in the tale of Hester Prynne than they were in the novel's introduction, "The Custom-House," in which Hawthorne's barbed pen skewered his political enemies.

7. He served as an American diplomat.

Shortly after Hawthorne completed writing Tanglewood Tales in 1853, the Senate approved his nomination by the newly inaugurated Pierce to be a United States consul in Liverpool, England, among the most lucrative of diplomatic positions. During his four years in the diplomatic corps, Hawthorne did not publish any major works.

8. Hawthorne's youngest daughter has been proposed for sainthood.

Rose Hawthorne, who initially pursued a literary career like her father, converted to Roman Catholicism with her husband. Following the death of her 5-year-old boy and her husband, she moved into a tenement in an impoverished New York City neighborhood and began nursing incurable cancer patients. She then joined a religious order and became a nun, Mother Mary Alphonsa. In 1900, she co-founded the Dominican Sisters of Hawthorne to continue her work with impoverished cancer patients. In 2003, she was nominated for sainthood.

9. Hawthorne was separated from his wife for 142 years.

Seven years after Sophia Hawthorne buried her husband in Concord's Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, she passed away in London. She was interred an ocean away from her husband along with their daughter Una when she died in 1877. In 2006, the bodies of Hawthorne's wife and daughter were unearthed from London's Kensal Green Cemetery and reinterred next to his side.

10. A former president of the United States discovered Hawthorne dead.

With the author's health failing in the spring of 1864 as a likely result of gastrointestinal cancer, Hawthorne's old college friend, former president Franklin Pierce traveled with him to New Hampshire's White Mountains with the hope that the region's rarified air could be an elixir. On the evening of May 18 inside the Pemigewasset House hotel in Plymouth, New Hampshire, Hawthorne retired early after a dinner of toast and tea. During the night, Pierce awoke to check on his friend in the adjoining room. The former president placed his hand upon Hawthorne's forehead and found that he was dead. Pierce's presence fulfilled a passage in Hawthorne's novel The Blithedale Romance: "Happy the man that has such a friend beside him, when he comes to die!"

Fact Check

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10 Things You May Not Know About Nathaniel Hawthorne | HISTORY

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Explore 10 surprising facts about the famed American novelist.

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Along with government workers, artists and actors were often accused of communist sympathies.

https://www.britannica.com/facts/McCarthyism

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McCarthyism, name given to the period of the 1950s when Senator Joseph McCarthy produced a series of investigations and hearings in an effort to expose supposed communist infiltration of the U.S. government. McCarthyism reached its peak and began its decline during the Army-McCarthy hearings in 1954.

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Charlie Chaplin, Lucille Ball, Arthur Miller, Lena Horne, and many others in Hollywood were targeted by McCarthyism.

https://softschools.com/facts/us_history/mccarthyism_facts/2412/

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McCarthyism is a term that refers to the act of making an allegation against someone that suggests they are supporting or spreading Communism, without sufficient evidence. It also refers to making allegations of being Communist using unfair techniques for investigating. It began when Senator Joseph McCarthy claimed that 200 Communists had somehow become part of the United States government, and he started the House Un-American Activities Committee in 1938. This led to thousands of unfounded accusations of Communism against Americans, and to many people being jailed for not exposing people suspected of being Communists. Not one person was ever convicted by Joseph McCarthy’s un-American accusations.

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He attended the Agassiz School, a public school run by Maria Baldwin, the African American principal and early civil rights leader. The school now bears her name.

E.E. Cummings spent 3-1/2 months in a French military prison.

Though he wrote avant-garde poetry and lived a Bohemian lifestyle in Greenwich Village, he registered as a Republican and supported the anti-Communist U.S.

senator from Wisconsin, Joseph McCarthy.

https://newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/seven-fun-facts-about-e-e-cummings/

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Many school kids have a special affinity for e.e. cummings, who wrote about the circus and got away with funky punctuation, made-up words and no capitalization in his poetry. Young ladies, too, are drawn to his lyrical love poems, some of the best in the English language.

He loved to mangle language as the cartoon character Krazy Kat did. He even wrote an introduction to the first collection of the Krazy Kat comic strips.

Yet Cummings' experimental poems weren't just kid stuff.

When he died in 1962, critics acknowledged him as an important 20 th century poet. "No one else has ever made avant-garde, experimental poems so attractive to the general and the special reader," wrote critic Randall Jarrell.

E.E. Cummings

He was born into a prosperous, intellectual Unitarian family in Cambridge, Mass. Like another New England poet, Robert Frost, he had a farm in New Hampshire. Throughout his life he found refuge at Joy Farm in Madison, near Mount Chocorua.

He earned a B.A. and an M.A. from Harvard, signed up to drive an ambulance during World War I and then wrote a critically acclaimed novel, The Enormous Room.

In 1923 his first book of poetry, Tulips and Chimneys, came out. He wrote more books of poetry in the 20s that established his reputation as an avant-garde poet. Over his lifetime he also wrote 2,900 poems, four plays, two novels and essays. He also painted and drew.

For most of his life he lived in a small apartment at 4 Patchin Place in Greenwich Village. "the topfloorback room at 4 Patchin Place ... meant Safety & Peace & the truth of Dreaming & the bliss of Work."

He had two short marriages as a young man, then fell in love with a model, Marion Morehouse. They lived together for 30 years, until his death.

He died on Sept. 3, 1962 and is buried at the Forest Hills Cemetery in the Jamaica Plain section of Boston.

Here are seven fun facts about e.e. cummings, or E.E. Cummings, if you prefer. He used both.

1. Cummings had Cambridge roots

His childhood home in Cambridge at 104 Irving Street was across the street from the house Julia Child would later live in. Cummings' home was the first in Cambridge to have a telephone (a hand-cranked version, that is).

He was born Edward Estlin Cummings, named after his father, on Oct. 14, 1894. Everyone called him Estlin. His loving, well-to-do family encouraged his creativity as a child and supported him financially as an adult. He had a happy childhood, capturing its essence in his most famous poem, [in Just-].

When the world is puddle-wonderful

The little lame baloon-man whistles

Far and wee,

And Betty and Is'bel come dancing...

And the goat-footed baloon-man

Whistles

Far

And

Wee.

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and James Russell Lowell, two Fireside poets, had also lived in the city and died within a decade of Cummings' birth. Before TV and radio, people read poetry for entertainment in family settings - hence "fireside." - and schoolchildren memorized poems in school.

Poets were celebrities, rock stars even, back then. Estlin Cummings wanted to be one from his early childhood.

2. He had a beloved African-American teacher

He attended the Agassiz School, a public school run by Maria Baldwin, the African American principal and early civil rights leader. The school now bears her name. About Baldwin, he wrote, "From her I marvelingly learned that the truest power is gentleness." She called him a most loveable little boy.

As a boy, E.E. Cummings wrote a poem every day. His trademark: no space after a comma, began at the age of 14.

His first published poem appeared in 1910 in the Cambridge Review, a monthly magazine by the city's high school students. The last line, about the retirement of his teacher, read,

"Than that which fits you best-our faithful friend." But the printer left off 'you.' From then on, Cummings had an inordinate distrust of typesetters. "Later in his life he would become the bane of printers, insisting on galley after galley that he would examine with extreme care, correcting the most minute mistakes," wrote his biographer, Christopher Sawyer-Laucanno.

3. He spent time in a French military prison

E.E. Cummings spent 3-1/2 months in a French military prison. He had joined the French ambulance corps during World War I. A bureaucratic mix-up left him in Paris for five weeks, and he fell in love with a French prostitute.

Cummings and his friend, William Slater Brown, wrote letters home that included comments opposing the war. The French military arrested him in 1917 and incarcerated him in a large room. His father protested vigorously and got him out of prison.

From that experience he wrote The Enormous Room, published in 1922, to critical acclaim.

4. He had Daddy issues

His father worked as the pastor of the South Congregational Church and as a lecturer at Harvard. He also served as secretary of the Boston Mayor's Advisory Committee on Penal Aspects of Drunkenness and a supporter of the Watch and Ward Society.

His father was a large, powerful man, athletic and aggressive. Estlin, on the other hand, was small, uncoordinated and as a teenager had bad acne. His father often said, "I'd never give a penny to a son of mine who drank." Estlin drank, but he got more than a penny over the years.

His daddy issues caused him to start rebelling against his father while at Harvard. He drank whiskey sours, visited burlesque shows and wrote erotic love poems. Once he parked his father's car in front of a bordello.

5. Cummings was a Republican

Though he wrote avant-garde poetry and lived a Bohemian lifestyle in Greenwich Village, he registered as a Republican and supported the anti-Communist U.S. senator from Wisconsin, Joseph McCarthy.

Cummings visited the Soviet Union in 1931, and criticized the poverty and squalor under Stalin. Susan Cheever wrote, "He lost friends, and people crossed the street to avoid him. Malcolm Cowley and Edmund Wilson were horrified at what seemed to them, accurately, to be a sudden veering into right-wing conservatism..." He hated the Kennedys and refused an invitation to the White House from First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy.

6. He grew estranged from his daughter

His first wife, Elaine Orr, abducted their daughter and he didn't see her for more than 20 years. Cummings had an affair with Elaine while she was married to Scofield Thayer. She had Cummings' child, Nancy, in 1919, but her husband was okay with it. Thayer gave Nancy his name and supported her.

Elaine divorced Thayer to marry Cummings in 1924. They stayed together all of two months and divorced after nine.

Elaine told Nancy that Thayer was her father, that he was dead (he wasn't), that he was crazy (he was).

Elaine shuttled Nancy across the Atlantic and around Europe, putting her in the care of nurses, governesses and boarding schools. Nancy on her own she discovered the poetry of E.E. Cummings. During World War II she worked in Washington, D.C., as a typist and a linguist, and met and married Willard Roosevelt, Theodore Roosevelt's grandson.

Nancy's mother-in-law invited her to stay during the summer at her summer home near Mount Chocorua. Cummings, nearby at Joy Farm, invited her for tea but didn't disclose their relationship. She agreed to meet him again in Greenwich Village to have her portrait painted, and felt herself falling in love with him. Finally he told her the truth.

7. He loved dirty dancing

He admitted his addiction to striptease and burlesque while delivering the Charles Eliot Norton lectures at Harvard. When living in Greenwich Village he frequented the burlesque show at Minsky's National Winter Garden to see his favorite stripper, Cleo. As a Harvard undergraduate, he went to the burlesque show at the Old Howard Theater in Boston's Scollay Square. In Paris, he dated a prostitute named Marie-Louise. He wrote articles for Vanity Fair in 1925 and 1926 defending burlesque as "art which is alive."
We relied on several fine biographies of E.E. Cummings, including E.E. Cummings A Biography By Christopher Sawyer-Lauçanno; E.E. Cummings By Catherine Reef; Dreams in the Mirror: A Biography of E.E. Cummings By Richard S. Kennedy; e.e. cummings: a life by Susan Cheever. Image: e.e. cummings house in Cambridge By User:Magicpiano - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=22922253. This story was updated in 2024.

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Seven Fun Facts About E.E. Cummings - New England Historical Society

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Here are seven surprising facts about E.E. Cummings, along with one about the way he spelled his name (not always lowercase).

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The Dickinson family were devout Calvinists.

She was incredibly reclusive.

Her work was initially criticized for its unique take on grammar.

https://www.emilydickinson.net/emily-dickinson-facts.jsp

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1. Her father was a United States Senator. Emily Dickinson was born into a privileged life in Amherst, Massachusetts. Edward Dickinson was a well-regarded lawyer from the Whig party. After graduating from Yale and then the Northampton Law School he served as the treasurer of Amherst College.

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She secretly wrote pulp fiction.

She suffered from mercury poisoning.

Alcott never had children, but she cared for her niece.

https://www.howlifeunfolds.com/learning-education/10-little-facts-about-louisa-may-alcott

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Born on November 29, 1832, Louisa May Alcott led a fascinating life. Besides enchanting millions of readers with her novel Little Women, she worked as a Civil War nurse, fought against slavery, and registered women to vote. Here are 10 facts about the celebrated author.

1. Louisa May Alcott had many famous friends.

Louisa's parents, Bronson and Abigail Alcott, raised their four daughters in a politically active household in Massachusetts. As a child, Alcott briefly lived with her family in a failed Transcendentalist commune, helped her parents hide slaves who had escaped via the Underground Railroad, and had discussions about women's rights with Margaret Fuller.

Throughout her life, she socialized with her father's friends, including Henry David Thoreau, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Nathaniel Hawthorne. Although her family was always poor, Alcott had access to valuable learning experiences. She read books in Emerson's library and learned about botany at Walden Pond with Thoreau, later writing a poem called "Thoreau's Flute" for her friend. She also socialized with abolitionist Frederick Douglass and women's suffrage activist Julia Ward Howe.

2. Her first nom de plume was Flora Fairfield.

As a teenager, Alcott worked a variety of teaching and servant jobs to earn money for her family. She first became a published writer at 19 years old, when a women's magazine printed one of her poems. For reasons that are unclear, Alcott used a pen name-Flora Fairfield-rather than her real name, perhaps because she felt that she was still developing as a writer. But in 1854 at age 22, Alcott used her own name for the first time. She published Flower Fables, a collection of fairy tales she had written six years earlier for Emerson's daughter, Ellen.

3. She secretly wrote pulp fiction.

Before writing Little Women, Alcott wrote Gothic pulp fiction under the nom de plume A.M. Barnard. Continuing her amusing penchant for alliteration, she wrote books and plays called Perilous Play and Pauline's Passion and Punishment to make easy money. These sensational, melodramatic works are strikingly different than the more wholesome, righteous vibe she captured in Little Women, and she didn't advertise her former writing as her own after Little Women became popular.

4. She wrote about her experience as a Civil War nurse.

In 1861, at the beginning of the U.S. Civil War, Alcott sewed Union uniforms in Concord and, the next year, enlisted as an army nurse. In a Washington, D.C. hotel-turned-hospital, she comforted dying soldiers and helped doctors perform amputations. During this time, she wrote about her experiences in her journal and in letters to her family. In 1863, she published Hospital Sketches, a fictionalized account, based on her letters, of her stressful yet meaningful experiences as a wartime nurse. The book became massively popular and was reprinted in 1869 with more material.

5. She suffered from mercury poisoning.

After a month and a half of nursing in D.C., Alcott caught typhoid fever and pneumonia. She received the standard treatment at the time-a toxic mercury compound called calomel. (Calomel was used in medicines through the 19th century.) Because of this exposure to mercury, Alcott suffered from symptoms of mercury poisoning for the rest of her life. She had a weakened immune system, vertigo, and had episodes of hallucinations. To combat the pain caused by the mercury poisoning (as well as a possible autoimmune disorder, such as lupus, that could have been triggered by it), she took opium. Alcott died of a stroke in 1888, at 55 years old.

6. She wrote Little Women to help her father.

In 1867, Thomas Niles, an editor at a publishing house, asked Alcott if she wanted to write a novel for girls. Although she tried to get excited about the project, she thought she wouldn't have much to write about girls because she was a tomboy. The next year, Alcott's father was trying to convince Niles to publish his manuscript about philosophy. He told Niles that his daughter could write a book of fairy stories, but Niles still wanted a novel about girls. Niles told Alcott's father that if he could get his daughter to write a (non-fairy) novel for girls, he would publish his philosophy manuscript. So to make her father happy and help his writing career, Alcott wrote about her adolescence growing up with her three sisters. Published in September 1868, the first part of Little Women was a huge success. The second part was published in 1869, and Alcott went on to write sequels such as Little Men (1871) and Jo's Boys (1886).

7. She was an early suffragette.

In the 1870s, Alcott wrote for a women's rights periodical and went door-to-door in Massachusetts to encourage women to vote. In 1879, the state passed a law that would allow women to vote in local elections on anything involving education and children-Alcott registered immediately, becoming the first woman registered in Concord to vote. Although met with resistance, she, along with 19 other women, cast ballots in an 1880 town meeting. The Nineteenth Amendment was finally ratified in 1920, decades after Alcott died.

8. She pretended to be her own servant to trick her fans.

After the success of Little Women, fans who connected with the book traveled to Concord to see where Alcott grew up. One month, Alcott had a hundred strangers knock on the door of Orchard House, her family's home, hoping to see her. Because she didn't like the attention, she sometimes pretended to be a servant when she answered the front door, hoping to trick fans into leaving.

9. Alcott never had children, but she cared for her niece.

Although Alcott never married or had biological children, she took care of her orphaned niece. In 1879, Alcott's youngest sister May died a month after giving birth to her daughter. As she was dying, May told her husband to send the baby, whom she had named Louisa in honor of Alcott, to her older sister. Nicknamed Lulu, the girl spent her childhood with Alcott, who wrote her stories and seemed a good fit for her high-spiritedness. Lulu was just 8 when Alcott died, at which point she went to live with her father in Switzerland.

10. Fans can visit Alcott's family home in Concord, Massachusetts.

At 399 Lexington Road in Concord, Massachusetts, tourists can visit Orchard House, the Alcott family home from 1858 to 1877. Orchard House is a designated National Historic Landmark, and visitors can take a guided tour to see where Alcott wrote and set Little Women . Visitors can also get a look at Alcott's writing desk and the family's original furniture and paintings.

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Born on November 29, 1832, Louisa May Alcott led a fascinating life. Besides enchanting millions of readers with her novel Little Women, she worked as a Civil War nurse, fought against slavery, and registered women to vote. Here are 10 facts about the celebrated author.

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1850-1900

Civil War
1861-1865

Reconstruction Era
1865-1877

# data[].attributes.body
1. Feelings of disillusionment.
2. Common subjects: slums of rapidly growing cities, factories replacing farmlands, poor factory workers, corrupt politicians.
3. Represented the manner and environment of everyday life and ordinary people as realistically as possible (Regionalism).
4. Sought to explain behavior (psychologically/socially).

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Mark Twain

-Huckleberry Finn

Jack London

-Call of the Wild

-"To Build a Fire"

Stephen Crane

-"The Open Boat"

Ambrose Bierce

-"An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge"

Kate Chopin

-"Story of an Hour"

-The Awakening

# data[].attributes.body
It emerged as a reaction against the idealized Romanticism and the academic styles of the time, emphasizing the depiction of everyday life and ordinary people.

# data[].attributes.body
Realist paintings often featured detailed and often gritty portrayals of contemporary life, capturing the unembellished reality of their subjects.

# data[].attributes.body
He adopted the pen name "Mark Twain" from his steamboat pilot days, which referred to a measured river depth of two fathoms.

Twain was friends with inventors like Thomas Edison and Nikola Tesla, and even consulted with Tesla on a health issue.

Twain was a notoriously bad investor, losing significant amounts of money in various ventures.

https://marktwainriverboat.com/9-interesting-facts-about-mark-twain-fun-and-fascinating-trivia/

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She's known for her powerful writing, particularly the novel "The Color Purple," which won her the Pulitzer Prize.

Walker and her husband, Melvyn Leventhal, were the first legally married interracial couple in Mississippi.

She taught African American Women's Studies at various universities, including Wellesley, Brandeis, and Yale.

https://earlybirdbooks.com/fascinating-facts-about-alice-walker

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Learn more about the woman behind influential pieces of literature such as The Color Purple.

Want more great books? Sign up for the Early Bird Books newsletter and get the best daily ebook deals delivered straight to your inbox.

Want more great books? Sign up for the Early Bird Books newsletter and get the best daily ebook deals delivered straight to your inbox.

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Learn more about the woman behind influential pieces of literature such as The Color Purple. Want more great books? Sign up for the Early Bird Books newsletter and get the best daily ebook deals delivered straight to your inbox. Want more great books?

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World War I
1914-1918

The Great Depression
1929-1939

World War II
1939-1945

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1. Sense of disillusionment and loss of faith in the "American Dream": the independent, self-reliant, individual will triumph.
2. Emphasis on bold experimentation in style and form over the traditional.
3. Interest in the inner workings of the human mind (ex. Stream of consciousness).

# data[].attributes.body
Lorraine Hansberry
-A Raisin in the Sun

F. Scott Fitzgerald
-The Great Gatsby

William Faulkner
-"A Rose for Emily"

Eudora Welty
-"A Worn Path"

Robert Frost
-poetry

T. S. Eliot
-The Waste Land
-"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock"

John Steinbeck
-Of Mice and Men
-The Grapes of Wrath

# data[].attributes.body
Modernism made its screen debut in the 1924 French film "L'Inhumaine," featuring innovative designs by architects and designers.

https://www.britannica.com/art/Modernism-art#:~:text=World%20War%20I.-,What%20did%20Modernism%20do?,used%20untried%20approaches%20to%20tonality.

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Modernism | Definition, Characteristics, History, Art, Literature, Time Period, Postmodernism, & Examples | Britannica

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Modernism was a movement in the fine arts in the late 19th to mid-20th century, defined by a break with the past and the concurrent search for new forms of expression. It fostered a period of experimentation in literature, music, dance, visual art, and architecture. Learn more about the history of Modernism and its various manifestations.

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Modernist composers used unconventional tonality and explored new musical forms.

Modernism was often associated with ideal visions of human life and society, and a belief in progress.

https://www.britannica.com/art/Modernism-art#:~:text=World%20War%20I.-,What%20did%20Modernism%20do?,used%20untried%20approaches%20to%20tonality

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Modernism | Definition, Characteristics, History, Art, Literature, Time Period, Postmodernism, & Examples | Britannica

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Modernism was a movement in the fine arts in the late 19th to mid-20th century, defined by a break with the past and the concurrent search for new forms of expression. It fostered a period of experimentation in literature, music, dance, visual art, and architecture. Learn more about the history of Modernism and its various manifestations.

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The American Dream in the 1920s was characterized by a booming economy and increased wealth, but also by social and economic disparities.

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Roaring-Twenties#:~:text=More%20generally%2C%20not%20all%20Americans,to%20benefit%20from%20the%20boom.

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Roaring Twenties, colloquial term for the 1920s, especially within the United States and other Western countries where the decade was characterized by economic prosperity, rapid social and cultural change, and a mood of exuberant optimism. The liveliness of the period stands in marked contrast to the historical crises on either side of it: World War I (1914-18) and the Great Depression (1929-c. 1939). The name may have originated as a play on the nautical term roaring forties, referring to latitudes with strong ocean winds.

By the dawn of the 1920s, the second Industrial Revolution had transformed the United States into a global economic power and drawn millions of Americans to cities. With a concurrent rise in immigration, the 1920 U.S. census was the first in which the majority of the population lived in urban areas. Although World War I had strained the country's finances, the fact that the United States had entered the war late and that the fighting took place overseas helped it secure a more dominant economic position relative to its European allies.

During the 1920s, the American economy continued to accelerate. One reason was the growing electrification of the country. The portion of U.S. households with electricity rose from 12 percent in 1916 to 63 percent in 1927, and its widening use in factories led to increased productivity. Also contributing to the economic boom was the advent of mass-production methods such as the assembly line, which spurred the growth of the automobile industry. The decade saw the number of passenger cars more than triple, which in turn stimulated the expansion of transportation infrastructure and the oil and gas industries. In addition, the overall business sector benefited from the laissez-faire economic policies of U.S. presidents Warren G. Harding (1921-23) and Calvin Coolidge (1923-29). Between 1922 and 1929, the country's real gross national product increased by nearly 40 percent, and the unemployment rate remained low.

The technological and manufacturing boom ushered in a modern consumer culture. With electricity came a range of new household appliances, such as the refrigerator, vacuum cleaner, and washing machine, and the increased availability of credit made it possible for many Americans to afford them. The growth of the advertising industry and the development of sophisticated marketing techniques also helped create demand for these and other products in an expanding mass-media landscape. Not only was the radio one of the most popular new electric devices, installed in 40 percent of homes by 1930, but the airwaves became an effective advertising medium. As labour-saving technologies created more opportunities for leisure, a plethora of popular entertainment arose from new media. Moviegoing became an American pastime, especially after the emergence of " talkies." By the decade's end, 80 million people flocked to cinemas weekly, with radio and magazines boosting interest in the stars on the screen.

The 1920s also brought about social changes for women in the United States. Women had entered the workforce in significant numbers during World War I, filling jobs that had been vacated by men sent to war and taking new jobs that aided the war effort. Their contributions galvanized support for the suffrage movement, which culminated in the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920. Many women remained in the workforce after the war, especially as growing industrialization provided greater opportunities. Young women who were employed in cities enjoyed unprecedented economic independence, and the increased use of contraception (the country's first birth control clinic was opened in 1916) provided sexual freedom as well. Perhaps the most enduring symbol of the Roaring Twenties is that of the flapper, the emancipated "New Woman" who bobbed her hair, wore loose, knee-length dresses, smoked and drank in public, and was more open about sex.

In a rapidly modernizing world, young people guided creative movements that often defied convention. Jazz music, which had developed into an exciting style defined by improvisation and swinging rhythms, became the dominant sound of the new generation. (Its prominence earned the era another nickname, the Jazz Age, popularized by the writer F. Scott Fitzgerald.) The vitality of jazz was part of a broader flourishing of African American art and culture known as the Harlem Renaissance, which was centred in New York City but reverberated far beyond it. Fitzgerald himself was a leading figure of the Lost Generation, a group of writers whose work captured the era's decadence and spoke to the disillusionment of many who came of age during World War I.

Although postwar economic conditions were less robust in western Europe than in the United States, the social and cultural milieus were similarly dynamic. In France the 1920s were known as "Les Années Folles" ("The Crazy Years"). In Germany's Weimar Republic, which produced an explosion of intellectual and artistic activity, they were the "Goldene Zwanziger Jahre" ("Golden Twenties"). The British public was scandalized by the exploits of a set of affluent youth dubbed the Bright Young Things. In the art world, Surrealism grew out of the Dada movement that had developed in Zürich during the war, while Art Deco, promoted by a 1925 exposition in Paris, became highly influential in international architecture and design.

Nevertheless, the popular image of the 1920s as a prosperous, progressive, and jubilant era obscures some realities. In the United States, the decade began with the enactment of the Eighteenth Amendment, under which the manufacture and sale of alcohol was prohibited. Despite the emergence of bootleggers and speakeasies, and the glamour associated with drinking illegally, the temperance movement did succeed in significantly reducing Americans' consumption of alcohol. In addition, while the Great Migration provided a path for African Americans to pursue greater economic and educational opportunities, and the influence of African American culture spread, the 1920s also saw a revival of the Ku Klux Klan. Growing anti-foreign sentiment (also espoused by the new Klan) led to the Immigration Act of 1924, which severely restricted the number of immigrants arriving in the United States.

More generally, not all Americans shared in the spoils of the roaring national economy. In the late 1920s, the wealthiest 1 percent received nearly one-quarter of all pretax income, and 60 percent of families earned less than $2,000 a year, a benchmark that economists regarded as "sufficient to supply only basic necessities." Rural, nonwhite, and immigrant Americans were among the groups less likely to benefit from the boom. Inequality was one of several factors that contributed to the collapse of the economy in 1929, as the stock market crash in October signaled the end of the Roaring Twenties and the start of the Great Depression.

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Roaring Twenties | Definition, Music, History, & Facts | Britannica

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Roaring Twenties, colloquial term for the 1920s, especially within the United States and other Western countries where the decade was characterized by economic prosperity, rapid social and cultural change, and a mood of exuberant optimism. The liveliness of the period stands in marked contrast to

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Electricity became more widespread, with 35% of households having it in 1920, increasing to 68% by 1929. Radios became popular, with 12 million households owning them by the end of the decade.

https://ciceroinstitute.org/news-media/the-evolution-of-the-american-dream/

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The Evolution of the American Dream | Cicero Institute

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Examining past Americans’ standards of living gives a fresh perspective on where we are today, how far we have come, and where we can go from here. If we continue to cherish an entrepreneurial spirit and the competition of free ideas, America’s future contains unlimited possibilities.

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Instead, in the 1930s, it meant freedom, mutual respect and equality of opportunity. It had more to do with morality than material success.

But that wasn’t what the American Dream entailed when the writer James Truslow Adams popularized it in 1931, in his book “The Epic of America.”

https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/04/upshot/the-transformation-of-the-american-dream.html#:~:text=But%20that%20wasn't%20what,others%20for%20what%20they%20are.%E2%80%9D&text=His%20achievement%20was%20an%20innovation,to%20business%20success%20or%20homeownership.

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The Transformation of the ‘American Dream’ (Published 2017)

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It wasn’t originally about owning a beautiful home and a roaring business. It meant freedom, mutual respect and equality of opportunity.

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The American Dream of the 1950s was about materialism, the roles of men and women, having a happy family, and being sophisticated.

Photographs of happy American families constantly appear in magazines and newspapers to advertise. After the soldiers arrived home from World War II, they were eager to start a family, so the "Baby Boom" era began.

https://express.adobe.com/page/l5MV4/

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"The Jazz Age"
"The Roaring 20s"

1920–1940

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1.Black cultural movement in Harlem, New York
2.Some poetry rhythms based on spirituals and jazz, lyrics on the blues, and diction from the street talk of the ghettos
3. Other poetry used conventional lyrical forms

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James Weldon Johnson

Claude McKay

Countee Cullen

Langston Hughes (poetry)

Zora Neale Hurston

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The Harlem Renaissance (c. 1918–37) was the most influential movement in African American literary history. The movement also included musical, theatrical, and visual arts.

The Harlem Renaissance was unusual among literary and artistic movements for its close relationship to civil rights and reform organizations.

https://www.britannica.com/summary/Harlem-Renaissance-Key-Facts#:~:text=The%20Harlem%20Renaissance%20(c.,civil%20rights%20and%20reform%20organizations.

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Beginning about 1916, a large number of African Americans moved from the rural American South and settled in the urban North and West. One of the communities where African Americans settled during this Great Migration was Harlem, in New York, New York.

After World War I Harlem became a thriving center of African American culture. The Harlem Renaissance (c. 1918-37) was the most influential movement in African American literary history. The movement also included musical, theatrical, and visual arts.

The Harlem Renaissance was unusual among literary and artistic movements for its close relationship to civil rights and reform organizations. During this time Black artists began to take control of how Black culture was being represented.

Sociologist, activist, editor, and author W.E.B Du Bois's book The Souls of Black Folk (1903) had a profound effect on an entire generation that formed the core of the Harlem Renaissance. Booker T. Washington had urged Blacks to accept discrimination for the time being and elevate themselves through hard work and economic gain, thus winning the respect of whites. Du Bois argued that Washington's strategy, rather than freeing Blacks from oppression, would serve only to perpetuate it.

Claude McKay is generally considered the first major poet of the Harlem Renaissance. His militant poem "If We Must Die" (1919) is one of the most-quoted works of African American literature of this time period.

The movement was popularized by African American philosopher Alain Locke in The New Negro (1925), an anthology of fiction, poetry, drama, and essays.

Out of the blues came jazz, migrating to Northern urban centers, such as Chicago, Illinois, and New York, New York, during and after World War I. Great musicians, such as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington, emerged. The popularity of jazz among whites helped bring attention to the Harlem Renaissance.

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List of important facts regarding the Harlem Renaissance (c. 1918-37). Infused with a belief in the power of art as an agent of change, a talented group of writers, artists, and musicians made Harlem-a predominantly Black area of New York, New York-the home of a landmark African American cultural movement.

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The idea of the American Dream began to shift, with more people questioning the emphasis on wealth and material possessions. There was a growing awareness of social inequality and the need for a more equitable society.

The 1970s brought new challenges, including rising inflation, the energy crisis, and a decline in manufacturing jobs. The Vietnam War and political scandals, like Watergate, further eroded public trust.

https://patrioticmillionaires.org/perspectives/what-happened-to-the-american-dream/

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In the 80s, technology played an increasingly large role in the American Dream. The release of the first Macintosh computer in 1984 paved the way for a new era where people wanted the latest tech for their home, and consumer spending took off as baby-boomers hit their highest earning years.

But this culture drove people to spend more than they earned: household debt went from 48% of GDP in 1980 to 59% of GDP in 1990 – an upward trajectory that would continue until the recession of 2008.

https://www.lovemoney.com/gallerylist/84477/what-the-american-dream-looked-like-the-decade-you-were-born#:~:text=In%20the%2080s%2C%20technology%20played,until%20the%20recession%20of%202008.

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loveMONEY.com Limited operates under the trading name of loveMONEY.com Financial Services Limited.

We operate as a credit broker for consumer credit and do not lend directly.

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While we make every effort to ensure the accuracy and currency of our editorial content, users should independently verify information with their chosen product or service provider. This can be done by reviewing the product landing page information and the terms and conditions associated with the product. If you are uncertain whether a product is suitable, we strongly recommend seeking advice from a regulated independent financial advisor before applying for the products.

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What the American Dream looked like the decade you were born

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From the white-picket-fence ideals of the 40s to the materialism of today, how has the American Dream changed?

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American Dream in the 90's and early 2000's fact

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American Dream in the 90's and early 2000's fact

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In business, Silicon Valley was the place to be. The birth of the World Wide Web and rise in internet investments in the late 90s, known as the “dotcom bubble”, marked the point when tech entrepreneurs became billionaires.

In the 00s, the American Dream was divided along generational fault lines. While baby boomers had reached peaks in their careers, it wasn’t quite the same for young people, as middle-class jobs disappeared during the recession of 2008 and many bounced from one low-paid job to the next.

https://www.lovemoney.com/gallerylist/84477/what-the-american-dream-looked-like-the-decade-you-were-born#:~:text=In%20the%2080s%2C%20technology%20played,until%20the%20recession%20of%202008.

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loveMONEY.com Financial Services Limited is authorised and regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) with Firm Reference Number (FRN): 479153.

loveMONEY.com is a company registered in England & Wales (Company Number: 7406028) with its registered address at First Floor Ridgeland House, 15 Carfax, Horsham, West Sussex, RH12 1DY, United Kingdom.

loveMONEY.com Limited operates under the trading name of loveMONEY.com Financial Services Limited.

We operate as a credit broker for consumer credit and do not lend directly.

Our company maintains relationships with various affiliates and lenders, which we may promote within our editorial content in emails and on featured partner pages through affiliate links. Please note, that we may receive commission payments from some of the product and service providers featured on our website. In line with Consumer Duty regulations, we assess our partners to ensure they offer fair value, are transparent, and cater to the needs of all customers, including vulnerable groups. We continuously review our practices to ensure compliance with these standards.

While we make every effort to ensure the accuracy and currency of our editorial content, users should independently verify information with their chosen product or service provider. This can be done by reviewing the product landing page information and the terms and conditions associated with the product. If you are uncertain whether a product is suitable, we strongly recommend seeking advice from a regulated independent financial advisor before applying for the products.

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What the American Dream looked like the decade you were born

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From the white-picket-fence ideals of the 40s to the materialism of today, how has the American Dream changed?

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1950–present

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Korean War
1950-1953

Vietnam War
1954-1975

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1. Influenced by studies of media, language, and information technology.
2. Sense that little is unique; culture endlessly duplicates itself.
3. New literary forms and techniques: works composed of only dialogue, or combining fiction and nonfiction, experimenting with physical appearance of their work.

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Alice Walker

Wallace Stevens

e.e. cummings

Maya Angelou

Anne Sexton

James Baldwin

Richard Wright

Sandra Cisneros

Amy Tan

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Lycanthropy and Other Chronic Illnesses by Kristen O'Neal is a book about two online friends with chronic illnesses, one girl has lyme disease, and the other is... a werewolf. The book details their growing and difficult friendship through these fantastical challenges.

https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/53451751-lycanthropy-and-other-chronic-illnesses

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“Your next favorite horror-comedy.”—Syfy Fangrrls Teen…