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Bangkok Government

Office of Sufficiency Economy Development Zone (OSEDZ), to tackle poverty and provide people with some economic stability.

NGO

Bangkok Community Help

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We Aren’t Alone in Our Cities: 12 Ways Animals Have Adapted to Urban Life - YES! Magazine

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City living is changing animals in surprising ways. But they’re also transforming the cities they share with us.

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We Aren’t Alone in Our Cities: 12 Ways Animals Have Adapted to Urban Life - YES! Magazine

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City living is changing animals in surprising ways. But they’re also transforming the cities they share with us.

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In the past few decades, globalization and its emphasis on economic growth have changed the world. Our social values and lives have changed a lot over the period of a few years. Life has become fast-paced, and time has become a precious commodity. We struggle to make time for our loved ones and have increasingly forgotten those who require help - those whose voices are unheard. We have very limited time to be grateful for what Mother Earth has given us in the very first place: Life and the abundance of Nature.

Rapid urban development and the reckless growth of various cities have severely impacted stray animals, who often have nowhere to go. The expansion of luxury real estate - whether housing or offices - has become a major cause of displacement and exclusion of people and animals alike. Most high-end, posh areas have saved no place for the displaced. Air pollution and noise pollution, largely due to rampant construction activities and the consequent loss of greenery and open spaces, are also associated with major health issues for human and animal residents in cities.

Urbanization has created various issues for stray animals. The shrieking traffic noises and piercingly bright city lights can be extremely intimidating and bothersome for a dog. Such an environment makes them impatient, afraid, and restless. Urban development activities have led to distress - not just in the case of strays, but also for pets as well. Loud celebration of festivals in cramped spaces can be highly stressful and disturbing. For instance, it is very common to see community animals run to a corner with their tail between their legs during the loud celebrations in Diwali. There have also been many instances when strays have suffered accidental burn injuries because of the careless bursting of firecrackers.

These helpless strays have no voice and are often at the mercy of the artificial, urban environment. They have neither a roof over their head nor sufficient access to daily food and water. It is our responsibility to ensure that they are taken care of; even the smallest efforts will go a long way in contributing to their well-being.

The city environment is full of threats for the homeless pooches. Some of these include displacement, harmful diseases, painful infections, and gruesome deaths. The dust and pollution emitted from factories and construction sites expose adult strays to innumerable diseases and can cause serious health complications to the young ones whom they bear.

Dogs can develop diseases, such as asthma and bronchitis, when exposed to high levels of urban pollution. Some humans are privileged to have a roof over their heads, ventilation systems, and air purifiers to remove these toxins from the air we breathe. However, community animals have nowhere to escape. Moreover, due to heavy pollution exposure, strays face increased risks of brain inflammation, which is a highly fatal side effect and can be a gruesome way to die.

There are various other social and environmental risk factors for community animals in urban contexts. Being a stray in crowded cities comes with abuse and mistreatment by residents who live there. India has more than 30 million stray dogs, and out of these 30 million, at least 2 million of them are abused and ill-treated daily. Injuries and deaths caused by speeding vehicles on the highways and roads frequently occur as well; an average of 1.2 million dogs are killed annually due to vehicular accidents.

After such appalling incidents, most dogs tend to get traumatized, and tragically, some lose their will to survive. In rescue work, dealing with such cases can be highly difficult. It becomes challenging to be able to rehome dogs who have endured such trauma, as it takes them a significant amount of time to regain trust and love in humanity.

In light of this discussion, it is essential to consider the ways in which we can mitigate and prevent harmful impacts of urban development on community animals. At an individual level, we can contribute to this by ensuring timely vaccination and sterilization, taking responsibility for strays in residential buildings, and providing them with the basics like food, water, and medical care. Moreover, weekly volunteering at shelters and donating to organizations that care for community animals can support their recovery from human-caused injuries and illnesses.

We, humans, have dominated this world in almost every way possible. The least we could do is contribute a little of our effort and time to better the lives of our animal companions on this earth. Let's raise our voices for the voiceless - for the most vulnerable among us - and build a more compassionate world!

Sources:

1-https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14692621/

2-https://www.humanesociety.org/resources/animal-cruelty-facts-and-stats

3-https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/in-other-news/111120/pets-can-suffer-nervous-breakdown-due-to-lound-sounds-of-firecrackers.html

4-https://mindseye.mcla.edu/2018/03/29/street-dogs-in-india-urbanization-and-biopolitics-in-the-anthropocene-by-susan-harris/

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Kannan Foundation | The Impact of Urban Development on Stray Animals

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In the past few decades, globalization and its emphasis on economic growth have changed the world. Our social values and lives have changed a lot over the period of a few years. Life has become fast-paced, and time has become a precious commodity.

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5 Ways to Reduce Large-Scale Food Waste
Monica Walker
In the past several years, food waste reduction strategies have become more innovative, both with residential food waste and larger amounts of food waste from commercial establishments. To date, composting and feeding the hungry have been popular strategies to reduce food waste.

The EPA hierarchy provides a great resource for thinking about food waste reduction strategies and today we'll take a look at examples for each level.
Source Reduction
A New England grocery store, Hannaford Supermarkets, has implemented a food waste source reduction strategy to prevent food waste from entering their waste stream. This plan includes strategies like having delivery trucks move less food to individual stores on a daily basis, rather than less frequent deliveries of larger volumes of food. The result is that once delivered to the store, produce stays fresher, for longer and creates less waste.
Feed hungry people
Trader Joe's has an established food donation program that gives products not fit for sale, but still safe for consumption, to local food banks, food pantries, and soup kitchens. The recipients distribute the recovered products to people in need. In 2014, Trader Joe's donated $295 million worth of food that would otherwise have gone to landfill.
Feed Animals
The St. Paul Public Schools in Minnesota have collected food scraps since 2005 to give to Barthold Pig Farm. The schools collect an average of 7.0 tons of food scraps per day. Sending this waste to a pig farm instead of landfill saves $975 per day in landfill disposal fees. Since the program's start, the schools have saved $817,000 total; enough to hire 3 full-time teachers.
Industrial Uses
Industrial uses refers to methods that recover energy from food scraps. One method included in this category is anaerobic digestion, which turns food waste into energy and fertilizer. Some wastewater treatment facilities are equipped with anaerobic digesters to treat wastewater, and the microbes that render the wastewater inert, are also capable of processing food waste. For example, the Los Angeles Joint Water Pollution Control Plant employs this approach. The facility and Waste Management (WM) are piloting a program that takes collected restaurant and grocery store unsellable food and turns it into a food waste smoothie-like product at a waste management facility. This mixture is then added to the anaerobic digester for co-digestion. WM collects and processes approximately 84 tons of food waste per day, and this is turned into biogas, a renewable energy source, utilized to power the facility.
Composting
One of the more well-known municipal composting programs is in San Francisco. The city has had an established residential collection program for nearly 15 years, and now mandates the separation of recyclables, compostables, and landfill trash. The city has also created a toolkit for businesses to help them reduce food waste, and comply with the compost regulations.
A Look Ahead
Food waste reduction wins on three fronts: lower costs for disposal, production of an excellent end product/soil amendment, and significant reduction in GHG emission. The next step with food waste reduction is to make it as financially attractive as possible, enabling individuals, companies, and hospitals to reduce food waste at a high level.
Monica Walker is a summer intern at RRS primarily focused on a food waste reduction project, with recent work experience at an automotive company managing their air and water compliance. She is a rising senior at the University of Michigan, studying Environmental Engineering and Urban Studies and has a job on campus at the Graham Sustainability Institute.

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5 Ways to Reduce Large-Scale Food Waste - Recycle.com

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5 Ways to Reduce Large-Scale Food Waste Monica Walker In the past several years, food waste reduction strategies have become more innovative, both with residential food waste and larger amounts of food waste from commercial establishments. To date, composting and feeding the hungry have been popular strategies to reduce food waste.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
5 Ways to Reduce Large-Scale Food Waste
Monica Walker
In the past several years, food waste reduction strategies have become more innovative, both with residential food waste and larger amounts of food waste from commercial establishments. To date, composting and feeding the hungry have been popular strategies to reduce food waste.

The EPA hierarchy provides a great resource for thinking about food waste reduction strategies and today we'll take a look at examples for each level.
Source Reduction
A New England grocery store, Hannaford Supermarkets, has implemented a food waste source reduction strategy to prevent food waste from entering their waste stream. This plan includes strategies like having delivery trucks move less food to individual stores on a daily basis, rather than less frequent deliveries of larger volumes of food. The result is that once delivered to the store, produce stays fresher, for longer and creates less waste.
Feed hungry people
Trader Joe's has an established food donation program that gives products not fit for sale, but still safe for consumption, to local food banks, food pantries, and soup kitchens. The recipients distribute the recovered products to people in need. In 2014, Trader Joe's donated $295 million worth of food that would otherwise have gone to landfill.
Feed Animals
The St. Paul Public Schools in Minnesota have collected food scraps since 2005 to give to Barthold Pig Farm. The schools collect an average of 7.0 tons of food scraps per day. Sending this waste to a pig farm instead of landfill saves $975 per day in landfill disposal fees. Since the program's start, the schools have saved $817,000 total; enough to hire 3 full-time teachers.
Industrial Uses
Industrial uses refers to methods that recover energy from food scraps. One method included in this category is anaerobic digestion, which turns food waste into energy and fertilizer. Some wastewater treatment facilities are equipped with anaerobic digesters to treat wastewater, and the microbes that render the wastewater inert, are also capable of processing food waste. For example, the Los Angeles Joint Water Pollution Control Plant employs this approach. The facility and Waste Management (WM) are piloting a program that takes collected restaurant and grocery store unsellable food and turns it into a food waste smoothie-like product at a waste management facility. This mixture is then added to the anaerobic digester for co-digestion. WM collects and processes approximately 84 tons of food waste per day, and this is turned into biogas, a renewable energy source, utilized to power the facility.
Composting
One of the more well-known municipal composting programs is in San Francisco. The city has had an established residential collection program for nearly 15 years, and now mandates the separation of recyclables, compostables, and landfill trash. The city has also created a toolkit for businesses to help them reduce food waste, and comply with the compost regulations.
A Look Ahead
Food waste reduction wins on three fronts: lower costs for disposal, production of an excellent end product/soil amendment, and significant reduction in GHG emission. The next step with food waste reduction is to make it as financially attractive as possible, enabling individuals, companies, and hospitals to reduce food waste at a high level.
Monica Walker is a summer intern at RRS primarily focused on a food waste reduction project, with recent work experience at an automotive company managing their air and water compliance. She is a rising senior at the University of Michigan, studying Environmental Engineering and Urban Studies and has a job on campus at the Graham Sustainability Institute.

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5 Ways to Reduce Large-Scale Food Waste - Recycle.com

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
5 Ways to Reduce Large-Scale Food Waste Monica Walker In the past several years, food waste reduction strategies have become more innovative, both with residential food waste and larger amounts of food waste from commercial establishments. To date, composting and feeding the hungry have been popular strategies to reduce food waste.

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Food waste is a serious ethical, social, environmental, and economic problem. It is estimated that one-third of the food produced on the planet ends up in the rubbish bin. If this unsustainable practise was stopped, greenhouse gas emissions would be reduced by around 8% (At the European Union level and according to the Sustainable Development Goals, the aim is to halve the volume of food waste generated by 2030, based on a hierarchy of solutions that prioritises prevention, accompanied by reuse, recycling, recovery, and redistribution against abandonment in landfills. Once again, dealing with an issue of this magnitude and complexity requires specific and local action, and this is where the role of cities and citizens is essential. Together with EU and national policies, city initiatives such as those gathered in MUFPP, Eurocities WFP, and cooperation projects promoted by 1. THE PROBLEM URBACT , UIA , LIFE , 2. ACTORS INTERREG or HORIZON 2020 offer knowledge and experiences from which to move forward. Focusing municipal political initiatives on this challenge may represent the necessary boost to encourage local food strategies, due to this issue's direct connection with the political sphere of municipal intervention. IFPRI , 2021). Given that this waste is produced throughout the entire food chain, there is a need for consensual, precise, and agile policies that allow all actors to meet the ambitious commitments set by international institutions and states for the upcoming years.
Food waste is a critical factor in the urban ecosystem and represents an essential part of the bio-waste stream. According to the EU Bioeconomy Strategy and the recent Farm to Fork Strategy , food waste leads to the appropriation of natural resources and results in a set of negative environmental externalities, turning urban policy action into a priority.

The system's complexity, stages, and elements that make it up are reflected in the following graph (, 2020). It gives rise to a mechanism where the need to reduce extractive practices of limited resources interacts with the urgency of addressing solutions which avoid waste and other negative impact that contribute to the Climate Change effect.

Negative practices occur throughout the whole food chain, from production to consumption. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations () appraises that approximately one-third of the edible food produced for human consumption is either lost or wasted globally.
3. POLICY LINES OF ACTION - Food waste prevention
In the context of the EU-28 approximately 20% of all food production is rated to be wasted every year, being responsible for the emissions of 186 million CO2e. The impacts of food waste on climate acidification, together with eutrophication represent 15-16% of the total impact in the food chain. Most of the emissions linked to food waste would be associated with the production phase (cited by EEA, 2020).

In a more local perspective, it is estimated that 38% of the food waste generated in the city of (2019) comes from the production phase, while 42% is generated at the consumption stage. This makes up to €454 the annual economic value of food waste for an Italian household, slightly higher than the average expenditure of a Milanese household on food (€399).

The value of avoidable food waste has been calculated for different EU countries, ranging from €3.2/kg to €6.1/kg. These are reductions that, in economic terms, can represent between €100 and €200/person/year, depending on the country. (EEA, 2020). Different tools have been designed in the European Union or internationally to calculate the value of the food we are wasting, helping to plan various prevention and reduction actions.

The international community, through various institutions, the European Union, national and regional governments, cities and all private parties, social organisations and citizens, are active players that must contribute to the development of active policies that strive for sustainable management of food production, based on the principles of prevention, reduction and reuse.
- Biowaste as a relevant focus point
Many policies and programmes have been initiated at state level, such as in the United States through the Save the Food Programme, which invites citizens to be an active part of the solution to avoid wasting 40% of the food produced in the country.

The revised Waste Framework Directive (WFD) (EU,2008, 2018) establishes precise criteria for bio-waste management, forcing states to implement separate collection and recycling by the end of 2023. This is combined with other regulations which promote the reduction of food waste beginning with its correct measurement and monitoring.

The quantity and quality of bio-waste produced in EU municipalities vary according to the degree of urbanisation, cultural food practices, collection systems, and household composting production, etc., as it can be observed in the attached figure. It gives a clear picture of the magnitude of the problem and how sustainability objectives have its room for improvement in different geographical areas.

The French policy agenda is recognised for its ambition through differentiated actions. Each year the country bears the cost of wasting 10 million tonnes of food worth €16 billion while emitting 15.3 million tonnes of CO2, representing 3% of the country's total emissions. Since 2012 a new national law has been passed to reduce the volume of organic waste disposed of in landfills. At the same time, the private sector (supermarkets, restaurants, etc.) has been obliged not only to reduce their volume of organic waste, but also to recover or reuse it. Various campaigns have been aimed at changing consumer practices, such as the campaign that has involved 120,000 households in Paris to deposit their food waste in a biowaste recycling bin to convert it into fertilizer or facilitate its use for energy production. Simultaneously, numerous private companies participate in initiatives to reduce food waste in their processes and promote circular solutions. Some analyses show beneficial economic results at state, city, and private company levels when effective measures to reduce food losses and food waste are included.
- Food donation
A recent report, DRIVEN TO WASTE: THE GLOBAL IMPACT OF FOOD, LOSS AND WASTE ON FARMS , by WWF (2021), states that "despite this, on-farm food waste remains neglected compared to efforts at the retail and household levels. It's partly due to the complexity of measuring on-farm waste, which makes it difficult to measure progress in reductions and underestimates the importance of its contribution to food waste levels".

Private commercial initiatives are providing innovative solutions to this problem. Packaging-free shops are a direct option to reduce waste in the food chain. Their expansion is visible throughout the EU and very prominent in France and Belgium, with national networks . A (EUNOMIA,2020) offers encouraging data on the turnover of this sector in the EU by 2030, estimated at between €1.2 and €3.5 billion. Each shop saves 1 tonne of packaging annually, with more than 70% of the products on sale free of packaging and a high percentage of local sourcing.

In addition, it is important to take into account the lack of consumer reaction, especially in developed countries, and what can be done to change this behaviour. Concerning this matter, municipalities, authorities, and companies must have the necessary infrastructure at the service of citizens to facilitate a correct sorting and separation policy for food waste. However, at the same time, citizens do not always have the required conditions at home to carry out this task. They must also find the incentive to commit themselves and get them out of their comfort zone, encouraging their efforts for this social and cultural change, both in reducing and recycling and reusing waste. This is strongly influenced by the context and the characteristics of the different types of citizens regarding their capacities and availability. In general, urban life does not contribute to freeing up the necessary time and facilities required for these tasks, so each city must know the specific barriers to overcome, the target audience to reach, and, therefore, determine the actions to be taken. It is essential to reduce the difficulties and make it easy for residents to participate in these policies. Sometimes it will also be necessary to fight and dismantle preconceived ideas to motivate individual attitudes based on clear and accurate communication.

Many initiatives, from the most generic to the most particular, are in this sense developed by institutions, cities, foundations, and social groups. It is worth highlighting the actions promoted by the , , , etc.

A significant percentage of the food waste fraction is avoidable. Prevention is at the basis of the waste hierarchy established by the Waste Framework Directive (WFD; 2018/851/EC) ahead of other alternatives such as reuse, recycling, recovery, or disposal. This orientation should be matched with the necessary financial support to cover prevention measures. The SDG 12.3 adopted in 2015, commits the EU and member states to halving food waste and losses by 2030.
4. EXPERIENCES FROM CITIES
In order to support all stakeholders in meeting this target, the EU Platform on Food Losses and Food Waste was established in 2016. A key challenge for states and cities is to correctly monitor and measure food waste, both in terms of quantity and quality, and to ensure consistency to facilitate comparative analyses over time and across territorial and policy areas. Hence, we find different percentages attributed to the various stages of the value chain depending on the sources. In any case, the domestic consumption sector is responsible for generating between 40% and 50% of food waste. In comparison, the other stages of the food value chain account for approximately another 50% between production, processing, distribution, and marketing.

According to some studies (, 2016), around 60% of the waste generated by consumers is avoidable. However, this challenge cannot be addressed in isolation at the different stages of the chain. A significant reduction by consumers requires parallel actions by industry, labelling regulations, commercial practices, and packaging.

Once again it is crucial to measure the effectiveness of prevention measures given the uncertainty surrounding the drivers of food waste and the barriers to its reduction, starting by identifying the many gaps in this area of knowledge.

" Bio-waste -mainly food and garden waste- is a key waste stream with a high potential for contributing to a more circular economy, delivering valuable soil-improving material and fertiliser as well as biogas, a source of renewable energy" ( EEA Report, 2020 ). Around 60% of bio-waste is food waste, while bio-waste represents, at 34%, the most significant component of municipal waste in the EU. Progress in recycling is imperative to reach the EU target of recycling 65% of municipal waste by 2035. Moreover, according to the SDGs, the target is to reduce food waste production to 50%.

On the contrary, an efficient separated collection process is needed to reuse food waste as fertilizer and soil improver. Even though benefitting from a noticeable growing during the last years, the percentage of biowaste composted has not even reached the 20%, being the majority of biowaste produced incinerated or landfilled.

Clear criteria about compostable or biodegradable products are also needed, in addition to defined systems to conveniently separate and treat bio-waste fraction and quality standards process to produce compost, digestate, and soil improvers.

Some guides, such as the one created by the Fertile Auro association and published by Zero Waste Europe, guide the collective work to be carried out by those communities that wish to implement composting actions, foreseeing incidents, and recommending key figures such as the master composter.

Redistributing the portion of surplus food production to the more than 800 million hungry people in the world seems an excellent way to alleviate hunger while reducing food waste generation.

However, some barriers hinder this virtuous connection. These include producers' fears about their responsibility for food safety, the cost of transport, the taxes associated with the redistribution process, and the uncertainty and confusion about use-by dates. A has mapped these obstacles, demonstrating that legislation and policy can positively reduce food waste and food insecurity when adequately aligned with these objectives. Food donation can offer solutions to this critical paradox through win-win policies. The project includes comparative graphs of donations in different countries and a collection of valuable materials to explore this challenge in depth.

In their different versions, Food Banks are the instrument that most frequently intervenes to make this connection possible. This happens in big cities, rural areas, small and medium-sized municipalities, as is the case of Emporio Solidale, an active member of the Local Group of the Unione dei Comuni della Bassa Romagna and an Italian partner of the FOOD CORRIDORS network.

In this sense, food poverty has many hidden faces, and it is present in many individuals and families who are reluctant to go to food banks. However, their diet is insufficient, unhealthy, and unbalanced. That is why many cities are carrying out experiments to address this situation through instruments such as the "family card" in Madrid, the "gift card" in Riga, or by mapping the urban geography of food poverty as Paris is doing to fight against the so-called "food slums."

In short, some are concerned about a practice that regularly redirects surplus food to low-income families, a kind of "leftover food for leftover people," instead of developing a specific anti-poverty and social agenda.

There are many cities that, through different actions, address the problem described here, as exposed at the extensive typology shown in the table below ( EUROCITIES WGF , 2018).

A particular example is the city of which intervenes within its circular economy strategy through 4 axes related to food loss and waste:

1) Promotion of education and information actions.

2) Promotion of the circular economy in the food system.

3) Promoting the recovery and redistribution of food waste by encouraging redistribution through collaboration between actors.

4) Promoting more rational use of packaging.

In practice, the city implements several innovative schemes:

1. 20% Tax reduction for donated food losses
5. FINAL RECOMMENDATIONS
In 2018 the municipality adopted a reduction on the waste tax for food losses donation. This new regulation aims to reduce 20% of the tax for the first year in favour of food businesses (supermarkets, restaurants, canteens, producers, etc.) that donate their food losses to charities.

2. Getting school canteens involved

To reduce the volume of waste associated with fruit served as a dessert in school canteens, an alternative has been designed: "morning break with fruit" which serves fruit as a snack. Other experiments carried out in school canteens have significantly reduced the volume of waste generated thanks to a change of model, as demonstrated by the BIOCANTEENS project.

3. Collection of biowaste for compost and biogas

The city of Milan has an ambitious policy of collecting biowaste to produce compost and biogas. In 2014, 51% of waste has been collected separately (compared to 36.7% in 2012), containing 1.7 kg/person of organic waste per week, or 90 kg/person per year.

4. Local Food Waste Hub

The city has led to an agreement between the University and a private association that brings together supermarkets and companies with canteens to develop a pilot project to redistribute food losses in some of the city's neighbourhoods, with the municipality providing the reception space.

5. A new concept of food market to boost the circular transition

The city of Milan owns a set of 23 covered markets. In the European project, a pilot plan is being implemented to offer sustainable solutions to these local markets, aligned with the city's circular economy vision. The project designs and tests logistical solutions, disseminates circular practices, traces the origin and quality of products, and analyses the interaction between rural and urban areas of the territory.

To carry out these and other initiatives, the city of Milan has structured its policies around institutional gearing and different resources, as shown in the following graph (EUROCITIES WGF, 2018).

Other good practices developed by cities such as Athens, Barcelona, Burgas, Ghent, Linköping or Birmingham are detailed in the Guide published by Eurocities and MUFPP, Food Losses and Waste in European Cities .

On another note, innovative initiatives are emerging from the private and social sectors to reuse this food waste, such as BELLA DENTRO , LAST MINUTE SOTTO CASA and in Italy in Portugal, other international ones such as TO GOOD TO GO or .

The strategy to implement an effective food waste management policy is in line with the fight against Climate Change, while at the same time allowing to address the challenges of Sustainable Development Goals such as 2 (Zero hunger), 3 (Good health and well-being), 12 (Responsible consumption and production) or 13 (Climate Action).

Some actions to support or initiate these policies from cities should be based on some previous facilitators:

1) Measurement. There is no regularised and standardised body of knowledge that provides the necessary data to guide these policies. The more we measure, the better we will know the problem and how to tackle its change. This objective should equally affect different administrative scales (national, regional, or local) and different actors involved in the system (from institutions, business companies, households, etc.) measuring waste and looking for explanations.

2) Raising awareness. We need to understand both individually and collectively why we waste food in this way. Information and education must accompany this process of analysis and design of alternative strategies. Awareness-raising is the main policy option developed by many European Cities.
This article has been written in parallel to the process of designing Integrated Action Plans by the partner cities of the FOOD CORRIDORS network. It is intended to provide information to inspire their proposals for action. A more practical version of these contents will be tested in transnational workshops of the network. Further articles will be published in the coming months in line with the FOOD CORRIDORS theme described in the * Antonio Zafra is the Lead Expert of the FOOD CORRIDORS network Baseline Study of the Project.
Love Food, Hate Waste is a successful communication initiative developed by WRAP in the UK. It focusses on people who have already or are looking to take action, providing practical tips and advice. The website offers recipes, advice, and tools, such as the Portion Planner , Food Storage A-Z , and the Chill the Fridge Out temperature checker tool, all of which are making a real difference and influencing people's behaviour. At the other end of the spectrum, Wasting Food: It's Out Of Date is about motivating those who don't yet know or care about the issue of wasting food.

3) Economic and financial measures. The goal is to reduce food waste through incentives or other market-based instruments such as taxes or subsidies, all of which are seen as valuable instruments to change consumption patterns towards more sustainable practices. For example, in Italy, VAT reductions have been applied to sales of surplus food. In Spain, the city of Gijón, in its Municipal Waste Management Plan, includes the implementation of a tax payment system proportional to the volume of food waste generated, a "pay-as-you-throw" system using information technologies for intelligent data capture.

4) Regulation. Existing legislation and regulations probably need to be adapted to make them more useful and practical for implementation and compliance by the multiple private actors, taking care and protecting the public good of food.

In a similar way, companies in the food sector, at their different stages, should be clearly aware of and benefit from economic profits associated to a reduction of losses and spills along the value chain.

In countries such as the Czech Republic, France, Italy or Poland, progress has been made in recent years in banning the destruction of unsold food, forcing its redistribution via donations or use for composting together with other solutions in line with the European hierarchy of food surplus management. Often, voluntary agreements between parties can replace regulatory measures.

In addition, certification and labelling initiatives can be an excellent incentive to carry out food waste monitoring and reduction measures by the parties involved, especially companies. They can also be an essential element to be considered in public procurement actions by institutions. In Denmark, a public-private-social partnership has created the ReFood Label , which functions as a green label and recognises organisations and companies active in reducing food waste.

Finally, clarification of date labelling should be an effective regulatory instrument in the relationship between production, distribution, and consumption. In Norway, a positive example has been set with the inclusion of a stamp on the packaging of eggs by one producer stating "best before, but not bad after" to combat food waste.

5) Plans and projects. In a balanced way, the development of projects should follow the EU food waste hierarchy's logic, prioritising the objectives linked to prevention and reduction actions, guaranteeing the adequate availability of resources, generally oriented towards investments in infrastructures, installations, and treatment equipment.

As some are already demonstrating, cities must be key policy partners in addressing food waste in an integrated way. For this, they need adequate funding from states and other transnational bodies. In addition to prevention and reduction, two areas of waste management require special attention because of their co-benefits. First, by encouraging solutions based on composting and digestate where training and pilot projects can be of great help. And secondly, with the intensification of social and economic crises that impoverish large sections of the population, promoting policies for the collection and redistribution of loss and food waste. In this case, collaboration with the production, processing and marketing sector must be combined with the participation of social initiatives that have been set up, many of them thanks to the support of European projects and almost always with an important technological base and digital presence.

Through these pilot plans and actions, cities can set specific food waste reduction targets, in line with SDG 12.3.

6) Stakeholder participation. Both individual and collective, participatory-based solutions need to be promoted, including incentives for good practice. Many redistribution platforms are based on collaborative arrangements involving retailers and catering companies with volunteer groups, NGOs, and institutions. The impact is visible and easy to monitor, although it must be ensured that the necessary resources are available to guarantee the storage or delivery of fresh produce.

A good guide of activities to start preventing waste food is proposed by the British non-profit organisation WRAP, including precise recommendations to initiate prevention, planning, behavioural change, communication, etc.

By the same author: "Closing loops in local food systems " (URBACT, 2021).

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Food waste is a serious ethical, social, environmental, and economic problem. It is estimated that one-third of the food produced on the planet ends up in the rubbish bin.

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On Sept. 9, 2019, a mountain lion was found dead in the Santa Monica Mountains. It was the fifth mountain lion to die from consuming rat poison in that region since 2002.

While this may seem shocking, exposure to rodenticides - pesticides specifically designed to kill rodent pests - is increasingly common among predators because they sometimes feed on rodents that have consumed toxic baits. Because rodenticides are commonly applied in urban settings as a method of pest control, these exposures increase near urban areas.

Read more: How we found out that rat poisons are killing wildlife in Cape Town

Rodenticides aren't the only health risks that urban wildlife face. Wildlife living in cities or suburban areas experience unique health challenges compared to their country cousins, often due to human activities.

In a study led by wildlife disease ecologist Maureen Murray and published in the journal Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, we compiled and analyzed the results of over 500 previously published health comparisons of urban and non-urban wildlife.

We found that overall, urban wildlife had poorer health than wildlife in more natural areas. This was mostly due to urban animals having more toxicants in their tissues.

Toxic cities

Toxicants are toxic substances artificially introduced into the environment by human activity - for example, as a byproduct of mining - and include pesticides, industrial pollutants and heavy metals.

Higher toxicant loads in urban wildlife made sense to us: urban centres are known to have higher levels of pollution than rural areas. This is because pollutants are commonly associated with roads and industrial activity. It's not always possible to pinpoint an exposure source, but a closer look at the health comparisons in our paper can be used to infer possible exposure routes.

For example, a study examining lead levels in kestrels in Spain found that urban and rural kestrels had lower lead levels after restrictions were placed on leaded gasoline. This suggests that pollution from leaded gasoline had been an important exposure source.

In another study that measured heavy metal concentrations in scallops in Chile, scallops collected at a site near an international shipping port had the highest concentrations of copper, lead and cadmium. This port has been used for loading metals since the 1940s, which is likely how the surrounding water was contaminated.

Effects of toxicants

Although it is difficult to predict the consequences of elevated toxicant levels on wild animals at the individual or population level, we know that toxicants can potentially harm animals' reproduction, development and survival.

Exposure to heavy metals has been found to weaken the immune system of tree swallows, possibly making animals more susceptible to disease or less able to recover from infection.

Another study demonstrated that exposing amphibians to pesticides increased their susceptibility to infection with a parasitic worm. Amphibian populations are in decline globally, in part due to disease, and so it is important to understand how toxicants influence disease to conserve threatened populations.

Increased toxicants in urban wildlife could also give us information about our own exposure to pollution. Pollution in cities is a concern for human health - over 80 per cent of people in urban areas are exposed to air pollution above guidelines set by the World Health Organization. It's possible to track how the air pollution in one urban area compares to others.

Toxicants were only one measure of health that we examined. For other health measures like stress, parasitism and body condition (like a BMI score), it was less clear whether urban animals had poorer health than non-urban animals. For example, white-footed tamarins living in the city were more likely to be overweight and have higher cholesterol levels, likely due to increased access to cholesterol-rich foods in cities. However, their rural counterparts had a greater incidence of parasites.

It's important for scientists to assess wildlife health from multiple angles similar to how a doctor would evaluate various factors like diet, stress levels and sickness at a check-up.

Living with wildlife

Some species (like bears or mountain lions) are probably better suited to staying outside of cities. For these animals, it's important to reduce food waste that attracts them into human-dominated areas. But for many other species, we should consider how to live alongside them in a way to keep them healthy.

Higher toxicant loads in urban wildlife suggests that we need to reduce their exposure. Effective mitigation will require the development and enforcement of government regulations.

Read more: Living with rats involves understanding the city as an ecosystem

But there are steps that individuals can take to support healthy wildlife. Before using toxic chemicals to control one animal species, consider how these chemicals could affect other species. For example, in March 2017 goldfinches died in a residential neighbourhood of Modesto, Calif., because they were poisoned by eating seeds contaminated with an insecticide that had been applied to nearby trees.

Individual actions to support wildlife could include refraining from using pesticides on your lawn or choosing snap-traps over rat poisons to control rodent pests in buildings. In turn, this could reduce accidental poisonings of pets and children.

Finally, there is a growing link between the value of interacting with nature and mental health. Beyond the importance of promoting wildlife health for biodiversity and preserving ecosystem services, an extra benefit of healthy wildlife is that their presence can improve our health too.

By 2050, 68 per cent of the world's population is expected to reside in cities. Let's take steps to ensure that wildlife can safely and healthily live alongside us too.

[ Expertise in your inbox. Sign up for The Conversation's newsletter and get a digest of academic takes on today's news, every day. ]

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Toxic cities: Urban wildlife affected by exposure to pollutants

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On Sept. 9, 2019, a mountain lion was found dead in the Santa Monica Mountains. It was the fifth mountain lion to die from consuming rat poison in that region since 2002. While this may seem shocking, exposure to rodenticides - pesticides specifically designed to kill rodent pests - is increasingly common among predators because they sometimes feed on rodents that have consumed toxic baits.

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Students will learn about the human impacts on bee populations as they design, test, build and observe a structure for solitary bees.

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Pollinators need you. You need pollinators.

Without the actions of pollinators, agricultural economies, our food supply, and surrounding landscapes would collapse.

Birds, bats, bees, butterflies, beetles, and other small mammals that pollinate plants are responsible for bringing us one out of every three bites of food. They also sustain our ecosystems and produce our natural resources by helping plants reproduce.

Pollinating animals travel from plant to plant carrying pollen on their bodies in a vital interaction that allows the transfer of genetic material critical to the reproductive system of most flowering plants - the very plants that

bring us countless fruits, vegetables, and nuts,

½ of the world's oils, fibers and raw materials;

prevent soil erosion,

and increase carbon sequestration

This nearly invisible ecosystem service is a precious resource that requires attention and support - - and in disturbing evidence found around the globe, is increasingly in jeopardy. Pollinator Partnership (P2) urges you know how this system supports you, and how your actions can help support healthy and sustainable pollination.

What is pollination?

When a pollen grain moves from the anther (male part) of a flower to the stigma (female part), pollination happens. This is the first step in a process that produces seeds, fruits, and the next generation of plants. This can happen through self-pollination, wind and water pollination, or through the work of vectors that move pollen within the flower and from bloom to bloom.

Who are the pollinators?

Birds, bats, butterflies, moths, flies, beetles, wasps, small mammals, and most importantly, bees are pollinators. They visit flowers to drink nectar or feed off of pollen and transport pollen grains as they move from spot to spot.

Why are pollinators important?

Somewhere between 75% and 95% [ 1] of all flowering plants on the earth need help with pollination - they need pollinators. Pollinators provide pollination services to over 180,000 different plant species and more than 1200 crops. That means that 1 out of every three bites of food you eat is there because of pollinators [ 2, 3]. If we want to talk dollars and cents, pollinators add 217 billion dollars to the global economy [ 4, 5], and honey bees alone are responsible for between 1.2 and 5.4 billion dollars in agricultural productivity in the United States [ 6]. In addition to the food that we eat, pollinators support healthy ecosystems that clean the air, stabilize soils, protect from severe weather, and support other wildlife [ 7].

WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT THEIR STATUS?

Pollinator populations are changing. Many pollinator populations are in decline and this decline is attributed most severely to a loss in feeding and nesting habitats [ 8, 9]. Pollution, the misuse of chemicals, disease, and changes in climatic patterns are all contributing to shrinking and shifting pollinator populations. In some cases there isn't enough data to gauge a response, and this is even more worrisome.

How can you help?

Pollinators need help, but we know how to help them! P2 scientists and research partners that have been studying pollinators for over three decades have been able to show that conservation techniques work. If everyone - home owners, local governments, national governments, and private industry - made the effort we could change the future for pollinators and secure our own.

HABITAT AREA COUNTS

Make room for pollinators on your land

Adding natural habitat areas into farm systems works. Farms that are closer to natural habitat produce more crop yield [ 9] because they attract more pollinators [ 10]. Adding habitat to farms systems works too - farms that have turned a potion of their fields into green space have gained back more overall yield [ 11]. Home owners can help too! Home gardens can and do attract pollinators [ 12], and in many cases suburbs and cities have been shown to have more diverse pollinator communities than nearby wildlands [ 13, 14]. Pollinators don't seem to be phased by city life, as long as there are plots and patches of flowers they will be visited by hungry bees [ 15, 16]. Pollinator gardening near community gardens also increases urban agricultural yields [ 17]. If you build it, they will come and help you get bigger and better crops too!

PLANT THE RIGHT PLANTS

Research has shown that local native pollinators prefer local native plants [18, 19].

Fortunately P2 has complied planting guides that helps you select the right plant for the right spot [ 20]. Plant the right plants on highway rights of ways, farms, schools, home gardens, corporate landscapes and on public spaces. It really will matter for all of us.

DON'T STOP THERE!

Spread the word about the importance of pollinators.

Support Farmers and Beekeepers by buying local honey and locally produced organic foods.

Donate to support Researchers so that they can help fill in the blanks, the more we know the more we can help the bees!

Join Pollinator Partnership as a member.

The Supporting Science

1. Ollerton J, Winfree R, and Tarrant S (2011) How many flowering plants are pollinated by animals? Oikos 120:321-326.

2. Klein AM., Vaissiere B, Cane JH, Steffan-Dewenter I, Cunningham SA, Kremen C (2007) Importance of crop pollinators in changing landscapes for world crops. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 274: 303-313;

3. Buchmann S, Nabhan GP (1996) The Forgotten Pollinators. Island Press, New York.

4. Gallai N, Salles JM, Settele J, Vaissiere BE (2009) Economic valuation of the vulnerability of world agriculture confronted with pollinator decline. Ecological Economics 68:810-821

5. Losey JE, Vaughan M (2006) The economic value of ecological services provided by Insects. Bioscience 56: 311-323.

6. Southwick EE, Southwick L (1999) Estimating the Economic Value of Honey Bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae) as Agricultural Pollinators in the United States. Journal of Economic Entomology 85:(3):13

7. Costanza R, d'Arge R, de Groot R, Faber S, Grasso M, Hannon B, Limburg K, Naeem S, O'Neill RV, Paruelo J, Raskin RG, Sutton P, and van den Belt M. 1997. The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387:254-260.

8. National Research Council of the National Academies (2006) Status of Pollinators in North America. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.

9. Kremen C, Williams NM, Thorp RW (2002) Crop pollination from native bees at risk from agricultural intensification. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA. 99:16812-16816.

10. Klein AM., Vaissiere B, Cane JH, Steffan-Dewenter I, Cunningham SA, Kremen C (2007) Importance of crop pollinators in changing landscapes for world crops. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 274: 303-313.

11. Morandin L, Winston ML (2005) Pollinators provide economic incentive to preserve natural land in agroecosystems. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 116(3-4):289-292

12. Matteson KC, Ascher JS, Langellotto GA (2008) Bee richness and abundance in New York City urban gardens. Annual Reviews of the Entomological Society of America 101:140-150

13. Winfree R, Griswold T, Kremen C (2007) Effect of human disturbance on bee communities in a forested ecosystem. Conservation Biology 21:213-223

14. Cane J, Minckley R, Kervin L, Roulston T, Williams N (2006) Complex responses within a desert bee guild (hymenoptera: apiformes) to urban habitat fragmentation. Ecological Applications 16:632-644

15. Wojcik VA, McBride JR (2011) Common factors influence bee foraging in urban and wildland landscapes. Urban Ecosystems, DOI 10.1007/s11252-011-0211-6.

16. Wojcik, VA (2011) Resource abundance and distribution drive bee visitation within developing tropical urban landscapes. Journal of Pollination Ecology. 4(7): 48-56, http://www.pollinationecology.org/articles/jpe_2011_vol_4_48.pdf

17. Werrell PA, Langellotto GA, Morath SU, Matteson KC (2009) The Influence of Garden Size and Floral Cover on Pollen Deposition in Urban Community Gardens. Cities and the Environment. 2 (1) http://digitalcommons.lmu.edu/cate/vol2/iss1/6/

18. Frankie GW, Thorp RW, Schindler M, Hernandez JL, Ertter B, Rizzardi M (2005) Ecological patterns of bees and their host ornamental flowers in two northern California cities. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 78:227-246;

19. Frankie GW, Thorp RW, Hernandez JL, Rizzardi M, Ertter B, Pawelek JC, Witt SL, Schindler M, Coville R, Wojcik VA (2009) Native bees are a rich natural resource in urban California gardens. California Agriculture 63:113-120

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The Pollinator Partnership is a non-profit 501(c)3 organization and the largest in the world dedicated exclusively to the protection and promotion of ...

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Stormwater runoff occurs when rain or snowmelt flows over hard surfaces such as roads, driveways, and parking lots, instead of soaking into the ground. Stormwater runoff collects pollutants such as heavy metals, nutrients, sediment, and pathogens as it flows to the storm sewer system and is discharged to local waterways without treatment. Historically, municipalities have managed their stormwater utilizing "gray" infrastructure practices made up of gutters, basins, and pipes that transport stormwater quickly to local streams, rivers, and lakes. Many municipalities struggle to maintain this aging stormwater infrastructure due to lack of funding. The result is frequent flooding and nonpoint source pollution degrading local watersheds.

Additionally, in many older communities, stormwater and raw sewage from homes and businesses flow through the same pipes to wastewater treatment plants. During heavy rain events, when the treatment plant reaches capacity, both untreated stormwater and raw sewage are discharged directly to local streams and rivers through combined sewer overflows (CSOs). There are over 200 CSOs in New Jersey, many in underserved, low income communities. These CSOs degrade water quality and threaten human health by discharging pathogens, toxic pollutants, and excess nutrients directly to our waterways. Swimming or fishing in these waters can cause waterborne infections and diseases. CSOs also cause beach and shellfish bed closures, contaminate drinking water supplies, and harm aquatic life. Separating combined sewer systems is an expensive process that disrupts daily life within communities, as pipes are slowly separated piece by piece.

What Is Green Infrastructure?

Green infrastructure is often defined based on the scale that is being discussed. At its broadest, green infrastructure refers to an "interconnected network of green space that conserves natural systems and provides assorted benefits to human populations" (McMahon and Benedict, 2006). At the local scale, green infrastructure is an approach to managing stormwater by infiltrating it in the ground where it is generated using vegetation or porous surfaces, or by capturing it for later reuse. Green infrastructure is often used interchangeably with the term "low impact development", but there are nuanced differences between the two. Low impact development (LID) is an approach to land management that aspires to restore or maintain pre-development hydrological conditions. Green infrastructure refers to the techniques used to implement low impact development with regard to stormwater. This fact sheet will focus on green infrastructure practices that can be installed at the local scale to effectively manage stormwater.

What Are the Benefits of Green Infrastructure?

There are many benefits of green infrastructure, and they can generally be categorized into three major objectives: improved stormwater management, reduced costs, and enhanced individual and community well-being.

Green infrastructure practices can improve stormwater management by:

Reducing stormwater volume. Runoff is captured or absorbed by the green infrastructure practice thereby reducing the flow of stormwater to the storm sewer, reducing the occurrence of CSOs where they exist, and reducing flooding in local waterways.

Reducing impervious cover. Surfaces that allow water to penetrate are "pervious" or "permeable" while those that do not are "impervious". Examples of impervious cover are roads, driveways, and parking lots. Some green infrastructure techniques replace impervious cover with permeable surfaces, which leads to reduced stormwater runoff when it rains.

Decreasing and delaying peak discharge. Peak discharge is the highest rate of flow in a stream, which is influenced by the land cover in the surrounding watershed. In areas with high impervious cover, in addition to decreasing runoff to streams, green infrastructure practices capture and absorb stormwater volume, slowly infiltrating water into the ground, which attenuates peak volumes thereby reducing the burden on the sewer system.

Preventing pollution. Many green infrastructure practices filter or remove stormwater pollutants such as heavy metals, nutrients, sediment, and pathogens, which leads to improved water quality. Additionally, green infrastructure often prevents pollution-carrying runoff from reaching the local waterway by absorbing and treating stormwater near its source.

Recharging groundwater. Green infrastructure techniques that absorb runoff allow water to penetrate into the soil, which replenishes the groundwater supply. Groundwater provides base flow to local rivers and streams as well as provides the drinking water supply to many New Jersey municipalities.

Green infrastructure practices can reduce costs by:

Reducing energy needs. Green infrastructure practices that utilize vegetation insulate surfaces in cooler months, provide evaporative cooling in the summer months, and provide shade while reducing wind speeds. These benefits lead to reduced heating and/or cooling costs. Additionally, rainwater harvesting provides a local source of water for free as opposed to potable water which requires an energy-intensive treatment and transportation process.

Reducing potable water demand. Many homeowners use drinking water to irrigate their lawns, even though plants do not require treated water to thrive. Rainwater harvesting can reduce potable water usage, leading to lower water bills and less demand on the water supply. Additionally, replacing turf with a bioretention system such as a rain garden or vegetated swale reduces the need for irrigation once plants are established, leading to lower water usage.

Reducing maintenance costs. Many green infrastructure practices are open systems, allowing for easy access during maintenance. Traditional stormwater management systems are closed and require machinery to access the pipes for maintenance. Permeable pavement installations do not have pothole issues like conventional pavement because the water moves through the surface without freezing. Permeable pavement systems also require less salt in the winter because of the reduced occurrence of black ice on the surface. The maintenance of many green infrastructure practices can be done by hand and does not require expensive machinery to keep them operational.

Green infrastructure practices can improve individual and community well-being by:

Improving human health. Green infrastructure practices can reduce the potential for human exposure to raw sewage through decreased incidence of flooding and CSOs. With green infrastructure homeowners are less likely to have stormwater and raw sewage flooding their basements. CSOs may be triggered less often which results in reduced exposure to waterborne pathogens and toxic chemicals. With the reduction in CSOs, water quality is also improved, which could make those waterways safe for fishing and swimming.

Improving neighborhood aesthetics. Many green infrastructure practices utilize flowers, shrubs, and other plants to improve runoff absorption and to reduce stormwater pollution. These plants complement the existing landscaping and enhance the beauty of the surrounding environment.

Cooling cities and improving air quality. Asphalt absorbs heat throughout the day and releases it at night, keeping city air at elevated temperatures with no opportunity for cooling. Green infrastructure practices allow for greater air movement, reflection of heat, and provide shading that can cool urban environments. Air quality is improved by green infrastructure because lower temperatures can lead to reduced smog formation, while plants used in these practices absorb air pollutants and reduce carbon dioxide levels.

Increased recreation opportunities and property values. People are more likely to participate in outdoor activities when vegetation has been added to a neighborhood (Stratus, 2009) and research has shown that property values increase when trees and other vegetation are present in urban areas (Shultz and Schmitz, 2008).

What Are the Types of Green Infrastructure?

Infiltration Systems

Bioretention cells, or rain gardens, are shallow landscaped depressions that utilize soil and both woody and herbaceous plants to remove pollutants and infiltrate stormwater runoff (USEPA, 1999). Bioretention cells (see Figure 1) consist of different zones that perform specific functions for treating and infiltrating stormwater. Ideal for various locations from residential properties to parking lot islands, bioretention cells can even be installed in areas with high clay content by amending the soil with sand and compost and installing an under drain. Within 24 hours of a rain event, a properly designed bioretention cell should be fully drained and no standing water should be seen. Avoid locations with high water tables or steep slopes.

Similar to rain gardens, planter or tree boxes utilize soil, gravel, and plants to infiltrate and filter stormwater runoff from impervious surfaces (see Figure 2). Planter boxes are typically smaller than rain gardens and are used in urban communities such as along sidewalks, roadways, and within parking lots. They are typically rectangular with concrete sides and an inlet that allows stormwater to enter the planter box.

Vegetated swales are shallow channels that convey, slow down, and infiltrate stormwater runoff (see Figure 3). They also help to trap pollutants such as particulates and fine metals. Swales are best placed in residential, industrial and commercial areas, with small drainage areas that will generate low volumes of runoff. Swales are best used in combination with other green infrastructure practices. They can be used to replace curbs and gutters. Swales are not practical in areas with large drainage areas. Municipalities will often restrict the use of swales because of concerns about erosion during large flow events and the potential for breeding mosquitoes.

Permeable pavement is a stormwater drainage system that allows rainwater and runoff to move through the pavement's surface to a storage layer below, with water eventually seeping into underlying soil (see Figures 4 and 5). Types of permeable pavement include pervious concrete, porous asphalt, interlocking concrete pavers, and grid pavers. These pavement systems are ideal for parking lots, driveways, alleys, sidewalks, and playgrounds. Permeable pavement can be used on all soil types including clay and have no freeze-thaw issues. Maintenance involves using a regenerative air vacuum instead of a street sweeper.

Green Roofs

A green roof is a roof covered in plants that allows for stormwater management (see Figure 6). Green roofs normally consist of an insulation layer, a waterproof membrane, a growing media layer, and vegetation (Oberndorfer, 2007). Adding a green roof can lessen the negative effects of buildings on the environment and can reduce the energy use of the building itself. Energy use decreases because vegetation and planting media intercept and dissipate solar radiation (Del Barrio, 1998). Green roofs also reduce stormwater runoff by retaining precipitation and reducing runoff to the storm drain system. They are meant to be low maintenance and more functional then a roof garden which would have more extensive design and larger plants.

Green roofs are heavier than normal roofs due to the storage of water, the growing media, and the plants. The integrity of the building must be studied prior to installing a green roof on an existing structure. Many green roofs are installed with new construction to avoid this constraint.

Rainwater Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting involves collecting runoff from an impervious surface and storing it in a container or basin for later use (see Figures 7a & 7b). The container can range in size from a rain barrel (Figure 7a), typically 55 or 90 gallons, to a cistern (Figure 7b) which can hold hundreds or thousands of gallons of water. Harvested rainwater can supply water for various uses including irrigation, toilet flushing, clothes laundering, car washing, and fire fighting. Currently, harvested rainwater cannot be used as a drinking water supply in New Jersey. Rainwater harvesting helps reduce dependence on the drinking water supply for non-consumptive uses and reduces stormwater runoff.

Downspout disconnection

Downspout disconnection is a technique for reducing stormwater runoff from roof surfaces by cutting and/or redirecting the downspout to a pervious area such as a lawn, garden, or porous walkway or driveway. The downspouts can also be re-routed to a cistern or rain barrel. This practice often can be implemented easily and inexpensively with basic household tools (hack saw or tin snips). Downspouts should be extended approximately 6 feet from a home foundation where there is a basement, and approximately 2 feet when there is a crawl space. Caution should be exercised in neighborhoods with small lots sizes to avoid redirecting roof runoff onto a neighbor's property.

Tree Planting

The addition of trees to a landscape is one of the simplest green infrastructure techniques (see Figure 8). Tree canopy can reduce stormwater runoff by intercepting rainfall, as well as by improving stormwater infiltration in soils. Shade trees can lead to improved air quality and reduced energy usage due to their cooling capabilities. The presence of trees in urban areas has also been linked to improved human health, reduced crime risk, and an increased feeling of community at the neighborhood level (USDA Forest Service, 1994, Branas et al., 2011). Many New Jersey municipalities have shade tree commissions that can provide resources related to tree planting in local communities.

Green infrastructure is an approach to stormwater management that is becoming widespread throughout New Jersey and across the nation. Multiple resources exist to guide communities in the implementation of these practices. In addition to the resources listed below, please contact your local Cooperative Extension office for assistance in planning green infrastructure projects.

Resources

Potential state and federal funding for green infrastructure:

Additional reading:

References

Benedict, M. A., & McMahon, E. T. (2006). Green Infrastructure: Linking Landscapes and Communitities. Island Press.

Del Barrio, E. P. (1998). Analysis of the green roofs cooling potential in buildings. Energy and Buildings, 27 (2), 179-193.

Oberndorfer, E., Lundholm, J., Bass, B., Coffman, R. R., Doshi, H., Dunnett, N., et al. (2007). Green roofs as urban ecosystems: Ecological Structures, functions, and services. BioScience, 57 (10), 823-833.

United States Environmental Protection Agency (1999). Storm Water Technology Fact Sheet Bioretention. Office of Water. Washington, D.C.: US Environmental Protection Agency.

United States Environmental Protection Agency (1999). Storm Water Technology Fact Sheet Vegetated Swales. Office of Water. Washington, D.C.: US Environmental Protection Agency.

Copyright © 2024 Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey. All rights reserved.

For more information: njaes.rutgers.edu.

Cooperating Agencies: Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Boards of County Commissioners. Rutgers Cooperative Extension, a unit of the Rutgers New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, is an equal opportunity program provider and employer.

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An Introduction to Green Infrastructure Practices

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This page provides information on the water quality benefits of green stormwater infrastructure (GSI) practices ( best management practices). The water quality benefit of a practice is defined by its ability to attenuate pollutants from stormwater runoff and prevent them from reaching receiving waters. All GSI practices provide water quality benefits since that is their primary function.

These benefits vary between each practice, primarily as a result of the mechanism by which pollutants are attenuated.

Constructed ponds () and wetlands ( stormwater wetlands) remove pollutants through . This removes medium- to large- diameter particles and pollutants attached to those particles, though effectiveness varies with design of the practice. See Calculating credits for stormwater ponds. For more information on sedimentation processes, link here.

practices remove pollutants by capturing runoff and infiltrating it vertically into underlying soil, the vadose zone, and groundwater. Attenuation occurs primarily through adsorption and filtering, though dilution in groundwater may also be a mechanism for reducing pollutant concentrations.

Green infrastructure and multiple benefits

Green infrastructure (GI) encompasses a wide array of practices, including stormwater management. Green stormwater infrastructure (GSI) encompasses a variety of practices primarily designed for managing stormwater runoff but that provide additional benefits such as habitat or aesthetic value.

There is no universal definition of GI or GSI ( link here for more information). Consequently, the terms are often interchanged, leading to confusion and misinterpretation. GSI practices are designed to function as stormwater practices first (e.g. flood control, treatment of runoff, volume control), but they can provide additional benefits. Though designed for stormwater function, GSI practices, where appropriate, should be designed to deliver multiple benefits (often termed "multiple stacked benefits". For more information on green infrastructure, ecosystem services, and sustainability, link to Multiple benefits of green infrastructure and role of green infrastructure in sustainability and ecosystem services.

Pollutant removal percentages for bmps

The adjacent table provides a summary of estimated pollutant removal for stormwater bmps. However, pollutant removal is a function of many factors, including design, construction, and maintenance of the BMP; quality of incoming stormwater; time of year; rainfall and watershed characteristics; and so on. The user is encouraged to read the section called Factors affecting pollutant removal.

Median pollutant removal percentages for several stormwater BMPs. Sources. More detailed information and ranges of values can be found in other locations in this manual, as indicated in the table. NSD - not sufficient data. NOTE: Some filtration bmps, such as biofiltration, provide some infiltration. The values for filtration practices in this table are for filtered water.
Link to this table

TSS=Total suspended solids, TP=Total phosphorus, PP=Particulate phosphorus, DP=Dissolved phosphorus, TN=Total nitrogen
¹Data for metals is based on the average of data for zinc and copper
²BMPs designed to infiltrate stormwater runoff, such as infiltration basin/trench, bioinfiltration, permeable pavement with no underdrain, tree trenches with no underdrain, and BMPs with raised underdrains.
³Pollutant removal is 100 percent for the volume infiltrated, 0 for water bypassing the BMP. For filtered water, see values for other BMPs in the table.
⁴Dry ponds do not receive credit for volume or pollutant removal
⁵Removal is for Design Level 2. If an iron-enhanced pond bench is included, an additional 40 percent credit is given for dissolved phosphorus. Use the lower values if no iron bench exists and the higher value if an iron bench exists.
⁶ Lower values are for Tier 1 design. Higher values are for Tier 2 design.

Bioretention

Bioretention is an excellent stormwater treatment practice due to the variety of pollutant removal mechanisms, including vegetative filtering, settling, evaporation, infiltration, transpiration, biological and microbiological uptake, and soil adsorption. Bioretention can be designed as an effective infiltration / recharge practice, particularly when parent soils have high permeability (> ~ 0.3 inches per hour). Bioretention designed for infiltration ( bioinfiltration) removes 100 percent of pollutants for the portion of runoff water that is infiltrated, although there may be impacts to shallow groundwater. Bioretention designed as filtration () employs that is effective at removing solids, most metals, and most organic chemicals. Removal of phosphorus depends on the media ( link here).

The following design considerations can improve the water quality function of bioretention practices.

Maximize infiltration by designing with the maximum ponded depth that can be infiltrated in 48 hours, up to 1.5 feet (to protect vegetation). Where space allows, surface area can also be increased. Utilize multiple bioretention practices in series. On lower permeability soils where an underdrain is used, raise the underdrain to the maximum extent possible, allowing water stored in the bioretention media below the underdrain to drain in 48 hours. Use an upturned elbow in underdrained systems.

For bioinfiltration (bioretention without an underdrain), use a high organic matter media to maximize pollutant removal

For biofiltration (bioretention with an underdrain), use a media mix that does not export phosphorus or use an amendment to attenuate phosphorus.

See Calculating credits for bioretention

Tree Trench

Tree trenches and tree boxes are a type of bioretention practice and are therefore an excellent stormwater treatment practice due to the variety of pollutant removal mechanisms including vegetative , settling, evaporation, , transpiration, biological and microbiological uptake, and soil adsorption. Tree trenches and tree boxes can be designed as an effective infiltration / recharge practice, particularly when parent soils have high permeability (> ~ 0.3 inches per hour).

The following design considerations can improve the water quality benefits of tree trenches.

Maximize infiltration by designing with the maximum ponded depth that can be infiltrated in 48 hours, up to 1.5 feet (to protect vegetation). Where space allows, surface area can also be increased.

Utilize multiple bioretention practices in series.

On lower permeability soils where an underdrain is used, raise the underdrain to the maximum extent possible, allowing water stored in the below the underdrain to drain in 48 hours. Use an upturned elbow in underdrained systems.

For bioinfiltration (bioretention without an underdrain), use a high organic matter media to maximize pollutant removal.

For (bioretention with an underdrain), use a media mix that does not export phosphorus or use an amendment to attenuate phosphorus.

See Calculating credits for tree trenches and tree boxes

Permeable Pavement

Permeable pavement reduces the concentration of some pollutants either physically (by trapping it in the pavement or soil), chemically (bacteria and other microbes can break down and utilize some pollutants), or biologically (plants that grow in-between some types of pavers can trap and store pollutants)( 5). Permeable pavement functioning as an infiltration practice (no underdrain) effectively treats most pollutants, including dissolved pollutants. When an underdrain is employed, permeable pavement is effective at removing solids and pollutants attached to those solids. Additionally, permeable pavements can reduce the need for road salt.

The following design considerations may improve the water quality benefits of permeable pavement.

Ensure the subgrade is flat. Since roads are typically sloped, utilize terracing in the subgrade to achieve flat slopes. See page 5 of the North Carolina design guidance.

Incorporate signage into the design to ensure maintenance activities do not affect the infiltration properties of the pavement.

Design to maximize retention time and prevent short-circuiting. Storage may be increased by use of geotextile subgrades. An example is presented by Nnadi et al, (2014).

Plan for the expected loading on the permeable pavement and ensure capabilities and reduce compaction or clogging

Use in conjunction with other treatments to establish a treatment train or reuse water on site

Some research has been conducted into use of geotextiles and other amendments for enhancing water quality treatment. See Ostrom and Davis (2019) and Nnadi et al. (2014).

See Calculating credits for permeable pavement

Green Roofs

Green roofs provide stormwater treatment benefits, but because pollutant concentrations are generally low, these benefits are limited. Pollutant removal mechanisms include filtering, evaporation, transpiration, biological and microbiological uptake, and soil adsorption.

Green roofs employ that is effective at removing solids, most metals, and most organic chemicals. Green roofs are generally not effective at retaining phosphorus because of the organic matter content in the media. They therefore are likely to lose phosphorus during the first years after establishment, but loss may gradually diminish over time. Use of low organic matter media, media that does not leach phosphorus (e.g. peat), or amendments (e.g. iron filings) may minimize or eliminate phosphorus losses from green roofs.

See Calculating credits for green roofs and this technical support document.

Water Re-use and Harvesting

Water re-use and water harvesting facilities can help improve water quality by capturing stormwater runoff and reducing offsite discharges into the storm sewer system and nearby water resources. The nature of stormwater re-use facilities varies widely, thus there is great variability in their effectiveness to remove storm water pollutants. Most water re-use projects have been developed to meet non-potable water demands, such as agriculture, landscape, public parks, irrigation, etc. In these cases, the captured stormwater is removed from the waste stream and prevented from reaching receiving waters. Water re-use systems can be used to create or enhance wetlands and riparian (stream) habitats for streams that have been impaired or dried from water diversion, thus enhancing the water quality benefits of these other practices.

The following design considerations may enhance the water quality benefits of harvest and reuse systems.

See Calculating credits for stormwater and rainwater harvest and use/reuse

Constructed Ponds and Wetlands

Pollutants are removed from stormwater runoff in a wetland through uptake by wetland vegetation and biota (algae, bacterial), vegetative filtering, soil adsorption, and gravitational settling in the slow moving marsh flow. Volatilization and chemical activity can also occur, breaking down and assimilating a number of other stormwater contaminants such as hydrocarbons. Wetlands effectively remove solids and pollutants associated with solids. They are only moderately effective at removing nitrogen and phosphorus. Some designs or poorly designed and maintained wetlands may export phosphorus. For information on pollutant removal for stormwater wetlands, link to Calculating credits for stormwater wetlands.

CAUTION: Using constructed wetlands for extensive water quality treatment may impair the wetland for other functions, such as habitat.

The following design considerations may improve the water quality benefits of constructed ponds and wetlands (Balderas-Guzman et al., 2018)

Distribute constructed wetlands systemically throughout a watershed to increase potential for delivering networked benefits

Design to maximize retention time and prevent short-circuiting

Create ecological diversity within the wetland to expose water to a variety of conditions where different treatment processes can take place

Create shallow zones were water will come into contact with plant roots and microbes and deeper zones where anaerobic processes can take place

Utilize a length to width ratio of 20:1

Construct multiple wetland cells

Ensure adequate to minimize pollutant loading that might impair other benefits, such as habitat

See Calculating credits for stormwater wetlands

Swale with Check Dam (with and without underdrain)

Water quality benefits of swales depends on the type of swale (Jamil, 2009). See Terminology for swales.

Dry swales: Water quality benefits of dry swales primarily depend on the presence or absence of check dams and underlying soils. When impermeable check dams are used on permeable soils (hydrologic group A or B soils), swales act as infiltration practices and provide water quality benefits similar to other infiltration practices. If check dams are permeable, swales provide water quality treatment through sedimentation processes. When check dams are absent, swales may provide some filtration of water by vegetation and some infiltration if underlying soils are permeable.

Wet swales: Wet swales are generally ineffective for water quality treatment.

Step pools: Similar to dry swales, step pools can provide effective water quality treatment when impermeable check dams are employed on permeable soils.

The following design considerations may improve the water quality benefits of swales. (Guzman et al., 2018; (Stagge et al., 2012; Purvis et al., 2018).

If underlying soils are permeable (HSG A or B), incorporate impermeable check dams into the design to promote infiltration. For wet swales incorporate permeable check dams to slow water movement and enhance filtration of solids.

For infiltration swales (swales without an underdrain), use a high organic matter media to maximize pollutant removal

Utilize side slopes as pretreatment by incorporating appropriate vegetation and geometry (e.g. dense grass, increased surface roughness, gentler and longer slopes)

Select vegetation with dense root systems

For swales (swales with an underdrain), use a media mix that does not export phosphorus or use an amendment to attenuate phosphorus.

See Calculating credits for dry swale (grass swale), Calculating credits for wet swale (wetland channel), and Calculating credits for high-gradient stormwater step-pool swale.

Infiltration practices

Several practices can be designed as either filtration or infiltration practices. These include bioretention, permeable pavement, and tree trenches without underdrains, swales with impermeable check dams, and harvest and reuse systems. These practices are discussed above. If the practice is designed to infiltrate stormwater runoff, water quality benefits of the practices are excellent as infiltration removes 100 percent of the pollutants captured by the practice. However, infiltration practices should be designed to avoid potential groundwater contamination, such as infiltration practices located on coarse-textured soils with groundwater tables near the land surface, or infiltrating runoff with high concentrations of potentially mobile pollutants. See the constraints section on this page.

References

Balderas-Guzman, C., H. Nepf, and A. M. Berger. 2018. Design Guidelines for Urban Stormwater Wetlands.

Berndtsson, J.C., L. Bengtsson, and K. Jinno. 2009. Runoff water quality from intensive and extensive vegetated roofs. Ecological Engineering, Volume 35, Issue 3, Pages 369-380.

Blue Mountain. Why use First Flush Diverters?. Accessed November 15, 2022.

Davis, A.P. 2007. Performance of Bioretention: Water Quality. Environmental Engineering ScienceVol. 24, No. 8. https://doi.org/10.1089/ees.2006.0190.

Guzman, C.B., S.R. Cohen, M.L. Machado, and T. Swingle. 2018. Island topographies to reduce short-circuiting in stormwater detention ponds and treatment wetlands. Ecological Engineering 117:182. DOI:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2018.02.020

Jamil, N.E.E. 2009. FIELD EVALUATION OF HYDROLOGIC AND WATER QUALITY BENEFITS OF GRASS SWALES WITH CHECK DAMS FOR MANAGING HIGHWAY RUNOFF. M.S. Thesis, University of Maryland.

OConnor, T., P. Culligan, T. Carson, S. Gaffin, R. Gibson, R. Hakimdavar, D. Hsueh, N. Hunter, D. Marasco, AND W. McGillis. 2014. Evaluation of Green Roof Water Quantity and Quality Performance in an Urban Climate. U.S. EPA Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-14/180.

Purvis, R.A., R.J. Winston, W.F. Hunt, B. Lipscomb, K. Narayanaswamy, A. McDaniel, M.S. Lauffer, and S. Libes. 2018. Evaluating the Water Quality Benefits of a Bioswale in Brunswick County, North Carolina (NC), USA. Water 2018, 10(2), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10020134.

United States EPA. 2013. Stormwater to Street Trees: Engineering Urban Forests for Stormwater Management. EPA 841-B-13-001.

Savou, J. To First Flush, or not to First Flush. BlueBarrel Rainwater Catchment Systems.

Selbig, B.R. 2019. Evaluating the potential benefits of permeable pavement on the quantity and quality of stormwater runoff.

Stagge, J.H., A.P. Davis, E. Jamil, and H. Kim. 2012. Performance of grass swales for improving water quality from highway runoff. Water Research, Volume 46, Issue 20, Pages 6731-6742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2012.02.037.

United States EPA. Soak up the Rain - Permeable Pavement. Website accessed November 16, 2022.

United States EPA. 2009. Storm Water Technology Fact Sheet - Sand Filters. EPA 832-F-99-007.

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Water quality benefits of Green Stormwater Infrastructure Water quality benefits of Green Stormwater Infrastructure

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This page provides information on the water quality benefits of green stormwater infrastructure (GSI) practices ( best management practices). The water quality benefit of a practice is defined by its ability to attenuate pollutants from stormwater runoff and prevent them from reaching receiving waters.

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Green spaces and areas of recreation have been well documented to provide mental and physical health benefits to the people living around them. Restored environments also help to sustain animal and plant life, supporting a whole ecosystem approach to combating water contamination, flooding, and air pollution. Given the benefits of green spaces near urban waterways, members of the UWLN are working to create more green spaces in communities most affected by environmental injustices in a variety of different ways: building greenways, installing green infrastructure, and converting vacant lots to parks. Find learning sessions, stories and more resources below.

Webinars

Green infrastructure projects have the potential to benefit both the environment and the community. Through their Parks with Purpose program, The Conservation Fund and partner organizations are designing and implementing green infrastructure in underserved urban communities while engaging and training residents to make way for lasting change.

Recorded webinar presenting 3 successful efforts to convert brownfields and vacant city lots into parks, green spaces and greenways. Examples hail from Birmingham, AL; Cincinnati, OH; and Kansas City, MO. Presenters include: Ryan Parker (Freshwater Land Trust); Robin Corathers (Groundwork Cincinnati) & Jill Erickson (Heartland Conservation Alliance)

Story Maps

Read about how three Urban Waters Learning Network organizations-Groundwork Hudson Valley, The Conservation Fund, and Groundwork Richmond-are working to create more green spaces in communities most affected by environmental injustices. The highlighted projects (blue stars) have integrated significant community engagement components in the development of green spaces. Community involvement can help to create a sense of community ownership over the new parks and greenways, providing a sense of place-making and community presence.

Additional Resources

Impact Stories

Reports

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Green Spaces - Urban Waters Learning Network

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Green spaces and areas of recreation have been well documented to provide mental and physical health benefits to the people living around them. Restored environments also help to sustain animal [...]

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Jump to Section

From highways to bridges to airports, America's infrastructure is in dire need of a face-lift. The critical systems we rely on nationwide endure chronic overuse and underinvestment, including our stormwater management systems. An estimated 10 trillion gallons of untreated stormwater runoff, containing everything from raw sewage to trash to toxins, enters U.S. waterways from city sewer systems every year, polluting the environment and drinking water supplies. In many urban and suburban areas, this runoff causes significant flooding as well. Not surprisingly, in 2017 the American Society of Civil Engineers bestowed a lowly D+ grade on U.S. stormwater and sewage systems. Meanwhile, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that upgrading our stormwater and other public wastewater systems will require at least $271 billion in investments over the next two decades, with about one-quarter of this total specifically for stormwater management.

The country's urgent infrastructure needs also present a major opportunity. As an alternative to traditional water management systems, green infrastructure offers a cost-effective solution to many of our water woes, including how to handle flooding and stormwater pollution. Here's a look at what green infrastructure is, what it does, and why we should invest so much green paper in it.

What Is Green Infrastructure?

Green infrastructure encompasses a variety of water management practices, such as vegetated rooftops, roadside plantings, absorbent gardens, and other measures that capture, filter, and reduce stormwater. In doing so, it cuts down on the amount of flooding and reduces the polluted runoff that reaches sewers, streams, rivers, lakes, and oceans. Green infrastructure captures the rain where it falls. It mimics natural hydrological processes and uses natural elements such as soil and plants to turn rainfall into a resource instead of a waste. It also increases the quality and quantity of local water supplies and provides myriad other environmental, economic, and health benefits-often in nature-starved urban areas.

What Is Gray Infrastructure?

Gray infrastructure is the more traditional (and often more expensive) water management systems that green infrastructure often complements and can sometimes replace. It relies on hard infrastructure-such as storm drains, concrete, and pipes-to collect and channel stormwater (sometimes treated, oftentimes not) into waterways. It does not provide the same range of benefits as green infrastructure, since it neither reduces the amount of stormwater that reaches waterways nor, for the most part, improves the quality of that runoff. Gray infrastructure also does not provide the same community benefits mentioned above.

Why Is Green Infrastructure Important?

Green infrastructure reins in stormwater runoff, which the EPA describes as "one of the fastest-growing sources of pollution" in the United States. Here's what happens.

Stormwater Runoff

Runoff, the product of rainstorms or snowstorms, flows over the ground and into drains, sewers, or waterways. The more permeable (or absorbent) the surface, the less runoff there will be. Porous natural landscapes, such as meadows and forests, will readily soak up as much as 90 percent of the rain or snowmelt they receive. In contrast, streets, parking lots, rooftops, and other hard, impervious (nonabsorbent) surfaces essentially repel stormwater, preventing it from soaking into the land and forcing it to flow whichever way gravity takes it. The average city block can generate more than five times as much runoff as a forested area of equal size.

Stormwater Pollution

When rainfall hits an impervious surface, it meets whatever pollutants reside on that surface. That could include road salt, sediment, or trash; oil, heavy metals, or toxic chemicals from cars and trucks; pesticides or fertilizers from lawns and gardens; and even viruses or bacteria from animal waste. These contaminants turn pristine rainfall into dirty runoff, an estimated 10 trillion gallons of which enter U.S. waters from cities, untreated, each year. How exactly does that happen? Point the blame at our stormwater management systems and impervious surfaces.

Impaired water quality
According to the EPA, urban stormwater is a " major" reason why nearly half of all U.S. rivers and streams-as well as a good chunk of our lakes and coastal waters-fail to meet national water quality standards. Impaired waters wreak havoc on ecosystems and vegetation, imperil drinking water supplies and public health, and ruin recreational areas.

Erosion
Just an inch of rainfall on one mile of a narrow, two-lane road can produce 55,000 gallons of stormwater runoff. When funneled through a storm drain, the sudden entry of so much rainfall can damage and erode delicate banks of waterways, resulting in land and habitat loss and changing a waterway's basic morphology.

Sewage overflows
Instead of separate storm drains, nearly 860 municipalities across the United States use combined sewer systems, which dump stormwater runoff into the same pipes that are used for domestic sewage and industrial wastewater. These sewer systems are designed to overflow when stormwater exceeds their capacity. A big storm, in other words, can cause an excess mess of both runoff and raw sewage to be released into waterways. In New York City alone, about 20 billion gallons of this noxious mixture pour from nearly 450 outfalls every year.

Economic toll
Stormwater runoff contributes to the frequency and severity of small-scale urban floods. Although localized flood events are not as damaging as catastrophic ones, they can create a greater overall economic burden because of their repetitive nature. In the United States, more than 30,000 properties have been flooded an average of five times each (with some homes getting inundated 30-plus times). And those figures will likely rise as climate change takes its toll. The EPA estimates that annual flood damages, due in part to runoff, will increase by $750 million by century's end. And stormwater comes with other costs, too. When water quality deteriorates, fish and shellfish populations-along with the economies that rely on them-decline as well. There can be a public health cost, too. One study estimated that in Los Angeles alone, stormwater runoff causes $119 million to $278 million in health costs annually just from people who contract gastroenteritis after swimming in contaminated water. (Numbers are in year-2000 dollars.)

Health toll
Stormwater runoff impacts the water we drink, the seafood we eat, and the recreational areas we visit. It introduces disease-causing pathogens into water supply sources that treatment facilities can't always filter out. And it can contaminate fish and shellfish, which in turn can sicken us. Rainfall runoff also inundates beach water with bacteria at levels that violate public health standards and sicken an estimated 3.5 million people a year nationwide, causing rashes, hepatitis, and gastrointestinal illness.

Stormwater Management

Green infrastructure keeps waterways clean and healthy in two primary ways:

Water retention
Green infrastructure prevents runoff by capturing rain where it falls, allowing it to filter into the earth (where it can replenish groundwater supplies), return to the atmosphere through evapotranspiration (when water evaporates directly from the land or plants), or be reused for another purpose, such as landscaping.

Water quality
Green infrastructure improves water quality by decreasing the amount of stormwater that reaches waterways and by removing contaminants from the water that does. Soil and plants help capture and remove pollutants from stormwater in a variety of ways, including adsorption (when pollutants stick to soil or plants), filtration (when particulate matter gets trapped), plant uptake (when vegetation absorbs nutrients from the ground), and the decomposition of organic matter. These processes break down or capture many of the common pollutants found in runoff, from heavy metals to oil to bacteria.

What Are Other Benefits of Green Infrastructure?

In addition to influencing the quantity and quality of runoff that reaches waterways, green infrastructure provides the following benefits.

Reduced flooding

Increased water supply

Smog and heat mitigation

A city's many miles of hot, dark pavement absorb and radiate heat into the surrounding atmosphere at far a greater rate than a natural landscape would. Known as the urban heat island effect, this phenomenon can significantly increase ambient air temperatures. The EPA estimates that the average air temperature of a city with one million people or more can be 1.8 °F to 5.4 °F (1 to 3 °C) warmer than surrounding areas. Higher temperatures reduce air quality by increasing ground-level ozone (also known as smog). In Los Angeles, for example, a 1 degree temperature increase alone makes the air roughly 3 percent smoggier. Green roofs, green streets, and other forms of green infrastructure help improve air quality and reduce smog through their use of vegetation. Plants not only provide shade but also absorb pollutants such as carbon dioxide (CO ₂)-delivering valuable carbon sequestration -and help reduce air temperatures through evaporation and evapotranspiration.

Health benefits

By reducing air temperatures and pollution, improving water quality, and creating more natural spaces, green infrastructure provides myriad public health benefits. Cooler and cleaner air can reduce heat-related illnesses-vital when you consider that 210 million Americans currently live in places where high summer temperatures put them at risk for heat-related problems such as exhaustion and heatstroke. Risks for respiratory issues, such as asthma, can also be reduced. Healthier waterways means less illness due to exposure to polluted water and fewer contaminants in drinking water and seafood. Greener areas also promote physical activity and can boost mental health while improving neighborhood livability.

Reduced costs

Green infrastructure saves money in other ways as well. Whereas water from municipal drinking water systems is typically treated and then transported to homes (this alone accounts for 4 percent of total U.S. electricity use), green infrastructure provides a source of water on the cheap for many nonpotable uses that the EPA says present "little human health risk." That's significant, given that only an estimated 20 percent of household water needs require purified water, and commercial users require even less. In other words, there is no reason to use expensive drinking water to flush the toilet or wash your car when rainwater works just as well.

Green infrastructure also improves the quality of water drawn from rivers and lakes for drinking, which reduces the costs associated with purification and treatment-in some cases by more than 25 percent. And green roofs can cut heating and cooling costs, leading to energy savings of as much as 15 percent.

Quality-of-life improvements

Types of Green Infrastructure

From flowering rooftop gardens to absorbent pavement to tree-lined streets, green infrastructure comes in many forms and can often hide in plain sight. Here are some common examples.

Green roofs

A living landscape of vegetation (think hardy grasses, succulents, and wildflowers), green roofs provide a verdant oasis for birds, butterflies, and the people who have access to them. By providing an extra layer of insulation to a home or building, green roofs slash cooling- and heating-related energy usage and costs. Whereas a conventionally dark roof basically bakes on a hot summer day (transmitting the heat it absorbs to the building below), a green roof can remain cooler than the ambient air temperature around it. For a one-story building, this can lead to a reduction in average daily cooling costs of more than 75 percent. Keeping cool generates other pluses, too: According to one study, blanketing half of Toronto's available roof space in green roofs would lower ambient air temperatures citywide by as much as 3.8 °F.

Green roofs sequester rain and carbon pollution as well. Somewhere between 40 and 80 percent of the total volume of rain that falls on green roofs can be retained. Moreover, the water that is released from a green roof is released slowly, reducing the amount of runoff that rushes into a watershed all at once, which curbs flooding and erosion. The vegetation found on green roofs also captures CO ₂, which gets stored in plants and soil. One study found that if the Detroit area greened all of its commercial and industrial rooftops, the carbon sequestered over two years would be equal to taking more than 10,000 midsize SUVs or trucks off the road for a year.

Blue roofs

Although not technically green infrastructure, blue roofs collect and store rainfall to reduce the influx of runoff into municipal sewer systems. They use detention ponds, basins, or trays to collect stormwater before draining it at a controlled rate into sewers or waterways. In addition to stormwater management, blue roofs can reduce the urban heat island effect when coupled with light-colored or reflective roof material, as well as provide energy savings in the form of reduced cooling expenses. The water from a blue roof can be reused, too.

Downspout disconnection

Rainwater harvesting

Beyond helping to rein in runoff, the capture, storage, and usage of rainfall (a practice known as rainwater harvesting) has the potential to meet 21 percent to 75 percent of a city's annual water needs, effectively supplying enough water for up to hundreds of thousands of residents, particularly for nonpotable use. What's more, rainwater harvesting (which typically uses cisterns or rain barrels to collect runoff from impervious surfaces like rooftops) provides a practical way to meet municipal water needs as climate change, population growth, and increased demand from industries such as agriculture and energy strain the water supplies of many regions.

Rain gardens

Planter boxes, a type of rain garden, are often used in the space between a sidewalk and street. They feature elevated sides and small openings that allow runoff to enter and be absorbed by vegetation and soil.

Bioswales

Long, relatively deep channels of native plants, grasses, flowers, and customized soils that run parallel to parking lots or roads, bioswales can handle large quantities of runoff from large impervious surfaces. Not only do they absorb and retain runoff from small storms, but they also filter and slow the release of water from heavier rains to sewers or surface waters, limiting floods and providing a first flush of pollutants. It is estimated that effective bioswales can capture and filter out as much as 90 percent of trace metals, oil, and grease; 70 percent of sediment; and about 30 percent of phosphorus from the runoff they collect.

Urban tree canopy

In addition to cleaning and cooling the air, trees provide a natural stormwater management system. Tree canopies intercept rainfall before it hits the ground. By providing surface area-branches and leaves-for raindrops to land on and evaporate from, a mature deciduous tree can capture as much as 700 gallons of rain a year, while a mature evergreen can absorb up to 4,000 gallons annually. The root system of a tree plays a large role in the management of runoff as well. In addition to drinking up water, which is then released via transpiration, roots create channels and open space in soil, which enhances the ground's ability to soak up water.

Permeable pavement

A pavement system often used for sidewalks, parking lots, or driveways, permeable pavement (also known as porous pavement) allows rainfall to seep through to underlying layers of pollutant-filtering soil before making its way to groundwater aquifers. Once installation costs are factored in, it can cost as much as 50 percent less up front than conventional pavement systems, and it can be cheaper in the long run to maintain.

Green parking lots

Designed to curb rainfall runoff, green parking lots often feature permeable pavement, vegetated areas around or within their perimeter, and shade trees that can help reduce the urban heat island effect.

Green streets

A form of sustainable road design, green streets combine various green infrastructure practices to more effectively manage stormwater. Whereas typical roads direct runoff into storm drains, green streets use permeable pavement, bioswales, planter boxes, and other stormwater management techniques to capture, absorb, and filter rainfall where it lands, slashing the amount of runoff that reaches waterways and improving the quality of what does. In fact, green streets can remove as much as 90 percent of stormwater pollutants. In the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles, a green streets project is expected to eliminate a portion of the billions of gallons of the city's stormwater runoff that reaches local rivers and beaches each year.

Green streets offer many other benefits as well. In addition to providing an economical alternative to costly new investments in sewer system infrastructure, they can improve air quality, provide shade, enhance the safety of pedestrians and bicyclists, and beautify neighborhoods. When green streets incorporate additional elements such as energy-efficient lighting, recycled or locally sourced materials, and improved space for walking, running, biking, or public transportation, they are referred to as complete streets.

History of Green Infrastructure

As described in the National Research Council's definitive report on urban stormwater management, most urban drainage systems evolved in the United States after World War II. These complex structures are based on simple technology: catch basins and pipes that capture water and convey it elsewhere in order to reduce and avoid flooding. Unfortunately, many growing American cities soon discovered a major problem: These systems moved high volumes of stormwater so quickly that floods weren't being mitigated so much as moved. To make matters worse, the increasingly nonporous city surfaces were leading to drops in groundwater levels and impacting nearby waterbodies.

The thinking about urban stormwater management started to evolve in the 1970s as landscape architects began placing more emphasis on low-impact development. This entailed greater efforts to develop areas around their natural hydrology, using practices like infiltration via vegetative channels and swales. Architects and engineers were beginning to see a flood-prone area's natural hydrology not as an impediment but as part of the solution to its flooding problems.

Around the same time, scientists and public health officials began raising the alarm about stormwater's other hazard: pollution. Studies like the Nationwide Urban Runoff Program, completed in the 1980s, showed that urban runoff carried contaminants like heavy metals, sediment, and even pathogens-all of which water can pick up as it flows across impervious surfaces looking for the lowest ground.

At the start of the 21st century, stormwater infrastructure strategically built to allow runoff to infiltrate close to the source became an increasingly popular answer for reducing this pollution. This is when the term green infrastructure was likely coined.

New York's Staten Island Bluebelt was one of the first and largest precursors to modern-day green infrastructure initiatives. Although it was designed in the 1990s, the Bluebelt's story began in 1964 with the completion of the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge linking Staten Island to Brooklyn. While better access to the borough sparked a two-decade boom in residential development, the corresponding infrastructure to handle the increase in sanitary waste and stormwater failed to keep up, resulting in chronic flooding, polluted waterways, and the regular smell of sewage. The Bluebelt project helped solve these issues by preserving streams, wetland areas, and other drainage corridors (bluebelts) that use natural mechanisms to capture, store, and filter stormwater-and quite effectively. Nearly three decades later, the award-winning Bluebelt comprises more than 14,000 acres, can temporarily hold and filter as much as 350,000 gallons of rainfall, and has saved tens of millions of dollars that would have been spent on conventional storm sewers.

Building a Greener Future

Although it wasn't described as green infrastructure at the time of its creation, the Staten Island Bluebelt demonstrates the sustainable and cost-effective potential of green infrastructure and underscores the significant opportunities that come with investing in similarly innovative projects both big and small.

Municipal and community leaders are beginning to understand that green infrastructure can deliver numerous economic and environmental benefits-as well as helping to correct age-old planning policies that create social divisions. That means more parks, open space, and other amenities, for instance, can be built in formerly neglected neighborhoods, boosting the health and well-being of everyone.

Indeed, cities across the country are undertaking major green infrastructure initiatives. Take Philadelphia, home to one of America's oldest sewer systems. The city is investing $2.4 billion to retrofit nearly 10,000 acres of impervious surface (at least one-third of the city's total that is served by a combined sewer system) to manage stormwater runoff. Perhaps the most groundbreaking aspect of the program is its competitive grant program to spur the voluntary development of green infrastructure retrofits on private property. The city recently celebrated the greening of its first thousand acres.

Federal and local funds available for water infrastructure continue to decline. The United States maintains its embarrassing D+ grade in wastewater management from the American Society of Civil Engineers. Climate change increasingly rears its ugly head. Altogether, there is simply no better time to look to more effective, sustainable alternatives to the antiquated and faltering systems that we rely on today.

Modernizing regulations at the national, state, and local levels is a crucial step for driving the use of green infrastructure. In recent years, NRDC has been part of successful efforts to strengthen stormwater permits and regulations in places including Washington, D.C., New Jersey, and California. Further legislation, incentives, and enforcement across the country -from the EPA, the Department of Transportation, and state and city governments-will be essential for combating stormwater runoff going forward.

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Green Infrastructure: How to Manage Water in a Sustainable Way

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Jump to Section From highways to bridges to airports, America's infrastructure is in dire need of a face-lift. The critical systems we rely on nationwide endure chronic overuse and underinvestment, including our stormwater management systems. An estimated 10 trillion gallons of untreated stormwater runoff, containing everything from raw sewage to trash to toxins, enters U.S.

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Sustainable Food Production by Theo  - 5th grade PYP exhibition at International Secondary School

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Authorities must not "push-back" Rohingya fleeing violence in Myanmar

Refugees sent back to face certain persecution

Thailand should provide refugees formal legal status and protection

With the world's fastest growing refugee crisis developing on its doorstep, Thailand must take concrete action to reverse its long-standing failure to offer protection to those most in need, Amnesty International said today as it launched a report revealing gaping holes in the country's refugee policies.

Between a Rock and a Hard Place outlines a number of failures by the Thai government in policy and practice that have a devastating impact on refugees both within the country and seeking safety there. These include Thailand's long-standing practice of using its navy to repel boats carrying thousands of desperate Rohingya refugees and Bangladeshis; as well as its forcible return of refugees and asylum-seekers to places where they risk torture and other serious human rights violations.

With ethnic cleansing forcing hundreds of thousands of Rohingya out of Myanmar, Thailand urgently needs to set a regional example by adopting humane refugee policies. Instead of callously repelling people fleeing unimaginable horrors, the Thai government should ensure safe passage for those seeking international protection in Thailand.
Audrey Gaughran, Amnesty International's Director of Global Issues

"With ethnic cleansing forcing hundreds of thousands of Rohingya out of Myanmar, Thailand urgently needs to set a regional example by adopting humane refugee policies. Instead of callously repelling people fleeing unimaginable horrors, the Thai government should ensure safe passage for those seeking international protection in Thailand," said Audrey Gaughran, Amnesty International's Director of Global Issues.

"Thailand hosts one of the largest refugee populations in the region, but its myopic, ad hoc policies mean it fails to offer them proper protection. The authorities cannot continue to lurch from one refugee crisis to the next; and instead must set up the systems required to offer these men, women and children who are at risk the safety and security they need."
Rohingya exodus
In 2015, at the height of the South East Asian "boat crisis", the Thai navy refused entry to boats carrying thousands of desperate Rohingya refugees, continuing a long-standing "push-back" policy in place during previous Thai governments.

Those who were denied entry to Thailand were forced to continue dangerous sea journeys to Indonesia or Malaysia. UNHCR estimated that 370 perished at sea during the crisis, but Amnesty International has raised concerns that the number of deaths could have been much higher.

In the past month, the Rohingya situation has escalated to critical proportions as a vicious program of ethnic cleansing targeting the population in western Myanmar has caused more than 400,000 refugees to flee the country.
In spite of this exodus, Thai authorities have sent mixed messages regarding their policy toward the Rohingya. A month ago, Prime Minister Prayut Chan-O-Cha stated that authorities were "preparing to receive" Rohingya fleeing Myanmar. More recently, a Thai military officer indicated that the Thai navy would push out to sea boats carrying Rohingya refugees should they arrive in Thai waters.

Returning refugees by force to face persecution
In the past three years, the Thai government has acquiesced to pressure from foreign governments and forcibly returned people to countries where their lives and well-being are at serious risk.

Such returns violate the international legal principle of non-refoulement, an absolute ban on returning people to territories where they are at real risk of persecution or other serious human rights violations.

Amnesty International followed four cases of forcible returns involving more than one hundred people from China, Turkey and Bahrain. Many of these individuals have subsequently suffered arbitrary arrest, torture and other forms of ill-treatment. The status and conditions of some of the returnees is unknown.

The most recent case occurred in May 2017, when Thailand assisted in the extradition of the Turkish national Muhammet Furkan Sökmen from Myanmar to Turkey. Sökmen was detained by Thai immigration officials in a Bangkok airport for approximately 24 hours before being handed over to the Turkish authorities. Thai officials assisted in Sökmen's extradition despite warnings from the UN that he was at serious risk of human rights violations in his home country, where authorities have launched a far-reaching crackdown in the wake of an attempted coup in July last year.

Sökmen was arrested and detained after arriving in Istanbul because of his alleged connection to opponents of the Turkish government. The current status of the criminal proceedings against him is unknown.

In a similar incident, Thailand drew widespread international condemnation in 2015 after it sent 109 asylum seekers from the Uighur minority back to China, where the group has faced severe persecution for decades.

"Thailand has paid lip service to improving protections for refugees, but this has not translated into real actions. Authorities continue to do foreign governments' bidding and send refugees back to countries where they could face torture and other human rights violations. These callous actions fly in the face of Thailand's international obligations and must be stopped immediately," said Audrey Gaughran.
Refugees left in legal limbo
Gaping holes in Thailand's legal framework leave refugees and asylum-seekers without legal status and therefore vulnerable to abuse. This is particularly true for more than 7,000 asylum seekers who currently live in urban areas.

Urban refugees and asylum-seekers, even those officially registered with the UN Refugee Agency, UNHCR, can be arrested at any time under the 1979 Immigration Act that criminalizes irregular entry and stay in Thailand. Following arrest, most refugees and asylum-seekers are sent to immigration detention centres where they can be held indefinitely in appalling conditions described by refugee rights advocates as "worse than prison". Former detainees described frequent abuse by guards and other detainees and cells so overcrowded that they had to sleep in shifts.

In constant fear of arrest and detention, refugees and asylum-seekers often live in miserable conditions, confined to their homes and cut off from social interactions. Many struggle to find employment, access medical care or even feed themselves and their families.

In what amounts to "constructive refoulement", many choose to give up their asylum claims and return to their home countries rather than face the unbearable hardships of refugee life in Thailand.

"Joseph" is a Pakistani Christian human rights activist who fled to Thailand with his family after they were threatened because of their faith and Joseph's work. They were joined in Thailand by Joseph's sister-in-law, who escaped after being kidnapped, forced to convert to Islam, and forcibly married to a Muslim man.

In 2016, two years after arriving in Thailand, the family abandoned their asylum claim and returned to Pakistan because their life in Thailand had become untenable. Joseph told Amnesty International: "We were without money. We didn't have anything to eat at that time...We were hungry and we were also trying to hide from the police. We didn't have food continuously for four or five days."

Joseph's sister-in-law, who had been arrested in Bangkok six months earlier, also chose to return to Pakistan rather than remain in an immigration detention centre. After returning to his home country, Joseph's home was burned down, killing his father. His sister-in-law was again abducted and returned to the household of the man she had previously been forced to marry.
Next steps
In recent years, Thailand's military government has made important commitments to improve its treatment of refugees and asylum-seekers. Thai officials have reiterated their commitment to the principle of non-refoulement and stated that they will not return refugees and asylum-seekers to situations where they are at risk of serious human rights violations.

Thailand has also committed to developing a process for screening refugees and irregular migrants and to passing anti-torture legislation containing a non-refoulement provision. If implemented in line with international standards, these initiatives could represent significant steps towards protecting the rights of refugees and asylum-seekers in Thailand.

"While the Thai government should be commended for its role in hosting hundreds of thousands of refugees over a period spanning decades, its recent actions have too often manifested the utmost disregard for the rights of men, women and children desperately in need of protection," said Audrey Gaughran.

"The Thai government needs to turn rhetoric into action. Instead of caving in to the demands of foreign governments to return those fleeing persecution and violence, authorities should work to ensure that refugees' rights are firmly protected under Thai law."

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Thailand: Hard line on refugees leaves thousands vulnerable and at risk

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With the world's fastest growing refugee crisis developing on its doorstep, Thailand must take concrete action to reverse its long-standing failure to offer protection to those most in need.

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Adrienne Nenow, Xinwei Zhang and Melanie Salzarulo

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Current Issues in Refugee Education: Burmese Refugee In Thailand

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The refugees’ stories were often identical: direct military attacks by the Myanmar army, forced labor, destruction of homes and food crops, and enslavement.

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Since August 25, 2017, more than 700,000 Rohingya refugees from Myanmar have fled to Bangladesh. This Rohingya refugee crisis is among the largest, fastest movements of people in recent history. The Rohingya, a mostly Muslim minority ethnic group in predominantly Buddhist Myanmar, are escaping what the United Nations has described as genocidal violence that follows decades of persecution and human rights abuses.

Flooding into Cox's Bazar district in Bangladesh, the refugees joined more than 200,000 Rohingya who fled years before.

Today, about 880,000 stateless Rohingya refugees live in the world's largest and most densely populated refugee camp, Kutupalong. About half of the refugees are children.

On March 22, 2021, their plight intensified after a massive fire swept through Cox's Bazar, destroying more than 10,000 shelters, food distribution sites, and clean water and sanitation facilities. The deadly blaze ripped through four of the 34 camps, displacing about 45,000 people. The death toll has risen to at least 15, with another 560 injured and over 400 missing, according to preliminary estimates by the Inter-Sector Coordination Group, a central coordinating team for humanitarian agencies serving Rohingya refugees in Cox's Bazar.

The exact cause of the fire is unknown as the blaze spread rapidly due to high winds and burned for many hours.

"I saw smoke coming, rising from another side of the hill. People were shouting and panicking. I rescued my siblings and went to Thaingkhali camp to save ourselves," says 11-year-old Baitullah. He stood on a hill overlooking the charred remains of his home, having already lost his home in Myanmar. "This morning when I came back, I saw nothing but ashes at our place."

World Vision is distributing emergency food to families affected by the blaze. We also converted our educational and multipurpose centers to serve as emergency shelters. Child protection is a critical issue as many children are missing or displaced.

Children also face risks of malnutrition, trafficking, and getting sick with COVID-19 or other illnesses, as water and sanitation sites have been damaged or destroyed.

"Rohingya refugees are among the most vulnerable people in the world. They have been living with ongoing uncertainty, storms, and the threat of disease outbreaks since fleeing their homes in 2017. This fire is the last thing that they need at a time when shelter is critical for protection from the impending monsoon season and COVID-19 is threatening to circulate around the crowded camps at an alarming rate," says Fredrick Christopher, Rohingya crisis response director for World Vision in Bangladesh.

"An unforgiving incident like this just deepens the sense of hopelessness in the hearts of everyone here at Cox's Bazar. World Vision will spare no effort in continuing to mobilize all our resources to help the Rohingya children and families during this extraordinarily challenging time," he says.

Since the beginning of the refugee crisis in 2017, World Vision, in partnership with the Bangladesh government and U.N. agencies, is caring for 265,000 Rohingya refugees with life-saving assistance and helping improve living conditions in the Rohingya refugee camps.

Despite this help, the Rohingya people remain at risk, and their future is uncertain. Without recognized refugee status in Bangladesh or legal citizenship in Myanmar, they are citizens of nowhere.

You can help Rohingya refugees affected by the March fire.

FAQs: What you need to know about the Rohingya refugee crisis

Explore facts and frequently asked questions about the Rohingya refugee crisis, and learn how to help Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh.

Fast facts: Rohingya refugee crisis explained

In 2017, the U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees described the Rohingya refugee crisis as "the most urgent refugee emergency in the world." Here are the facts you need to know:

About 880,000 Rohingya live in the world's largest and most densely populated refugee camp in southern Bangladesh.

About 1.3 million people - both refugees and local community members - need humanitarian assistance.

From April to November, heavy monsoon rains make life more perilous for refugees in the overcrowded camps.

The Myanmar and Bangladesh governments continue to negotiate terms for the repatriation of Rohingya refugees to Myanmar. In the meantime, children in the camps need access to formal education, and parents deserve the right to earn a living to support their families.

On March 22, 2021, a massive fire swept through the camps in Cox's Bazar. The deadly blaze injured at least 500, with more than 400 missing, including children. Those without shelter now number 45,000.

BACK TO QUESTIONS
Who are the Rohingya people?

The Rohingya people are a mostly Muslim ethnic minority group in Myanmar. They represent about 1 million people among Myanmar's total population of 52 million and live in the northern part of Rakhine State, which borders Bangladesh and India. As the Rohingya were not among the 135 officially recognized ethnic groups included in Myanmar's 2014 census, they are not eligible for citizenship in Myanmar.

Essentially stateless, without legal rights and protection, Rohingya children and families are vulnerable to human trafficking, child labor, child marriage, gender-based violence, and other forms of exploitation and abuse.
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What is the Rohingya refugee crisis?

Hundreds of thousands of Rohingya have fled to Bangladesh and live as refugees in overcrowded camps in locations prone to frequent natural disasters. Many of them are struggling to recover from traumatic experiences and to meet basic needs.
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What caused the Rohingya refugee crisis?

The Rohingya refugee crisis is caused by the Rohingya people having long faced violence and discrimination in Myanmar. Armed conflict escalated in August 2017 in Rakhine State, causing Rohingya to flee to nearby Bangladesh. U.N. Secretary-General António Guterres described the situation in September of that year as "the world's fastest-developing refugee emergency and a humanitarian and human rights nightmare."
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How many people are in need in Bangladesh because of the Rohingya refugee crisis?

About 1.3 million people in Bangladesh need humanitarian aid, including both Rohingya refugees and members of communities that host them.
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How can I help Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh?

Because Rohingya refugees are not allowed to work, they rely on aid from World Vision and other organizations.

Pray for mothers, fathers, and children who struggle to survive as refugees - especially those affected by the recent fire: Dear Lord, we pray for the families devastated by the blaze that destroyed shelters, food distribution sites, and clean water and sanitation facilities in Cox's Bazar. Help refugees affected find shelter, nourishment, and clean water. For the grieving hearts who have lost much in the fire, Heavenly Father, we ask for Your comfort and protection.

Give to World Vision's Refugee Children's Crisis Fund to help provide for their needs.

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What are the refugees' living conditions in the camps?

After fleeing violence in Myanmar, Rohingya refugees are living in rudimentary conditions. With 40,000 people per square kilometer, the camps are one of the most crowded places on earth. Five family members or more live in cramped, 10-by-16-foot shelters with only one room. Up to 20 people share a single outdoor latrine. They must wait in line for water for washing, cooking, and bathing.

During seasonal monsoon rains from April to November, refugees' makeshift shelters are at risk from floods and landslides, making living conditions worse.

Given the hot, humid weather in southern Bangladesh and frequent windblown dust, respiratory infections are common among refugee children and adults. Acute watery diarrhea is another frequent ailment. It's especially dangerous in combination with malnutrition, which is widespread.

The World Food Programme provides all food, which is distributed by their partners, including World Vision. Refugees receive monthly food rations that include rice, lentils, and oil. Although the rations are nutritious, it's difficult to eat the same food day after day. About half of the refugee population now receives e-voucher cards to buy meat and fresh produce from World Food Programme stores, but dietary diversity and balanced nutrition remain a challenge.

The Rohingya also suffer from psychosocial stress made worse by overcrowded conditions.

The Rohingya are a culturally conservative community. Women and teenage girls are expected to stay home and to be homemakers, not breadwinners. They lack control over household finances, and their dependence makes them vulnerable to assault, domestic violence, child marriage, exploitation, and trafficking.
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How are Rohingya children affected by the refugee crisis?

Refugee children are at high risk of disease, including malnutrition, as well as physical abuse and violence. Here are some of the risks they face:

Disease outbreaks: Children routinely suffer from communicable diseases such as diarrhea and respiratory infections, as well as conditions such as heat rash and head lice.

Lack of protection: Across the camps, almost 540,000 children need protection. They face serious risks, including psychosocial distress, neglect, abuse, separation from caregivers, sexual violence, child marriage, child labor, and trafficking. Girls are particularly vulnerable.

Lack of access to formal education: Nearly half of the 540,000 Rohingya children ages 3 to 14 don't have access to any formal education, which is restricted in the camps. This means children cannot sit for exams or pass a grade level. A reported 97% of all youth ages 14 to 24 also lack access to any form of education or vocational training.

Malnutrition: Acute malnutrition among refugee children under age 5 has decreased since 2017, but remains at "serious" levels, according to the WHO. Levels of stunting remain at more than 30%. This means that children are smaller for their age and may never catch up.

For more information, read "Childhood Interrupted: Children's Voices from the Rohingya Refugee Crisis," a joint report from World Vision and other humanitarian organizations, based on consultation with children and mothers in Bangladesh refugee camps and host communities.
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How is World Vision responding to the Rohingya refugee crisis?

World Vision has served in Bangladesh since 1970, following the Great Bhola Cyclone that killed at least 300,000 people across the country. Today, World Vision's work in Bangladesh reaches about 5 million children and adults.

World Vision programs contribute to the well-being and empowerment of refugee and host communities. We also promote and protect their rights through our advocacy work with international, national, and local governments. Our goal is to protect the safety and dignity of refugees and advocate for their safe, dignified, and voluntary return to Myanmar.

World Vision operates in all 34 Rohingya camps, providing aid for nearly 500,000 refugees through:

Child protection: We strengthen child protection systems in families and communities by engaging children, parents, faith leaders, and government leaders in ending violence against children, including child marriage. We refer children in need to the right professional services in the camps.

Food security, livelihoods, and cash: We distribute food and provide monthly fresh-food vouchers so families can buy eggs, fresh produce, and other food of their choice. We supply vouchers to pregnant women and breastfeeding mothers and support families to grow vegetables. World Vision is the World Food Programme's largest implementing partner.

Nutrition: We help prevent and treat malnutrition in children under 5, as well as in pregnant and breastfeeding mothers. We support 1,500 children and 250 mothers monthly through supplementary and therapeutic feeding in our five centers. Up to 1,050 women a day cook nutritious food for their families in our 42 community kitchens and learning centers.

Water, sanitation, and hygiene: World Vision has installed deep wells, latrines, hand-washing stations, and bathing cubicles to benefit more than 200,000 refugees in 11 camps. We hold hygiene promotion sessions and support some 1,000 community WASH committees that manage and maintain facilities.

Education: We have provided informal education for 3,840 children ages 3 to 14 in our 21 learning centers, in partnership with UNICEF. Adolescents ages 15 to 18 also benefited from training in vocational skills, as well as basic literacy and numeracy.

Gender-based violence prevention: At our Women's Peace Centers, women and girls have built supportive social safety nets while learning how to identify and protect themselves. We have also trained men and boys in gender-based violence awareness, equipping them to become champions for the women and girls in their families. Vocational training offered at the centers has empowered women economically and socially.

Host communities: The influx of hundreds of thousands of Rohingya profoundly affected local communities - already among the poorest in Bangladesh. The refugee population is now almost triple that of the host community. World Vision supports community savings groups and income-generating activities that help vulnerable men and women break the cycle of poverty. We recently launched a new child sponsorship program in the Ukhiya community focused on education, literacy, and nutrition, which will benefit 35,000 people.

Read Three Years On: Rohingya Refugee Response, a 2020 report about World Vision's work with Rohingya refugees.
BACK TO QUESTIONS
How is World Vision supporting the Rohingya people affected by the March 22, 2021, fire?

World Vision's staff immediately distributed emergency food supplies to refugees who lost their homes and belongings in the fire.

In addition to the distribution of high-energy biscuits to families, we're providing lunches and dinners to 50,000 people after the deadly fire destroyed shelters, food distribution sites, and clean water and sanitation facilities. We've converted our educational and multipurpose centers to serve as emergency shelters for children and their families.

At least three of the camps we're serving have been damaged, destroying several World Vision food distribution sites and WASH facilities and leaving thousands of Rohingya people without food, clothes, and shelters.
BACK TO QUESTIONS
World Vision is working with the U.N. and other humanitarian organizations to slow and stop the spread of the new coronavirus in the refugee camps.

In April 2020, the Bangladesh government limited access in the refugee camps to critical services, including food aid, healthcare, nutrition programs, and water, sanitation, and hygiene.

Since March 2020, World Vision has:

Conducted camp-wide public awareness campaigns on physical distancing, handwashing, and other health measures that have reached thousands of refugees.

Engaged almost 600 Rohingya faith leaders to help get coronavirus prevention messages out quickly.

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Timeline: History of the Rohingya people

1948: After Burma's independence from British rule, a Muslim rebellion erupts in Rakhine State, with people demanding equal rights and an autonomous area. The rebellion is eventually defeated.

1962: Military rule begins in Burma.

1977 to 1978: Some 200,000 ethnic Muslims identifying as Rohingya flee to refugee camps in Bangladesh.

1982: A new citizenship law identifies 135 national ethnic groups. It excludes the Rohingya, which effectively renders them stateless.

1989 to 1991: A military crackdown follows a popular uprising. Burma is renamed Myanmar. Another 250,000 refugees flee to Bangladesh.

1992: The Myanmar and Bangladesh governments agree to repatriate refugees. Hundreds of thousands of people return to Myanmar over several years.

2003: Two of 20 refugee camps remain in Bangladesh. U.N. studies show widespread malnutrition in the camps.

2012: Religious violence flares in Rakhine, leaving many people homeless. More than 100,000 people flee to Malaysia.

2014: In Myanmar's first census in 30 years, the Rohingya are still not included as an ethnic group.

2016: A military crackdown follows an attack on a border post in which police offers were killed. During the crackdown, about 87,000 people fled to Bangladesh.

2017: Mass exodus from Myanmar

August: Following Rohingya militia attacks on several police and army posts in Myanmar on August 25, state security forces launch a campaign of horrific violence and terror targeting the Rohingya community. More than 700,000 Rohingya flee Myanmar. The cycle of mass displacement begins again, this time on an unprecedented scale.

September: The U.N. refugee agency (UNHCR) declares the Rohingya refugee crisis a major emergency and scales up its response.

November: Myanmar and Bangladesh agree to start repatriating refugees within the next two months. According to international law, repatriation should be voluntary by refugees only when conditions are safe.

2018: Little hope of return

January: The agreed start date for repatriation passes without action.

April: U.N. Security Council envoys visit Myanmar and Bangladesh to observe needs and conditions.

April through November: Monsoon and cyclone seasons increase hazards for refugees living in makeshift shelters.

September: The U.N. releases a report accusing the Myanmar military of atrocities against Rohingya Muslims.

November: The Bangladesh and Myanmar governments offer refugees the chance to return to Myanmar. Not a single Rohingya accepts.

2019: Continued uncertainty

Increased violence in Myanmar's Rakhine State leads to the displacement of 4,500 more Rohingya people. This casts doubt on the feasibility of refugees returning to Myanmar anytime soon.

December: An International Court of Justice case accuses Myanmar of genocide of the Rohingya people.

2020: Coronavirus pandemic threats

April through November: Living in makeshift shelters, refugees face an increased risk of COVID-19 infection during monsoon and cyclone seasons.

May: The first case of COVID-19 is confirmed in the Rohingya refugee camps.

June: Among 860,000 refugees, 29 cases are reported.

2021: Fire blazes as the coronavirus remains a concern

March 23: A deadly fire rips through Cox's Bazar, destroying 10,000 shelters, World Vision food distribution sites, and clean water and sanitation facilities. World Vision immediately begins distributing emergency food supplies to families affected by the fire.
BACK TO QUESTIONS Chris Huber and Sevil Omer of World Vision's U.S. staff and Karen Homer, public engagement director for World Vision's Rohingya refugee response in Bangladesh, contributed to this article.

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Rohingya refugee crisis: Facts, FAQs, and how to help | World Vision

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Since August 25, 2017, more than 700,000 Rohingya refugees from Myanmar have fled to Bangladesh. This Rohingya refugee crisis is among the largest, fastest movements of people in recent history. The Rohingya, a mostly Muslim minority ethnic group in predominantly Buddhist Myanmar, are escaping what the United Nations has described as genocidal violence that follows decades of persecution and human rights abuses.

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Key issues for refugees from Myanmar (Burma) - Refugee Council

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Myanmar has for decades produced many refugees, and many of them have come to Australia. Why do people from Myanmar or Burma leave? Where do they go? How many

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The extreme weather that has battered much of the U.S. in 2022 doesn't just affect humans. Heat waves, wildfires, droughts and storms also threaten many wild species - including some that already face other stresses.

I've been researching bee health for over 10 years, with a focus on honeybees. In 2021, I began hearing for the first time from beekeepers about how extreme drought and rainfall were affecting bee colony health.

Drought conditions in the western U.S. in 2021 dried up bee forage - the floral nectar and pollen that bees need to produce honey and stay healthy. And extreme rain in the Northeast limited the hours that bees could fly for forage.

In both cases, managed colonies - hives that humans keep for honey production or commercial pollination - were starving. Beekeepers had to feed their bees more supplements of sugar water and pollen than they usually would to keep their colonies alive. Some beekeepers who had been in business for decades shared that they lost 50% to 70% of their colonies over the winter of 2021-22.

These weather conditions likely also affected wild and native bees. And unlike managed colonies, these important species did not receive supplements to buffer them through harsh conditions.

Each year, the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Environmental Protection Agency host federal pollinator experts to share the latest scientific findings on bee and pollinator health, and assess the status of these important insects, birds, bats and other species. One clear takeaway from this year's meeting was that climate change has become a new and formidable stressor for bees, potentially amplifying previously known issues in ways that scientists can't yet predict but need to prepare for.

Climate change threatens bees around the world. In Australia, large-scale bush fires and drought have killed millions of bees in recent years.

The scourge of Varroa mites

Pollinators contribute an estimated US$235 billion to $577 billion yearly to global agriculture, based on the value of the crops they pollinate. Understanding and mitigating the impacts of climate change on pollinators is key for supporting healthy ecosystems and sustainable agriculture.

Planting pollinator gardens with regional plants that bloom throughout the year can provide much-needed forage.

Bee health first attracted widespread attention in 2006 with the emergence of colony collapse disorder, a phenomenon where the majority of adult worker bees in a colony disappeared, leaving their honey and pollen stores and some nurse bees behind to care for the queen and remaining immature bees. In the past five years, reported cases have declined substantially. Now, researchers are focusing on what beekeepers call the "four Ps" - parasites, pathogens, pesticides and poor nutrition - as well as habitat loss for wild and native bees.

One of the most severe threats to honeybees over the past several decades has been Varroa destructor, a crablike parasitic mite that feeds on honeybees' fat body tissue. The fat body is a nutrient-dense organ that functions much like the liver in mammals. It helps bees maintain a strong immune system, metabolize pesticides and survive through the winter.

These are vital functions, so controlling mite infestations is essential for bee health. Varroa can also transmit deadly pathogens to honeybees, such as deformed wing virus.
A honeybee carrying two Varroa mites, one above its leg and one on its back. (U.S. Geological Survey)
Controlling mite populations is challenging. It requires using an insecticide in an insect colony, or as beekeepers say, "trying to kill a bug on a bug." It's hard to find a formula strong enough to kill mites without harming the bees.

Monitoring Varroa takes significant skill and labor, and mites can build up resistance to treatments over time. Researchers and beekeepers are working hard to breed Varroa-resistant bees, but mites continue to plague the industry.

Pesticide microdoses

Pesticides also harm bees, particularly products that cause sublethal or chronic bee health issues. Sublethal pesticide exposures can make bees less able to gather forage, grow healthy larvae and fight off viruses and mites.

However, it can be hard to document and understand sublethal toxicity. Many factors affect how bees react to agrochemicals, including whether they are exposed as larvae or as adult bees, the mixture of chemicals bees are exposed to, the weather at the time of application and how healthy a bee colony is pre-exposure.

Researchers are also working to understand how soil pesticides affect ground-nesting wild bees, which represent over 70% of the U.S. native bee population.
A ground-nesting bee (Colletes inaqualis) emerging from its burrow. (Rob Cruickshank/Flickr, CC BY)
Junk food diets

Like many other species, bees are losing the habitat and food sources that they depend on. This is happening for many reasons.

For example, uncultivated lands are being converted to farmland or developed worldwide. Large-scale agriculture focuses on mass production of a few commodity crops, which reduces the amount of nesting habitat and forage available for bees.

And many farmers often remove pollinator-friendly plants and shrubs that grow around farm lands to reduce the risk of attracting animals such as deer and rodents, which could spread pathogens that cause foodborne illness. Research suggests that these efforts harm beneficial insects and don't increase food safety.

As diverse and healthy bee forage disappears, beekeepers feed their bees more supplements, such as sugar water and pollen substitutes, which are not as nutritious as the nectar and pollen bees get from flowers.

Climate change is a force multiplier

Researchers don't know exactly how climate change will affect bee health. But they suspect it will add to existing stresses.

For example, if pest pressures mount for farmers, bees will be exposed to more pesticides. Extreme rainfall can disrupt bees' foraging patterns. Wildfires and floods may destroy bee habitat and food sources. Drought may also reduce available forage and discourage land managers from planting new areas for bees as water becomes less readily available.

Most importantly, educating people and communities about bees and their importance to our food system can help create a more pollinator-friendly world.

Climate change could also increase the spread of Varroa and other pathogens. Warmer fall and winter temperatures extend the period when bees forage. Varroa travel on foraging bees, so longer foraging provides a larger time window for mites and the viruses they carry to spread among colonies. Higher mite populations on bee colonies heading into winter will likely cripple colony health and increase winter losses.

Studies have already shown that climate change is disrupting seasonal connections between bees and flowers. As spring arrives earlier in the year, flowers bloom earlier or in different regions, but bees may not be present to feed on them. Even if flowers bloom at their usual times and locations, they may produce less-nutritious pollen and nectar under extreme weather conditions.

Research that analyzes the nutritional profiles of bee forage plants and how they change under different climate scenarios will help land managers plant climate-resilient plants for different regions.

Creating safe bee spaces

There are many ways to support bees and pollinators. Planting pollinator gardens with regional plants that bloom throughout the year can provide much-needed forage.

Ground-nesting native bees need patches of exposed and undisturbed soil, free of mulch or other ground covers. Gardeners can clear some ground in a sunny, well-drained area to create dedicated spaces for bees to dig nests.

Another important step is using integrated pest management, a land management approach that minimizes the use of chemical pesticides. And anyone who wants to help monitor native bees can join community science projects and use phone apps to submit data.

Most importantly, educating people and communities about bees and their importance to our food system can help create a more pollinator-friendly world.

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Climate Change Is Ratcheting Up the Pressure on Bees

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The extreme weather that has battered much of the U.S. in 2022 doesn't just affect humans. Heat waves, wildfires, droughts and storms also threaten many wild species - including some that already face other stresses. I've been researching bee health for over 10 years, with a focus on honeybees.

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Almost 90% of the world's wild plants depend on animal pollination, along with 75% of leading global crops. Pollinator species include wasps, ants, butterflies, beetles, moths and bees.

There are more than 250 species of bee in the UK, including the honey bee that normally lives in hives that are managed by beekeepers. Others, like many species of bumblebees and solitary bees live in the wild.

Bees in a modern, industrialised world are facing a range of complex and interacting threats, and the cumulative effect of which could affect the abundance and diversity of bee species. The IUCN list shows that as many as 24% of Europe's bumblebee species are now threatened with extinction, despite being worth a staggering £690 million per year to the UK economy.

Habitat fragmentation is generally thought to be the most important factor driving bee declines, but climate change is having an increasing role to play in their demise.

What can you do?

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Bees feel the sting of climate change in east England

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Almost 90% of the world's wild plants depend on animal pollination, along with 75% of leading global crops. Pollinator species include wasps, ants, butterflies, beetles, moths and bees. There are more than 250 species of bee in the UK, including the honey bee that normally lives in hives that are managed by beekeepers.

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Global climate change already has observable effects on the environment. Glaciers have melted, extreme weather is more frequent and intense, plant and animal ranges have shifted, and plants are blooming earlier.

Figuring out how something as complex as climate change affects bee populations is challenging but not impossible. Recent research has found that climate change affects our pollinators on a physiological level and alters phenology. Since animal pollinators, especially bees, are crucial to our global food supply, we wanted to use this post to explain the connection between climate change and bee declines in a bit more detail.

A Crash Course on Bee Biology for Context

The majority of bees, around 90%, are solitary and live in tunnels in the ground or above-ground cavities. Most spring emerging bee species, including mason bees, overwinter in their cocoons as fully developed adults and emerge in the spring when temperatures rise. A bees' initial body weight is determined by the amount of pollen the mother bee provides the larva during the previous season. Meaning that overwintering adult bees must survive off of their fat reserves until they emerge in the spring. In warm temperatures, bees' metabolism is more rapid, which causes them to use up their fat reserves faster than in colder temperatures.

Some summer emerging species, such as leafcutter bees, don't overwinter as adults but still rely on the pollen provided by the mother bee and consumed by the larva during the previous season. Many summer bee species use summer temperature cues to complete their development process.

Increasing Temperatures and Precipitation and Bee Declines

Aspects of climate change include warmer winters, earlier springs, and an increasing number of days with extreme heat. So, now that you're well versed in the relationship between bees and temperature, you can start to imagine how climate change could affect bee populations.

In one study, researchers found that bees in warmer temps naturally emerged about a month earlier than bees in cold temperatures. They also found that bees that overwinter in warm temperatures or have earlier spring onsets have lower body weights than bees that overwinter in cold temperatures.

Now, I know what you're thinking. So what if the bees are a little smaller?

Well, as it turns out, bigger is usually better in the bee world! We're not saying a large carpenter bee is better than the smaller mason bee, but bigger means more energy among the same bee species. More energy means a bee can forage longer, farther, and in harsher conditions. Longer foraging means a bee is likely to reproduce more, leading to stable populations in the future.

The connection between fat reserves and temperatures is why we recommend that mason bee raisers overwinter their cocoons in their refrigerators! Yes, you can allow your mason bees to complete their life-cycle in natural temperatures. Still, with the extreme and often unpredictable weather accompanying climate change, you run the risk of your bees emerging early or underweight. The cold temperatures of your refrigerator allow your bees to maintain their fat reserves until spring temps are consistent and blooms are open!

Bonus: Telling your guests you have bees in the fridge makes for a great conversation piece at a dinner party!

Climate change is also changing precipitation patterns. The spring and summer of 2021 saw record-breaking rainfall in many parts of North America. Rain can limit the ability of spring bees to collect food for their offspring, which is associated with fewer bees the following year.

Cold Snaps and Spring Bees

Research suggests that climate change may increase temperature fluctuations around the world. These fluctuations often cause our bee raisers to ask, "What happens if daytime temps drop below 55°F/13°C after the bees have already emerged? Will they be able to survive the cold snap?"

If spring temperature fluctuations are severe, such as warm days followed by multiple days of freezing temps, your bees may not survive. But, the truth is bees are tolerant insects that have adapted to live in variable conditions and likely will be fine for a few days in cooler than desired temperatures.
What Mason Bee Raisers Can Do:
If you're worried, you can minimize the danger of wind and cold snaps with a couple of simple steps:

Mount your mason bee house to face south or southeast to provide maximum sun exposure.

Plant early blooming flowers close to the mason bee house! Nectar-producing flowers give bees the energy they need to survive. Ensuring they don't have to travel far to find the resources they need during cooler days may help them survive the less-than-ideal temps.

Even if the cold temps reduce survival rates, the bees that do survive will be more fit and produce stronger offspring - natural selection! Allowing nature to adapt to the changing climate is vital for the species' future.

Abnormal Heat and Spring Bees

In typical years, warm summer temperatures allow the new bees to develop from eggs to larvae to adult bees. As mentioned earlier, many spring bees overwinter as adults and survive on their stored fats until spring temperatures reach a consistent 55°F/13°C. On average, the bees' stored fats (energy) at the time of emergence are around 5 -10%, enough for these bees to emerge, mate, and forage (if female). Males die shortly after mating.

When we have higher than average summer temperatures, the speed of development increases, and the new bee becomes an adult quicker than usual. Once the bee becomes an adult, it begins metabolizing its fat stores. The warmer the temps, the faster the bee uses its stored fats. If you have a scorching August/September, the bees may not have enough stored fats to survive until spring temps warm to 55°F/13°C and spring blooms are open. If this happens, the bees will either perish in their cocoons or emerge without enough food sources for them to survive.
What Mason Bee Raisers Can Do:
If your mason bee cocoons were exposed to prolonged durations of excessive heat during the summer, consider harvesting cocoons about two weeks earlier than you usually do. Typically, cocoons are harvested between October - November. Just be sure not to harvest too early as mason bees still need summer temperatures to develop into adult bees fully.

If you feel comfortable, you can open a single cocoon and observe the developing bee. Remember, the bee will not survive once you open the cocoon, so we suggest opening a male cocoon. It's easy to locate a male cocoon because mason bees lay male eggs near the opening of the nesting hole. Once open, if the bee doesn't have fully developed wings or the body shell appears dull, the bee needs more development time. If the body shell is shiny and the bee moves around, you can harvest your cocoons.

Suppose excessive heat continues year after year (which is predicted to happen). In that case, you should consider harvesting half of your bees a bit early and leaving the other half to adapt to the changing temperatures. You will likely see lower survival rates in those left to adapt, but those that do will be more fit and produce stronger offspring - natural selection! Allowing nature to adapt to the changing climate is vital for the future of the species.

Altering Phenology - Mismatches Between Bee Emergence and Spring Blooms

Let's start with what phenology means. Phenology is the relationship between environmental conditions and biological processes such as bloom timing for flowing plants and insect development, or more simply, nature's calendar.

Bees and flowering plants have evolved together for millions of years! It's a mutual relationship where the bees get pollen and nectar from the plant, and in turn, the plant uses the bee to carry its pollen to other plants of the same species, or pollination! Over time, plants developed flowers that attract certain bees (bloom timing, colors, scents), and bees adapted certain features to carry pollen more effectively (emergence timing, hairy bodies, behaviors). This relationship is co-evolution!

However, climate change is messing with some of these relationships! Some plant-pollinator couples respond to environmental cues in the same way, but others do not. For example, many plants bloom in response to snowmelt, and many bees emerge in response to temperature. If flowers bloom before the bees emerge, then plants won't get pollinated. If bees emerge before the plants bloom, bees will not have the food sources necessary to reproduce. These mismatches in the emergence of bees and spring blooms are expected to become more common as climate change continues.

Video Explanation:High Country News produced a short video, " Wild Science: Will climate change force bees to miss flower season?". It's definitely worth a watch!

Warmer winters are especially troubling in our naturally warm climates, such as Arizona and Utah. A studyfrom Northwestern University and the Chicago Botanic Garden has found that climate change appears to be pushing the blueberry mason bee to its physiological limits. Because their emergence times are altered, they have fewer pollen resources and fewer mates. Furthermore, even if the bees can shift their range up the mountains to cooler climates ( not all bee species can make shifts), they move away from certain desert plants that rely on the bees for pollination.

As bees decline, we are likely to see certain plant species decline as well.

In the future, warm winters and increased periods of extreme heat are predicted to occur more often, which will likely be a severe challenge to wild-bee populations.

Wondering How to Help?

Feeling inspired to help our pollinators and overwhelmed at the same time? I get it! Climate change is complex, and it's hard to grasp the problem and solutions fully. You'd be correct in telling me that individual action alone is unlikely to make the global changes necessary to slow climate change. We need business and industry leaders to do their part, and we need local, national, and international policies to guide sustainability initiatives. But to that, I say, don't underestimate your impact!

We keep businesses open with our purchases and influence policies with our votes and voices. Our everyday choices affect the environment. From what we eat to how we clean our houses, there's a lot we can do to minimize our impact on our planet.

Start with yourself and then inspire others. Start in your home, and then teach your community. Make sustainable living a habit, and you'll be helping to tackle one of the biggest global challenges of our time. And check out our other blog posts on sustainable living and protecting our bee populations!

Together, we can do this!

To stay up-to-date on bee-raising tips and reminders, events, pollinator research, and sustainability insights, sign up for our monthly BeeMailnewsletter and follow us on social media!

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Global climate change already has observable effects on the environment. Glaciers have melted, extreme weather is more frequent and intense, plant and animal ranges have shifted, and plants are blooming earlier. Figuring out how something as complex as climate change affects bee populations is challenging but not impossible.

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Bees in Europe

In Europe, pollinators are mainly bees and hoverflies, but also butterflies, moths, some beetles and wasps. The domesticated western honeybee is the best-known species and is managed by beekeepers for honey production and other products. Europe also counts about 2,000 wild species.

The threat of pollinator extinction

The topic has attracted public attention, as bees and other insect pollinators are essential for our ecosystems and biodiversity. Fewer pollinators mean many plant species could decline or even disappear along with the organisms that directly or indirectly depend on them. In addition, the decline in numbers and diversity of pollinator populations affects food security with potential losses in agricultural yields.

To tackle the issue and complement efforts at EU and national levels, the European Commission presented in 2018 the EU Pollinators Initiative, the first comprehensive initiative at EU level, focusing on wild pollinating insects. Its aim is to improve knowledge about the decline, tackle the causes and raise awareness of the issue.

During a vote on the new 2030 EU Biodiversity Strategy in June 2021, MEPs called for an urgent revision of the EU Pollinators Initiative. The revised initiative should include a new EU-wide pollinator monitoring framework with robust measures, clear time-bound objectives and indicators, including impact indicators, and necessary capacity building. They also agreed with the Commission's targets of reducing the use of more hazardous and chemical pesticides by 50%.

Why are pollinators declining?

Currently, there is no scientific data giving the full picture, but there is evidence of a considerable decline in pollinators, due primarily to human activities. Bees and butterflies are the species for which the best data is available, demonstrating that one out of ten bee and butterfly species is threatened with extinction in Europe.

The decline does not have one single cause, but threats include land-use changes for agriculture or urbanisation, which result in the loss and degradation of natural habitats. In addition intensive agriculture leads to homogenous landscapes and the disappearance of diverse flora, reducing food and nesting resources.

Pesticides and other pollutants can also affect pollinators directly (insecticides and fungicides) and indirectly (herbicides), which is why Parliament is highlighting the need to reduce the use of pesticides.

Particularly dangerous for honeybees are invasive alien species such as the yellow-legged hornet (Vespa velutina) and diseases such as parasites. Another factor is the changing climate with rising temperatures and extreme weather events.

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What's behind the decline in bees and other pollinators? (infographic) | Topics | European Parliament

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Find out what pollinators are, why they are important and why they are declining.

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25 Jul 2017 | 4 minute read

Here in the UK, and globally, bees are facing many threats. These include habitat loss, climate change, toxic pesticides and disease. The interaction between these makes an unpredictable future for bees and many other pollinators. These threats have led to nearly 1 in 10 of Europe's wild bee species facing extinction.

1. Habitat loss - less forage and shelter for bees

Changes in our land use, including insensitive urban development and intensive farming, have caused significant losses and fragmentation of pollinator-friendly habitats. This results in bees losing the diverse food sources they need for a healthy diet.

It's vital that bees have enough flowers to forage - and safe places to use for nesting, among vegetation, the soil and hedges. But since the Second World War, we've lost 97% of our wildflower meadows, leaving our bees with little natural habitat.

The loss of key habitats on farmland in particular has meant that wildlife, including bees, have become more dependent on protected wildlife sites. Yet government figures show that in the UK, only 6% of habitats protected by EU laws are in '"favourable condition".

a) Intensive farming

Modern intensive farming methods have resulted in the loss of traditional hay and flower meadows, hedgerows, trees and other habitats such as ponds and water meadows.

Restoring more of these natural habitats to our farmland could benefit farmers by boosting the free natural services that wildlife provides - such as pollination and natural predators to eat pests. This is one reason why Friends of the Earth is calling for a sustainable approach to farming. Such an approach relies less on artificial chemical pesticides. It places greater emphasis on wildlife-friendly farming and solutions such as integrated pest management - see our guide on how to grow oilseed rape using this approach.
b) Land use change
Intensive land use in the UK has led to the loss and fragmentation of natural habitats and the threats to many native British species including bees and other pollinators.

So it's more essential than ever that new urban development such as housing avoids damage to important habitats, like the remaining wildflower meadows. What's more it must also incorporate 'green infrastructure' that can significantly benefit bees and other wildlife.

Local authorities have an important role to play in safeguarding native pollinators as they manage significant areas of land, including parks, allotments, roundabouts and road verges. Find out more about the role of local authorities in helping pollinators.

2. Climate change - disrupting bee behaviour

As winters become warmer and wetter, and seasons shift there are signs that some wild species may be in the wrong place at the wrong time.

Scientists are starting to detect that changes in climate may be disrupting bee nesting behaviour and their emergence after winter. Climate change may also be as affecting the timing of the flowering of plants that bees rely on for food. The Tawny mining bee has managed to adapt to changing climate conditions, by moving northwards; but it is not certain that all bee species will be equally adaptable. A warming climate could restrict the range of bumblebees since studies have shown they have difficulty moving northwards.

Apple trees, for example, could be in blossom at a different time from when the bees are active. This would mean the bees have less food, and the trees don't get pollinated or produce fruit. As certain bee species move north, there could be only a small area of the UK where apple orchards overlap with the bees they need for pollination. This could affect many food crops in a similar way; it could also affect bees' health.

3. Pesticides including neonicotinoids - harming bee health

Even when applied correctly, pesticides can have adverse impacts on bees by reducing their breeding success and resistance to disease. Scientists have found that exposure to pesticides can impair honeybees' ability to navigate, bumblebees' ability to reproduce and solitary bees' ability to reproduce any young at all.

Pesticides are designed to kill unwanted pests, but their toxic properties and widespread use are also harming beneficial insects such as bees.

Neonicotinoids are a particularly harmful group of bee-harming pesticides. When a bee feeds on pollen or nectar containing them, their central nervous system can be affected. This affects tasks that bees depend on to survive such as feeding, homing, foraging and reproducing.

New research has also begun to show an increase in pesticides being found beyond the farms where the seeds are sown. Learn more about how neonicotinoids affect bees and the wider environment.

As well as pesticides, the use of herbicides in parks, streets and on roadside verges reduces the availability of forage plants that bees and other pollinating insects seek out for food at different times of the year.

4. Pests and disease - double trouble for British bees

Bee keepers guard their honeybee colonies against a range of pests and diseases. These include the varroa mite - a tiny parasitic mite that attaches itself to a honey bee, transmits disease and saps its strength - or fungal diseases that affect the closely knit colony.

Evidence shows that some honeybee diseases can spread to wild bumblebees. It is yet unclear if they spread to solitary bees. Managing honeybee health is one way beekeepers can protect wild bees as well as their hives.

5. Invasive species - bad news for bees?

Some species, such as Carpenter bees, that are not naturally found in the British Isles can become established here without posing any problems. Others can be disruptive - or worse -to native species; for example the Asian Hornet, which recently arrived in the UK could devastate British bee species if they took hold and the Small hive beetle could damage Honeybee and Bumblebee colonies if it arrived here.

Find out how to report a suspected sighting of the Asian Hornet.

Combined effects

These individual causes are bad enough for bees, and there is evidence to show that they work in combination, weakening bees and other pollinating insects. A hungry bee exposed to pesticides and poor weather and afflicted with pests and diseases is unlikely to survive for long. However the interactions between these effects are difficult to untangle. Scientists are continuing to carry out much-needed research into the impacts of all these factors together on bee populations.

Further reading
Thematic Assessment of Pollinators, Pollination and Food Production The Decline of England's Bees [PDF] Policies for Pollinators. The Need for Government Leadership in Backing Britain's Bees [PDF]

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What are the causes of bee decline? | Friends of the Earth

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25 Jul 2017 | 4 minute read Here in the UK, and globally, bees are facing many threats. These include habitat loss, climate change, toxic pesticides and disease. The interaction between these makes an unpredictable future for bees and many other pollinators. These threats have led to nearly 1 in 10 of Europe's wild bee species facing extinction.

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Resources for Educators
National Children's Museum Climate Action Heroes
Our friends at National Children's Museum have just launched their second virtual field trip, Climate Action Heroes, which empowers children to join the fight against climate change by discovering their inner climate action hero superpowers. Our Program Director, Sarah Red-Laird, is featured in the video as a real-life Pollinator Patrol for her work to educate and inspire communities to conserve bees and their habitat. This interactive learning tool is available to families and educators across the country at no cost to help inspire the next generation to defeat climate change.
10 Ways to Help Our Kids Help Bees
A round up of ten things you can do at school, or home, to get kids excited about becoming bee advocates!
Explore Oregon Bees with ODA
Explore Oregon Bees is a bee-themed nutrition and garden environmental education activity packet developed at Oregon State University by the Oregon Bee Project and Food Hero. The content is best aligned for 4th graders. Objectives include 1) to increase children's willingness to taste vegetables and fruits, 2) broadening their knowledge of the role bees play in pollination to make healthy foods and 3) empowering kids to know ways to help bees make healthy foods.

Free supplies for educators - educational brochures, stickers, and activity sheets.
American Beekeeping Federation "E-Buzz" Kids and Bees Column Archive
This page will guide you to the last few years of "Kids and Bees" columns by Sarah Red-Laird, filled with information on books for kids about bees, safety and kids with bees, and more!
Sweet Virginia's "Hive Alive" Curriculum
Sweet Virginia's lesson plans help you lead your students to experience the wonder of the honey bee. You'll find five lessons that can be used as we have presented them, in any order, or individually. The lesson pages include high-level summaries and activities and may be used by teachers and students; the full lesson PDFs include more background for teachers, readings and resources, and step-by- step instructions for lesson delivery
Edible Schoolyard node 5505
In this lesson, students discuss bees and the importance of pollinators. They then catch and observe bees in the garden. You'll find that stand-aligned objectives, assessments, and procedures are already written for you to a middle school level. A great resource for helping kids understand the connections between bees and their own garden!

Vitamin Bee delivers huge doses of fun and much more with his curious facts about foods and the life of a bee, kid-friendly recipes and tips, all wrapped up in his love of music, art, and silly antics, that will inspire kids to make healthy choices, one episode at a time. Vitamin Bee also encourages kids, families, and schools to learn and work together in order to build the support needed to create a long-lasting healthy environment.
Phineas and Ferb Waggle Dance
A fun, musical introduction to the waggle dance explained by well-recognized Phineas and Ferb characters. It's a catchy song that the kids are bound to be singing for days!
PBS SciGirls "Bee Haven" Episode
An episode where the SciGirls use math, mapping and data visualization to help a colony of bees thrive in a downtown Phoenix neighborhood. Learn the basics of setting up a happy healthy honey bee hive in the city. This episode also teaches kids about mathematical survey techniques that can be used to quantify the number and diversity of plants in a neighborhood. Great for encouraging young girls to get excited about science and bees!
Pollinator Partnership Bee Smart Kit
A kit available for purchase that includes 10 lesson plans with pre- and post-tests, worksheets, relevant materials to each lesson. Lesson are geared towards children grade 3 to 6 and can be approached a few different ways: using school land to create/augment a garden habitat, using other demonstration areas to create/visit garden habitat, or using only in-classroom lessons and on-line experiences without a garden.
USFWS Pollinator Study
A blog post from U.S. Fish and Wildlife's Pacific Region about the importance and diversity of pollinators. The post discusses an ongoing study inventorying the bee species present on wildlife refuges and the implications of the results. It also discusses pollinator decline.
USFWS Pollinator Program
A U.S. Fish & Wildlife page dedicated to pollinator education. This site has everything from educational video links to explanations of how you can help pollinators in your daily life. It also included in-depth definitions of pollinators and pollination, as well as links to pollinator trails near you. A great resource for those looking to educate themselves and those around them
The Great Sunflower Project
People all over the country are collecting data on pollinators in their yards, gardens, schools and parks. This project takes counts of the number and types of pollinators visiting plants (especially sunflowers). They have been gathering information on pollinator service since 2008, and now have the largest single body of information about bee pollinator service in North America. Utilizing their thousands of observers, they can determine where pollinator service is strong or weak compared to averages.
NASA's Climate Kids: A Bee is More Than a Bug
An awesome description of how to make a clay bee and bee hive! The website also includes some information on topics such as threats to bees and bee life cycle.
Today in Louisiana Agriculture "Sweet Knowledge" Video
A short video to find inspiration for your own "World Honey Bee Day"!

From Disneynature, the studio that brought you "Earth", "Oceans", "African Cats" and "Chimpanzee", comes "Wings of Life" - a stunning adventure full of intrigue, drama and mesmerizing beauty. Narrated by Meryl Streep, this intimate and unprecedented look at butterflies, hummingbirds, bees, bats and flowers is a celebration of life, as a third of the world's food supply depends on these incredible - and increasingly threatened - creatures.

Enter the fascinating world of honey bees with this imaginative and educational game! Children will delight as they become part of a swarm in search of a new nesting site. Each child assumes the role of a worker bee with special job assignments to help their colony grow. As they act out their jobs, a compelling tale unfolds: The Story of Bees! Children will buzz, run, sing and dance their way through colony life all while learning real, factual information about bees. They will face threats, make sacrifices and overcome it together, illustrating the benefits of teamwork. The Story of Bees! is flexible and can be played in a variety of settings with mixed ages and with a large range of group sizes.
Washington State University Pollinator Information
WSU's " Pollination and Protecting Bees and other Pollinators " bulletin offers a brief introduction into topics such as flowers, pollinators, pollination, and declining honey bee populations. Check this paper out to "dip your toes" into the pollinator world.

Oregon is upping its pollinator protection with the Oregon Bee Project, a collaboration between the Oregon Department of Transportation (ODOT), the Oregon State University (OSU) Extension Service, the Oregon Department of Forestry (ODF), and a diverse array of bee-friendly stakeholders to maintain and enhance bee health in Oregon. The campaign uses science, education, research, and pollinator-friendly practices to protect bees around the state.

Can you tell a Digger bee from a Bumblebee? How about a Green sweat bee from a Mining bee? This backyard bees poster displays over 130 different bee species (which is only 3% of all bee species in North America) to help you improve your bee knowledge and decorate your space. We even have one hanging in the BGO office!
"The Bees in Your Backyard: A Guide to North America's Bees" Book Assorted Books by Dr. Thomas Seeley
This book provides a comprehensive guide of all bees in the United States and Canada and features more than 900 full-color photos. If you are interested in identifying bee species, studying bees, or bringing all the bees to your yard, this book is thorough, accessible, and informative.
The Honeybee Conservancy
Dr. Thomas Seeley is a biologist, author, and professor at Cornell University studying "swarm intelligence," or bees' collective decision-making processes. You may have heard of his popular book " The Honeybee Democracy," which details the debates, debacles, and democratic decision-making processes that occur within bee colonies. Seeley makes academic research engaging and accessible, and we are huge fans!
The Urban Beekeeping Lab
The Honeybee Conservancy is a charity focused on bee conservation and increasing access to sustainable food in under-served communities. Their work lies at the important intersection between healthy bees, healthy food, healthy people, and healthy communities. You can donate or learn more about their initiatives by clicking on the link above!

Beekeeping? In a city? You probably have some questions, and so does the Urban Beekeeping Lab! The Urban Beekeeping Lab is a research-based nonprofit in Boston, Mass. investigating beekeeping and bee health in a bustling city. They are delving into topics such as using honeybees to aid post-natural disaster recovery, finding honey bee blue zones, and apitherapy. Fascinating stuff! Check out their website and blog to learn about the cutting edge research going on at the UBL.

Bee Positive is an environmental initiative showing people simple steps to help save the bees and support their local biodiversity. Take positive environmental action and find out how you can help save the bees in your own neighbourhood by taking The Bee Kind Challenge.

Planet Bee is working towards a future in which children and adults are exposed to global environmental issues, and given the tools to combat them. They envision a world in which all individuals feel empowered to take action for their planet, regardless of race, gender, class, or location. Programs are provided at no cost to schools and nonprofits in dedication to social justice, preventing any barrier to inclusion.
National Geographic Kids
The Bee Cause Project and their tiny partners, the bees, work to engage students of all ages with their own environments through observation based learning. Their STEAM-based curriculum, educational hives, and international network build learning opportunities in classrooms and communities, in order to inspire the next generation of environmental stewards.
Montana Pollinator Education Project
An entertaining description of honey bee relating to their lifestyles and importance. It includes a few fun facts like how large they are and how fast they fly.

A wide range of resources including: bulletin board illustration/information cards, lesson plans for grades 2 to 8, recommended reading for students and teachers, and link to additional resources for teachers and students. This website covers all forms of pollinators, not just bees! A wide range of materials and approaches here-excellent!

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Resources for Educators - www.kidsandbees.org

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National Children's Museum Climate Action Heroes Our friends at National Children's Museum have just launched their second virtual field trip, Climate Action Heroes, which empowers children to join the fight against climate change by discovering their inner climate action hero superpowers.

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According to researchers with the center, honey bee populations in the United States and Europe have suffered large losses. Exposure to parasites and pesticides, climate change, a loss of the natural abundance of flora due to increased land-use, and habitat destruction are a few of the causes researchers associate with honey bee population decline. Several studies show that in the United States alone, beekeepers have lost about 30 percent of their colonies every year since 2006, with total annual losses reaching as high as 40 percent. Similarly, many populations of wild bees are also showing declines, with many species now threatened or endangered.

These declines are a major cause for concern for those in the agricultural industry as well as consumers. Nearly 75 percent of major food crops, including fruits, vegetables, and nuts depend on honey bees and other pollinators, which equates to about one in every three bites of food we eat. In Pennsylvania alone, these crops contribute $260 million to the economy annually.

The scope of the pollinator crisis, coupled with a long-standing interest from members of the Penn State community to work on globally important problems, has attracted a diverse group of researchers and educators to bring their own unique perspectives to address the issue.

"In the beginning, there was a core group of people who worked on bees, but it wasn't very many," Grozinger says. "Then, because Penn State is a really collaborative place, so many others began to see ways they could apply their own research, extension, and outreach efforts to these issues."

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Protecting Honey Bees and Other Pollinators

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Penn State's Christina Grozinger and the Center for Pollinator Research are implementing creative approaches to protecting bee populations in Pennsylvania and beyond.

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BANGKOK, Feb 15 (Reuters) - Thai authorities warned that pollution levels in Bangkok and surrounding provinces had hit unhealthy levels on Thursday, ordering government employees in the capital to work from home for the next two days and urging others to do the same.

Air pollution is caused by a combination of crop-related burning, industrial pollution and heavy traffic, and a smoky haze covered the Bangkok's skyline.

Prime Minister Srettha Thavisin told reporters that crop burning was the main culprit behind the spike, but added that around quarter of the pollution was from vehicles, a factor "we can control".

Swiss air quality tracking website IQAir said the level of fine inhalable particles in the city was 15 times higher than the recommended level by the World Health Organization, making it the world's 8th most polluted city on Thursday.

"It's getting worse because there's too much smoke haze," said motorcycle taxi driver Kornpong Poprakun, 57. "I feel itchy eyes because there's a lot of dust, and breathing isn't easy."

In a bid to curb traffic pollution, Bangkok Governor Chadchart Sittipunt told staff at the Metropolitan Administration's agencies to work from home and said other employees should also do the same.

He said some areas of the city had high levels of pollution and authorities were ready to manage the situation.

The government has offered subsidies to farmers to prevent burning and packages for cheaper electric vehicles while Thai lawmakers are considering a clean air act for transport, business and agriculture to reduce pollution on a wider scale.

Srettha said the government should consider limiting vehicles powered by fossil fuels in the capital to limit pollution in the long term, adding that the country's EV policy was also key.

Sign up here.

Reporting by Napat Wesshasartar, Panarat Thepgumpanat and Chayut Setboonsarng; Editing by Miral Fahmy

Our Standards: The Thomson Reuters Trust Principles., opens new tab

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Thailand warns of high pollution in capital, officials to work from home

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Thai authorities warned that pollution levels in Bangkok and surrounding provinces had hit unhealthy levels on Thursday, ordering government employees in the capital to work from home for the next two days and urging others to do the same.

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"Do cities have colours?"

"When you think about your city, what colours come to mind?"

"Does air have colour? Or have you ever wondered if we can see air?"

"What is actually in the air?"

These are questions posed by Ms Amata Chittasenee, a makeup artist-turned-environmentalist, when she started a project to 'swatch' the colours of our air. To do so, she stuck transparent tape on different surfaces around Bangkok to find out what are the hidden colours of air in her city.

The tapes picked up a spectrum of grey to pitch black, suggesting that the air is full of dust (Watch the video here).

Screenshots of an Instagram Reel of Pearypie show her notebook with the results of the 'dust colour swatch' of Bangkok surfaces, mostly on public transport.
Ms Amata is one of many people in Thailand who has raised awareness about the air pollution of Thailand in recent years.

Air pollution is a complex mixture of solid particles, liquid droplets and gases. But the most critical impact on human health comes from delicate particulate matter, known as PM 2.5, which is smaller than the width of a human hair. They can quickly enter our bodies, even making their way through the bloodstream affecting all major organs.

Air pollution increases the risk of many non-communicable diseases, such as ischaemic heart disease, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and lung cancer.

Forest fires in Chiang Mai, northern Thailand, in 2020. Forest fires are common in the dry season in the North of Thailand, contributing to the air pollution crisis. © UN Thailand/2020

In April 2022, PM2.5 concentration in Thailand's air was four times higher than the WHO annual air quality guideline value. This means the Thai population breaths in air that is too polluted, and which will affect their health. In 2016, it was estimated that over 33,000 deaths in Thailand were attributable to ambient air pollution.

Air pollution in Thailand is seasonal. From December to February each year, it is relatively common to see people in Bangkok wearing masks while walking on the streets or switching on air purifiers at home. This is the cost that individuals pay to prevent themselves from getting sick.

Research conducted by Associate Professor Witsanu Attavanich, an environmental economist at Kasetsart University, estimated that the social cost generated from PM2.5 nationwide in 2019 is equal to 2.17 trillion THB per year, accounting for almost 11% of gross domestic product of that year.

"The cost of air pollution is tremendous. If the problem is not solved and continues in the future, the cost will accumulate every year. Is economic development worth having the health of the Thai population deteriorate?" asked the economist. He added that the country's human capital would recede if we let air pollution continue to harm the health of future generations.

I ndustrial chimneys are major sources of air pollution. Photo by Jeremy Bishop on Unsplash
People from different income levels have different capacities to protect themselves from air pollution. According to Dr Wirun Limsawart, Director of the Society and Health Institute, Ministry of Public Health, there is a disparity in awareness and access to protective means among people from different socio-economic backgrounds. "Living in the same city of Bangkok are two children who live in the same neighbourhood. One of them lives in a house with air conditioners and purifiers. Their parents closely follow the news. Meanwhile, another child lives in a slum. Their parents know nothing about air pollution. So even though they breathe the same air, the latter will certainly die before the former. This is inequity," said Dr Wirun.
Wind turbines at the Thepphana Wind Farm in the northeastern province of Chaiyaphum. Wind energy is a clean fuel source because it does not involve the combustion of fossil fuels. © UN Thailand/2020

Dr Wirun said clean air should not be a matter of luxury but fundamental human rights. "The right to breathe clean air is part of the right to live a healthy life." This entails having extra measures to care for people susceptible to air pollution, such as the elderly, pregnant women, children, people with respiratory problems, people with asthma, and people who work in the open air such as street vendors and traffic police, said Dr Wirun.

Reducing air pollution, through reducing combustion like fuel burning in cars and factories, and open burning of waste in households or agriculture can save many lives. A study estimated that a 20% reduction in air pollution could prevent up to 25% of avoidable deaths each year.

"Tackling air pollution requires an effort from everyone, from individuals, communities, agencies, industries, to policymakers and enforcers, across all branches of government. That is what we call a whole-of-society and whole-of-government approach. A shift towards healthier and more sustainable policies implemented and adopted by everyone concerned will be required. Poor-quality air must become something that is no longer acceptable. The pay-off will be that many more people will enjoy better health and live in more appealing and undamaged environments. Less impact on people's health will also mean lower health care expenditures," said Dr Jos Vandelaer, WHO Thailand Representative.

Individuals can also take measures themselves, such as closing windows and using a dedicated air purifier or a filtered air conditioner while indoors, wearing an N95 mask when going outside (surgical masks protect against COVID-19 but not against the small PM2.5 particles in polluted air), using public transportation instead of own vehicles, don't burn open fires etc.

In 2019, the Royal Thai Government decided to make air pollution a national priority. It later released the national action plan for "Addressing the pollution problem (particulate matter) 2019-2024." The plan aims to empower local authorities to better tackle the sources of air pollution, such as factories and open agricultural burnings.

Dr Wirun said the Plan was well-drafted but there remain gaps in implementation, adding that Thailand needs a new, powerful law and powerful law enforcement to handle extensive and complicated problems like air pollution.
'Chula Pop Bus' is an electrically powered bus servicing students and staff of Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok. The bus is a part of the university's green initiative to reduce air pollution © UN Thailand/2020

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By Thaweeporn Amy Kummetha"Do cities have colours?" "When you think about your city, what colours come to mind?" "Does air have colour? Or have you ever wondered if we can see air?" "What is actually in the air?" These are questions posed by Ms Amata Chittasenee, a makeup artist-turned-environmentalist, when she started a project to 'swatch' the colours of our air.

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Deciphering the Black Box of Air Pollution Data In Thailand

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Expert Opinion : Deciphering the Black Box of Air Pollution Data In Thailand

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Navigating Sportsmanship: Teaching Respect & Fair Play in Youth Soccer

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As a coach of young soccer players, you play a pivotal role in shaping not only their skills on the field but also their character. Teaching respect and sportsmanship is just as crucial as demonstrating the proper techniques to kick a ball or score a goal. But how can you infuse these values in your young players and do it in a way that is fun and impactful? Here are some valuable tips from the Salvo SC staff! Set Clear Expectations Start by setting concise, easy to understand…

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Understanding Sportsmanship: Cultivating Respect and Fair Play

Sportsmanship plays a crucial role in the social and emotional development of individuals, both young and old. It encompasses a set of values and behaviors that promote respect, fairness, and integrity in sports and other competitive activities. In this blog post, we will explore the meaning of being a good sport and the key components of sportsmanship. We will also discuss the benefits of cultivating sportsmanship and provide practical strategies for individuals, parents, caregivers, coaches, and educators to foster a culture of sportsmanship. Let's dive in!

I. Introduction

A. Importance of sportsmanship in social emotional development

Sportsmanship is not just about winning or losing; it is about how we conduct ourselves during the game and how we treat others. It plays a vital role in the social and emotional development of individuals, helping them build character, empathy, and self-control. By practicing sportsmanship, individuals learn to navigate challenges, regulate their emotions, and develop positive relationships with others.

B. Definition of sportsmanship and its key components

Sportsmanship can be defined as the ethical and moral behavior exhibited by individuals in sports and competitive activities. It encompasses several key components, including respect for opponents, fair play and following rules, accepting victory and defeat gracefully, displaying self-control and emotional regulation, and encouraging and supporting teammates.

C. Purpose of the blog post

The purpose of this blog post is to provide a comprehensive understanding of sportsmanship and its importance in personal growth and social relationships. We will also explore practical strategies for individuals, parents, caregivers, coaches, and educators to cultivate sportsmanship in their daily lives.

II. Understanding Sportsmanship

A. Definition and meaning of being a good sport

Being a good sport means exhibiting positive behavior and attitudes during sports and competitive activities. It involves treating opponents with respect, following rules, accepting both victory and defeat gracefully, controlling emotions, and supporting teammates.

B. Key principles of sportsmanship

1. Respect for opponents

Respecting opponents is a fundamental principle of sportsmanship. It involves treating opponents with fairness, kindness, and dignity, regardless of the outcome of the game. This includes refraining from trash-talking, mocking, or belittling opponents.

2. Fair play and following rules

Fair play is the cornerstone of sportsmanship. It means playing by the rules, adhering to the spirit of the game, and avoiding cheating or unsportsmanlike conduct. Fair play promotes a level playing field and ensures that all participants have an equal opportunity to succeed.

3. Accepting victory and defeat gracefully

Being a good sport means accepting both victory and defeat with grace and humility. It involves celebrating victories without boasting or gloating and acknowledging defeats without making excuses or blaming others. This principle teaches individuals the importance of resilience and sportsmanship in the face of adversity.

4. Displaying self-control and emotional regulation

Emotional control is a crucial aspect of sportsmanship. It involves managing one's emotions, such as anger, frustration, or disappointment, in a constructive and respectful manner. By practicing self-control, individuals can maintain composure, make rational decisions, and avoid engaging in aggressive or harmful behavior.

5. Encouraging and supporting teammates

Being a good sport also means being a supportive teammate. It involves encouraging and uplifting teammates, celebrating their successes, and offering help and guidance when needed. This principle fosters teamwork, cooperation, and a sense of camaraderie among team members.

III. Benefits of Sportsmanship

A. Positive impact on personal growth

1. Building character and integrity

Practicing sportsmanship helps individuals develop strong character traits, such as honesty, integrity, and fairness. It teaches them the importance of doing the right thing, even when faced with challenges or temptations. These qualities are transferable to other areas of life, contributing to personal growth and success.

2. Developing empathy and perspective-taking skills

Sportsmanship promotes empathy and perspective-taking skills. By respecting opponents and understanding their experiences and feelings, individuals develop a sense of empathy and compassion. This ability to see things from others' perspectives enhances communication, problem-solving, and conflict resolution skills.

3. Enhancing self-esteem and self-confidence

Being a good sport boosts self-esteem and self-confidence. When individuals exhibit sportsmanship, they feel proud of their behavior and accomplishments, regardless of the outcome of the game. This positive self-perception translates into improved self-esteem and confidence in other areas of life.

B. Strengthening social relationships

1. Fostering teamwork and cooperation

Sportsmanship fosters teamwork and cooperation among individuals. By valuing and respecting teammates, individuals build strong bonds and develop effective communication and collaboration skills. These skills are essential for success in both sports and other group settings.

2. Building positive relationships with peers and coaches

Practicing sportsmanship helps individuals build positive relationships with peers and coaches. By displaying respect, fairness, and support, individuals earn the trust and respect of others. These positive relationships contribute to a supportive and inclusive team culture.

3. Promoting inclusivity and respect for diversity

Sportsmanship promotes inclusivity and respect for diversity. By treating opponents from different backgrounds, cultures, and abilities with respect and fairness, individuals learn to appreciate and value diversity. This understanding and acceptance of differences contribute to a more inclusive and harmonious society.

IV. Cultivating Sportsmanship

A. Role of parents and caregivers

1. Modeling good sportsmanship behavior

Parents and caregivers play a crucial role in modeling good sportsmanship behavior. By exhibiting respect, fairness, and self-control in their own actions, they set a positive example for their children. Children learn from observing their parents and are more likely to adopt similar behaviors.

2. Providing guidance and reinforcement

Parents and caregivers should provide guidance and reinforcement to children regarding sportsmanship. They can explain the importance of fair play, discuss appropriate behavior, and reinforce positive actions. Praise and recognition for displaying good sportsmanship can further motivate children to continue practicing it.

3. Encouraging open communication and reflection

Parents and caregivers should encourage open communication and reflection with children. They can discuss challenges faced during games, ask about their feelings and experiences, and help them process their emotions. This open dialogue promotes self-awareness and emotional regulation skills.

B. Role of coaches and educators

1. Incorporating sportsmanship into training and curriculum

Coaches and educators should incorporate sportsmanship into their training programs and curriculum. They can emphasize the importance of fair play, teach rules and etiquette, and provide opportunities for practicing good sportsmanship. By integrating sportsmanship into the learning process, coaches and educators can reinforce its value.

2. Setting clear expectations and consequences

Coaches and educators should set clear expectations regarding sportsmanship and establish consequences for inappropriate behavior. By communicating these expectations and consequences, individuals understand the standards they need to meet and the potential consequences of violating them. This clarity promotes accountability and responsible behavior.

3. Promoting a positive and supportive team culture

Coaches and educators should promote a positive and supportive team culture that values sportsmanship. They can foster an environment where individuals feel safe, respected, and supported. By encouraging teamwork, cooperation, and mutual respect, coaches and educators create an atmosphere conducive to practicing good sportsmanship.

C. Strategies for individuals

1. Practicing self-awareness and self-reflection

Individuals can cultivate sportsmanship by practicing self-awareness and self-reflection. They can reflect on their behavior, emotions, and reactions during games, identify areas for improvement, and set goals for themselves. This self-awareness enables individuals to make conscious choices and regulate their behavior effectively.

2. Developing emotional regulation skills

Emotional regulation is a vital skill for practicing sportsmanship. Individuals can develop emotional regulation skills by learning techniques such as deep breathing, mindfulness, and positive self-talk. These strategies help individuals manage their emotions and respond to challenging situations in a calm and constructive manner.

3. Seeking feedback and learning from mistakes

Individuals should seek feedback from coaches, teammates, and opponents to improve their sportsmanship. Constructive feedback helps individuals understand how their behavior impacts others and provides opportunities for growth. Additionally, individuals should learn from their mistakes and use them as learning experiences to continuously improve their sportsmanship.

V. Conclusion

A. Recap of the importance of sportsmanship

Sportsmanship plays a vital role in the social and emotional development of individuals. It promotes respect, fairness, and integrity, and contributes to personal growth and positive social relationships.

B. Encouragement to cultivate sportsmanship in daily life

We encourage individuals, parents, caregivers, coaches, and educators to cultivate sportsmanship in their daily lives. By practicing good sportsmanship, we can create a culture of respect, fairness, and inclusivity.

C. Final thoughts on the long-term benefits of being a good sport

Being a good sport not only benefits us in sports and competitive activities but also in various aspects of life. It builds character, enhances social relationships, and contributes to personal growth and success.

Start your EverydaySpeech Free trial here and begin your journey towards cultivating sportsmanship and social emotional learning.

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Understanding Sportsmanship: Cultivating Respect and Fair Play | Everyday Speech

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Understanding Sportsmanship: Cultivating Respect and Fair Play Understanding Sportsmanship: Cultivating Respect and Fair Play Sportsmanship plays a crucial role in the social and emotional development of individuals, both young and old. It encompasses a set of values and behaviors that promote respect, fairness, and integrity in sports and other competitive activities.

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Image Source: free stock photos from https://unsplash.com/ by Robert Collins.

Introduction

In the heart of Southeast Asia, Thailand is a land of rich history and boundless potential. Its picturesque surface hides the challenges facing its education system, a cornerstone of its development.

Education is the key to progress, dreams, and prosperity in Thailand. However, this journey is riddled with obstacles, from insufficient funding to educational inequality, casting shadows on a brighter future. These challenges aren't abstract; they affect students, parents, and policymakers daily. We will explore Thai schools, educators, and students, highlighting their resilience and determination.

Thailand is at a crossroads in its education system, with choices that will impact future generations. We delve into Thailand's education system's complexities, hopes, and aspirations, recognizing that in adversity, a nation's greatest asset is its pursuit of knowledge.

Insufficient Funding

In Thailand, where the promise of education should be a beacon for the future, insufficient funding looms as a dark cloud over the nation's schools. A simple search through recent articles reveals a complex web of challenges from this issue.

According to a report by the World Bank, the education system in Thailand is beset by poor management, inequality, and high teacher shortages[1]. The World Bank has stated that investments in key financial, human, and digital learning resources were especially low in disadvantaged schools (ranked at the bottom 25 percent of the PISA Economic, Social, and Cultural Status (ESCS) Index), private schools that receive more than half of their funding from government, and rural schools[2].

World Bank highlights the small school challenge in Thailand and options for quality education. It reveals that compared to international peers, Thai secondary schools are severely hindered by inadequate learning materials and physical infrastructure, which limits their capacity to provide quality instruction. More importantly, the Thai secondary school system is dramatically lacking in qualified teachers: secondary schools in rural areas are much more understaffed and under-resourced than their urban counterparts[3].

A more in-depth report by the National Education Commission for the fiscal year 2022-2023 reveals the extent of the problem. It states that Thailand's education budget falls significantly short of international standards. Thailand allocates only 15% of its annual budget to education, while UNESCO recommends a minimum of 20%[4]. This shortfall in funding directly affects the quality of education and students' overall well-being.

To gain a deeper insight into the challenges of rural education in Thailand, the story of Ms. Nongnuch, a passionate teacher in a bamboo school in Buriram province. Like many others, her school strives to provide quality education despite limited resources.

Ms. Nongnuch explained that the bamboo school has an innovative learning method focusing on sustainability and environmental conservation. The students do not have to pay tuition but must plant 800 trees and participate in 800 hours of community service per year. They also learn leadership, empathy and compassion through hands-on activities.

She also highlighted the need for more support from the government and society. "Our school is more than just a school that we all used to know. A school is a lifelong learning centre and a hub for social and economic advancement in the communities," Ms. Nongnuch quoted the school founder, Mechai Viravaidya[5]. However, she said the school still faces difficulties securing funds, materials and facilities.

Moreover, the lack of recognition and appreciation is a constant struggle. "Others often look down upon our students because they come from poor families or remote areas," Ms. Nongnuch revealed. This stigma not only affects their self-esteem but also their motivation to pursue higher education.

Perhaps most inspiring is the impact on students' aspirations. Ms. Nongnuch shared stories of talented students who had overcome their hardships and achieved their goals with the help of the bamboo school. "It fills me with joy to see potential realized," she said. "We are nurturing future leaders who will make a difference in their communities and beyond."

As Ms. Nongnuch eloquently put it, insufficient funding is "a barrier that blocks the opportunities for our children." It becomes increasingly clear that supporting rural schools like hers is not just a matter of charity; it's about empowering the untapped potential of a nation's youth.

Quality of Education

According to a report by the Asian Development Bank, Thailand's basic education system faces several challenges, including the need to expand the supply of human capital to avoid the middle-income trap and the ageing society. The report highlights that despite the significant amount of resources spent on education, students' learning outcomes are low and have not improved significantly in either national or international assessments. The performance of junior secondary school students in national examinations has declined, especially in mathematics and science. While the performance of senior secondary school students has improved slightly over the same period, the mean results for core subjects (mathematics, science, and English) were less than 50. This worrying figure is worsened by inequality in education quality across regions since the performance of secondary school students is lower in poorer, remote regions. The report argues that such poor learning outcomes are presumably due to two main reasons: the role of small schools and inefficient resource allocation for education in public spending[6].

As per the World Bank, various factors are influencing the quality of education in Thailand[7]. The report highlights the following key findings:

A lack of teacher training and professional development opportunities directly impacts the quality of instruction in classrooms.

Disparities in educational quality persist between urban and rural areas, where students in rural regions face limited access to qualified teachers and educational resources.

The curriculum was found to be outdated, with a need for reforms that align with 21st-century skills.

Student engagement and critical thinking skills remain underdeveloped due to traditional teaching methods.

The report recommends comprehensive teacher training programs, curriculum updates, and implementing student-centred teaching strategies to address these challenges.

The following views expressed by both a student and a parent tell us more about the quality of education in Thailand.

Nicha, a 16-year-old high school student, expressed dissatisfaction with the rigid curriculum. "I feel like I'm just following instructions from teachers," she said. "I want to explore, not just obey." Nicha also mentioned that the lack of creative learning opportunities made studying less interesting.

On the other hand, Mr. Somchai, a parent, shared his worries about the quality of education. "I wonder if my child is getting the skills they need for the future," he said. "The education system seems old-fashioned, and it doesn't prepare them for the changes of today's society."[8]

These voices resonate with a growing sentiment in Thailand: a need for a shift in the education paradigm. The emphasis on holistic development, critical thinking, and practical skills has become increasingly urgent. Thailand's educational landscape stands at a crossroads, with the quality of education being a critical factor in determining the nation's success in the global arena.

Educational Inequality

Educational inequality in Thailand is a pressing issue highlighted in recent news articles. According to a report by the World Bank, disparities in allocation and inefficiencies of investments across schools in Thailand have led to a decline in student performance in reading and a stagnation of scores in math and science[9]. The report further finds that investments in key financial, human, and digital learning resources were especially low in disadvantaged schools, private schools that receive more than half of their funding from the government, and rural schools.

Inequality between urban and rural areas is also a significant concern. Rural areas often lack basic infrastructure, qualified teachers, and educational resources, creating a significant gap in educational quality[10]. Ethnic minority communities face additional challenges, such as language barriers, discrimination, and limited access to quality education[11].

The Thai government must address these issues and create inclusive learning environments in schools to help improve Thailand's education performance. A report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) that assesses Thailand's education system and skills imbalances[12]. The report highlights several issues that contribute to educational inequality in Thailand:

Education quality, not quantity, is the main contributing factor to long-term economic growth.

Disadvantaged schools have low investments in key financial, human, and digital learning resources.

There is a skills mismatch between the demand in the Thai labour market and the supply of skilled workers.

There are disparities in resources allocated for teachers and other educational resources between schools with higher and lower socioeconomic status students.

The report recommends several policy interventions to address these issues, including improving teacher quality, increasing investment in disadvantaged schools, and enhancing the relevance of education to labour market needs. The report also emphasizes the importance of developing relevant skills from pre-primary to higher education levels.

However, not all students have equal access to quality education and opportunities to develop their skills. Nong, a stateless student from a hill tribe in northern Thailand, shared her challenges and aspirations for education[13].

She explained that she had to overcome many obstacles, such as poverty, discrimination, and language barriers. "I had to work hard to support my family and pay school fees," she said. "I also faced stigma and prejudice because of my ethnicity and status. I had to learn Thai as a second language, which was difficult."

Nong also expressed her gratitude for the support she received from teachers and mentors. "They encouraged me to pursue my dreams and helped me with scholarships and citizenship applications," she said. "They also taught me about my rights and responsibilities as a citizen."

Regarding her future plans, Nong said she wanted to become a teacher and help other disadvantaged children. "I want to give back to my community and society," she said. "I believe education is the key to empowerment and opportunity."

Nong's story illustrates the resilience and potential of many ethnic minority and stateless students in Thailand. While they face many hardships, they also have educational hopes and ambitions. There is a need for more inclusive and supportive policies and practices that enable them to access quality education and realize their full potential.

Teacher Shortage

Thailand is facing a serious challenge in providing quality education to its students, especially in rural areas lacking qualified teachers. A Thai PBS World report highlights the teacher shortage in Thailand, particularly in rural areas. The report states that the shortage is most severe in the northeastern region of Thailand, where schools struggle to attract and retain qualified teachers[14]. This has resulted in uneven access to quality education, with students in rural areas being disadvantaged.

In addition, a report from The Bangkok Post indicates a severe shortage of science and mathematics teachers nationwide. The report states that students in these subjects face a challenging situation due to the dearth of specialized educators[15].

According to a World Bank study, around 64% of Thai primary schools are critically short of teachers, defined as having less than one teacher per classroom on average. The study estimates that as many as 110,725 out of 353,198 classrooms in Thai primary and secondary schools are critically short of teachers[16]. The study also reveals that eliminating teacher shortages in terms of quality and quantity would significantly improve student learning, and the impact would be most significant for lower-performing schools. Therefore, improving the quality of teachers and addressing the severe teacher shortages - especially for the vast number of small rural schools - should be at the centre of Thailand's reform initiatives if the country is serious about tackling the widespread low education quality and high disparity in educational performance between socioeconomic groups.

To gain insight into the challenges of teaching in under-resourced schools, the case of Chaisit Chaiboonsomjit, a learner at Xavier Learning Community (XLC) in Chiang Rai, who served as a volunteer teacher at Zi Brae School in Chiang Mai[17]. His experience was eye-opening.

Chaisit shared his enthusiasm for teaching but also revealed the harsh conditions he faced. "The school is located on top of a mountain, and it takes eight hours to get there by car or motorcycle," he said. "When it rains, the roads become impossible to pass, and teachers are often stranded."

He explained how the lack of teachers affects students. "Most of our students are from the Karen hill tribe and study seven subjects provided by the Thai Education Ministry. But we only have 15 teachers for more than 200 students. They need more guidance and support to learn effectively."

Chaisit also expressed frustration about teacher retention. "Many teachers leave after a short time because they can't cope with the isolation and hardship," he said. "This creates instability and inconsistency in the school system."

In his heartfelt appeal, Chaisit emphasized the value of equal opportunity for education. "Every child, no matter where they are born, deserves a good teacher and a chance to pursue their dreams. We need more incentives to attract teachers to rural areas and more resources for teacher training."

Chaisit's story is a powerful illustration of the real-world impact of the teacher shortage crisis. It's a challenge that affects educators and limits the educational potential of countless Thai students, especially those in remote areas.

Conclusion

Thailand's education system, often celebrated for its potential, is ensnared in a web of challenges that demand urgent attention. This report has delved into five critical issues that cast shadows over the nation's educational landscape:

1. Insufficient Funding: A chronic shortage of financial resources hampers the quality of education, hindering the nurturing of young minds.

2. Quality of Education: Rote memorization and standardized testing take precedence over critical thinking and creativity, leaving students ill-prepared for the complexities of the modern world.

3. Educational Inequality: Disparities in access to education and educational outcomes persist, affecting marginalized communities and perpetuating social divisions.

4. Teacher Shortage: A severe lack of qualified educators, particularly in rural areas and critical subjects, disrupts the learning process and hinders student development.

These challenges collectively pose a profound threat to Thailand's education system and, by extension, its future. A nation's strength lies in equipping its youth with the knowledge and skills to navigate an ever-evolving global landscape. However, the current state of Thailand's education system impedes this aspiration.

Insufficient funding and the resultant resource shortages compromise the quality of education, leaving students ill-prepared for a future that demands adaptability, creativity, and critical thinking. Educational inequality perpetuates social divisions, limiting the nation's capacity to harness the full potential of its diverse populace.

In conclusion, the challenges outlined in this report are not isolated issues; they are interconnected strands in a complex web. The future of Thailand depends on addressing these challenges with determination and foresight. A well-funded, inclusive, and quality education system is not just an investment in the present but a beacon guiding the nation toward a brighter, more equitable, and prosperous tomorrow. To ensure Thailand's place on the global stage, these challenges must be met head-on, placing education at the forefront of the nation's priorities.

References:

[1] https://theisaanrecord.co/2022/03/30/thai-education-beset-by-poor-management/

[2] https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2020/12/09/world-bank-more-inclusive-and-better-investments-in-education-to-improve-learning-outcomes-in-thailand

[3] https://blogs.worldbank.org/eastasiapacific/thailand-s-small-school-challenge-and-options-quality-education

[4] https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000384381

[5] https://www.undertoldstories.org/2019/02/07/thailands-bamboo-school/

[6] https://www.adb.org/publications/recent-developments-in-basic-education-in-thailand-issues-and-challenges

[7] https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/thailand/publication/wanted-a-quality-education-for-all-in-thailand

[8] https://www.oecd.org/countries/thailand/education-in-thailand-9789264259119-en.htm

[9] https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2020/12/09/world-bank-more-inclusive-and-better-investments-in-education-to-improve-learning-outcomes-in-thailand

[10] https://rksi.adb.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/rural-urban-poverty-and-inequality-thailand.pdf

[11] https://maxwellsnotes.com/2015/03/17/educational-inequality-in-thailand/

[12] https://one.oecd.org/document/ECO/WKP%282020%2949/en/pdf

[13] https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2020/12/09/world-bank-more-inclusive-and-better-investments-in-education-to-improve-learning-outcomes-in-thailand

[14] https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-10-0847-4_11

[15] https://one.oecd.org/document/ECO/WKP%282020%2949/en/pdf

[16] https://blogs.worldbank.org/eastasiapacific/thailand-s-small-school-challenge-and-options-quality-education

[17] https://jcapsj.org/blog/2023/08/31/teaching-and-learning-in-rural-thailand/

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Education at a Crossroads: Navigating Thailand's Educational Challenges -

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Written by Niyang Bai Introduction In the heart of Southeast Asia, Thailand is a land of rich history and boundless potential. Its picturesque surface hides the challenges facing its education system, a cornerstone of its development. Education is the key to progress, dreams, and prosperity in Thailand.

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ADRA recognizes that education can help reduce vulnerability, safeguard against violence, abuse, and exploitation. We further recognize that any child or adult with an education has the opportunity for a better future, though not all have equal access to education.

In Thailand, the Education for All policy was adopted in 2005 which provides children free universal education regardless of their nationality. However, language barriers, discrimination, lack of access to resources, and financial hardship create barriers towards education, particularly for many migrant, stateless and displaced children. ADRA Thailand is addressing some of these barriers through a range of projects and initiatives.

Thailand is a focus country for ADRA's Every child. Everywhere. In School campaign with a goal to support migrant children access education. In Thailand, approximately 200,000 of 364,000 migrant children are out-of-school. ADRA Thailand has advocated to the Ministry of Education and worked with schools to provide language support, effectively reducing the rate of out-of-school numbers. Overcoming language barriers makes it possible for children to remain in school.

A stateless person is one who under national laws does not enjoy citizenship. Statelessness is sometimes referred to as an invisible problem because stateless people often remain unseen and unheard. Officially there are over 500,000 individuals recognized as stateless in Thailand, many of whom are children. A life without legal identity means they are discriminated against with limited to no access to education, healthcare, social protections and are therefore at higher risk of violence, exploitation, trafficking, and child labor.

ADRA Thailand's Statelessness Reduction and Community Sensitization (CSP) project runs sensitization events to reduce discrimination and stigma in schools working with district education officials to register these children. Once registered, they can enroll and continue their education under the Thai Universal Education Policy.

Presently, ADRA Thailand works with the local government in Chiang Rai province to assess school children and support their enrollment into Thailand's civil registration system. Students receive a temporary identity number which allows schools to incorporate them into their books and receive government appropriations. The project has further worked in collaboration with Asia Pacific International University to offer 10 University scholarships a year for stateless persons as a pathway towards citizenship.

The Thailand Education Council in January 2022 reported that 1.2 million children had dropped out of school resulting from poverty, family issues and other factors that make it hard for them to study. ADRA Thailand's Keep Girls Safe (KGS) project in Chiang Rai province responds to some of these challenges by providing education support to children at risk of dropping out of school.

ADRA Thailand partners with 8 schools to provide scholarships which cover the costs of school supplies, lunches, medical expenses, and education related expenses. ADRA also provides safe shelter to these girls who are at risk, not only of dropping out of school, but of being forced into early marriage, child labor or human trafficking. These girls are given the opportunity to live in a safe nurturing environment with the promise of an education right through to university.

Two years of the COVID-19 pandemic have left far-reaching impacts on most aspects of life, including education. Globally, UNHCR estimates that 48 percent of all refugee children remain out-of-school as a result. In Thailand, despite school closure in 2021, there was an increase in enrollment numbers in the temporary shelters.

During the pandemic, ADRA Thailand implemented the Basic Education Support towards Transition (BEST) project with its partners providing continued education support through home-based learning approaches. This enabled children to remain engaged with their teachers, and as such, school dropouts were mitigated. The BEST project also made it possible for 749 teachers to remain in class by paying their monthly stipend, while 16,751 displaced children across 7 temporary shelters received scholastic materials and supplies. Additionally, 39 schools received much needed repairs creating safer learning environments. ADRA Thailand continues to work with the Office of Vocational Education Commission under the Ministry of Education to facilitate training programs to youth within the temporary shelters to develop skills and abilities for employment.

Author: Elvis Walemba, ADRA Thailand

Photo: © 2023 ADRA | Emma McCrow

*This article was featured under 'Technical Focus' in ADRA Asia Regional Office's quarterly Magazine ADRA Asia Focus Vol 3 | No 1*

Visit the ADRA Thailand website to learn more: https://adrathailand.org/

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Basic Education Services in Thailand | ADRA Asia Regional Office

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ADRA recognizes that education can help reduce vulnerability, safeguard against violence, abuse, and exploitation.

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Infographics: Raising the Quality of Small Schools

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With fewer students enrolling due to falling birth rates, the number of schools teaching less than 20 students per class is increasing in Thailand. Most of the increase in small schools is in Thailand's rural areas.

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Meet Malee and Opal, two students from Thailand. They are both 15-year-old and have equal chances to go to school, but they will have very different futures depending on where they go. Improving the quality of education for all schools will help prepare all students for a brighter future so they can grow up to be whatever they want to be - no matter where they are from.

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A Brighter Future for All Students in Thailand

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Video: A Brighter Future for All Students in Thailand. Meet Malee and Opal, two students from Thailand. They are both 15-year-old and have equal chances to go to school, but they will have very different futures depending on where they go.

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Thailand has made great progress in making education available for all, but more needs to be done to ensure that every student learns and develops skills that will help them find good jobs.

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https://www.nationthailand.com/blogs/the-opinion/40035490

https://www.mazars.co.th/insights/doing-business-in-thailand/payroll/new-minimum-wage-effective-1-january-2024

https://www.numbeo.com/cost-of-living/

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Inequality, Fragility, and Resilience in Bangkok from Building Resilience in Cities under Stress on JSTOR

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JSTOR is a digital library of academic journals, books, and primary sources.

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1. How does habitat destruction impact the availability of floral resources and nest habitats for bees?

2. How do habitat manipulation, diseases, and pesticides affect the health, fecundity, distribution, abundance, and diversity of bees?

3. What are the potential synergisms arising from bee exposure to multiple stressors, such as habitat destruction, climate change, and pesticides?

4. How can floral diversity and the availability of adequate food resources be balanced to serve both common generalist species and more rare specialist species?

5. How can the conservation of wild-living populations of honey bees be directly promoted through the conservation of natural nesting sites and semi-natural habitats?

6. What are the potential risks and benefits of the biological interface between managed and wild bee pollinators in terms of genetic diversity and coevolution with parasites and symbionts?

7. How can an integrated conservation approach be developed to preserve the genetic diversity in honey bees and promote the conservation of wild populations?

8. How can individuals and communities take steps to help bees and other pollinators thrive, such as creating pollinator-friendly habitats and reducing the use of pesticides?

9. How can interdisciplinary research and collaboration among researchers, educators, and outreach coordinators contribute to the understanding and conservation of bee and pollinator health and population?

10. What are the potential solutions to the pollinator crisis, and how can they be implemented to alleviate the decline of honey bees and other pollinators?

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1. What are the economic implications of food waste on both a local and global scale?

2. How does food waste contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change?

3. What role do cultural attitudes and behaviors play in the generation of food waste?

4. How can technology, such as apps or smart packaging, help reduce food waste in households and businesses?

5. What are the social justice implications of food waste, particularly in relation to hunger and poverty?

6. How do different countries and regions approach food waste management and prevention strategies?

7. What are the benefits of composting food waste and how can it be implemented effectively in communities?

8. How can education and awareness campaigns help change consumer behavior and reduce food waste?

9. What policies and regulations exist or could be implemented to incentivize businesses and individuals to reduce food waste?

10. How can partnerships between food producers, retailers, and charities help redistribute surplus food to those in need and reduce waste?

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1. What are the main causes of forced displacement and how do they impact the lives of refugees?

2. How does the international community, including Thailand, respond to the global refugee crisis and what are the challenges in providing assistance?

3. What are the experiences of refugees during their journey and resettlement process, and how can we better support their integration into new communities?

4. How can we address the root causes of conflict and violence that force people to flee their homes, and what role can the international community play in promoting peace and stability?

5. How can we challenge stereotypes and misconceptions about refugees and promote a better understanding of their experiences and contributions to society?

6. What are the mental and physical health challenges faced by refugees, and how can healthcare professionals and communities better support their well-being?

7. How can we ensure that the rights and needs of women, children, and other vulnerable groups among refugees are addressed and protected throughout the resettlement process?

8. What are the long-term impacts of forced displacement on individuals, communities, and societies, and how can we support sustainable development and recovery in areas affected by conflict and displacement?

9. How can we engage with policymakers and stakeholders to advocate for more humane and effective refugee policies and practices, both in Thailand and globally?

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1. How does the media coverage of women's sports impact the attitudes of sports fans towards female athletes?

2. What are the consequences of gender inequality in sports for female athletes, and how can these be addressed?

3. How can increased exposure to women's sports impact attitudes towards women's sports?

4. What are the key objectives of EU Sport policy regarding gender equality, and how is the European Commission working towards achieving these goals?

5. What are the recommendations of the High Level Group on Gender Equality published in March 2022, and how are they being implemented in the EU?

6. How can gender mainstreaming be implemented in sport policies and programmes to address gender discrimination and inequities?

7. What are the barriers women and girls face in accessing, participating in, and benefiting from sport and physical activity, and how can these be addressed?

8. How can the prevalence of gender-based discrimination in sport be addressed to promote gender equality and empower women and girls?

9. What are the current statistics regarding women's participation in sport, and how have these changed over time?

10. How can the Olympic Games and the Olympic Movement be used as platforms to promote gender equality and empower women and girls in sport?

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1. What are the environmental impacts of palm oil production, particularly in relation to deforestation and biodiversity loss?

2. How does the use of palm oil in everyday products contribute to the destruction of rainforests and endangered species?

3. What are the health implications of consuming products containing palm oil, especially in terms of saturated fats and carcinogenic substances?

4. How can consumers identify sustainable palm oil products and contribute to reducing the negative effects of palm oil production?

5. What are the social and economic aspects of the palm oil industry, including issues like worker exploitation and child labor?

6. What initiatives or organizations are working towards promoting sustainable palm oil production and reducing the negative impacts of the industry?

7. How can policymakers and governments address the challenges associated with palm oil production, such as deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions?

8. What are the alternatives to palm oil, and how feasible are these alternatives in terms of sustainability and economic viability?

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1. How can we educate students about food waste and its implications for the environment, society, and personal responsibility?

2. What factors contribute to food waste in school cafeterias, and how can we address these issues through menu revisions, serving sizes, and presentation?

3. How can we encourage students to take the appropriate amount of food and finish their meals by implementing strategies such as recess before lunch, longer seated lunch periods, and milk dispensers?

4. What role can school administrators, teachers, and parents play in reducing food waste by setting a positive example, leaving more time to eat, and providing waste bins for recycling, food donations, compost, and trash throughout the school?

5. How can we involve students in the process of reducing food waste by establishing Food Share Tables, encouraging pledge campaigns, and incorporating food waste reduction into the curriculum?

6. How can we track and measure the impact of our efforts to reduce food waste in school cafeterias, and use this data to inform future decisions and strategies?

7. How can we collaborate with school nutrition staff, district food services, and local organizations to promote food waste reduction and share best practices?

8. How can we raise awareness about the issue of food waste in schools and communities, and inspire students to take action and become advocates for sustainability and environmental stewardship?

9. How can we ensure that our efforts to reduce food waste are inclusive and equitable, and consider the needs and perspectives of diverse students, families, and communities?

10. How can we create a culture of sustainability and environmental responsibility in schools, and empower students to become leaders and change-makers in their communities and beyond?

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Here are some potential questions you could explore for your Grade 5 PYP exhibition on the issue of stray animals in Bangkok:

1. What are the main causes of the stray animal population in Bangkok?

2. What are the negative effects of stray animals on the local community and public health?

3. What are the current methods being used to control the stray animal population in Bangkok?

4. How effective are these methods in reducing the stray animal population and improving public health?

5. What are the ethical considerations around feeding and caring for stray animals in public spaces?

6. What are the potential benefits and drawbacks of implementing a TNR (Trap-Neuter-Return) program in Bangkok?

7. How can public awareness and education campaigns help address the issue of stray animals in Bangkok?

8. What role can local authorities, animal welfare organizations, and the community play in addressing the stray animal issue in Bangkok?

9. How can the issue of stray animals be approached from a Buddhist cultural perspective, taking into account the belief in earning merit by feeding stray animals?

10. What are the potential long-term solutions for managing the stray animal population in Bangkok and preventing the issue from recurring in the future?

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Here are some potential questions you could explore for your Grade 5 PYP exhibition on the issue of stray animals in Bangkok:

1. What are the main causes of the stray animal population in Bangkok?

2. What are the negative effects of stray animals on the local community and public health?

3. What are the current methods being used to control the stray animal population in Bangkok?

4. How effective are these methods in reducing the stray animal population and improving public health?

5. What are the ethical considerations around feeding and caring for stray animals in public spaces?

6. What are the potential benefits and drawbacks of implementing a TNR (Trap-Neuter-Return) program in Bangkok?

7. How can public awareness and education campaigns help address the issue of stray animals in Bangkok?

8. What role can local authorities, animal welfare organizations, and the community play in addressing the stray animal issue in Bangkok?

9. How can the issue of stray animals be approached from a Buddhist cultural perspective, taking into account the belief in earning merit by feeding stray animals?

10. What are the potential long-term solutions for managing the stray animal population in Bangkok and preventing the issue from recurring in the future?

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1. How can we encourage people to use reusable products instead of single-use ones?

2. What are the most common types of waste generated in our community, and how can we reduce them?

3. How can we design products to be more sustainable and have a lower environmental impact?

4. What are the benefits of recycling and composting, and how can we increase these practices in our community?

5. How can we reduce overconsumption and waste in our schools and homes?

6. What are the impacts of overconsumption and waste on our local and global environments, and how can we mitigate these impacts?

7. How can we educate people about the importance of reducing, reusing, and recycling?

8. How can we encourage businesses to adopt more sustainable practices and reduce their waste?

9. What are the challenges and opportunities of implementing a circular economy in our community?

10. How can we work together as a community to reduce waste and promote sustainability?

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1. How does wealth inequality impact access to education and opportunities for individuals in society?

2. What are the main causes of wealth inequality, and how does it affect different groups of people?

3. In what ways does wealth inequality contribute to social mobility or lack thereof?

4. How can policies and government interventions help address wealth inequality in a fair and effective manner?

5. What role does family wealth play in shaping the future outcomes and opportunities of individuals?

6. How does wealth inequality intersect with other forms of inequality, such as racial or gender disparities?

7. What are the ethical considerations surrounding wealth distribution and its impact on society?

8. How can individuals and communities work together to reduce the effects of wealth inequality in their local environment?

9. What are the long-term consequences of persistent wealth inequality on a society as a whole?

10. How can education and awareness about wealth inequality lead to positive changes in addressing this issue?

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1. How does the availability of green spaces in urban areas impact the physical and mental health of residents, especially children?

2. What are the environmental benefits of green spaces in cities, and how do they contribute to sustainability and biodiversity?

3. How does the unequal distribution of green spaces in urban areas affect different socio-economic groups and contribute to social inequality?

4. What role can urban planning and design play in addressing the lack of green spaces in cities and promoting equitable access to nature?

5. How can communities actively participate in the creation and maintenance of green spaces in urban environments?

6. What are the potential challenges and benefits of converting underutilized urban spaces into green areas, and how can these initiatives be sustainable in the long term?

7. How do green spaces in cities help mitigate the effects of climate change, such as urban heat islands and flooding?

8. What are some successful examples of cities around the world that have effectively integrated green spaces into their urban landscapes, and what lessons can be learned from their experiences?

9. How can the issue of environmental gentrification be addressed when creating new green spaces in urban neighborhoods?

10. What are the economic implications of investing in green infrastructure in cities, and how can these investments benefit both residents and the environment in the long run?

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1. What does sportsmanship mean to different people in our school community?

2. How does sportsmanship affect the experience of participating in school sports?

3. What are some examples of good sportsmanship that you have observed or experienced in school sports?

4. What are some challenges to practicing sportsmanship in school sports, and how can we address them?

5. How can we promote a culture of sportsmanship in school sports, and what role do students, teachers, and parents play in this?

6. How does sportsmanship relate to other values and attitudes, such as respect, fairness, and empathy?

7. How can we measure or evaluate sportsmanship in school sports, and what are the benefits and limitations of different approaches?

8. How can we use the principles of sportsmanship to improve other areas of school life, such as academic competition or group work?

9. How can we connect the concept of sportsmanship to broader issues, such as social justice, diversity, and inclusion?

10. How can we sustain a culture of sportsmanship in school sports beyond the exhibition, and what are the long-term benefits of doing so?

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1. What are the barriers to accessing education in different parts of the world?

2. How does access to education affect children's future opportunities and prospects?

3. What can be done to improve access to education for children in marginalized communities?

4. How can technology be used to enhance access to education for students in remote areas?

5. What are the challenges faced by children with disabilities in accessing education?

6. How can schools ensure that all students have equal access to education, regardless of their background or circumstances?

7. What role do governments and international organizations play in promoting access to education?

8. How can communities and families support children's education and help to ensure that they have access to quality learning opportunities?

9. What are the benefits of providing access to education for all children, and what impact can this have on society as a whole?

10. How can students take action to promote access to education and help to ensure that all children have the opportunity to learn and grow?

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1. How has air pollution evolved over time, and what are the key factors contributing to its changes?

2. What are the primary sources of air pollution in urban and rural areas, and how do they impact the environment and human health?

3. How can different forms of transportation, such as cars, contribute to air pollution, and what are some sustainable alternatives to reduce emissions?

4. What role does agriculture play in air pollution, particularly in terms of ammonia emissions and their effects on particulate matter formation?

5. How can individual actions, like reducing energy consumption, using electric or hand-powered lawn equipment, and promoting clean air initiatives, contribute to mitigating air pollution on a local level?

6. What are the global efforts and policies in place to address air pollution, and how effective have they been in reducing pollution levels in different regions?

7. How does air pollution impact climate change, and what are the interconnected effects of rising sea levels, pollution, and environmental risks for the future?

8. What are the health implications of air pollution, including respiratory infections, heart disease, and other disorders, and how can communities raise awareness about these risks?

9. How can advancements in renewable energy technologies help combat air pollution and contribute to global solutions for cleaner air and a healthier environment?

10. What are the key differences between indoor and outdoor air pollution, and how can individuals and communities work together to reduce pollution levels in both settings?

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At any given time there are more than a trillion managed [1] honey bees . Globally, the number of managed colonies has risen steadily over the last twenty years and this growth will almost certainly persist, at least in the short term. Increases in demand for honey and (especially) commercial pollination services continue to outpace the increase in supply of managed bees. Asia, especially China and India, hosts the largest populations of managed bees and accounts for much of the recent growth in bee stocks. Commercial beekeeping techniques standardly treat managed bees as a resource from which to maximize the extraction of value. Beekeepers have a financial incentive to maintain the health of their colonies, but they have little reason to look after the welfare of individual bees. Managed bees suffer from a variety of problems, including pesticide exposure, poor nutrition due to inadequate access to natural forage, invasive hive inspections and honey harvest, stress from long-distance transport, and parasite and pathogen spread exacerbated by common management techniques. The effective animal advocacy movement can help a significant number of managed bees by promoting welfare-oriented management techniques, supporting academic research that has the potential to advance honey bee welfare, encouraging welfare-oriented policies and regulations, and reducing the demand for commercial pollination services. However, it's not clear that these interventions are promising enough to be pursued in the near-term. Much uncertainty remains, and more research would be required to determine the ultimate wisdom and cost-effectiveness of these interventions.

Introduction and Context

Number of Managed Honey Bees

Where Honey Bees Are Managed

Factors That Affect Honey Bee Welfare

Potential Interventions

Key Questions and Uncertainties

Appendix 1: How This Report Was Completed

Appendix 2: Estimating the Number of Managed Honey Bees

Appendix 3: Pollination, Honey, and Other Bee Products

Appendix 4: Open Research Questions

Credits

Works Cited

This report is the first in Rethink Priorities ' series on farmed invertebrates. You can find our other work on invertebrate sentience and invertebrate welfare . We are focusing our current efforts on farmed invertebrates because in most cases farmed invertebrate interventions are likely to be more tractable than wild invertebrate interventions. here

Honey bees appear to be a promising intervention target for three reasons. First, according to my preliminary estimates, managed honey bees are the most numerous farmed insect and probably the most numerous farmed invertebrate . [2] Second, the case that bees are sentient is stronger than that for most other invertebrates. [3] Honey bees exhibit social, cognitive, and even affective complexity that is comparable to some vertebrates, [4] and they are impressive communicators and learners. [5] Third, there appears to exist more public sympathy for honey bees than for most other invertebrates, perhaps because of the essential role they play in agricultural pollination. [6] The plight of honey bees, though not always framed in welfare terms, is a common enough subject of media attention that honey bee interventions are unlikely to generate significant public outrage or otherwise damage effective altruism's long-term image.

There are two major caveats worth noting at the outset. The first is that this report is heavily biased toward beekeeping in North America and Europe. The reason for this bias is that there is much more literature available in English on North American and European bees than there is for other regions. As a result of this bias, the information contained in this report may not always generalize to other parts of the world. This bias is especially unfortunate because much of the marginal growth in bee stocks is in Asia.

The second caveat is that I am not a beekeeping expert . My formal background is in philosophy. Undoubtedly, this report contains mistakes which, despite the substantial assistance I received from many talented individuals, remain my own. Any and all corrections are welcome.

I estimate that at any given time in 2017 there were between 1.4 and 4.8 trillion adult managed honey bees . [7] I describe the methodology behind this estimate in Appendix 2.

Future Growth

Despite much press, some of it quite apocalyptic, concerning colony collapse disorder (see more below), the number of managed honey bee colonies is not actually in decline. In fact, the number of total managed honey bee hives has steadily increased over the last 20 years and looks set to continue i ncreasing, at least in the near future . (See Figure 1.) Much of this growth is attributable to the gradual expansion and sheer size of Asian beekeeping. [8]Asian production has grown more than 60% since 2000, while production in the Americas has remained essentially flat since the turn of the millenium. (See Figures 2 and 3.)

Although honey bee populations have been increasing, the rate of increase has not kept pace with demand growth ( van Engelsdorp & Meixner 2010 ), and demand for honey and pollinator services will continue to grow, at least in the short term. According to t his from Zion Market Research report , the global honey market will increase at a compound annual growth rate of roughly 4.8% over the next six years, from a value of approximately $7.68 billion in 2018 to approximately $10.34 billion in 2025. Pollination services will also see an expansion in demand, as wild pollinator populations continue to decline and agricultural acreage requiring pollination continues to increase ( ) . According to Potts et al. 2016 from the United States Department of Agriculture, in the U.S. beekeeper revenue from pollination services now surpasses revenue from honey. this report

Honey bees are managed for two main reasons: honey production and pollination services. See Appendix 3 for more information on honey production, pollination services, and several other minor bee products.

Honey bees are managed on every continent except Antarctica. They are managed in almost every major country.

Top Regions

Asia leads the world in honey bee management with 47% of global beehives. The next biggest regions are Europe (at 21% of global beehives), Africa (at 19% of global beehives), and the Americas (at 12% of global beehives). (See Figure 4.)

Top Countries

According to FAO data, in 2017 the top ten countries by number of beehives were as follows (see Figure 5):

Below I discuss six factors that affect managed honey bee welfare. The severity of these welfare concerns varies by region and management practice. Bees managed in colder climates are more likely to suffer as a result of the poor thermal insulation of their artificial hives than bees managed in warmer climates. Bees managed exclusively to provide pollination services are more likely to suffer from transport and inadequate access to natural forage than bees managed exclusively for honey. Bees managed in Europe are less likely to suffer from pesticide exposure than bees managed elsewhere because several pesticides harmful to bees have been banned or restricted there. Bees managed in Australia are less likely to suffer from parasites and pathogens than bees elsewhere because Varroa destructor has not yet become established there. Colony Collapse Disorder currently only affects bees in North America and Europe. And so on. [9]

Taking regional differences of bee population into account, I would very roughly rank the welfare concerns from most serious to least serious as follows:

1. Parasites and pathogens

2. Pesticide exposure

3. Food access

4. Transport

5. Habitat

6. Colony Collapse Disorder

Habitat

To understand honey bee welfare and interventions aimed at improving it, one must understand the habitat in which honey bees live. Managed honey bees nest in artificial hives of various designs. The most popular type of hive design is the , Langstroth hive originally patented back in 1852. [10] The Langstroth hive is an upright modular beehive of three basic segments: the lower section, featuring a bottom board with an entrance for bee ingress and egress; the middle section, with boxes for brood chambers and honey supers, often divided by a queen excluder to keep larvae separate from honey; and the top section, including both an inner cover and a top cover. (See Figure 6). Inside the boxes are 8 to 10 frames, normally with an artificial, wax-coated foundation upon which bees deposit honey or grow young. [11] Langstroth hives can be disassembled relatively easily to allow for hive inspection or harvest, and the compact design makes the hive simple to transport (though they can be heavy). Many beekeepers prefer Langstroth hives in large part because of their popularity. The equipment is standardized and widely available, and there are a large range of accessories and resources explicitly tailored to the Langstroth. Most apiary manuals are written under the assumption that the beekeeper is using a Langstroth hive.

From a welfare perspective, the Langstroth hive poses several challenges. The first is the and honey harves invasive nature of hive inspection t. There is a lot of variance among beekeepers, but typically hives are inspected every two to six weeks, and honey is harvested once or twice a year. To inspect the bees or harvest the honey, a beekeeper must remove the components one-by-one. That means first removing the roof of the structure, laying bare the delicate innards of the hive, then removing the honey supers until the brood chamber is exposed. This process inevitably confuses, agitates, and stresses the bees. These agitated bees are much more likely to sting in defense of the colony, which they (correctly) perceive as under attack. Bees that sting in defense of the colony necessarily die, and death-by-stinger-ejection prima facie looks to be a particularly painful way to die. (The barbed stinger literally tears a cavity right through the middle of the bee's abdomen.) To reduce aggressive behavior, standard beekeeping practice is to smoke the bees during harvest . (A smoker is just a little metal container with bellows in which a fire is lit. See Figure 7.) The smoke both masks the scent and hinders the production of the alarm pheromones that would otherwise alert the bees to danger ( ). [12] Although the smoke is nontoxic, if the temperature of the smoke is too high, it can melt the wings of the bees . But applied appropriately, smoking the bees saves many bee lives and thus is preferable to letting the bees sting themselves to death. [13] Finally, when the hive is reassembled (that is, the components are stacked on top of each other again) agitated bees are often crushed between the edges of the boxes, injuring or killing them. [14]Gage et al. 2018 (Figure 7 gives a sense for how difficult it would be to reassemble the hive without crushing bees.)

Another problem with the Langstroth hive is that it tends to have worse thermal insulation than the natural hives that feral colonies establish. Regulating the temperature of a hive is an important element of colony survival. Hives with poor insulation will, in cold areas, cause the bees to cluster earlier in the season than they otherwise would, increasing the energy cost to maintain thermal homeostasis, and ultimately increasing the chance that the colony won't survive the winter . The thin walls of the Langstroth hive also reduce the humidity of the hive compared to the hives of feral colonies. Recent research suggests that the lower humidity facilitates the breeding of harmful parasites like Varroa destructor ( ). To mitigate these risks, in cold climates during winter, hives are sometimes wrapped in black plastic tar paper ( see Figure 8) or packed in large warehouses, sometimes thousands of hives to a building (see Figure 9). Mitchell 2016

Over the last 13 years, U.S. overwinter colony mortality [15] has averaged . [16]28.8% of all managed colonies That amounts to over 700,000 colonies lost per winter. Conservatively, that's about 8 billion premature bee deaths a year in the United States alone. [17] Although these colonies are replaced in the spring, keeping the overall bee population roughly stable year-to-year, the individual bees who succumb to cold exposure, starvation, or parasitic infestation suffer needlessly. An intervention that reduced overwinter colony mortality in the United States by just 5% would prevent at least 400 million premature bee deaths.

Food Access

There are two welfare worries regarding access to quality food sources. The first concerns the honey harvest. Commercial apiaries typically harvest honey once a year, in late summer or early autumn, depending on the climate. Bees make honey as a winter food store, when foraging is either impossible or limited. When this essential food source is removed in its entirety, the colony's survival is put at risk. Without access to an adequate food supply, a colony will collapse of starvation in a matter of days. For this reason, many beekeepers do not harvest the entirety of a colony's honey supply at one time. However, it is difficult to know in advance how much honey the bees will require to survive the winter, as the amount depends in part on the weather. According to Garrido & Nanetti 2019 , "starvation is still a common cause of winter colony losses" (85). To reduce the risk of starvation, commercial beekeepers often provide their colonies with a honey substitute during the winter, such as inexpensive white cane sugar syrup. Although sugar syrup often secures overwinter survival of the colony, sugar syrup lacks many of the micronutrients that honey contains. [18]The importance of these micronutrients for proper honey bee nutrition has only recently been recognized. In particular, it appears that micronutrient deficiency makes a colony more susceptible to pathogens and parasites and worsens the effects of pesticide exposure ( ). [19] To meet this nutritional shortfall, some beekeepers have started providing protein supplements to their hives. Unfortunately, these supplements do "not appear to remedy problems of poor nutrition or reduce colony losses Mao, Schuler, & Berenbaum 2013 " ( : 194). The DeGrandi-Hoffman et al. study found that colonies with access to natural forage had lower pathogen loads and higher overwinter survival than those fed protein supplements. DeGrandi-Hoffman et al. 2015

Regrettably (and this is the second concern), colonies often do not have access to high-quality and variate natural forage of the kind that would buffer against the worst beekeeping practices. Honey bees require a diversity of flowering plants for best nutrition ( Garrido & Nanetti 2019 ). [20] However, many colonies are located in intensively-managed monocultural landscapes, without access to different types of flowers. Many studies support the connection between honey bee nutrition and access to natural or semi-natural habitats. For instance, found that proximity to Ricigliano et al. 2019 lands enhanced honey bee health and colony performance. Without access to such habitats, honey bees are likely to suffer from malnutrition, making them more susceptible to other stressors. US Conservation Reserve Program

Transport

Honey bees are used to facilitate the pollination of a wide variety of different crops. Generally speaking, it's not possible to simply raise the bees in locations that require pollination services. Most crops that require commercial pollination services are in bloom for only two to four weeks. In the monocultural landscapes that are typical of fields and orchards requiring pollination services, there isn't enough flowering forage to support healthy colonies the rest of the year. In the United States, I estimate that between ½ and ⅔ of colonies are transported at some point during the year. Conservatively, that comes to between 14 and 43 billion individual bees transported in the U.S. alone. [21] As noted above, U.S. beekeepers now earn more revenue from pollination services than they do from honey sales. Given the high demand for pollination services worldwide, especially in East Asia and South Asia, it's reasonable to assume that many commercial beekeepers outside the U.S. on average also earn at least half their revenue from pollination services .

Getting bees to orchard and field for the short period in which crops blossom and are thus able to be pollinated requires transporting a large number of colonies across vast distances. The bees are shipped confined in their hives on the backs of large, open-air semi-trucks. (See Figure 10.) Colonies are often moved multiple times a year, covering thousands of miles. A typical North American colony might begin the year in North Dakota (home to the largest number of U.S. beehives), spend February and March pollinating almonds in Northern California, then April through June pollinating apples in Central Washington, finally returning to North Dakota in July, traversing more than 3,500 miles in total roundtrip. (See Figure 11). This kind of migratory beekeeping is also common in India ( Tej et al. 2017 ) , [22] and probably elsewhere too.

In general, "bees from migratory colonies have a shorter lifespan and higher levels of oxidative stress than workers at stationary apiaries" ( Garrido & Nanetti 2019 : 75). The exact causes of this stress are unknown, but there are several potential welfare concerns associated with long-distance transport of honey bee colonies. [23]

Long-distance transport has worrying effects on honey bee physiology. found that "bees experiencing transportation have trouble fully developing their food glands and this might affect their ability to nurse the next generation of workers" (1). Again, the exact causes of this abnormality are unknown, but the sustained vibration of transport combined with changes in air pressure, exposure to diesel exhaust, and the stress of confinement may all play a role. A particular concern is temperature regulation. As noted above, maintaining thermal homeostasis is a basic requirement for colony survival. During transport densely packed and poorly ventilated colonies often die from overheating. It's possible to increase ventilation, but doing so introduces cold stress if the outside air temperature is low, which causes developmental abnormalities in the bee larvae, often leading to colony collapse when the larvae emerge as adults a few days after arrival ( Ahn et al. 2012 ). The outside air temperature on a trip from North Dakota to California is going to vary considerably, as the truck has to cross both the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada mountain range. Melicher et al. 2019

Transport also likely increases the spread of infectious disease. Bringing together bees from many different regions facilitates the transmission of parasites and pathogens ( Garrido & Nanetti 2019 : 75). As noted above, during peak almond blossom season in late February, somewhere between ⅓ and ½ of all U.S. honey bees are concentrated in California's Central Valley . Based on conservative winter colony sizes of between 10,800 and 14,000 bees, that comes to between 9.8 and 18.7 billion individual bees. These bees are transported from as far away as Michigan. Due to homing errors [24] that are common when hives are crowded together (see below), bees from disparate areas inevitably come into close contact with one another. Because the stress of transport increases vulnerability to disease, the crowding of hives from disparate areas can be particularly devastating.

Parasites and Pathogens

Commercially managed honey bees are threatened by a large number of parasites and pathogens: bacterial and fungal infections, especially those leading to American foulbrood , , and chalkbrood ; parasitic mites, especially ectoparasitic mites like stonebrood and tracheal mites like ; microsporidian pathogens, especially Varroa destructor and Acarapis woodi ; and the associated diseases that these parasites and pathogens facilitate, especially and Nosema ceranae . A complete survey of honey bee parasites and pathogens is beyond the scope of this report. In what follows I briefly discuss Varroa Nosema apis mites and deformed wing virus, the most prevalent virus in honey bees, which the mites help propagate ( ). deformed wing virus nosemosis Martin & Brettell 2019

Varroa mites are small, obligate parasites that feed on the hemolymph [25] of both adult and juvenile bees. (See Figure 12.) They are among the most devastating parasites of Apis mellifera bees. Varroa mites are rarely fatal to adult hosts, though the mites do shorten the lifespan of infected bees. [26] Importantly, Varroa mites require bee larvae or pupae to reproduce, and their presence can greatly reduce colony-wide reproduction .

Varroa mites can destroy a honey bee colony in at least two ways. The first is by out-producing their hosts and overrunning the colony. Bee populations typically peak in early summer, then gradually decline throughout the fall. Varroa populations typically peak a few weeks after bee populations. When a modest decline in bee population is combined with a modest increase in Varroa infestation, the result can be a precipitous drop in colony strength, ultimately leading to overwinter collapse.

The other way Varroa mites can destroy a colony is by spreading diseases. Varroa mites are a vector for at least five honey bee diseases, the worst of which seems to be deformed wing virus (DWV). DWV has been described as "a major threat to the world's honeybees" ( : 594). DWV is an RNA virus characterized by misshapen, useless wings and other abdominal deformities. (See Figure 13.) Although DWV can spread directly from one bee to another, it is more commonly transmitted by the mite Varroa destructor . DWV is one of the leading causes of overwinter collapse in Varroa Wilfert et al. 2016 -infested colonies ( ) . Moreover, infected colonies often pass the disease to wild insects, including both feral honey bees and other insect pollinators, predators, and scavengers ( : 556), so controlling the disease would probably also improve wild animal welfare. Wilfert et al. 2016 Villalobos 2016

Because Varroa infestations can be so devastating, a wide range of Varroa control methods have been developed. (See Table 1.) The welfare implications of these control methods, both for the bees and the mites themselves, are unclear. Because of the large scale at which these control methods are applied, future welfare-oriented research could potentially uncover cost-effective interventions.

Pesticide Exposure

Pesticide exposure is a major welfare concern for commercially managed honey bees. [27] General purpose insecticides deployed to control crop-damaging insects can be lethal to bees, as can residential deployment of insecticides to control mosquitoes ( ). Long & Krupke 2016 [28] Bees are especially at risk for two reasons. First, they have a wide foraging range, up to three miles in any direction from the hive. It is thus difficult for a beekeeper to station her bees out of range of all pesticide use. Second, bees are social. If a bee encounters a pesticide, she will bring that pesticide back to the hive. When the pesticide-exposed bee dies, other bees will remove her body from the hive and become contaminated by contact. In this way, tens of thousands of bees can be killed in a single hive in . under 48 hours

Sublethal exposure to pesticides is also a major concern. Short of killing a bee, pesticide exposure can reduce homing success, [29] degrade flight ability, and impair bee navigation ( ). Sublethal pesticide exposure can also suppress a bee's immune system, making it more likely to contract infections and diseases ( Tosi, Burgio, & Nieh 2017 ) . Pettis et al. 2012 [30] Finally, pesticide contamination in stored beebread and wax comb can diminish a queen's reproductive rate, lowering colony strength and increasing the frequency of stress-inducing queen replacements ( ) . [31] Bees engaged in pollination services are especially at risk of sublethal pesticide exposure. Pesticides are an integral part of modern agricultural production. When bees are brought to pollinate pesticide-treated crops, some level of exposure is inevitable, though of course the level must be sublethal to ensure pollination success. Traynor et al. 2016

Neonicotinoids are perhaps the most notorious pesticide associated with bees. (See Figure 14.) Neonicotinoids are among the most widely applied insecticides in the world ( Lundin et al. 2015 ). [32] Though now partially banned in Europe (see more below), neonicotinoids have been used ubiquitously the past two decades to suppress insects that reduce agricultural yields . Neonicotinoids are particularly harmful for three reasons. First, unlike contact pesticides, which remain on the surface of treated plants, systemic pesticides like neonicotinoids are water soluble and are taken up by and transported throughout the plant, which is how they end up in nectar and pollen. In effect, plants that absorb neonicotinoids become toxic to insects. Second, neonicotinoids can persist in the soil months or even years after a single application. Untreated plants that grow in the soil during this time will absorb neonicotinoid residues and become at least somewhat toxic ( ). Third, neonicotinoids are particularly effective at immunosuppression, meaning that even low concentrations of neonicotinoids can harm bees and other insects by exacerbating the effect of other stressors. According to , "Immune suppression of the natural defences by neonicotinoid and phenyl-pyrazole (fipronil) insecticides opens the way to parasite infections and viral diseases, fostering their spread among individuals and among bee colonies at higher rates than under conditions of no exposure to such insecticides" (7). Neonicontinoids are also particularly bad for queens. Tosi, Burgio, & Nieh 2017 demonstrate that " field-realistic concentrations of neonicotinoid pesticides during development can severely affect queens of western honey bees ( Sánchez-Bayo et al. 2016 Apis mellifera ). In pesticide-exposed queens, reproductive anatomy (ovaries) and physiology (spermathecal-stored sperm quality and quantity), rather than flight behaviour, were compromised and likely corresponded to reduced queen success (alive and producing worker offspring)" (1). Importantly, "many wild bees and other non-target invertebrates are also exposed to the same suite of pesticides" ( : 10), making pesticide exposure a welfare concern for both managed and Williams et al. 2015 wild animals. Long & Krupke 2016

Commercially managed honey bees are also exposed to pesticides inside the hive. As noted above, Varroa infestations are a major cause of colony collapse and a major concern for commercial apiaries. As a consequence, 89% of large-scale U.S. beekeepers [33] report applying chemical varroacides inside their hives ( ). The chemical treatment is effective at controlling Varroa populations, but the long-term effects on the bees are less well understood. Haber, Steinhauer, & van Engelsdrop 2019

Colony Collapse Disorder

Large-scale and widespread colony losses were first reported across the United States in 2006 ( ). Similar losses were first reported in Europe in 2009 ( Villalobos 2016 ). These losses were notable both for their scale and the peculiar circumstances in which the losses occurred. Colonies that succumbed to this condition didn't leave behind a pile of dead bees, as happens when a colony suffers, for instance, acute pesticide poisoning; on the contrary, the hives of the affected colonies were simply Dainat, van Engelsdorp, & Neumann 2012 empty . Colony Collapse Disorder, as the condition came to be called, is characterized by the sudden disappearance of the majority of worker bees in a colony, despite a functional queen and adequate food stores.

Colony Collapse Disorder is still a poorly understood phenomenon, but evidence is converging to suggest there is no single underlying cause ( Long & Krupke 2016 ) . [34] Instead, it appears that a number of independent stressors increase a colony's vulnerability to collapse. When these stressors are combined at a single apiary, colony vulnerability reaches a tipping point and losses can be catastrophic, destroying 30-80% of hives in a single season (normally winter). As of this writing, Colony Collapse Disorder has not been observed in significant numbers outside North America and Europe, for reasons that are not entirely clear.

If it's true that Colony Collapse Disorder has no unique fundamental cause but is instead the result of the confluence of other stressors, then Colony Collapse Disorder is not an independent welfare concern. Rather it is a reminder that the consequences of other stressors can aggregate in unpredictable, non-additive ways. The combined stress of two independent sources may be more than the sum of the individual parts.

For example, according to Mao, Schuler, & Berenbaum 2013 , "The widespread apicultural use of honey substitutes, including high-fructose corn syrup, may thus compromise the ability of honey bees to cope with pesticides and pathogens and contribute to colony losses" (8842). reports, "Interactions between pesticides and pathogens could be a major contributor to increased mortality of honey bee colonies, including colony collapse disorder" (153). And Pettis et al. 2012 adds, "The negative impact on immune barriers can be further exacerbated by concurrent stress agents that interfere with NF-kB signalling (e.g. neonicotinoids), or activate competing stress responses (e.g. poor nutrition, extreme thermal conditions), thus favouring pathogens and parasites" (10). To summarize, the stress of transport, honey harvest, inadequate access to natural forage, and poor thermal insulation make bees less resistant to parasites, pathogens, and the worst effects of pesticide exposure. Bees are sturdy creatures, and bee colonies are remarkably resilient superorganisms, but when pushed to the brink by multiple stressors, they simply vanish. Sánchez-Bayo et al. 2016

Below I discuss six broad categories of interventions. It is unfortunately difficult to assess the comparative value of these different interventions for several reasons. First, as noted above, the severity of a welfare concern is context-dependent (e.g., bees in Australia suffer from different problems than bees in Europe). Second, not all of the interventions are aimed at the same time horizon. Planting natural forage in some areas could start benefiting bees in weeks; building the effective animal advocacy movement in Asia might not pay off for decades. Third, where the interests of bees aligns with the interests of beekeepers (or farmers), financial incentives will probably push adoption of the intervention without outside effort. So, as always, anticipated neglectedness must be factored into the comparative analysis. Finally, many of these interventions will have knock-on effects, especially for wild invertebrates, that are difficult to calculate.

Taking all these factors into account, I would very roughly rank the interventions from most promising to least promising as follows:

1. Build EAA in Asia

2. Reduce pollination demand

3. Increase access to natural forage

4. Manage pesticide risk

5. Reduce homing errors

6. Minimize harvest disruption

Reduce Homing Errors

Like other commercially farmed animals, honey bees are maintained at densities much higher than those found in the wild. Feral colonies of honey bees prefer to nest hundreds or thousands of meters apart from each other, whereas managed honey bee colonies are typically kept less than a meter apart on commercial apiaries ( ). This level of crowding can lead to a variety of welfare problems. One such problem is known as 'drifting.' Drifting is a type of homing error in which a foraging bee accidentally returns to the wrong hive. Drifting is a serious welfare concern because, according to Garrido & Nanetti 2019 , it is "perhaps the most common mechanism of disease transmission between colonies within an apiary" (717). They add that on a typical apiary, " it is common for 40% or more of all worker bees to drift from their natal colony to a neighboring colony" (717). Seeley & Smith 2015

Fortunately, a recent study suggests there may be a low-cost method that greatly reduces this type of homing error without affecting the density at which colonies can be kept. Dynes et al. 2019 demonstrate that painting hives different colors, marking hives with unique symbols, placing hives at different heights, and orienting hives to face different directions can all greatly reduce drift without the need to decrease density. This reduction in drift in turn lowers colony parasite load, promotes honey production, and increases overwinter survival. Promoting these changes could thus have a substantial welfare impact for a significant number of bees. [35]

The main objection to promoting this intervention is that beekeepers already have a financial incentive to make these changes if they are in fact effective. However, notwithstanding this incentive, I found virtually no evidence that commercial apiaries were implementing these changes at scale. The most plausible reason for this lack of change is simply that the research is so new. [36] If that's the explanation, then we should expect these changes to be implemented over the next few years (again, assuming that the benefits are as dramatic as they appear). There may, however, be information barriers that delay the implementation of these reforms, especially in low or middle income countries. If such information barriers exist, then a well-organized, low-cost information campaign might prove to be a cost-effective intervention.

Reduce Pollination Demand

Reducing the demand for pollination services would reduce the number of bees in commercial fields and orchards, where they are more likely to be exposed to pesticides ( Traynor et al. 2016 ) . [37] It would also reduce the number of bees transported long distances, which would improve the welfare of those bees both directly, by eliminating the stress of transport, and indirectly, by reducing the transmission of disease that results from commingling colonies from disparate regions. There are at least four ways one might reduce demand for honey bee pollination services: reducing demand for products that require commercial honey bee pollination, replacing pollinator-dependent crops with self-fertile varieties, promoting mechanical pollination, and increasing the population of local wild pollinators.

The most obvious way to reduce demand for commercial honey bee pollination is to reduce demand for those products that require commercial honey bee pollination. I suspect this approach is the least promising. If directly reducing consumer interest for certain products were possible and cost-effective, it would be a more widely used tactic in effective animal advocacy. And if it were possible and cost-effective to directly reduce consumer interest in a product, then honey would be a more obvious target than products that rely indirectly on bees. [38] Nevertheless, there may be limited room for a narrow campaign of this sort. In the United States, almond farming is a major driver of demand for pollination services. Almonds are a notoriously thirsty crop, requiring over a gallon of water per nut ). A campaign that emphasized the large environmental impact of almond agricultural might succeed in reducing demand for almonds, thereby reducing demand for commercial honey bee pollination services. (Fulton, Norton, & Shilling 2019 [39]

As noted above, almond farming is a major driver of demand for pollination services in the United States. Most almond varieties are self-incompatible and therefore require both pollenizers [40] and pollinators. Recently, the surge in the price of pollination services (see Figure 15) has led to a concurrent surge in interest in self-fertile varieties of almond. The most popular self-fertile almond variety is the , developed by Zaiger Genetics and available since 2008. According to Independence , an orchard systems advisor with the University of California Cooperative Extension program, Independence almonds require Dani Lightle . According to the California Department of Food and Agriculture , in 2018 23.4% of all new almond acres were planted to the self-fertile Independence variety. However, not all experts are bullish on the ability of self-fertile almonds to reduce pollination demand. 75-80% fewer bees for effective pollination , an assistant professor in the Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology at Auburn University and a specialist in pollination service contracts, claims that self-fertile almond varieties will Almond Acreage Report for the foreseeable future. Brittney Goodrich not have a significant impact on the demand for colonies

Directly subsidizing self-fertile varieties of pollinator-dependent crops does not look to be a promising intervention because farmers already have a financial incentive to switch to these varieties if they in fact reduce pollination costs without compromising quality. However, there may again be information barriers that slow the adoption of such varieties, especially in low or middle income countries where institutional dissemination of new knowledge may be limited and where farmers may be more risk-averse. It might possible to mount a relatively cost-effective outreach campaign that would benefit both poor farmers and overtaxed honey bees.

Mechanical pollination is another alternative to commercially managed honey bee pollination. A typical mechanical pollination system uses an electrostatic sprayer to apply a suspension of pollen to flowering fruit trees. (See Figure 16.) It can be used to supplement or replace bee pollination. At around $300 an acre, it compares favorably to honey bee pollination, which can range from $320 to $450 an acre for almond orchards. The main problem right now is efficacy. According to Elizabeth Fichtner , another orchard systems advisor with the University of California Cooperative Extension program, because almond flowers are not all open at the same time. Because mechanical pollination is a discrete event, if a flower isn't open when the sprayer drives by, that flower doesn't get pollinated. Honey bee pollination, by contrast, is continuous, with foragers worker throughout daylight hours, weather permitting. [41]mechanical pollination of almond orchards is ineffective However, the technology is still relatively immature. , a stone fruit physiologist in Washington State University's Department of Horticulture, believes the technique will be widely adopted in 20 to 30 years' time. Research grants that either ensure the technology is developed or speeds its progress could thus prove to be cost-effective interventions for commercially managed honey bees. Matt Whiting

Another way to reduce reliance on commercial honey bee pollination is to increase the population of local wild pollinators who will pollinate fields and orchards for free. [42] There are two major advantages to this approach and one serious drawback. The two advantages are that the means to increase wild pollinator populations are well-known and there are several reputable organizations already working toward this goal, ready to receive additional funds to expand their projects. According to , "Across all studies, biodiversity management raised the abundance of dominant crop-visiting [wild] bees by a factor of 3.2. Organic farming, planting wildﬂowers and establishing grass margin strips signiﬁcantly enhanced dominant crop-visiting bees in arable landscapes" (3). Kleijn et al. 2015 [43] One simple conservation measure is to plant wildflowers along curbsides (see Figure 17), which increases local pollinator populations ( and surprisingly decreases insect-vehicle collision s). Another simple conservation measure is to mow roadside vegetation less frequently. Less frequent mowing improves the habitat of local pollinators, while also reducing maintenance costs ( ). Homeowners can also improve pollinator habitat by replacing lawns with semi-natural habitat or mowing lawns less frequently ( ). [44] The Xerces Society has been advocating for simple such as these for decades. They maintain extensive resources on Committee on Ecology and Transportation Newsletter, January 2017 , Lerman et al. 2018 , , and . Targeted grants to the Xerces Society could result in non-trivial increases in wild pollinator populations, thus potentially reducing the need for commercial honey bee pollination. [45]pollinator conservation measures habitat planning for beneficial insects attracting native pollinators roadside management for pollinator conservation farming with native beneficial insects

The main drawback to this approach is that it is essentially just swapping managed insects for wild insects . If the lives of the wild pollinators are not any better than the lives of the commercially managed honey bees, then this approach would not improve overall animal welfare. If the lives of the wild pollinators are worse than the lives of the managed bees, then this intervention would actually be net-negative. This question deserves more research (see below). There may be other reasons to promote native pollinator populations, such as conserving biodiversity or improving ecosystem resilience, but from a welfare perspective increasing the population of wild insects looks like an uncertain buy .

Manage Pesticide Risk

As noted above, pesticide exposure is a welfare problem for both commercially managed honey bees, their feral counterparts, and other non-target wild insects. [46] Reducing non-target pesticide exposure could have several welfare benefits for commercially managed honey bees. The most direct effect would be improved honey bee health and decreased chance of colony collapse. Reducing non-target pesticide exposure would also benefit wild insect pollinators, which could indirectly help commercially managed honey bees. If the population of wild insect pollinators were larger, there would be more insects available to pollinate agricultural crops for free, presumably decreasing the demand for commercial pollination services. Decreased pollination demand would presumably lead to fewer bees transported long distances (see more below).

There are three routes to reducing the pesticide exposure of non-target insects. The first is outreach to professional pesticide applicators to ensure that they follow best practices to mitigate non-target exposure risk. Training and certification programs can impart valuable knowledge regarding proper application procedures. Season, temperature, wind speed, and time of day all contribute to a pesticide's exposure risk profile, and these details vary by location and chemical. Ensuring that these programs are fully funded could thus have sizeable welfare benefits. [47]

Another route is technical innovation in the application of existing pesticides. One promising innovation is the dropleg nozzle , developed between 2011 and 2015 by a public-private partnership led by the University of Hohenheim. Traditional pesticide application techniques broadcast the chemical over the top of the field. The dropleg nozzle allows application beneath the flower canopy, significantly reducing spray drift and virtually eliminating the risk that pollinators visiting flowers will be exposed to the pesticide. [48] (See Figure 18.) The dropleg nozzle was awarded a in 2017. It is already commercially available and almost all boom sprayers can be equipped with it. Promoting the use of dropleg nozzles, either through subsidies, information campaigns, or regulatory action, could thus have a substantial impact. European Bee Award

These are promising solutions to concrete problems, and similar sorts of innovations ought to be encouraged and pursued. Ultimately, though, there is only so much that can be accomplished at the level of technical innovation or outreach. A more effective solution is to regulate, restrict, or ban those pesticides most detrimental to non-target insects. One such edict recently took effect in the EU, and the consequences of this decree should be closely monitored. In April 2018 the European Food Safety Authority voted to prohibit the outdoor use of three neonicotinoids: imidacloprid , , and clothianidin . [49]thiamethoxam If this ban significantly improves the welfare of insect pollinators, animal advocates could push for similar legislation in other regions. The , an American invertebrate conservation group, maintains an extensive list of recommendations to , including improving U.S. federal and state regulations. Depending on the outcome of the 2020 U.S. presidential election, a targeted partnership with the Xerces Society or the Xerces Society could help convince the U.S. Environmental Protection A gency to enact a European-style ban on neonicotinoids or at least close the protect pollinators from neonicotinoids through which many neonicotinoids first entered the market. National Resources Defense Council conditional registration loophole

One concern about curbing the use of neonicotinoids is what would replace them. This question is relevant to farmers, who want to maintain the same high yields that neonicotinoids allowed, and animal advocates, who must ensure that whatever replaces neonicotinoids is not, from a welfare perspective, worse. In some instances it seems like neonicotinoid application could be halted without the need for any replacement. Neonicotinoids are often used preemptively as a seed coat, but there is recent evidence that the benefits of this practice are negligible for soybeans ( ) and possibly so for corn ( Mourtzinis 2019 ), the two crops that together constitute the largest use of neonicotinoids in the United States. When neonicotinoids must be replaced to maintain high yields, there are many non-chemical alternatives already on the market. Unfortunately, many of these non-chemical alternatives involve the use of microorganisms, such as or the bacteria Del Pozo-Valdivia 2018 , that, while more targeted than neonicotinoids and thus less likely to impact pollinators, probably inflict considerable suffering on target species. (Both methods disrupt larvae digestion, slowly killing target insects over about a week.) Happily, there are other techniques, such as granulosis virus that disrupt mating through the release of sex pheromones, that seem humane and effective and are already commercially available. Bacillus thuringiensis semiochemical methods

As awareness of the harms of neonicotinoids grows, other control strategies will likely be developed. Jactel et al. 2019 write, "A number of promising methods are still at the research and development stage and are hardly implemented in fields at the moment. For example, most plant defense elicitors (Bektas and Eulgem, 2015), multiple plant-based semiochemicals (Murali-Baskaran et al., 2018), gene editing for the development of resistant crop varieties (Lombardo et al., 2016) and conservation biological control methods (Crowder et al., 2010) are very promising new methods for pest management. However, they all require further development, testing in the field and fine-tuning to farmers' needs before release onto the market" (428). [50] Some of these novel methods will probably have better welfare implications than others. Selectively funding the research of those methods that are likely to have the best welfare implications could both benefit commercially managed bees and help shift control strategies away from the indiscriminate slaughter of vast numbers of insects.

Increase Access to Natural Forage

There are several ways to increase honey bee access to natural forage. Beekeepers can consider moving their colonies when local floral resources are scarce, as the stress of malnutrition seems worse than the stress of transport ( Simone-Finstrom et al. 2016 ). Governments can set aside more land for conservation and habitat restoration in areas that host large commercially managed bee populations, such as "the Northern Great Plains, a region that harbors approximately 40% of all US bee colonies from the months of May through October" ( : 1). Programs like the Ricigliano et al. 2019 have provided valuable United States Department of Agriculture Conservation Reserve Program . Agricultural operators that require pollination services can practice forage for honey bees by planting a continuously blooming plot of different flowering plants on 3-6% of their land. The program encourages growers to plant bee forage on fallow or unused land, in between young, non-bearing trees, as a cover crop between rows, and along roads, fence lines, waterways, and other orchard margins or borders. (See Figure 19.) Consumers can support these practices by preferentially purchasing products that have been . Collaboration with organizations like bee friendly farming , Seeds for Bees Bee Better Certified , and the could help with these efforts. Pollinator Partnership Project Apis m . Xerces Society

Increasing natural forage available to honey bees is related to but importantly distinct from reducing pollination demand by increasing wild pollinator populations. The goal of the former intervention is to maintain natural forage in the vicinity of large concentrations of commercially managed bees, either in or near the fields and orchards they are pollinating, the associated staging areas, or the apiaries where they are producing honey and overwintering. It is likely that native pollinators will also be attracted to such forage, but insofar as the native pollinators will compete for resources with the managed bees, large contingents of local pollinators is not a desired outcome.

In sum, there are two broad ways to increase honey bee access to natural forage: bring the forage to the bees or bring the bees to the forage. There are reasons to be skeptical of both methods. Although planting and maintaining natural forage near large concentrations of honey bees would undoubtedly improve their welfare, promoting this intervention may not be a cost-effective use of money because economic motivations can probably drive this change on their own. Beekeepers already have obvious incentives to maintain as much natural forage near their apiaries as possible. Growers also already have incentives to plant forage on their land. Besides aiding honey bees, which growers rely on for pollination, planting forage has , such as improving soil quality, giving farmers plenty of reasons to make this change. [51] And although bringing bees to natural forage would also improve their welfare, it's not clear that this would be a net-positive intervention. Evidence is emerging to suggest that commercially managed honey bees are bad for wild bees, both because they compete for scarce resources and because they spread parasites and pathogens. Concerning parasite spread numerous other benefits writes, "One of the best ways to avoid the potentially devastating effects of spillover, spillback, and facilitation in wild bees is to prevent their mixing with managed bees" (72). Locating hives on or near protected land might improve managed bee welfare at the expense of wild bee welfare and thus be overall welfare neutral. Graystock et al. 2016

Minimize Harvest Disruption

As noted above, honey harvesting is an invasive, particularly stressful event for managed bees. The hive lid is removed, the bees are smoked, the individual frames are pulled out, the bees that remain on the frames are blown or brushed off, and reassembly invariably crushes at least a few bees per hive. Bees work extremely hard to keep their hives dark, humid, and sterile. When a hive is opened, bees become aggressive, disoriented, or both. Bees that sting in defense of the colony necessarily die. Thus, if honey could be extracted without opening the hive, bees would be spared much stress and death.

In 2014 father-and-son team Cedar and Stuart Anderson invented a system called the Flow Hive , which allows honey to be extracted from a hive with virtually no disruption to the bees within. [52] (See Figure 20.) The key innovation is the Flow Frame. Flow Frames contain artificial honeycomb cells, like other frames with plastic foundations, that the bees fill with honey. The main difference is that the cells in a Flow Frame can split at the turn of a lever, forming a channel for the honey to follow, pulled downward by the force of gravity. (See Figure 21.) Ultimately the honey exits the hive via a small tap, where it can be collected in a jar or drum. The whole process does not seem to affect bee activity in any way, and many amateur beekeepers have been known to harvest from a Flow Hive in shorts, t-shirts, and sandals (though officially this is not recommended). It thus seems pretty clear that Flow Hives are at least modestly . better for bee welfare

Although Flow Hives can reduce the labor associated with honey harvest by as much 90%, there appears to be virtually no commercial uptake of the product. [53] There are several obstacles blocking commercial adoption, but the biggest barrier is price. [54] In the United States, a Langstroth hive retails for about plus another $110 for ten frames with foundations. [55] The cheapest $72 Flow Hive (frames included) costs . It's possible to gain most of the welfare benefits of a Flow Hive by putting , but Flow Frames alone still cost . $629 [56]Flow Frames in a Langstroth Hive $2 5 9

As an intervention, Flow Hives would require a hefty subsidy to make them cost-competitive with standard Langstroth Hives. Moreover, it's important not to overstate the welfare improvements that such a switch would bring. Flow Hives still need to be opened for inspection , just like regular Langstroth hives, to check for parasites and disease. Inspection frequency varies by location and season, but in general commercial production hives appear to receive at least a quick inspection every . two to six weeks These inspections can be almost as invasive as honey harvest.

Build EAA in Asia

The focus of this report is disproportionately centered on honey bees in North America and Europe. As noted above, this emphasis is the result of practical limitations, namely the fact that there is far more information available in English on North American and European honey bees than any other region. This regional bias is unfortunate because the majority of managed honey bees are located outside North America and Europe. By a wide margin, the largest populations of managed honey bees are in Asia, especially in China and India. [57] In 2017, China and India collectively managed more honey bees (~21.8 million hives) than all of Europe (~18.8 million hives) and all of North and South America combined (~11.1 million hives). [58] In the long-run, helping the greatest number of honey bees will require implementing reforms in countries where the greatest populations of honey bees are located. Thus, one of the best long-term interventions for managed honey bees might be building the effective animal advocacy movement in Asia, especially China and India, so that in the future the movement is better positioned to help the largest groups of managed honey bees.

Independent of honey bees, there already exist good reasons to build effective animal advocacy in Asia. The continent hosts the largest populations of most types of farmed animals. [59] Consequently, many organizations are already researching methods to build capacity and support in Asian nations. The Open Philanthropy Project recently granted to the Humane Society of India. over a million dollars [60] Animal Charity Evaluators has produced comprehensive reports on animal advocacy in both and . India [61] Other research considers how effective altruism more generally should be China . [62] If feasible, these efforts should be accelerated, though of course one must tread carefully when dealing with important cultural, political, and linguistic differences. [63]developed and approached in Asia

How likely is it that honey bees are sentient? Assuming they're sentient, how does their moral value compare to other animals?

If honey bees do not have subjective experiences, or if those experiences never take on a positive or negative affect, then they are plausibly not moral patients, and there is thus no intrinsic reason to care about their wellbeing. There may be instrumental reasons to protect and promote honey bee welfare (e.g., to preserve access to the pollination services they provide), but if honey bees are not sentient, then the justification for helping them will never bottom out in morally valuable states of bee pain or pleasure.

Do managed honey bees have a better or worse life than comparable wild insects ? Do wild insects lead net-negative lives?

Some of the interventions discussed above would increase the population of wild insects. In some cases that is the explicit goal, for instance reducing commercial pollination demand by increasing the population of local wild pollinators. This sort of intervention aims to replace managed honey bee populations with comparable wild insects . Other interventions would indirectly increase the population of wild insects, for instance restricting the use of indiscriminate insecticides. Although the goal of this sort of intervention is to improve the welfare of managed bees, wild insect populations would also rise.

More worryingly, it might be the case that insect lives in general are net-negative. [64] If that's the case, then interventions that increase the overall insect population are very likely to reduce overall welfare. I don't think we are currently in a position to know whether insect lives are net-negative. More research, mainly empirical but also philosophical, is needed . Fortunately, the question is attracting increasing attention. For example, in June 2019 Kim Cuddington, another research analyst at Rethink Priorities, released a , including data on lifespan, fecundity, and mortality rates by cause. This report could serve as both a template and springboard for future investigations into the overall quality of insect lives. [65]report on the life history of herbivorous insects

How will future tech affect honey bees ?

As with most aspects of the world, rapidly developing innovative technology has the potential to greatly alter the landscape of commercial beekeeping. [66] There are in China that actively regulate the temperature and humidity of a hive and monitor the number of bees entering and leaving. smart hives [67] Such systems could reduce the need for invasive on-site inspections and could potentially adjust hive conditions in response to environmental changes. [68] Jerry Bromenshenk, a bee researcher at the University of Montana, is developing an that, according to this uses "artificial intelligence to analyse the sound that bees are making in order to deduce whether they are suffering from a number of maladies." A beekeeper simply holds up her smartphone for 30 seconds near the hive, and the trained algorithm reports the probability of various possible problems. (See Figure 22.) If the app proves effective and is widely adopted, it could significantly reduce the number of invasive hive inspections a colony must endure. MIT's app runs a writeup in , with the goal of facilitating "research into biologically augmented digital fabrication with eusocial insect communities." This same group has The Economist , apparently with the ultimate goal of testing the feasibility of sending bees to pollinate future Martian crops. Mediated Matter Group synthetic apiary launched bees into space

Finally , there are in development and according to materially engineered artificial pollinators this technology "could find wide use in various applications in different research fields, including agriculture, biomimetic science, and robotics. In particular, it should lead to the development of robotic pollinators and help counter the problems caused by the declining [sic] honeybee populations" (233-34). (See Figure 23.) This idea is extremely speculative, and there appears to be little reason to think the technology is practicable. These artificial pollinators would be inefficient, economically inviable, and Chechetka et al. 2017 ecologically damaging ( ). Still, if miniature drone pollinators were ever made safe, cheap, and effective, they could rapidly replace commercial honey bee pollination. Potts etl a. 2018

How will climate change affect honey bees ?

Global warming will plausibly have a negative effect on honey bee wellbeing, but the extent of the welfare decline is uncertain and the methods apiaries will use to cope with climate change are unknown. More research is needed to determine where and how honey bees will be most affected and how best to mitigate these harms.

Global warming could disrupt synchrony with important floral resources. Bees are sensitive to a variety of environmental conditions, including temperature as measured by degree days (number of days with a mean temperature above or below a certain threshold) ( Reddy, Verghese, & Rajan 2012 ). If winters become increasingly milder, honey bees may extend their seasonal foraging and brood periods. This is problematic if there are no or fewer flowers in bloom during the extended season. Foraging and brood activity consumes more colony energy than overwintering behavior; winter food stores thus may not be sufficient to sustain the colony through the lean season ( ). Garrido & Nanetti 2019

Climate change may also be changing the physiology of certain flowers. There are worrying reports that "rising atmospheric CO 2 is reducing the protein concentration of a floral pollen source essential for North American bees" ( ). As noted above, pollen protein is an essential nutrient for honey bee health, and its absence makes colonies more susceptible to other stressors. Increased frequency of severe weather like floods or droughts could also deplete the floral landscape at critical times for the bees. Ziska et al. 2016

Global warming will also probably exacerbate the spread of parasites and pathogens. The range of some honey bee pests, such as hive beetles, Asiatic hornets, and Tropilaelaps mites, has been expanding as temperate regions have warmed. Moreover, many honey bee parasites require bee larvae to reproduce. Increased winter brood activity due to warmer weather thus increases the rate and severity of parasitic infestation ( ). Taken together, these changes will pose significant welfare challenges to honey bees and their caretakers. Garrido & Nanetti 2019

Will advocating for honey bees backfire ?

Long-term, large-scale interventions to improve the lives of honey bees will probably require coordinated actions from a diverse set of actors. Scientists, philanthropists, conservationists, farmers, politicians, and members of the general public may all have to agree, at least to some degree, that honey bee welfare matters. With that goal in mind, it seems natural to campaign to raise awareness about honey bee suffering. Of course, winning hearts and minds on this issue is not going to be easy. But convincing people honey bee welfare is important may be more than just difficult. Directly advocating for honey bee welfare at this time might be actively counterproductive, both to the animal welfare cause area and effective altruism more generally.

Michael Greger (of Nutrition Facts fame) argues forcefully that . Many people apparently have trouble ascribing morally valuable states to cows and pigs; the idea that anti-honey advocacy hurts the vegan movement bees might suffer (and that we should care about their suffering) strikes these people as crazy. And if an average person thinks one small part of vegan 'ideology' is crazy, motivated reasoning will easily allow this portion to infect her/his perception of the rest of the vegan worldview. Hence, the knowledge that vegans care about bees may lead many people to show less compassion toward cows and pigs than they otherwise would.

If caring about honey bee welfare is perceived as an extreme, unpopular position, then advocating for honey bee welfare may reduce receptiveness to other positions the EAA movement advocates for, even if these other positions are perceived as less extreme. This type of phenomenon might be related to the social psychology concept , the extent to which a message is inconsistent with existing attitudes. Mildly discrepant attitudes can induce attitudinal and behavioral changes, but highly discrepant messages can threaten one's sense of self, undermining the efficacy of the message ( message discrepancy ). [69]Choo 1964 It is thus important to learn more about public attitudes toward honey bee welfare interventions and in particular how malleable these attitudes are. [70]

T here is also the worry that rushing into an advocacy campaign may create hard-to-reverse . If the initial message is suboptimal, these lock-in effects can impose substantial costs. Advocates for honey bee welfare don't want to get stuck with one way of framing the issue (when another framing would be more effective) merely because the initial outreach campaign haphazardly selected its messaging. lock-in effects

For these reasons, it is important to tread carefully when trying to raise awareness about honey bee welfare. Any public campaign must be deliberately planned and carefully executed. Poorly done, such a campaign could prove a major setback not only to honey bee welfare but to the broader effective altruism community. If effective altruism becomes irrevocably associated with a cause area perceived to be not merely eccentric, but morally perverse, unrelated cause areas are likely to suffer as a result.

In this report I've discussed the scale of honey bee management, its purpose and prospects for future growth, major regions in which it is practiced, and some factors that affect honey bee welfare. I've also sketched some potential interventions and enumerated some key areas of uncertainty. Taken together, it is as yet unclear how much honey bee welfare can be reasonably improved and at what cost. However, considering the vast number of managed honey bees, it may be prudent to consider their condition in more detail at some point, if for no other reason than due diligence to avert the . For funders specifically interested in improving honey bee welfare, the next step would be to finance a deep dive into one or more potential interventions or an investigation into one or more of the key questions. (Appendix 4 lists an assortment of other open research questions.) For funders interested in possibility of an ongoing moral catastrophe invertebrate welfare interventions but uncertain about the cost-effectiveness of helping honey bees, the next step would be to finance more reviews of farmed invertebrates to establish which interventions can most effectively improve invertebrate welfare. For funders interested in long-term invertebrate welfare but uncertain about near-term interventions, the next step would be to finance work focused on field-building (including academic outreach and surveying public attitudes towards neglected animals), invertebrate sentience (both empirical and philosophical), or moral weight (i.e., how to make cross-species welfare comparisons among taxonomically distant animals).

This project began in July 2019 as a review of farmed insects. After approximately 25 hours of research and roughly 16 pages of notes, it became clear that farmed insects was far too big a subject for a single review, so a decision was made to restrict the focus to a single group of insects. Honey bees were selected because they are the most numerous farmed insect, there is more evidence that they are sentient than there is for other insects, there is a wealth of information about them, and they seem to attract more public sympathy than other farmed insects. After another ~15 hours of research exclusively on honey bees, I began preparing the first draft of the report. The first draft was completed between mid-August 2019 and mid-September 2019. It took approximately 60 hours to write, though many of those hours were spent on additional research, not actual writing. Six members of the Rethink Priorities research team provided extensive and very helpful feedback on the initial draft, prompting another ~20 hours of edits. When the second draft was complete, I met with Michael Smith , a bee expert at the University of Konstanz. [71] Around this time, two members of the effective altruism community external to Rethink Priorities read and commented on the report. The third and final draft of the report was completed after another ~5 hours of work.

The guesstimate model for this estimate is available here . This estimate has 7 inputs: the FAO number of beehives, uncertainty of the FAO figure, A. mellifera winter colony size, A. mellifera summer colony size, A. cerana colony size, and breakdown of colonies by species.

Notably, this estimate does not include managed bees outside the genus Apis, such as bumble bees (genus Bombus ), alfalfa leafcutting bees (genus Megachile ), alkali bees (genus Nomia ), mason bees (genus Osmia ), and stingless bees (genus Melipona ). Collectively, hundreds of billions of these non- Apis bees are managed worldwide for their pollination services or (in the rare case of Melipona bees) their honey. [72]

According to FAO data available here ( parameters : Live Animals, World + (Total), Beehives, Stocks, 2017 ), there were 90,999,730 managed honey bee beehives in the world in 2017. The FAO figure is unlikely to be accurate, but it is unclear if it is more likely to be an over-count or under-count. The FAO claims that "it is not possible to assess the overall accuracy of the dataset, as the source data is largely collected by member countries." and that "Estimates have been made for non-reporting countries as well as for countries reporting incomplete data." To account for this uncertainty, I reduced the number by 20% for the lower bound and increased the number by 20% for the upper bound .

The FAO figure includes four species: Apis mellifera , Apis dorsata , Apis florea , and Apis cerana indica . [73] Unfortunately, the data do not list the number of hives broken down by species, which is problematic because the average number of bees per colony varies by species. However, I found no evidence to indicate any large-scale production of Apis dorsata or Apis florea , so for the purposes of this estimate, I ignored those species. According to numerous sources including , A. mellifera (colloquially known as the "Western" or "European" honey bee) is the most commonly managed bee in the world. [74]A. cerana (colloquially known as the "Eastern" or "Oriental" honey bee) is the second most commonly managed species, but it appears to be managed exclusively in Asia. Hard data on the number of A. cerana colonies is limited, but there are at least two million colonies in China according to . Assuming that number was roughly the same in 2017, that amounts to a little over 2% of global colonies. As best I can tell, A. cerana is only managed in the following countries: Afghanistan, Potts et al. 2016 Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Thailand, and Vietnam. Taken together, these countries accounted for roughly 27% of global beehives in 2017. However, not all of the colonies in these countries are A. cerana ; most are probably A. mellifera . All in all, I estimate that A. cerana accounts for between 2% and 20% of managed colonies worldwide, with A. mellifera accounting for the rest. Wang et al. 2012

A further complication is that colony sizes vary seasonally, with larger populations maintained in summer and lower populations in winter. Based on FAO data I estimate that between 80% and 90% of managed bees are managed in the northern hemisphere. However, because the coldest and hottest times of the year vary even within a hemisphere, not all of the colonies in a given hemisphere will peak and trough at the same time. All in all, I estimate that a maximum of 70-80% of global colonies will peak or trough simultaneously. For A. mellifera , colony sizes trough at approximately 10,000 to 15,000 worker bees and peak at approximately 50,000 to 60,000 worker bees ( ). Unfortunately, I couldn't find any data on seasonal variation for A. cerana Sagili & Burgett 2011 colonies, but in general, A. cerana colonies average between 20,000 and 40,000 worker bees per colony ( ). [75] With these inputs, I estimate that the global honey bee population troughs at between 1.4 and 2.7 trillion adult bees and peaks at between 3 and 4.8 trillion bees. Tej et al. 2017

This estimate applies only to adult bees and does not include larvae or pupae. Although data are harder to come by, it seems the number of larvae/pupae per colony fluctuates between 0 (if the weather is cold enough, egg-laying effectively stops) and 40,000 (just before peak colony size). The number of larvae/pupae does not fluctuate smoothly; there are a number of local troughs and peaks in response to events like spring buildup (when winter bees [76] die off), swarming (when a colony reproduces), and fall turnover (when the colony shifts to winter bee physiology). It's worth noting, however, that in contrast to other insects, eusocial insects like honey bees take excellent care of their young. There is a whole caste (nurse bees) dedicated solely to making sure larvae and pupae are well-fed. As a result, juvenile mortality is fairly low, no more than about 30% ( ). Al-Lawati & Bienefeld 2009

A further note on methodology: it's important to estimate the number of bees based on beehives rather than honey production (as is done ) for at least two reasons. First, not all bees are managed for honey. Some bees are managed exclusively for pollination services. here [77] The honey these bees produce may be harvested for local consumption or left for the bees to consume, but either way it would not enter official records. Thus, calculating total bees by honey production is likely to underestimate the number of bees. Second, the average amount of honey a bee produces depends on the size of the colony. Hives with more bees are more efficient at producing honey. According to , "One colony of 30,000 bees produces 1½ times as much honey as the sum of two colonies with 15,000 bees each" and "One colony of 45,000 bees produces 1½ times as much honey as three colonies with 15,000 bees each" (2). [78] Thus, there's no such thing as average honey per bee Sagili & Burgett 2011 simplicter . Estimating the average amount of honey produced per bee requires estimating the average size of a beehive. But if one has already estimated the average size of a beehive, then it's much easier to simply multiply that number by the number of worldwide beehives.

Pollination Services

Beekeeping and agriculture have become thoroughly intertwined over the last half century ( Lee, Sumner, & Champetier 2019 ). report that "the fraction of total agricultural production that depends directly on pollinators has increased fourfold over the last five decades" (222-223). Wild pollinators are not up to the task of pollinating that much acreage. Consequently, many honey bees colonies are trucked hundreds or thousands of miles every year and subsequently stationed in orchards and fields during peak bloom to pollinate commercial crops, thereby significantly increasing crop yields. Honey bees are the primary pollinators for about 73% of the world's cultivated crops that require animal pollination ( Potts et al. 2016 ). Honey bees are preferred pollinators in large part because of their versatility. Unlike many pollinators, which visit only a handful of species, honey bees are indiscriminate, collecting pollen and nectar wherever they are available. Bees pollinate 130 crops in the United States alone and more than 400 crops worldwide Reddy, Verghese, & Rajan 2012 ( ). [79] Some common crops pollinated by honey bees include almonds, avocados, blueberries, blackberries, canola, cocoa, cranberries, cherries, cucumbers, honey dew melons, kiwis, pears, pumpkins, raspberries, strawberries, and watermelons. [80] In the Pacific Northwest colonies service on average 2.4 different crops per year ( O'Toole 2008 cited in : 4 ). Burgett et al . 2010 Ferrier et al. 2018

The total economic value of pollination worldwide has been estimated at € 153 billion ($169 billion), though this figure includes all commercially managed bees, including managed bees outside genus Apis , and also wild non-bee pollinators ( ). A more recent estimate puts the value of commercially managed honey bee pollination at just under half [81] the global total value of bee pollination across insect-pollinated crops ( Gallai et al. 2009 ). But bees are not the only insect pollinators. [82] Another recent study estimates that wild non-bee insects account for roughly 38% of total agricultural pollination ( Kleijn et al. 2015 ). In the United States, it has been estimated that honey bee pollination added between $11.7 and $19.2 billion in agricultural value in 2010 ( ). Taken together, I think it's reasonable to estimate that commercially managed honey bees contribute roughly $50-$60 billion in global economic value via pollination services. [83]Rader et al. 2016 Calderone 2012

In the United States, almonds are a major and growing driver of pollination services. [84] In 2016 almonds accounted for 61% of all U.S. pollination services and, due to higher pollination fees, 82% of all U.S. pollination expenditures. Pollination services account for approximately 5% of total farm cost for almonds compared to about 1% for most crops requiring pollination. Almonds, which are almost entirely dependent on bees for pollination, bloom in February, much earlier than most other crops. Both the number of colonies and average bees per colony are at their lowest in the winter. As a result, almond farmers pay between $160 and $180 per colony, compared to $50-$70 per colony for apples, blueberries, blackberries, cherries, clover, cranberries, pears, and raspberries ( ). Almond acreage in the U.S. has increased from roughly 610,000 bearing acres in 2006 to more than a million bearing acres in 2017 ( Ferrier et al. 2018 ). California dominates the global almond market. During peak almond pollination, approximately ⅓ to ½ of all U.S. honey bees are concentrated in California's Central Valley, widely considered the in the world. (See Figure 24.) Lee, Sumner, & Champetier 2019 largest annual managed pollination event

Pollination services are in highest demand in East Asia and South Asia (see Figure 25), in part due to the greater abundance of pollination-dependent crops. Demand for pollination services thus seems to be an important contributor to the growth in Asian beekeeping. In my cursory survey, I was not able to find much information on the Asian market for pollination services. If one were to do a more thorough review of managed honey bees, one would want to understand the major factors affecting demand for pollination services in Asia.

Honey

Honey is produced from gathered flower nectar that is processed in the hive and deposited into a honeycomb. When most of the water has evaporated from the honeycomb, worker bees seal each cell by secreting a liquid from their abdomen that hardens into beeswax. To harvest the honey, beekeepers first scrape off the wax caps that seal the honey in the honeycomb frames. The frames are then placed in a centrifuge that spins the frames, forcing the honey out of the comb. The extracted honey is strained and sometimes heated, then bottled and shipped to market.

Other Bee Products

There are a handful of other honey bee products sold commercially, such as beeswax , , royal jelly b , and ee veno m , but the quantity and economic importance of these products pales in comparison to honey production and pollination services. Of these products, beeswax seems to be the most important . Beeswax is an ingredient in many products, including cosmetics, paints, pharmaceuticals, resins, glazes, and candles. Beeswax is produced by bees to build comb to store honey and house the colony's young. It is harvested at the same time as the honey because the beeswax caps must be removed in order to access the honey. The force of gravity will naturally separate the wax and honey, after which the drained wax can be washed, strained, rendered, and further processed depending on desired final usage. propolis

1. How many bees are transported worldwide? What is the average length of transport? What are the transport conditions like outside the U.S.?

2. How many bees die as a direct result of transport? How many bee deaths are indirectly attributable to transport?

3. What factors affect demand for pollination services in Asia?

4. How do fungicides affect honey bee welfare?

5. How easily can homeowners be convinced to convert lawns to semi-natural habitat or to mow lawns less frequently?

6. How many bees die as a result of poisonous honey substitutes?

7. How effective are the various thermal insulation improvements (such as wrapping hives in black plastic tar paper) that beekeepers apply during winter in cold areas? What other ways can thermal insulation be improved?

8. How many bee deaths are avoided due to smoking the bees during inspections and honey harvest?

9. How do genetics affect bee welfare?

10. What is the distribution of views within major farmed animal advocacy organizations on attempting to improve bee welfare (or invertebrate welfare more generally)?

11. How many conservation groups and governmental organizations are actively working to improve honey bee care? How much do they have at their disposal? How does the welfare efficacy of the various programs compare?

12. Which organizations/researchers outside North America and Europe are working on pollinator conservation?

13. What are the best indicators that could be used in order to assess bee welfare (e.g., certain behaviors, biochemical markers , mortality rate)?

14. Why aren't apiaries outside North America and Europe affected by colony collapse disorder?

15. Where do the bees go when a colony succumbs to colony collapse disorder?

16. Globally, which apiaries are the biggest? Does the average size of an apiary vary by region?

17. Which honey companies are largest?

18. How important are bee brokers for improving honey bee welfare? [85] Which bee brokers are biggest?

19. From a welfare perspective, which Varroa control methods are best, both for the bees and for the mites?

20. Could food manufacturers be convinced to substitute other ingredients for honey or almonds?

21. How many managed bees get diseases due to homing errors? How much could this disease burden be reduced by altering hive orientation or color?

22. Are growers actually acting on incentives to (e.g.) plant more natural forage? Are there countervailing incentives?

23. Are beekeepers actually acting on incentives to (e.g.) reduce homing errors? Are there countervailing incentives?

24. For reforms in which financial incentives align with bee welfare, where are the information barriers highest?

25. What is the best way to disseminate information to beekeepers?

26. What is the public perception toward interventions targeting honey bee welfare (or invertebrate welfare more generally)? How malleable are these attitudes?

27. Are there novel pest control strategies currently in development with positive welfare implications whose progress to commercial deployment could be counterfactually accelerated through increased research funding?

28. Can we counterfactually accelerate the implementation of mechanical alternatives to honey bee pollination with targeted research grants?

29. What is the ideal entrance height for a hive? Does the ideal height vary by climate?

30. What percentage of managed honey bees are a species other than Apis mellifera ?

31. Do different subspecies of Apis mellifera pose different welfare concerns?

32. What is the total population of feral honey bees? Of wild bees more generally? Of insect pollinators? How have these totals changed over time?

33. What is the best way to build the effective animal advocacy movement in Asia, especially China and India?

This essay is a project of Rethink Priorities . It was written by Jason Schukraft. Thanks to Kim Cuddington, Marcus A. Davis, Neil Dullaghan, Travis Dynes, Persis Eskander, Kieran Greig, Peter Hurford, David Moss, Saulius Šimčikas, Michael Smith, Gavin Taylor, and Daniela R. Waldhorn for helpful feedback. If you like our work, please consider . You can see all our work to date subscribing to our newsletter . here

Haber, A. I., Steinhauer, N. A., & van Engelsdorp, D. (2019). Use of Chemical and Nonchemical Methods for the Control of Varroa destructor (Acari: Varroidae) and Associated Winter Colony Losses in US Beekeeping Operations . Journal of Economic Entomology .

Sagili, R. R., & Burgett, D. M. (2011). Evaluating honey bee colonies for pollination: a guide for commercial growers and beekeepers . PNW . 623 : 1 - 8 .

Seeley, T. D., & Smith, M. L. (2015). Crowding honeybee colonies in apiaries can increase their vulnerability to the deadly ectoparasite Varroa destructor . Apidologie , 46 (6), 716-727.

van Engelsdorp, D. & Meixner, M. D. (2010). . A historical review of managed honey bee populations in Europe and the United States and the factors that may affect them Journal of invertebrate pathology , 103 , S80-S95.

Wilfert, L., Long, G., Leggett, H. C., Schmid-Hempel, P., Butlin, R., Martin, S. J. M., & Boots, M. (2016). Deformed wing virus is a recent global epidemic in honeybees driven by Varroa mites . Science , 351 (6273), 594-597.

[1] The terminological consensus in the relevant literature is that honey bees are managed not farmed . I have adopted this terminology throughout.

[2] Silkworms are the second most numerous type of farmed insects. Overall, insects appear to constitute the largest group of farmed invertebrates, though it's possible that nematodes beat them out for that honor. (Reliable figures are hard to come by for nematodes. Nematodes are raised commercially for many reasons, including pest control and soil amendment, and because they are so small, a single box can contain half a billion of the creatures.)

[3] The evidence of sentience is strongest for coleoid cephalopods (octopuses, cuttlefish, squid). Group-living insects, of which honey bees are a part, probably have the next best case, though one could reasonably argue that the evidence is slightly better for decapod crustaceans. See our summary of findings by taxa or the section in our invertebrate welfare cause profile. case studies

[4] One literature review documented 59 distinct behavior types in honey bees; that number compares favorably against many mammalian species, such as the North American moose (at 22), De Brazza monkeys (at 44), and bottlenose dolphins (at 123) ( ). Honey bees exhibit more self-control Chittka & Niven 2009 (defined as the tendency to choose large delayed rewards over small immediate rewards) than rats and pigeons ( ). And agitated honey bees exhibit the same sorts of pessimistic cognitive biases that anxious mammals do ( ). Cheng et al. 2002 Bateson et al. 2011

[5] Honey bees are able to communicate the distance, direction, and relative reward-to-danger ratio of nearby flower patches to hivemates using their famous waggle dance ( ). Honey bees can come to understand Abbott & Dukas 2009 that when a certain color is presented to them, odor A predicts a sucrose reward and odor B does not, but when a different color is presented, the relationship between the odors is reversed ( ). There is even evidence of metacognitive abilities in honey bees. Using the , one study tasked honey bees with discriminating between two stimuli. A correct answer earned a reward (sucrose) and an incorrect answer earned a punishment (quinine). When given the choice to opt out, honey bees were found to opt out more often when the trial was difficult (when the honey bee was proportionately more likely to receive a punishment than a reward). The honey bees on average improved their success-to-failure ratio when given the option to opt out of trials ( Mota, Giurfa, & Sandoz 2011 ). "uncertain response" paradigm Perry & Barron 2013

[23] Unrelatedly, queen bees are often mailed in small boxes from breeders to beekeepers. Presumably, these bees experience considerable stress in transit, though obviously this issue only affects a small number of bees. More importantly, queens shipped long distances may produce weaker colonies. Recent research suggests colonies with queens of local origin survive longer than colonies with queens of non-local origin ( ). Büchler et al 2014

[37] "Colonies performing pollination services were subject to increased pesticide exposure compared to honey-production and holding yards" ( Traynor et al. 2016 : 1) and "Pollination environments almost invariably contribute more pesticide residues" ( : 14). Traynor et al. 2016

[45] In addition, wild bees increase the efficiency of honey bee pollination for at least one crop (hybrid sunflower), and the authors report that "it is likely that wild bees enhance honey bee pollination efficiency for other crops" ( Greenleaf & Kremen 2006 : 13892 ).

[69] Here are some loose examples of message discrepancy at work. The prosocial activities of companies whose motives are perceived to be insincere or ambiguous hurts the company's image ( ). Negative stereotypes of social activists make people more resistant to the adoption of social changes that the activists promote ( Yoon, Gürhan‐Canli, & Schwarz 2006 ). Other potential examples include proponents of marriage equality galvanizing opposition, advertising for California's Proposition 12 reducing its appeal to conservatives, and anti-tobacco campaigns failing to persuade smokers to give up the habit. Bashir et al. 2013

[72] The annual production of Melipona honey is trivial compared to Apis honey. Following standard convention, when I refer to "honey bees," I refer exclusively to Apis bees.

[74] There are several subspecies within Apis mellifera , each with slightly different characteristics. For example, in many parts of Africa the most commonly managed bee is Apis mellifera scutellata (the so-called "African bee"), which is more aggressive than subspecies managed elsewhere.

[81]$2,913 per hectare for managed honey bees vs $3,251 per hectare for wild bees

[83] Note that this is not an estimate of total revenue received for pollination services, which, as far as I can tell, is about an order of magnitude smaller. This suggests that pollination services may be currently under-priced.

Jason Schukraft

Jason is a Senior Research Manager at Rethink Priorities. Before joining the RP team, Jason earned his doctorate in philosophy from the University of Texas at Austin. Jason specializes in questions at the intersection of epistemology and applied ethics.

At any given time there are more than a trillion managed [1] honey bees . Globally, the number of managed colonies has risen steadily over the last twenty years and this growth will almost certainly persist, at least in the short term. Increases in demand for honey and (especially) commercial pollination services continue to outpace the increase in supply of managed bees. Asia, especially China and India, hosts the largest populations of managed bees and accounts for much of the recent growth in bee stocks. Commercial beekeeping techniques standardly treat managed bees as a resource from which to maximize the extraction of value. Beekeepers have a financial incentive to maintain the health of their colonies, but they have little reason to look after the welfare of individual bees. Managed bees suffer from a variety of problems, including pesticide exposure, poor nutrition due to inadequate access to natural forage, invasive hive inspections and honey harvest, stress from long-distance transport, and parasite and pathogen spread exacerbated by common management techniques. The effective animal advocacy movement can help a significant number of managed bees by promoting welfare-oriented management techniques, supporting academic research that has the potential to advance honey bee welfare, encouraging welfare-oriented policies and regulations, and reducing the demand for commercial pollination services. However, it's not clear that these interventions are promising enough to be pursued in the near-term. Much uncertainty remains, and more research would be required to determine the ultimate wisdom and cost-effectiveness of these interventions.

Introduction and Context

Number of Managed Honey Bees

Where Honey Bees Are Managed

Factors That Affect Honey Bee Welfare

Potential Interventions

Key Questions and Uncertainties

Appendix 1: How This Report Was Completed

Appendix 2: Estimating the Number of Managed Honey Bees

Appendix 3: Pollination, Honey, and Other Bee Products

Appendix 4: Open Research Questions

Credits

Works Cited

This report is the first in Rethink Priorities ' series on farmed invertebrates. You can find our other work on invertebrate sentience and invertebrate welfare . We are focusing our current efforts on farmed invertebrates because in most cases farmed invertebrate interventions are likely to be more tractable than wild invertebrate interventions. here

Honey bees appear to be a promising intervention target for three reasons. First, according to my preliminary estimates, managed honey bees are the most numerous farmed insect and probably the most numerous farmed invertebrate . [2] Second, the case that bees are sentient is stronger than that for most other invertebrates. [3] Honey bees exhibit social, cognitive, and even affective complexity that is comparable to some vertebrates, [4] and they are impressive communicators and learners. [5] Third, there appears to exist more public sympathy for honey bees than for most other invertebrates, perhaps because of the essential role they play in agricultural pollination. [6] The plight of honey bees, though not always framed in welfare terms, is a common enough subject of media attention that honey bee interventions are unlikely to generate significant public outrage or otherwise damage effective altruism's long-term image.

There are two major caveats worth noting at the outset. The first is that this report is heavily biased toward beekeeping in North America and Europe. The reason for this bias is that there is much more literature available in English on North American and European bees than there is for other regions. As a result of this bias, the information contained in this report may not always generalize to other parts of the world. This bias is especially unfortunate because much of the marginal growth in bee stocks is in Asia.

The second caveat is that I am not a beekeeping expert . My formal background is in philosophy. Undoubtedly, this report contains mistakes which, despite the substantial assistance I received from many talented individuals, remain my own. Any and all corrections are welcome.

I estimate that at any given time in 2017 there were between 1.4 and 4.8 trillion adult managed honey bees . [7] I describe the methodology behind this estimate in Appendix 2.

Future Growth

Despite much press, some of it quite apocalyptic, concerning colony collapse disorder (see more below), the number of managed honey bee colonies is not actually in decline. In fact, the number of total managed honey bee hives has steadily increased over the last 20 years and looks set to continue i ncreasing, at least in the near future . (See Figure 1.) Much of this growth is attributable to the gradual expansion and sheer size of Asian beekeeping. [8]Asian production has grown more than 60% since 2000, while production in the Americas has remained essentially flat since the turn of the millenium. (See Figures 2 and 3.)

Although honey bee populations have been increasing, the rate of increase has not kept pace with demand growth ( van Engelsdorp & Meixner 2010 ), and demand for honey and pollinator services will continue to grow, at least in the short term. According to t his from Zion Market Research report , the global honey market will increase at a compound annual growth rate of roughly 4.8% over the next six years, from a value of approximately $7.68 billion in 2018 to approximately $10.34 billion in 2025. Pollination services will also see an expansion in demand, as wild pollinator populations continue to decline and agricultural acreage requiring pollination continues to increase ( ) . According to Potts et al. 2016 from the United States Department of Agriculture, in the U.S. beekeeper revenue from pollination services now surpasses revenue from honey. this report

Honey bees are managed for two main reasons: honey production and pollination services. See Appendix 3 for more information on honey production, pollination services, and several other minor bee products.

Honey bees are managed on every continent except Antarctica. They are managed in almost every major country.

Top Regions

Asia leads the world in honey bee management with 47% of global beehives. The next biggest regions are Europe (at 21% of global beehives), Africa (at 19% of global beehives), and the Americas (at 12% of global beehives). (See Figure 4.)

Top Countries

According to FAO data, in 2017 the top ten countries by number of beehives were as follows (see Figure 5):

Below I discuss six factors that affect managed honey bee welfare. The severity of these welfare concerns varies by region and management practice. Bees managed in colder climates are more likely to suffer as a result of the poor thermal insulation of their artificial hives than bees managed in warmer climates. Bees managed exclusively to provide pollination services are more likely to suffer from transport and inadequate access to natural forage than bees managed exclusively for honey. Bees managed in Europe are less likely to suffer from pesticide exposure than bees managed elsewhere because several pesticides harmful to bees have been banned or restricted there. Bees managed in Australia are less likely to suffer from parasites and pathogens than bees elsewhere because Varroa destructor has not yet become established there. Colony Collapse Disorder currently only affects bees in North America and Europe. And so on. [9]

Taking regional differences of bee population into account, I would very roughly rank the welfare concerns from most serious to least serious as follows:

1. Parasites and pathogens

2. Pesticide exposure

3. Food access

4. Transport

5. Habitat

6. Colony Collapse Disorder

Habitat

To understand honey bee welfare and interventions aimed at improving it, one must understand the habitat in which honey bees live. Managed honey bees nest in artificial hives of various designs. The most popular type of hive design is the , Langstroth hive originally patented back in 1852. [10] The Langstroth hive is an upright modular beehive of three basic segments: the lower section, featuring a bottom board with an entrance for bee ingress and egress; the middle section, with boxes for brood chambers and honey supers, often divided by a queen excluder to keep larvae separate from honey; and the top section, including both an inner cover and a top cover. (See Figure 6). Inside the boxes are 8 to 10 frames, normally with an artificial, wax-coated foundation upon which bees deposit honey or grow young. [11] Langstroth hives can be disassembled relatively easily to allow for hive inspection or harvest, and the compact design makes the hive simple to transport (though they can be heavy). Many beekeepers prefer Langstroth hives in large part because of their popularity. The equipment is standardized and widely available, and there are a large range of accessories and resources explicitly tailored to the Langstroth. Most apiary manuals are written under the assumption that the beekeeper is using a Langstroth hive.

From a welfare perspective, the Langstroth hive poses several challenges. The first is the and honey harves invasive nature of hive inspection t. There is a lot of variance among beekeepers, but typically hives are inspected every two to six weeks, and honey is harvested once or twice a year. To inspect the bees or harvest the honey, a beekeeper must remove the components one-by-one. That means first removing the roof of the structure, laying bare the delicate innards of the hive, then removing the honey supers until the brood chamber is exposed. This process inevitably confuses, agitates, and stresses the bees. These agitated bees are much more likely to sting in defense of the colony, which they (correctly) perceive as under attack. Bees that sting in defense of the colony necessarily die, and death-by-stinger-ejection prima facie looks to be a particularly painful way to die. (The barbed stinger literally tears a cavity right through the middle of the bee's abdomen.) To reduce aggressive behavior, standard beekeeping practice is to smoke the bees during harvest . (A smoker is just a little metal container with bellows in which a fire is lit. See Figure 7.) The smoke both masks the scent and hinders the production of the alarm pheromones that would otherwise alert the bees to danger ( ). [12] Although the smoke is nontoxic, if the temperature of the smoke is too high, it can melt the wings of the bees . But applied appropriately, smoking the bees saves many bee lives and thus is preferable to letting the bees sting themselves to death. [13] Finally, when the hive is reassembled (that is, the components are stacked on top of each other again) agitated bees are often crushed between the edges of the boxes, injuring or killing them. [14]Gage et al. 2018 (Figure 7 gives a sense for how difficult it would be to reassemble the hive without crushing bees.)

Another problem with the Langstroth hive is that it tends to have worse thermal insulation than the natural hives that feral colonies establish. Regulating the temperature of a hive is an important element of colony survival. Hives with poor insulation will, in cold areas, cause the bees to cluster earlier in the season than they otherwise would, increasing the energy cost to maintain thermal homeostasis, and ultimately increasing the chance that the colony won't survive the winter . The thin walls of the Langstroth hive also reduce the humidity of the hive compared to the hives of feral colonies. Recent research suggests that the lower humidity facilitates the breeding of harmful parasites like Varroa destructor ( ). To mitigate these risks, in cold climates during winter, hives are sometimes wrapped in black plastic tar paper ( see Figure 8) or packed in large warehouses, sometimes thousands of hives to a building (see Figure 9). Mitchell 2016

Over the last 13 years, U.S. overwinter colony mortality [15] has averaged . [16]28.8% of all managed colonies That amounts to over 700,000 colonies lost per winter. Conservatively, that's about 8 billion premature bee deaths a year in the United States alone. [17] Although these colonies are replaced in the spring, keeping the overall bee population roughly stable year-to-year, the individual bees who succumb to cold exposure, starvation, or parasitic infestation suffer needlessly. An intervention that reduced overwinter colony mortality in the United States by just 5% would prevent at least 400 million premature bee deaths.

Food Access

There are two welfare worries regarding access to quality food sources. The first concerns the honey harvest. Commercial apiaries typically harvest honey once a year, in late summer or early autumn, depending on the climate. Bees make honey as a winter food store, when foraging is either impossible or limited. When this essential food source is removed in its entirety, the colony's survival is put at risk. Without access to an adequate food supply, a colony will collapse of starvation in a matter of days. For this reason, many beekeepers do not harvest the entirety of a colony's honey supply at one time. However, it is difficult to know in advance how much honey the bees will require to survive the winter, as the amount depends in part on the weather. According to Garrido & Nanetti 2019 , "starvation is still a common cause of winter colony losses" (85). To reduce the risk of starvation, commercial beekeepers often provide their colonies with a honey substitute during the winter, such as inexpensive white cane sugar syrup. Although sugar syrup often secures overwinter survival of the colony, sugar syrup lacks many of the micronutrients that honey contains. [18]The importance of these micronutrients for proper honey bee nutrition has only recently been recognized. In particular, it appears that micronutrient deficiency makes a colony more susceptible to pathogens and parasites and worsens the effects of pesticide exposure ( ). [19] To meet this nutritional shortfall, some beekeepers have started providing protein supplements to their hives. Unfortunately, these supplements do "not appear to remedy problems of poor nutrition or reduce colony losses Mao, Schuler, & Berenbaum 2013 " ( : 194). The DeGrandi-Hoffman et al. study found that colonies with access to natural forage had lower pathogen loads and higher overwinter survival than those fed protein supplements. DeGrandi-Hoffman et al. 2015

Regrettably (and this is the second concern), colonies often do not have access to high-quality and variate natural forage of the kind that would buffer against the worst beekeeping practices. Honey bees require a diversity of flowering plants for best nutrition ( Garrido & Nanetti 2019 ). [20] However, many colonies are located in intensively-managed monocultural landscapes, without access to different types of flowers. Many studies support the connection between honey bee nutrition and access to natural or semi-natural habitats. For instance, found that proximity to Ricigliano et al. 2019 lands enhanced honey bee health and colony performance. Without access to such habitats, honey bees are likely to suffer from malnutrition, making them more susceptible to other stressors. US Conservation Reserve Program

Transport

Honey bees are used to facilitate the pollination of a wide variety of different crops. Generally speaking, it's not possible to simply raise the bees in locations that require pollination services. Most crops that require commercial pollination services are in bloom for only two to four weeks. In the monocultural landscapes that are typical of fields and orchards requiring pollination services, there isn't enough flowering forage to support healthy colonies the rest of the year. In the United States, I estimate that between ½ and ⅔ of colonies are transported at some point during the year. Conservatively, that comes to between 14 and 43 billion individual bees transported in the U.S. alone. [21] As noted above, U.S. beekeepers now earn more revenue from pollination services than they do from honey sales. Given the high demand for pollination services worldwide, especially in East Asia and South Asia, it's reasonable to assume that many commercial beekeepers outside the U.S. on average also earn at least half their revenue from pollination services .

Getting bees to orchard and field for the short period in which crops blossom and are thus able to be pollinated requires transporting a large number of colonies across vast distances. The bees are shipped confined in their hives on the backs of large, open-air semi-trucks. (See Figure 10.) Colonies are often moved multiple times a year, covering thousands of miles. A typical North American colony might begin the year in North Dakota (home to the largest number of U.S. beehives), spend February and March pollinating almonds in Northern California, then April through June pollinating apples in Central Washington, finally returning to North Dakota in July, traversing more than 3,500 miles in total roundtrip. (See Figure 11). This kind of migratory beekeeping is also common in India ( Tej et al. 2017 ) , [22] and probably elsewhere too.

In general, "bees from migratory colonies have a shorter lifespan and higher levels of oxidative stress than workers at stationary apiaries" ( Garrido & Nanetti 2019 : 75). The exact causes of this stress are unknown, but there are several potential welfare concerns associated with long-distance transport of honey bee colonies. [23]

Long-distance transport has worrying effects on honey bee physiology. found that "bees experiencing transportation have trouble fully developing their food glands and this might affect their ability to nurse the next generation of workers" (1). Again, the exact causes of this abnormality are unknown, but the sustained vibration of transport combined with changes in air pressure, exposure to diesel exhaust, and the stress of confinement may all play a role. A particular concern is temperature regulation. As noted above, maintaining thermal homeostasis is a basic requirement for colony survival. During transport densely packed and poorly ventilated colonies often die from overheating. It's possible to increase ventilation, but doing so introduces cold stress if the outside air temperature is low, which causes developmental abnormalities in the bee larvae, often leading to colony collapse when the larvae emerge as adults a few days after arrival ( Ahn et al. 2012 ). The outside air temperature on a trip from North Dakota to California is going to vary considerably, as the truck has to cross both the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada mountain range. Melicher et al. 2019

Transport also likely increases the spread of infectious disease. Bringing together bees from many different regions facilitates the transmission of parasites and pathogens ( Garrido & Nanetti 2019 : 75). As noted above, during peak almond blossom season in late February, somewhere between ⅓ and ½ of all U.S. honey bees are concentrated in California's Central Valley . Based on conservative winter colony sizes of between 10,800 and 14,000 bees, that comes to between 9.8 and 18.7 billion individual bees. These bees are transported from as far away as Michigan. Due to homing errors [24] that are common when hives are crowded together (see below), bees from disparate areas inevitably come into close contact with one another. Because the stress of transport increases vulnerability to disease, the crowding of hives from disparate areas can be particularly devastating.

Parasites and Pathogens

Commercially managed honey bees are threatened by a large number of parasites and pathogens: bacterial and fungal infections, especially those leading to American foulbrood , , and chalkbrood ; parasitic mites, especially ectoparasitic mites like stonebrood and tracheal mites like ; microsporidian pathogens, especially Varroa destructor and Acarapis woodi ; and the associated diseases that these parasites and pathogens facilitate, especially and Nosema ceranae . A complete survey of honey bee parasites and pathogens is beyond the scope of this report. In what follows I briefly discuss Varroa Nosema apis mites and deformed wing virus, the most prevalent virus in honey bees, which the mites help propagate ( ). deformed wing virus nosemosis Martin & Brettell 2019

Varroa mites are small, obligate parasites that feed on the hemolymph [25] of both adult and juvenile bees. (See Figure 12.) They are among the most devastating parasites of Apis mellifera bees. Varroa mites are rarely fatal to adult hosts, though the mites do shorten the lifespan of infected bees. [26] Importantly, Varroa mites require bee larvae or pupae to reproduce, and their presence can greatly reduce colony-wide reproduction .

Varroa mites can destroy a honey bee colony in at least two ways. The first is by out-producing their hosts and overrunning the colony. Bee populations typically peak in early summer, then gradually decline throughout the fall. Varroa populations typically peak a few weeks after bee populations. When a modest decline in bee population is combined with a modest increase in Varroa infestation, the result can be a precipitous drop in colony strength, ultimately leading to overwinter collapse.

The other way Varroa mites can destroy a colony is by spreading diseases. Varroa mites are a vector for at least five honey bee diseases, the worst of which seems to be deformed wing virus (DWV). DWV has been described as "a major threat to the world's honeybees" ( : 594). DWV is an RNA virus characterized by misshapen, useless wings and other abdominal deformities. (See Figure 13.) Although DWV can spread directly from one bee to another, it is more commonly transmitted by the mite Varroa destructor . DWV is one of the leading causes of overwinter collapse in Varroa Wilfert et al. 2016 -infested colonies ( ) . Moreover, infected colonies often pass the disease to wild insects, including both feral honey bees and other insect pollinators, predators, and scavengers ( : 556), so controlling the disease would probably also improve wild animal welfare. Wilfert et al. 2016 Villalobos 2016

Because Varroa infestations can be so devastating, a wide range of Varroa control methods have been developed. (See Table 1.) The welfare implications of these control methods, both for the bees and the mites themselves, are unclear. Because of the large scale at which these control methods are applied, future welfare-oriented research could potentially uncover cost-effective interventions.

Pesticide Exposure

Pesticide exposure is a major welfare concern for commercially managed honey bees. [27] General purpose insecticides deployed to control crop-damaging insects can be lethal to bees, as can residential deployment of insecticides to control mosquitoes ( ). Long & Krupke 2016 [28] Bees are especially at risk for two reasons. First, they have a wide foraging range, up to three miles in any direction from the hive. It is thus difficult for a beekeeper to station her bees out of range of all pesticide use. Second, bees are social. If a bee encounters a pesticide, she will bring that pesticide back to the hive. When the pesticide-exposed bee dies, other bees will remove her body from the hive and become contaminated by contact. In this way, tens of thousands of bees can be killed in a single hive in . under 48 hours

Sublethal exposure to pesticides is also a major concern. Short of killing a bee, pesticide exposure can reduce homing success, [29] degrade flight ability, and impair bee navigation ( ). Sublethal pesticide exposure can also suppress a bee's immune system, making it more likely to contract infections and diseases ( Tosi, Burgio, & Nieh 2017 ) . Pettis et al. 2012 [30] Finally, pesticide contamination in stored beebread and wax comb can diminish a queen's reproductive rate, lowering colony strength and increasing the frequency of stress-inducing queen replacements ( ) . [31] Bees engaged in pollination services are especially at risk of sublethal pesticide exposure. Pesticides are an integral part of modern agricultural production. When bees are brought to pollinate pesticide-treated crops, some level of exposure is inevitable, though of course the level must be sublethal to ensure pollination success. Traynor et al. 2016

Neonicotinoids are perhaps the most notorious pesticide associated with bees. (See Figure 14.) Neonicotinoids are among the most widely applied insecticides in the world ( Lundin et al. 2015 ). [32] Though now partially banned in Europe (see more below), neonicotinoids have been used ubiquitously the past two decades to suppress insects that reduce agricultural yields . Neonicotinoids are particularly harmful for three reasons. First, unlike contact pesticides, which remain on the surface of treated plants, systemic pesticides like neonicotinoids are water soluble and are taken up by and transported throughout the plant, which is how they end up in nectar and pollen. In effect, plants that absorb neonicotinoids become toxic to insects. Second, neonicotinoids can persist in the soil months or even years after a single application. Untreated plants that grow in the soil during this time will absorb neonicotinoid residues and become at least somewhat toxic ( ). Third, neonicotinoids are particularly effective at immunosuppression, meaning that even low concentrations of neonicotinoids can harm bees and other insects by exacerbating the effect of other stressors. According to , "Immune suppression of the natural defences by neonicotinoid and phenyl-pyrazole (fipronil) insecticides opens the way to parasite infections and viral diseases, fostering their spread among individuals and among bee colonies at higher rates than under conditions of no exposure to such insecticides" (7). Neonicontinoids are also particularly bad for queens. Tosi, Burgio, & Nieh 2017 demonstrate that " field-realistic concentrations of neonicotinoid pesticides during development can severely affect queens of western honey bees ( Sánchez-Bayo et al. 2016 Apis mellifera ). In pesticide-exposed queens, reproductive anatomy (ovaries) and physiology (spermathecal-stored sperm quality and quantity), rather than flight behaviour, were compromised and likely corresponded to reduced queen success (alive and producing worker offspring)" (1). Importantly, "many wild bees and other non-target invertebrates are also exposed to the same suite of pesticides" ( : 10), making pesticide exposure a welfare concern for both managed and Williams et al. 2015 wild animals. Long & Krupke 2016

Commercially managed honey bees are also exposed to pesticides inside the hive. As noted above, Varroa infestations are a major cause of colony collapse and a major concern for commercial apiaries. As a consequence, 89% of large-scale U.S. beekeepers [33] report applying chemical varroacides inside their hives ( ). The chemical treatment is effective at controlling Varroa populations, but the long-term effects on the bees are less well understood. Haber, Steinhauer, & van Engelsdrop 2019

Colony Collapse Disorder

Large-scale and widespread colony losses were first reported across the United States in 2006 ( ). Similar losses were first reported in Europe in 2009 ( Villalobos 2016 ). These losses were notable both for their scale and the peculiar circumstances in which the losses occurred. Colonies that succumbed to this condition didn't leave behind a pile of dead bees, as happens when a colony suffers, for instance, acute pesticide poisoning; on the contrary, the hives of the affected colonies were simply Dainat, van Engelsdorp, & Neumann 2012 empty . Colony Collapse Disorder, as the condition came to be called, is characterized by the sudden disappearance of the majority of worker bees in a colony, despite a functional queen and adequate food stores.

Colony Collapse Disorder is still a poorly understood phenomenon, but evidence is converging to suggest there is no single underlying cause ( Long & Krupke 2016 ) . [34] Instead, it appears that a number of independent stressors increase a colony's vulnerability to collapse. When these stressors are combined at a single apiary, colony vulnerability reaches a tipping point and losses can be catastrophic, destroying 30-80% of hives in a single season (normally winter). As of this writing, Colony Collapse Disorder has not been observed in significant numbers outside North America and Europe, for reasons that are not entirely clear.

If it's true that Colony Collapse Disorder has no unique fundamental cause but is instead the result of the confluence of other stressors, then Colony Collapse Disorder is not an independent welfare concern. Rather it is a reminder that the consequences of other stressors can aggregate in unpredictable, non-additive ways. The combined stress of two independent sources may be more than the sum of the individual parts.

For example, according to Mao, Schuler, & Berenbaum 2013 , "The widespread apicultural use of honey substitutes, including high-fructose corn syrup, may thus compromise the ability of honey bees to cope with pesticides and pathogens and contribute to colony losses" (8842). reports, "Interactions between pesticides and pathogens could be a major contributor to increased mortality of honey bee colonies, including colony collapse disorder" (153). And Pettis et al. 2012 adds, "The negative impact on immune barriers can be further exacerbated by concurrent stress agents that interfere with NF-kB signalling (e.g. neonicotinoids), or activate competing stress responses (e.g. poor nutrition, extreme thermal conditions), thus favouring pathogens and parasites" (10). To summarize, the stress of transport, honey harvest, inadequate access to natural forage, and poor thermal insulation make bees less resistant to parasites, pathogens, and the worst effects of pesticide exposure. Bees are sturdy creatures, and bee colonies are remarkably resilient superorganisms, but when pushed to the brink by multiple stressors, they simply vanish. Sánchez-Bayo et al. 2016

Below I discuss six broad categories of interventions. It is unfortunately difficult to assess the comparative value of these different interventions for several reasons. First, as noted above, the severity of a welfare concern is context-dependent (e.g., bees in Australia suffer from different problems than bees in Europe). Second, not all of the interventions are aimed at the same time horizon. Planting natural forage in some areas could start benefiting bees in weeks; building the effective animal advocacy movement in Asia might not pay off for decades. Third, where the interests of bees aligns with the interests of beekeepers (or farmers), financial incentives will probably push adoption of the intervention without outside effort. So, as always, anticipated neglectedness must be factored into the comparative analysis. Finally, many of these interventions will have knock-on effects, especially for wild invertebrates, that are difficult to calculate.

Taking all these factors into account, I would very roughly rank the interventions from most promising to least promising as follows:

1. Build EAA in Asia

2. Reduce pollination demand

3. Increase access to natural forage

4. Manage pesticide risk

5. Reduce homing errors

6. Minimize harvest disruption

Reduce Homing Errors

Like other commercially farmed animals, honey bees are maintained at densities much higher than those found in the wild. Feral colonies of honey bees prefer to nest hundreds or thousands of meters apart from each other, whereas managed honey bee colonies are typically kept less than a meter apart on commercial apiaries ( ). This level of crowding can lead to a variety of welfare problems. One such problem is known as 'drifting.' Drifting is a type of homing error in which a foraging bee accidentally returns to the wrong hive. Drifting is a serious welfare concern because, according to Garrido & Nanetti 2019 , it is "perhaps the most common mechanism of disease transmission between colonies within an apiary" (717). They add that on a typical apiary, " it is common for 40% or more of all worker bees to drift from their natal colony to a neighboring colony" (717). Seeley & Smith 2015

Fortunately, a recent study suggests there may be a low-cost method that greatly reduces this type of homing error without affecting the density at which colonies can be kept. Dynes et al. 2019 demonstrate that painting hives different colors, marking hives with unique symbols, placing hives at different heights, and orienting hives to face different directions can all greatly reduce drift without the need to decrease density. This reduction in drift in turn lowers colony parasite load, promotes honey production, and increases overwinter survival. Promoting these changes could thus have a substantial welfare impact for a significant number of bees. [35]

The main objection to promoting this intervention is that beekeepers already have a financial incentive to make these changes if they are in fact effective. However, notwithstanding this incentive, I found virtually no evidence that commercial apiaries were implementing these changes at scale. The most plausible reason for this lack of change is simply that the research is so new. [36] If that's the explanation, then we should expect these changes to be implemented over the next few years (again, assuming that the benefits are as dramatic as they appear). There may, however, be information barriers that delay the implementation of these reforms, especially in low or middle income countries. If such information barriers exist, then a well-organized, low-cost information campaign might prove to be a cost-effective intervention.

Reduce Pollination Demand

Reducing the demand for pollination services would reduce the number of bees in commercial fields and orchards, where they are more likely to be exposed to pesticides ( Traynor et al. 2016 ) . [37] It would also reduce the number of bees transported long distances, which would improve the welfare of those bees both directly, by eliminating the stress of transport, and indirectly, by reducing the transmission of disease that results from commingling colonies from disparate regions. There are at least four ways one might reduce demand for honey bee pollination services: reducing demand for products that require commercial honey bee pollination, replacing pollinator-dependent crops with self-fertile varieties, promoting mechanical pollination, and increasing the population of local wild pollinators.

The most obvious way to reduce demand for commercial honey bee pollination is to reduce demand for those products that require commercial honey bee pollination. I suspect this approach is the least promising. If directly reducing consumer interest for certain products were possible and cost-effective, it would be a more widely used tactic in effective animal advocacy. And if it were possible and cost-effective to directly reduce consumer interest in a product, then honey would be a more obvious target than products that rely indirectly on bees. [38] Nevertheless, there may be limited room for a narrow campaign of this sort. In the United States, almond farming is a major driver of demand for pollination services. Almonds are a notoriously thirsty crop, requiring over a gallon of water per nut ). A campaign that emphasized the large environmental impact of almond agricultural might succeed in reducing demand for almonds, thereby reducing demand for commercial honey bee pollination services. (Fulton, Norton, & Shilling 2019 [39]

As noted above, almond farming is a major driver of demand for pollination services in the United States. Most almond varieties are self-incompatible and therefore require both pollenizers [40] and pollinators. Recently, the surge in the price of pollination services (see Figure 15) has led to a concurrent surge in interest in self-fertile varieties of almond. The most popular self-fertile almond variety is the , developed by Zaiger Genetics and available since 2008. According to Independence , an orchard systems advisor with the University of California Cooperative Extension program, Independence almonds require Dani Lightle . According to the California Department of Food and Agriculture , in 2018 23.4% of all new almond acres were planted to the self-fertile Independence variety. However, not all experts are bullish on the ability of self-fertile almonds to reduce pollination demand. 75-80% fewer bees for effective pollination , an assistant professor in the Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology at Auburn University and a specialist in pollination service contracts, claims that self-fertile almond varieties will Almond Acreage Report for the foreseeable future. Brittney Goodrich not have a significant impact on the demand for colonies

Directly subsidizing self-fertile varieties of pollinator-dependent crops does not look to be a promising intervention because farmers already have a financial incentive to switch to these varieties if they in fact reduce pollination costs without compromising quality. However, there may again be information barriers that slow the adoption of such varieties, especially in low or middle income countries where institutional dissemination of new knowledge may be limited and where farmers may be more risk-averse. It might possible to mount a relatively cost-effective outreach campaign that would benefit both poor farmers and overtaxed honey bees.

Mechanical pollination is another alternative to commercially managed honey bee pollination. A typical mechanical pollination system uses an electrostatic sprayer to apply a suspension of pollen to flowering fruit trees. (See Figure 16.) It can be used to supplement or replace bee pollination. At around $300 an acre, it compares favorably to honey bee pollination, which can range from $320 to $450 an acre for almond orchards. The main problem right now is efficacy. According to Elizabeth Fichtner , another orchard systems advisor with the University of California Cooperative Extension program, because almond flowers are not all open at the same time. Because mechanical pollination is a discrete event, if a flower isn't open when the sprayer drives by, that flower doesn't get pollinated. Honey bee pollination, by contrast, is continuous, with foragers worker throughout daylight hours, weather permitting. [41]mechanical pollination of almond orchards is ineffective However, the technology is still relatively immature. , a stone fruit physiologist in Washington State University's Department of Horticulture, believes the technique will be widely adopted in 20 to 30 years' time. Research grants that either ensure the technology is developed or speeds its progress could thus prove to be cost-effective interventions for commercially managed honey bees. Matt Whiting

Another way to reduce reliance on commercial honey bee pollination is to increase the population of local wild pollinators who will pollinate fields and orchards for free. [42] There are two major advantages to this approach and one serious drawback. The two advantages are that the means to increase wild pollinator populations are well-known and there are several reputable organizations already working toward this goal, ready to receive additional funds to expand their projects. According to , "Across all studies, biodiversity management raised the abundance of dominant crop-visiting [wild] bees by a factor of 3.2. Organic farming, planting wildﬂowers and establishing grass margin strips signiﬁcantly enhanced dominant crop-visiting bees in arable landscapes" (3). Kleijn et al. 2015 [43] One simple conservation measure is to plant wildflowers along curbsides (see Figure 17), which increases local pollinator populations ( and surprisingly decreases insect-vehicle collision s). Another simple conservation measure is to mow roadside vegetation less frequently. Less frequent mowing improves the habitat of local pollinators, while also reducing maintenance costs ( ). Homeowners can also improve pollinator habitat by replacing lawns with semi-natural habitat or mowing lawns less frequently ( ). [44] The Xerces Society has been advocating for simple such as these for decades. They maintain extensive resources on Committee on Ecology and Transportation Newsletter, January 2017 , Lerman et al. 2018 , , and . Targeted grants to the Xerces Society could result in non-trivial increases in wild pollinator populations, thus potentially reducing the need for commercial honey bee pollination. [45]pollinator conservation measures habitat planning for beneficial insects attracting native pollinators roadside management for pollinator conservation farming with native beneficial insects

The main drawback to this approach is that it is essentially just swapping managed insects for wild insects . If the lives of the wild pollinators are not any better than the lives of the commercially managed honey bees, then this approach would not improve overall animal welfare. If the lives of the wild pollinators are worse than the lives of the managed bees, then this intervention would actually be net-negative. This question deserves more research (see below). There may be other reasons to promote native pollinator populations, such as conserving biodiversity or improving ecosystem resilience, but from a welfare perspective increasing the population of wild insects looks like an uncertain buy .

Manage Pesticide Risk

As noted above, pesticide exposure is a welfare problem for both commercially managed honey bees, their feral counterparts, and other non-target wild insects. [46] Reducing non-target pesticide exposure could have several welfare benefits for commercially managed honey bees. The most direct effect would be improved honey bee health and decreased chance of colony collapse. Reducing non-target pesticide exposure would also benefit wild insect pollinators, which could indirectly help commercially managed honey bees. If the population of wild insect pollinators were larger, there would be more insects available to pollinate agricultural crops for free, presumably decreasing the demand for commercial pollination services. Decreased pollination demand would presumably lead to fewer bees transported long distances (see more below).

There are three routes to reducing the pesticide exposure of non-target insects. The first is outreach to professional pesticide applicators to ensure that they follow best practices to mitigate non-target exposure risk. Training and certification programs can impart valuable knowledge regarding proper application procedures. Season, temperature, wind speed, and time of day all contribute to a pesticide's exposure risk profile, and these details vary by location and chemical. Ensuring that these programs are fully funded could thus have sizeable welfare benefits. [47]

Another route is technical innovation in the application of existing pesticides. One promising innovation is the dropleg nozzle , developed between 2011 and 2015 by a public-private partnership led by the University of Hohenheim. Traditional pesticide application techniques broadcast the chemical over the top of the field. The dropleg nozzle allows application beneath the flower canopy, significantly reducing spray drift and virtually eliminating the risk that pollinators visiting flowers will be exposed to the pesticide. [48] (See Figure 18.) The dropleg nozzle was awarded a in 2017. It is already commercially available and almost all boom sprayers can be equipped with it. Promoting the use of dropleg nozzles, either through subsidies, information campaigns, or regulatory action, could thus have a substantial impact. European Bee Award

These are promising solutions to concrete problems, and similar sorts of innovations ought to be encouraged and pursued. Ultimately, though, there is only so much that can be accomplished at the level of technical innovation or outreach. A more effective solution is to regulate, restrict, or ban those pesticides most detrimental to non-target insects. One such edict recently took effect in the EU, and the consequences of this decree should be closely monitored. In April 2018 the European Food Safety Authority voted to prohibit the outdoor use of three neonicotinoids: imidacloprid , , and clothianidin . [49]thiamethoxam If this ban significantly improves the welfare of insect pollinators, animal advocates could push for similar legislation in other regions. The , an American invertebrate conservation group, maintains an extensive list of recommendations to , including improving U.S. federal and state regulations. Depending on the outcome of the 2020 U.S. presidential election, a targeted partnership with the Xerces Society or the Xerces Society could help convince the U.S. Environmental Protection A gency to enact a European-style ban on neonicotinoids or at least close the protect pollinators from neonicotinoids through which many neonicotinoids first entered the market. National Resources Defense Council conditional registration loophole

One concern about curbing the use of neonicotinoids is what would replace them. This question is relevant to farmers, who want to maintain the same high yields that neonicotinoids allowed, and animal advocates, who must ensure that whatever replaces neonicotinoids is not, from a welfare perspective, worse. In some instances it seems like neonicotinoid application could be halted without the need for any replacement. Neonicotinoids are often used preemptively as a seed coat, but there is recent evidence that the benefits of this practice are negligible for soybeans ( ) and possibly so for corn ( Mourtzinis 2019 ), the two crops that together constitute the largest use of neonicotinoids in the United States. When neonicotinoids must be replaced to maintain high yields, there are many non-chemical alternatives already on the market. Unfortunately, many of these non-chemical alternatives involve the use of microorganisms, such as or the bacteria Del Pozo-Valdivia 2018 , that, while more targeted than neonicotinoids and thus less likely to impact pollinators, probably inflict considerable suffering on target species. (Both methods disrupt larvae digestion, slowly killing target insects over about a week.) Happily, there are other techniques, such as granulosis virus that disrupt mating through the release of sex pheromones, that seem humane and effective and are already commercially available. Bacillus thuringiensis semiochemical methods

As awareness of the harms of neonicotinoids grows, other control strategies will likely be developed. Jactel et al. 2019 write, "A number of promising methods are still at the research and development stage and are hardly implemented in fields at the moment. For example, most plant defense elicitors (Bektas and Eulgem, 2015), multiple plant-based semiochemicals (Murali-Baskaran et al., 2018), gene editing for the development of resistant crop varieties (Lombardo et al., 2016) and conservation biological control methods (Crowder et al., 2010) are very promising new methods for pest management. However, they all require further development, testing in the field and fine-tuning to farmers' needs before release onto the market" (428). [50] Some of these novel methods will probably have better welfare implications than others. Selectively funding the research of those methods that are likely to have the best welfare implications could both benefit commercially managed bees and help shift control strategies away from the indiscriminate slaughter of vast numbers of insects.

Increase Access to Natural Forage

There are several ways to increase honey bee access to natural forage. Beekeepers can consider moving their colonies when local floral resources are scarce, as the stress of malnutrition seems worse than the stress of transport ( Simone-Finstrom et al. 2016 ). Governments can set aside more land for conservation and habitat restoration in areas that host large commercially managed bee populations, such as "the Northern Great Plains, a region that harbors approximately 40% of all US bee colonies from the months of May through October" ( : 1). Programs like the Ricigliano et al. 2019 have provided valuable United States Department of Agriculture Conservation Reserve Program . Agricultural operators that require pollination services can practice forage for honey bees by planting a continuously blooming plot of different flowering plants on 3-6% of their land. The program encourages growers to plant bee forage on fallow or unused land, in between young, non-bearing trees, as a cover crop between rows, and along roads, fence lines, waterways, and other orchard margins or borders. (See Figure 19.) Consumers can support these practices by preferentially purchasing products that have been . Collaboration with organizations like bee friendly farming , Seeds for Bees Bee Better Certified , and the could help with these efforts. Pollinator Partnership Project Apis m . Xerces Society

Increasing natural forage available to honey bees is related to but importantly distinct from reducing pollination demand by increasing wild pollinator populations. The goal of the former intervention is to maintain natural forage in the vicinity of large concentrations of commercially managed bees, either in or near the fields and orchards they are pollinating, the associated staging areas, or the apiaries where they are producing honey and overwintering. It is likely that native pollinators will also be attracted to such forage, but insofar as the native pollinators will compete for resources with the managed bees, large contingents of local pollinators is not a desired outcome.

In sum, there are two broad ways to increase honey bee access to natural forage: bring the forage to the bees or bring the bees to the forage. There are reasons to be skeptical of both methods. Although planting and maintaining natural forage near large concentrations of honey bees would undoubtedly improve their welfare, promoting this intervention may not be a cost-effective use of money because economic motivations can probably drive this change on their own. Beekeepers already have obvious incentives to maintain as much natural forage near their apiaries as possible. Growers also already have incentives to plant forage on their land. Besides aiding honey bees, which growers rely on for pollination, planting forage has , such as improving soil quality, giving farmers plenty of reasons to make this change. [51] And although bringing bees to natural forage would also improve their welfare, it's not clear that this would be a net-positive intervention. Evidence is emerging to suggest that commercially managed honey bees are bad for wild bees, both because they compete for scarce resources and because they spread parasites and pathogens. Concerning parasite spread numerous other benefits writes, "One of the best ways to avoid the potentially devastating effects of spillover, spillback, and facilitation in wild bees is to prevent their mixing with managed bees" (72). Locating hives on or near protected land might improve managed bee welfare at the expense of wild bee welfare and thus be overall welfare neutral. Graystock et al. 2016

Minimize Harvest Disruption

As noted above, honey harvesting is an invasive, particularly stressful event for managed bees. The hive lid is removed, the bees are smoked, the individual frames are pulled out, the bees that remain on the frames are blown or brushed off, and reassembly invariably crushes at least a few bees per hive. Bees work extremely hard to keep their hives dark, humid, and sterile. When a hive is opened, bees become aggressive, disoriented, or both. Bees that sting in defense of the colony necessarily die. Thus, if honey could be extracted without opening the hive, bees would be spared much stress and death.

In 2014 father-and-son team Cedar and Stuart Anderson invented a system called the Flow Hive , which allows honey to be extracted from a hive with virtually no disruption to the bees within. [52] (See Figure 20.) The key innovation is the Flow Frame. Flow Frames contain artificial honeycomb cells, like other frames with plastic foundations, that the bees fill with honey. The main difference is that the cells in a Flow Frame can split at the turn of a lever, forming a channel for the honey to follow, pulled downward by the force of gravity. (See Figure 21.) Ultimately the honey exits the hive via a small tap, where it can be collected in a jar or drum. The whole process does not seem to affect bee activity in any way, and many amateur beekeepers have been known to harvest from a Flow Hive in shorts, t-shirts, and sandals (though officially this is not recommended). It thus seems pretty clear that Flow Hives are at least modestly . better for bee welfare

Although Flow Hives can reduce the labor associated with honey harvest by as much 90%, there appears to be virtually no commercial uptake of the product. [53] There are several obstacles blocking commercial adoption, but the biggest barrier is price. [54] In the United States, a Langstroth hive retails for about plus another $110 for ten frames with foundations. [55] The cheapest $72 Flow Hive (frames included) costs . It's possible to gain most of the welfare benefits of a Flow Hive by putting , but Flow Frames alone still cost . $629 [56]Flow Frames in a Langstroth Hive $2 5 9

As an intervention, Flow Hives would require a hefty subsidy to make them cost-competitive with standard Langstroth Hives. Moreover, it's important not to overstate the welfare improvements that such a switch would bring. Flow Hives still need to be opened for inspection , just like regular Langstroth hives, to check for parasites and disease. Inspection frequency varies by location and season, but in general commercial production hives appear to receive at least a quick inspection every . two to six weeks These inspections can be almost as invasive as honey harvest.

Build EAA in Asia

The focus of this report is disproportionately centered on honey bees in North America and Europe. As noted above, this emphasis is the result of practical limitations, namely the fact that there is far more information available in English on North American and European honey bees than any other region. This regional bias is unfortunate because the majority of managed honey bees are located outside North America and Europe. By a wide margin, the largest populations of managed honey bees are in Asia, especially in China and India. [57] In 2017, China and India collectively managed more honey bees (~21.8 million hives) than all of Europe (~18.8 million hives) and all of North and South America combined (~11.1 million hives). [58] In the long-run, helping the greatest number of honey bees will require implementing reforms in countries where the greatest populations of honey bees are located. Thus, one of the best long-term interventions for managed honey bees might be building the effective animal advocacy movement in Asia, especially China and India, so that in the future the movement is better positioned to help the largest groups of managed honey bees.

Independent of honey bees, there already exist good reasons to build effective animal advocacy in Asia. The continent hosts the largest populations of most types of farmed animals. [59] Consequently, many organizations are already researching methods to build capacity and support in Asian nations. The Open Philanthropy Project recently granted to the Humane Society of India. over a million dollars [60] Animal Charity Evaluators has produced comprehensive reports on animal advocacy in both and . India [61] Other research considers how effective altruism more generally should be China . [62] If feasible, these efforts should be accelerated, though of course one must tread carefully when dealing with important cultural, political, and linguistic differences. [63]developed and approached in Asia

How likely is it that honey bees are sentient? Assuming they're sentient, how does their moral value compare to other animals?

If honey bees do not have subjective experiences, or if those experiences never take on a positive or negative affect, then they are plausibly not moral patients, and there is thus no intrinsic reason to care about their wellbeing. There may be instrumental reasons to protect and promote honey bee welfare (e.g., to preserve access to the pollination services they provide), but if honey bees are not sentient, then the justification for helping them will never bottom out in morally valuable states of bee pain or pleasure.

Do managed honey bees have a better or worse life than comparable wild insects ? Do wild insects lead net-negative lives?

Some of the interventions discussed above would increase the population of wild insects. In some cases that is the explicit goal, for instance reducing commercial pollination demand by increasing the population of local wild pollinators. This sort of intervention aims to replace managed honey bee populations with comparable wild insects . Other interventions would indirectly increase the population of wild insects, for instance restricting the use of indiscriminate insecticides. Although the goal of this sort of intervention is to improve the welfare of managed bees, wild insect populations would also rise.

More worryingly, it might be the case that insect lives in general are net-negative. [64] If that's the case, then interventions that increase the overall insect population are very likely to reduce overall welfare. I don't think we are currently in a position to know whether insect lives are net-negative. More research, mainly empirical but also philosophical, is needed . Fortunately, the question is attracting increasing attention. For example, in June 2019 Kim Cuddington, another research analyst at Rethink Priorities, released a , including data on lifespan, fecundity, and mortality rates by cause. This report could serve as both a template and springboard for future investigations into the overall quality of insect lives. [65]report on the life history of herbivorous insects

How will future tech affect honey bees ?

As with most aspects of the world, rapidly developing innovative technology has the potential to greatly alter the landscape of commercial beekeeping. [66] There are in China that actively regulate the temperature and humidity of a hive and monitor the number of bees entering and leaving. smart hives [67] Such systems could reduce the need for invasive on-site inspections and could potentially adjust hive conditions in response to environmental changes. [68] Jerry Bromenshenk, a bee researcher at the University of Montana, is developing an that, according to this uses "artificial intelligence to analyse the sound that bees are making in order to deduce whether they are suffering from a number of maladies." A beekeeper simply holds up her smartphone for 30 seconds near the hive, and the trained algorithm reports the probability of various possible problems. (See Figure 22.) If the app proves effective and is widely adopted, it could significantly reduce the number of invasive hive inspections a colony must endure. MIT's app runs a writeup in , with the goal of facilitating "research into biologically augmented digital fabrication with eusocial insect communities." This same group has The Economist , apparently with the ultimate goal of testing the feasibility of sending bees to pollinate future Martian crops. Mediated Matter Group synthetic apiary launched bees into space

Finally , there are in development and according to materially engineered artificial pollinators this technology "could find wide use in various applications in different research fields, including agriculture, biomimetic science, and robotics. In particular, it should lead to the development of robotic pollinators and help counter the problems caused by the declining [sic] honeybee populations" (233-34). (See Figure 23.) This idea is extremely speculative, and there appears to be little reason to think the technology is practicable. These artificial pollinators would be inefficient, economically inviable, and Chechetka et al. 2017 ecologically damaging ( ). Still, if miniature drone pollinators were ever made safe, cheap, and effective, they could rapidly replace commercial honey bee pollination. Potts etl a. 2018

How will climate change affect honey bees ?

Global warming will plausibly have a negative effect on honey bee wellbeing, but the extent of the welfare decline is uncertain and the methods apiaries will use to cope with climate change are unknown. More research is needed to determine where and how honey bees will be most affected and how best to mitigate these harms.

Global warming could disrupt synchrony with important floral resources. Bees are sensitive to a variety of environmental conditions, including temperature as measured by degree days (number of days with a mean temperature above or below a certain threshold) ( Reddy, Verghese, & Rajan 2012 ). If winters become increasingly milder, honey bees may extend their seasonal foraging and brood periods. This is problematic if there are no or fewer flowers in bloom during the extended season. Foraging and brood activity consumes more colony energy than overwintering behavior; winter food stores thus may not be sufficient to sustain the colony through the lean season ( ). Garrido & Nanetti 2019

Climate change may also be changing the physiology of certain flowers. There are worrying reports that "rising atmospheric CO 2 is reducing the protein concentration of a floral pollen source essential for North American bees" ( ). As noted above, pollen protein is an essential nutrient for honey bee health, and its absence makes colonies more susceptible to other stressors. Increased frequency of severe weather like floods or droughts could also deplete the floral landscape at critical times for the bees. Ziska et al. 2016

Global warming will also probably exacerbate the spread of parasites and pathogens. The range of some honey bee pests, such as hive beetles, Asiatic hornets, and Tropilaelaps mites, has been expanding as temperate regions have warmed. Moreover, many honey bee parasites require bee larvae to reproduce. Increased winter brood activity due to warmer weather thus increases the rate and severity of parasitic infestation ( ). Taken together, these changes will pose significant welfare challenges to honey bees and their caretakers. Garrido & Nanetti 2019

Will advocating for honey bees backfire ?

Long-term, large-scale interventions to improve the lives of honey bees will probably require coordinated actions from a diverse set of actors. Scientists, philanthropists, conservationists, farmers, politicians, and members of the general public may all have to agree, at least to some degree, that honey bee welfare matters. With that goal in mind, it seems natural to campaign to raise awareness about honey bee suffering. Of course, winning hearts and minds on this issue is not going to be easy. But convincing people honey bee welfare is important may be more than just difficult. Directly advocating for honey bee welfare at this time might be actively counterproductive, both to the animal welfare cause area and effective altruism more generally.

Michael Greger (of Nutrition Facts fame) argues forcefully that . Many people apparently have trouble ascribing morally valuable states to cows and pigs; the idea that anti-honey advocacy hurts the vegan movement bees might suffer (and that we should care about their suffering) strikes these people as crazy. And if an average person thinks one small part of vegan 'ideology' is crazy, motivated reasoning will easily allow this portion to infect her/his perception of the rest of the vegan worldview. Hence, the knowledge that vegans care about bees may lead many people to show less compassion toward cows and pigs than they otherwise would.

If caring about honey bee welfare is perceived as an extreme, unpopular position, then advocating for honey bee welfare may reduce receptiveness to other positions the EAA movement advocates for, even if these other positions are perceived as less extreme. This type of phenomenon might be related to the social psychology concept , the extent to which a message is inconsistent with existing attitudes. Mildly discrepant attitudes can induce attitudinal and behavioral changes, but highly discrepant messages can threaten one's sense of self, undermining the efficacy of the message ( message discrepancy ). [69]Choo 1964 It is thus important to learn more about public attitudes toward honey bee welfare interventions and in particular how malleable these attitudes are. [70]

T here is also the worry that rushing into an advocacy campaign may create hard-to-reverse . If the initial message is suboptimal, these lock-in effects can impose substantial costs. Advocates for honey bee welfare don't want to get stuck with one way of framing the issue (when another framing would be more effective) merely because the initial outreach campaign haphazardly selected its messaging. lock-in effects

For these reasons, it is important to tread carefully when trying to raise awareness about honey bee welfare. Any public campaign must be deliberately planned and carefully executed. Poorly done, such a campaign could prove a major setback not only to honey bee welfare but to the broader effective altruism community. If effective altruism becomes irrevocably associated with a cause area perceived to be not merely eccentric, but morally perverse, unrelated cause areas are likely to suffer as a result.

In this report I've discussed the scale of honey bee management, its purpose and prospects for future growth, major regions in which it is practiced, and some factors that affect honey bee welfare. I've also sketched some potential interventions and enumerated some key areas of uncertainty. Taken together, it is as yet unclear how much honey bee welfare can be reasonably improved and at what cost. However, considering the vast number of managed honey bees, it may be prudent to consider their condition in more detail at some point, if for no other reason than due diligence to avert the . For funders specifically interested in improving honey bee welfare, the next step would be to finance a deep dive into one or more potential interventions or an investigation into one or more of the key questions. (Appendix 4 lists an assortment of other open research questions.) For funders interested in possibility of an ongoing moral catastrophe invertebrate welfare interventions but uncertain about the cost-effectiveness of helping honey bees, the next step would be to finance more reviews of farmed invertebrates to establish which interventions can most effectively improve invertebrate welfare. For funders interested in long-term invertebrate welfare but uncertain about near-term interventions, the next step would be to finance work focused on field-building (including academic outreach and surveying public attitudes towards neglected animals), invertebrate sentience (both empirical and philosophical), or moral weight (i.e., how to make cross-species welfare comparisons among taxonomically distant animals).

This project began in July 2019 as a review of farmed insects. After approximately 25 hours of research and roughly 16 pages of notes, it became clear that farmed insects was far too big a subject for a single review, so a decision was made to restrict the focus to a single group of insects. Honey bees were selected because they are the most numerous farmed insect, there is more evidence that they are sentient than there is for other insects, there is a wealth of information about them, and they seem to attract more public sympathy than other farmed insects. After another ~15 hours of research exclusively on honey bees, I began preparing the first draft of the report. The first draft was completed between mid-August 2019 and mid-September 2019. It took approximately 60 hours to write, though many of those hours were spent on additional research, not actual writing. Six members of the Rethink Priorities research team provided extensive and very helpful feedback on the initial draft, prompting another ~20 hours of edits. When the second draft was complete, I met with Michael Smith , a bee expert at the University of Konstanz. [71] Around this time, two members of the effective altruism community external to Rethink Priorities read and commented on the report. The third and final draft of the report was completed after another ~5 hours of work.

The guesstimate model for this estimate is available here . This estimate has 7 inputs: the FAO number of beehives, uncertainty of the FAO figure, A. mellifera winter colony size, A. mellifera summer colony size, A. cerana colony size, and breakdown of colonies by species.

Notably, this estimate does not include managed bees outside the genus Apis, such as bumble bees (genus Bombus ), alfalfa leafcutting bees (genus Megachile ), alkali bees (genus Nomia ), mason bees (genus Osmia ), and stingless bees (genus Melipona ). Collectively, hundreds of billions of these non- Apis bees are managed worldwide for their pollination services or (in the rare case of Melipona bees) their honey. [72]

According to FAO data available here ( parameters : Live Animals, World + (Total), Beehives, Stocks, 2017 ), there were 90,999,730 managed honey bee beehives in the world in 2017. The FAO figure is unlikely to be accurate, but it is unclear if it is more likely to be an over-count or under-count. The FAO claims that "it is not possible to assess the overall accuracy of the dataset, as the source data is largely collected by member countries." and that "Estimates have been made for non-reporting countries as well as for countries reporting incomplete data." To account for this uncertainty, I reduced the number by 20% for the lower bound and increased the number by 20% for the upper bound .

The FAO figure includes four species: Apis mellifera , Apis dorsata , Apis florea , and Apis cerana indica . [73] Unfortunately, the data do not list the number of hives broken down by species, which is problematic because the average number of bees per colony varies by species. However, I found no evidence to indicate any large-scale production of Apis dorsata or Apis florea , so for the purposes of this estimate, I ignored those species. According to numerous sources including , A. mellifera (colloquially known as the "Western" or "European" honey bee) is the most commonly managed bee in the world. [74]A. cerana (colloquially known as the "Eastern" or "Oriental" honey bee) is the second most commonly managed species, but it appears to be managed exclusively in Asia. Hard data on the number of A. cerana colonies is limited, but there are at least two million colonies in China according to . Assuming that number was roughly the same in 2017, that amounts to a little over 2% of global colonies. As best I can tell, A. cerana is only managed in the following countries: Afghanistan, Potts et al. 2016 Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Thailand, and Vietnam. Taken together, these countries accounted for roughly 27% of global beehives in 2017. However, not all of the colonies in these countries are A. cerana ; most are probably A. mellifera . All in all, I estimate that A. cerana accounts for between 2% and 20% of managed colonies worldwide, with A. mellifera accounting for the rest. Wang et al. 2012

A further complication is that colony sizes vary seasonally, with larger populations maintained in summer and lower populations in winter. Based on FAO data I estimate that between 80% and 90% of managed bees are managed in the northern hemisphere. However, because the coldest and hottest times of the year vary even within a hemisphere, not all of the colonies in a given hemisphere will peak and trough at the same time. All in all, I estimate that a maximum of 70-80% of global colonies will peak or trough simultaneously. For A. mellifera , colony sizes trough at approximately 10,000 to 15,000 worker bees and peak at approximately 50,000 to 60,000 worker bees ( ). Unfortunately, I couldn't find any data on seasonal variation for A. cerana Sagili & Burgett 2011 colonies, but in general, A. cerana colonies average between 20,000 and 40,000 worker bees per colony ( ). [75] With these inputs, I estimate that the global honey bee population troughs at between 1.4 and 2.7 trillion adult bees and peaks at between 3 and 4.8 trillion bees. Tej et al. 2017

This estimate applies only to adult bees and does not include larvae or pupae. Although data are harder to come by, it seems the number of larvae/pupae per colony fluctuates between 0 (if the weather is cold enough, egg-laying effectively stops) and 40,000 (just before peak colony size). The number of larvae/pupae does not fluctuate smoothly; there are a number of local troughs and peaks in response to events like spring buildup (when winter bees [76] die off), swarming (when a colony reproduces), and fall turnover (when the colony shifts to winter bee physiology). It's worth noting, however, that in contrast to other insects, eusocial insects like honey bees take excellent care of their young. There is a whole caste (nurse bees) dedicated solely to making sure larvae and pupae are well-fed. As a result, juvenile mortality is fairly low, no more than about 30% ( ). Al-Lawati & Bienefeld 2009

A further note on methodology: it's important to estimate the number of bees based on beehives rather than honey production (as is done ) for at least two reasons. First, not all bees are managed for honey. Some bees are managed exclusively for pollination services. here [77] The honey these bees produce may be harvested for local consumption or left for the bees to consume, but either way it would not enter official records. Thus, calculating total bees by honey production is likely to underestimate the number of bees. Second, the average amount of honey a bee produces depends on the size of the colony. Hives with more bees are more efficient at producing honey. According to , "One colony of 30,000 bees produces 1½ times as much honey as the sum of two colonies with 15,000 bees each" and "One colony of 45,000 bees produces 1½ times as much honey as three colonies with 15,000 bees each" (2). [78] Thus, there's no such thing as average honey per bee Sagili & Burgett 2011 simplicter . Estimating the average amount of honey produced per bee requires estimating the average size of a beehive. But if one has already estimated the average size of a beehive, then it's much easier to simply multiply that number by the number of worldwide beehives.

Pollination Services

Beekeeping and agriculture have become thoroughly intertwined over the last half century ( Lee, Sumner, & Champetier 2019 ). report that "the fraction of total agricultural production that depends directly on pollinators has increased fourfold over the last five decades" (222-223). Wild pollinators are not up to the task of pollinating that much acreage. Consequently, many honey bees colonies are trucked hundreds or thousands of miles every year and subsequently stationed in orchards and fields during peak bloom to pollinate commercial crops, thereby significantly increasing crop yields. Honey bees are the primary pollinators for about 73% of the world's cultivated crops that require animal pollination ( Potts et al. 2016 ). Honey bees are preferred pollinators in large part because of their versatility. Unlike many pollinators, which visit only a handful of species, honey bees are indiscriminate, collecting pollen and nectar wherever they are available. Bees pollinate 130 crops in the United States alone and more than 400 crops worldwide Reddy, Verghese, & Rajan 2012 ( ). [79] Some common crops pollinated by honey bees include almonds, avocados, blueberries, blackberries, canola, cocoa, cranberries, cherries, cucumbers, honey dew melons, kiwis, pears, pumpkins, raspberries, strawberries, and watermelons. [80] In the Pacific Northwest colonies service on average 2.4 different crops per year ( O'Toole 2008 cited in : 4 ). Burgett et al . 2010 Ferrier et al. 2018

The total economic value of pollination worldwide has been estimated at € 153 billion ($169 billion), though this figure includes all commercially managed bees, including managed bees outside genus Apis , and also wild non-bee pollinators ( ). A more recent estimate puts the value of commercially managed honey bee pollination at just under half [81] the global total value of bee pollination across insect-pollinated crops ( Gallai et al. 2009 ). But bees are not the only insect pollinators. [82] Another recent study estimates that wild non-bee insects account for roughly 38% of total agricultural pollination ( Kleijn et al. 2015 ). In the United States, it has been estimated that honey bee pollination added between $11.7 and $19.2 billion in agricultural value in 2010 ( ). Taken together, I think it's reasonable to estimate that commercially managed honey bees contribute roughly $50-$60 billion in global economic value via pollination services. [83]Rader et al. 2016 Calderone 2012

In the United States, almonds are a major and growing driver of pollination services. [84] In 2016 almonds accounted for 61% of all U.S. pollination services and, due to higher pollination fees, 82% of all U.S. pollination expenditures. Pollination services account for approximately 5% of total farm cost for almonds compared to about 1% for most crops requiring pollination. Almonds, which are almost entirely dependent on bees for pollination, bloom in February, much earlier than most other crops. Both the number of colonies and average bees per colony are at their lowest in the winter. As a result, almond farmers pay between $160 and $180 per colony, compared to $50-$70 per colony for apples, blueberries, blackberries, cherries, clover, cranberries, pears, and raspberries ( ). Almond acreage in the U.S. has increased from roughly 610,000 bearing acres in 2006 to more than a million bearing acres in 2017 ( Ferrier et al. 2018 ). California dominates the global almond market. During peak almond pollination, approximately ⅓ to ½ of all U.S. honey bees are concentrated in California's Central Valley, widely considered the in the world. (See Figure 24.) Lee, Sumner, & Champetier 2019 largest annual managed pollination event

Pollination services are in highest demand in East Asia and South Asia (see Figure 25), in part due to the greater abundance of pollination-dependent crops. Demand for pollination services thus seems to be an important contributor to the growth in Asian beekeeping. In my cursory survey, I was not able to find much information on the Asian market for pollination services. If one were to do a more thorough review of managed honey bees, one would want to understand the major factors affecting demand for pollination services in Asia.

Honey

Honey is produced from gathered flower nectar that is processed in the hive and deposited into a honeycomb. When most of the water has evaporated from the honeycomb, worker bees seal each cell by secreting a liquid from their abdomen that hardens into beeswax. To harvest the honey, beekeepers first scrape off the wax caps that seal the honey in the honeycomb frames. The frames are then placed in a centrifuge that spins the frames, forcing the honey out of the comb. The extracted honey is strained and sometimes heated, then bottled and shipped to market.

Other Bee Products

There are a handful of other honey bee products sold commercially, such as beeswax , , royal jelly b , and ee veno m , but the quantity and economic importance of these products pales in comparison to honey production and pollination services. Of these products, beeswax seems to be the most important . Beeswax is an ingredient in many products, including cosmetics, paints, pharmaceuticals, resins, glazes, and candles. Beeswax is produced by bees to build comb to store honey and house the colony's young. It is harvested at the same time as the honey because the beeswax caps must be removed in order to access the honey. The force of gravity will naturally separate the wax and honey, after which the drained wax can be washed, strained, rendered, and further processed depending on desired final usage. propolis

1. How many bees are transported worldwide? What is the average length of transport? What are the transport conditions like outside the U.S.?

2. How many bees die as a direct result of transport? How many bee deaths are indirectly attributable to transport?

3. What factors affect demand for pollination services in Asia?

4. How do fungicides affect honey bee welfare?

5. How easily can homeowners be convinced to convert lawns to semi-natural habitat or to mow lawns less frequently?

6. How many bees die as a result of poisonous honey substitutes?

7. How effective are the various thermal insulation improvements (such as wrapping hives in black plastic tar paper) that beekeepers apply during winter in cold areas? What other ways can thermal insulation be improved?

8. How many bee deaths are avoided due to smoking the bees during inspections and honey harvest?

9. How do genetics affect bee welfare?

10. What is the distribution of views within major farmed animal advocacy organizations on attempting to improve bee welfare (or invertebrate welfare more generally)?

11. How many conservation groups and governmental organizations are actively working to improve honey bee care? How much do they have at their disposal? How does the welfare efficacy of the various programs compare?

12. Which organizations/researchers outside North America and Europe are working on pollinator conservation?

13. What are the best indicators that could be used in order to assess bee welfare (e.g., certain behaviors, biochemical markers , mortality rate)?

14. Why aren't apiaries outside North America and Europe affected by colony collapse disorder?

15. Where do the bees go when a colony succumbs to colony collapse disorder?

16. Globally, which apiaries are the biggest? Does the average size of an apiary vary by region?

17. Which honey companies are largest?

18. How important are bee brokers for improving honey bee welfare? [85] Which bee brokers are biggest?

19. From a welfare perspective, which Varroa control methods are best, both for the bees and for the mites?

20. Could food manufacturers be convinced to substitute other ingredients for honey or almonds?

21. How many managed bees get diseases due to homing errors? How much could this disease burden be reduced by altering hive orientation or color?

22. Are growers actually acting on incentives to (e.g.) plant more natural forage? Are there countervailing incentives?

23. Are beekeepers actually acting on incentives to (e.g.) reduce homing errors? Are there countervailing incentives?

24. For reforms in which financial incentives align with bee welfare, where are the information barriers highest?

25. What is the best way to disseminate information to beekeepers?

26. What is the public perception toward interventions targeting honey bee welfare (or invertebrate welfare more generally)? How malleable are these attitudes?

27. Are there novel pest control strategies currently in development with positive welfare implications whose progress to commercial deployment could be counterfactually accelerated through increased research funding?

28. Can we counterfactually accelerate the implementation of mechanical alternatives to honey bee pollination with targeted research grants?

29. What is the ideal entrance height for a hive? Does the ideal height vary by climate?

30. What percentage of managed honey bees are a species other than Apis mellifera ?

31. Do different subspecies of Apis mellifera pose different welfare concerns?

32. What is the total population of feral honey bees? Of wild bees more generally? Of insect pollinators? How have these totals changed over time?

33. What is the best way to build the effective animal advocacy movement in Asia, especially China and India?

This essay is a project of Rethink Priorities . It was written by Jason Schukraft. Thanks to Kim Cuddington, Marcus A. Davis, Neil Dullaghan, Travis Dynes, Persis Eskander, Kieran Greig, Peter Hurford, David Moss, Saulius Šimčikas, Michael Smith, Gavin Taylor, and Daniela R. Waldhorn for helpful feedback. If you like our work, please consider . You can see all our work to date subscribing to our newsletter . here

Haber, A. I., Steinhauer, N. A., & van Engelsdorp, D. (2019). Use of Chemical and Nonchemical Methods for the Control of Varroa destructor (Acari: Varroidae) and Associated Winter Colony Losses in US Beekeeping Operations . Journal of Economic Entomology .

Sagili, R. R., & Burgett, D. M. (2011). Evaluating honey bee colonies for pollination: a guide for commercial growers and beekeepers . PNW . 623 : 1 - 8 .

Seeley, T. D., & Smith, M. L. (2015). Crowding honeybee colonies in apiaries can increase their vulnerability to the deadly ectoparasite Varroa destructor . Apidologie , 46 (6), 716-727.

van Engelsdorp, D. & Meixner, M. D. (2010). . A historical review of managed honey bee populations in Europe and the United States and the factors that may affect them Journal of invertebrate pathology , 103 , S80-S95.

Wilfert, L., Long, G., Leggett, H. C., Schmid-Hempel, P., Butlin, R., Martin, S. J. M., & Boots, M. (2016). Deformed wing virus is a recent global epidemic in honeybees driven by Varroa mites . Science , 351 (6273), 594-597.

[1] The terminological consensus in the relevant literature is that honey bees are managed not farmed . I have adopted this terminology throughout.

[2] Silkworms are the second most numerous type of farmed insects. Overall, insects appear to constitute the largest group of farmed invertebrates, though it's possible that nematodes beat them out for that honor. (Reliable figures are hard to come by for nematodes. Nematodes are raised commercially for many reasons, including pest control and soil amendment, and because they are so small, a single box can contain half a billion of the creatures.)

[3] The evidence of sentience is strongest for coleoid cephalopods (octopuses, cuttlefish, squid). Group-living insects, of which honey bees are a part, probably have the next best case, though one could reasonably argue that the evidence is slightly better for decapod crustaceans. See our summary of findings by taxa or the section in our invertebrate welfare cause profile. case studies

[4] One literature review documented 59 distinct behavior types in honey bees; that number compares favorably against many mammalian species, such as the North American moose (at 22), De Brazza monkeys (at 44), and bottlenose dolphins (at 123) ( ). Honey bees exhibit more self-control Chittka & Niven 2009 (defined as the tendency to choose large delayed rewards over small immediate rewards) than rats and pigeons ( ). And agitated honey bees exhibit the same sorts of pessimistic cognitive biases that anxious mammals do ( ). Cheng et al. 2002 Bateson et al. 2011

[5] Honey bees are able to communicate the distance, direction, and relative reward-to-danger ratio of nearby flower patches to hivemates using their famous waggle dance ( ). Honey bees can come to understand Abbott & Dukas 2009 that when a certain color is presented to them, odor A predicts a sucrose reward and odor B does not, but when a different color is presented, the relationship between the odors is reversed ( ). There is even evidence of metacognitive abilities in honey bees. Using the , one study tasked honey bees with discriminating between two stimuli. A correct answer earned a reward (sucrose) and an incorrect answer earned a punishment (quinine). When given the choice to opt out, honey bees were found to opt out more often when the trial was difficult (when the honey bee was proportionately more likely to receive a punishment than a reward). The honey bees on average improved their success-to-failure ratio when given the option to opt out of trials ( Mota, Giurfa, & Sandoz 2011 ). "uncertain response" paradigm Perry & Barron 2013

[23] Unrelatedly, queen bees are often mailed in small boxes from breeders to beekeepers. Presumably, these bees experience considerable stress in transit, though obviously this issue only affects a small number of bees. More importantly, queens shipped long distances may produce weaker colonies. Recent research suggests colonies with queens of local origin survive longer than colonies with queens of non-local origin ( ). Büchler et al 2014

[37] "Colonies performing pollination services were subject to increased pesticide exposure compared to honey-production and holding yards" ( Traynor et al. 2016 : 1) and "Pollination environments almost invariably contribute more pesticide residues" ( : 14). Traynor et al. 2016

[45] In addition, wild bees increase the efficiency of honey bee pollination for at least one crop (hybrid sunflower), and the authors report that "it is likely that wild bees enhance honey bee pollination efficiency for other crops" ( Greenleaf & Kremen 2006 : 13892 ).

[69] Here are some loose examples of message discrepancy at work. The prosocial activities of companies whose motives are perceived to be insincere or ambiguous hurts the company's image ( ). Negative stereotypes of social activists make people more resistant to the adoption of social changes that the activists promote ( Yoon, Gürhan‐Canli, & Schwarz 2006 ). Other potential examples include proponents of marriage equality galvanizing opposition, advertising for California's Proposition 12 reducing its appeal to conservatives, and anti-tobacco campaigns failing to persuade smokers to give up the habit. Bashir et al. 2013

[72] The annual production of Melipona honey is trivial compared to Apis honey. Following standard convention, when I refer to "honey bees," I refer exclusively to Apis bees.

[74] There are several subspecies within Apis mellifera , each with slightly different characteristics. For example, in many parts of Africa the most commonly managed bee is Apis mellifera scutellata (the so-called "African bee"), which is more aggressive than subspecies managed elsewhere.

[81]$2,913 per hectare for managed honey bees vs $3,251 per hectare for wild bees

[83] Note that this is not an estimate of total revenue received for pollination services, which, as far as I can tell, is about an order of magnitude smaller. This suggests that pollination services may be currently under-priced.

Jason Schukraft

Jason is a Senior Research Manager at Rethink Priorities. Before joining the RP team, Jason earned his doctorate in philosophy from the University of Texas at Austin. Jason specializes in questions at the intersection of epistemology and applied ethics.

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Managed honey bee welfare: problems and potential interventions - Rethink Priorities

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At any given time there are more than a trillion managed honey bees. Globally, the number of managed colonies has risen steadily over the last twenty years and this growth will almost certainly persist, at least in the short term. Increases in demand for honey and (especially) commercial pollination

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By Dr. Brittany Jacobs | 01/31/2024

Despite many advances over time, gender inequality and sex discrimination are still rampant in sports. But while females make up more than half of the U.S. population according to the U.S. Census Bureau they are still fighting for equity, both in society and within the sporting sector.

Females in Sports during the Late 1800s

In the late 1800s, the male head of a household or domestic responsibilities limited sports opportunities for females. Despite the challenges and public outcry, women's colleges served as a sporting enclave, organizing regular sports competitions, much to the chagrin of society.

In 1884, women tennis players were first permitted to compete at Wimbledon, but not before these opportunities were denied many times by the All England Club. Tennis Majors notes that Black women were not permitted to compete at Wimbledon until 1951, and the intersectionality of identities often further marginalizes women in the sporting sector.

Early 1900s: Growth and a Partial Rise in Interest in Women's Sports

In the early 1900s, the advent of women's athletic clubs led to the exploration of additional sports that had previously been designated for men only. During the 1900 Olympic Games in Paris, France, the Olympic Game organizers allowed women to compete.

Women's athletics clubs blossomed from the early 1900s to 1930s. As a result, female athletes began to formalize sport participation through organizations like the Women's Athletic Association (WAA). But a trend towards limiting women and girls taking part in sports began to sweep the country.

Organizations like the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) began to speak out against women athletes in sports, noting that women's sports should not be for competition or monetary gain, and women play for just recreation. Society doubled down on the belief that a woman's primary duty was reproduction, which meant that too much energy expenditure or engaging in "unladylike sports" might render them infertile.

The 1940s: World War II's Impact on Women's Sports

With the onset of WWII and the majority of men serving overseas, women's sporting opportunities increased dramatically during the 1940s. The All-American Girls Professional Baseball League, created to ensure the continuance of baseball during wartime, ultimately featured nearly 600 female athletes.

Though recruited for their skill, these athletes were also expected to fit the "feminine ideal" and marketed accordingly - a challenge women in sport continue to face today. The most successful team in the league, the Rockford Peaches, was the inspiration for the popular 1990s movie "A League of Their Own" and the 2022 TV show by the same name.

The 1950s: Athletes vs. Housewives

The 1950s saw Althea Gibson dominating the tennis scene as the first Black player to compete in both the U.S. National Championships and Wimbledon. But gender and racial stratification and segregation remained the norm.

Most high schools did not sponsor women's sports, and those that did often used sports to promote matchmaking. With the folding of the All-American Girl's Professional Baseball League in 1954, athletes were expected to return from their "Rosie the Riveter" days and re-embrace the role of the housewife.

The 1960s: Change and Free Love

In the 1960s, many colleges and universities began offering women's sports, and some even sponsored varsity programs. But the majority of women remained virtually barred from athletic opportunities.

In 1966, Bobbi Gibb became the first woman to finish the Boston Marathon by competing unofficially, and Kathrine Switzer officially ran in the 1967 Boston Marathon. The notorious picture of Switzer being nearly run off course by the race's director, Jock Semple, epitomizes the sporting landscape of the day.

The 1970s to the Present: Title IX

The passage of Title IX in 1972 may be the single most transformational moment for women's sports. Title IX, part of the Education Amendments of 1972, protects people from discrimination based on sex in education programs or activities that receive federal financial assistance.

Why Is Title IX Related to Sports?

In the United States, sports are intrinsically tied to academics. Because sports programs are managed as part of the educational offerings of K-12 schools, colleges, and universities, Title IX also applies to these programs.

As a result, recipients of federal financial assistance that sponsor intercollegiate, interscholastic, club, or intramural athletics are required to provide equal (proportional) athletic opportunities for both sexes. Also, Title IX includes not only participatory opportunities, but also resources like the provision of equipment, facilities, housing, travel, and support services.

To determine if an institution is meeting Title IX requirements, a three-prong test is applied.

Prong 1 - Proportionality

Based on this prong, an athletic department should provide opportunities for each sex that are proportional to the ratio of females/males within the educational institution. For example, if a university has 60% females and 40% males, athletic opportunities at that university should reflect this proportion:

60% opportunities for female athletes

40% opportunities for male athletes

If the opportunities for athletic involvement for either sex (typically female athletes) are lower than the proportion of females/males within the school, this prong would not be met.

Prong 2 - Expansion

If a school fails to satisfy the first prong, it can still comply with Title IX if the requirements of the second prong are met. The second prong notes that a school must show a history and continuance of expanding athletic opportunities towards proportionality, which typically means for female athletes.

Prong 3 - Accommodating Interests

If a school has disproportionate athletic programs and cannot show that it has or is continuing to expand opportunities, compliance with Title IX can be demonstrated by ensuring accommodation of the interests of both sexes.

Has Title IX Improved the Fate of Women in Sports?

Title IX protects both sexes, though we often see it used to improve female athletic opportunities since women athletes have faced sex and gender discrimination in sports for decades. Since the passage of Title IX, there has been more than a 1,000% increase in girls' involvement in sports, according to the National Center for Education Statistics. That change shows the historic inequities between male and female athletes and the impact this legislation has made on women's athletics since its passage.

Additionally, a proposed Title IX rule seeks to establish policies that categorically ban a transgender athlete from participating on a sports team that aligns with that athlete's gender identity.

Despite the growth attributed to Title IX, boys participating in sports at the high school level still exceed girls by more than one million and women participants make up only 42% of all high school players according to the National Federation of State High School Associations. Schools that have higher percentages of students of color also have higher instances of gender inequity in sports. Title IX non-compliance, therefore, disproportionately impacts women and young girls of color.

At the intercollegiate level, 92.7% of college and university athletic departments are out of compliance with Title IX, observes Champion Women. At the collegiate level, there is significant gender discrimination, which adversely impacts women's sports.

To meet the proportionality prong, Champion Women says that 225,000 women's sports opportunities would need to be added. In addition, women are being shorted nearly $1.1 billion dollars in athletic scholarships annually, according to Champion Women.

The Future of Women's Sports

The opportunities for women in sports have increased substantially since the passage of Title IX, but more work remains. For the first time in Olympic history, the Paris Olympics in 2024 will achieve numerical gender parity, with 5,250 women and men competing for the chance to become an Olympic champion.

However, there is still a major gender gap across leadership roles within the Olympic movement. Only 13% of coaches at the Tokyo 2020 Games and 10% at Beijing 2022 were women, according to Olympics.com.

Gender stereotypes about who should be playing sports, what kinds of sports are appropriate for women, and what women should look like when they play their sports persist. In fact, 32.2% of parents support the belief that boys are better than girls at sport, notes the Women's Sport sFoundation.

This internalized sexism can lead to the intentional or unintentional propagation of discrimination against female athletes. Despite this discrimination, Korn Ferry observes, 90% of female executives of Fortune 500 companies have been athletes, and women who play sports are shown to earn 8% more than those who did not. Ideally, more people should support girls as athletes during their middle and high school years.

Missed sporting opportunities and discrimination result in a lack of opportunity that can have longstanding effects on the female population. One-third of women in midlife (41-60 years old) are not meeting guidelines for weekly physical activity, and 84% say they seek to be more active, according to Women in Sport.

Broadcast Coverage to Promote Women's Sports

Over the last decade, women's sports received an average share of approximately 4% of media coverage. Sports Pro Media says that as of 2022, this percentage has increased to 15% and should hit 20% by 2025, based on the current growth rate.

However, ESPN did not place the 2023 NCAA Women's Basketball Championship in a prime-time slot, despite drawing more than 10 million viewers in 2022. In professional men's sports, the average viewership is often lower:

A perennial challenge faced by women's sports is that even when media coverage is provided, female athletes are regularly objectified. The media focus often strays from athleticism and in-game play to maternal and spousal roles, parental figures, or fashion.

Despite this objectification of women, media coverage is an important asset. It gives more people the opportunity to view the game and become fans, ultimately increasing interest and support for the team, athlete, or league.

The Fight to Address the Gender Pay Gap

The U.S. Women's National Soccer Team has led the charge to address the gender pay gap within the United States. As World Cup and Olympic champions, the U.S. Women's National Soccer Team members were significantly more successful than their male counterparts, but they earn less money than athletes playing men's sports.

By suing the United States Soccer Federation, this women's soccer team was ultimately able to sign a new collective bargaining agreement to change that pay gap. It included more equal pay structures and distribution of World Cup prize money, commensurate with that of their male counterparts.

Legislation Supporting Equity for Women in Professional Sports

This success has led other female athletes to begin addressing gender inequality and seeking additional money for their athletic contributions. On January 5, 2023, President Biden signed the Equal Pay for Team USA Act into law.

This legislation requires the representatives of the United States in global amateur athletic competitions to receive equal compensation and support, no matter their gender. While the need for legislation to create pay equality is unfortunately necessary, codifying these regulations will almost certainly lead to a reduction in discrimination.

The law applies to the national governing bodies for 50 different sports, including:

USA Rugby

USA Volleyball

United States Olympic & Paralympic Committee (USOPC)

Gender Inequality and Women's Soccer Athletes

Outside of the United States, FIFA (also known as the International Federation of Association Football) announced a 300% increase in bonuses for the Women's World Cup in 2023 according to CNN. While this announcement is a step in the right direction, Euronews says that only 40% of the women athletes participating considered themselves to be professional soccer players.

These elite players earn, on average, 25 cents for every dollar of pay earned by male athletes. Shockingly, Euronews says that this figure was eight cents to the dollar during 2019.

Comparatively, the 300% increase in compensation represents progress but simultaneously highlights the existing issues with gender equity. For example, there is a significant need for leaders of different countries to promote women's sport and ensure more money and equal opportunities for female athletes.

Female Coaches, Officials, and Sports Managers

The lack of women in sports extends beyond athletes participating on the field or court. Women are also underrepresented in coaching roles as officials and sports administrators.

In college athletics, Tide Sport says that Division I women athletic directors (AD) make up only 15% of all AD positions. At the Division I and II levels, Tide Sport notes that women hold 25% and 33% of athletic director positions, respectively.

The underrepresentation of women, particularly Black women, is also found in head coaching roles and across the executive suite of professional sports. With limited opportunities for women to serve in managerial capacities in sports, some organizations have begun implementing rules that facilitate the hiring of candidates from underrepresented groups.

The Russell Rule

The West Coast Conference (WCC) has implemented the Russell Rule, requiring schools to interview candidates from underrepresented groups when hiring an athletic director, senior administrator, head coach, or full-time assistant. Those candidates can include women.

The key to the WCC's success has been monitoring and accountability. A third-party group, TIDES, ensures conference schools are abiding by this rule.

In the first hiring cycle since implementation, half of the hired candidates were from underrepresented groups. The pipeline of talent and opportunities for this talent is important for ensuring representation of all groups across all sectors of sports.

The Power of Women in the Sporting Sector

When women's sport is supported, massive opportunities for growth will likely emerge. The change will not only benefit female players, but also the brands that associate with them and the organizations that seek gender balance in their workforce.

It will be necessary to address important issues such as discrimination, gender equity, less pay, sexual harassment, and sexist questions in media coverage. Once these issues are resolved, the public interest in women's sporting products will further increase.

The teams and leagues will likely generate additional money, and fans will continue to form affiliations as they watch women athletes play. The surge of support for women's sports does not discount men's sports as there is space in the market for both types of sports.

Similarly, women who hold executive roles or leadership roles in sports will create more opportunities for others who want to become leaders. Women athletes in the C-suite provide different perspectives to business issues, leading to optimal solutions and better organizational performance.

Also, female athletes are powerful social media endorsers. Young females who participate in sports have higher levels of self-esteem and confidence and lower levels of depression.

Despite the discrimination in sports that has existed throughout history, women in sports will continue to fight for equality. They will promote sports participation and earn fans, encouraging women make progress in business and in sports.

Relevant Articles:

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Is There Gender Discrimination in Sports? How to Fix It | American Public University

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Dr. Brittany Jacobs answers the question about why is there discrimination in sports and how it affects female athletes.

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This article was originally published in French

Despite the progress made in women's sport, major challenges remain, particularly regarding equal pay, visibility and training conditions.

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As the FIFA Women's World Cup kicked off last week, women's football finds itself at the centre of the world stage. Despite the progress made in women's sports, major challenges remain, particularly in terms of equal pay, visibility and training conditions.

"The European Commission is monitoring the situation closely" explains Ligia Nobrega, senior analyst at the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE). In 2018, the institute was commissioned by the Council of Europe to collect data on gender equality and sport in the EU Member States and check whether countries are applying the quota policy established in 2022.

According to this policy, by mid-2026, at least 40% of non-executive seats on boards of directors must be held by women, as well as at least 33% of executive and non-executive seats. This means female presidents, vice presidents, members and managers within the European sports confederations.

"We have tried to follow and monitor this initiative and we find that countries that have implemented quotas are achieving a more balanced representation of the sexes more quickly than countries that have not [...] And the best-performing countries are Finland, Sweden and the United Kingdom", explains the expert. "But we are still a long way from having 40% women represented in these organisations", she adds.

Equal pay: A match yet to be won

Despite considerable progress, equal pay remains a major challenge in women's sport. Unlike the United States women's national team - which, through its fight for parity, succeeded in obtaining a collective agreement guaranteeing equal pay for male and female players in the national team - many international federations continue not to offer fair pay to their female athletes.

Although some improvements have been made, women's salaries are still significantly lower than those of their male counterparts.

"We have huge pay inequalities. If I just tell you, for example, that the average salary of a female WNBA player was 110 times less than that of a male NBA colleague, that gives you an idea of the inequalities involved," comments Julian Jappert, director of the Think Tank Sport et Citoyenneté.

In a move aimed at closing the pay gap, FIFA has announced a 300% increase in bonuses for the 2023 Women's World Cup, bringing the total to €135 million. While this is a positive step, there is still a significant gap between the bonuses awarded to men and women at major tournaments. Indeed, at the last Men's World Cup 2022, FIFA allocated around - in performance bonuses to the federations of the participating teams.

According to a recent report by FIFPRO (the International Federation of Professional Footballers' Associations) on the qualifying conditions for players at the World Cup, of the players taking part in the 2023 World Cup, only 40% considered themselves to be professional footballers. While 35% said they were amateurs, 16% said they were semi-professionals and 9% were unsure of their status.

"Among the 362 players we interviewed from six continents around the world who had taken part in the 2023 World Cup qualifiers, there were huge disparities in their salaries," explains Alex Culvin, Head of Women's Football Strategy and Research at FIFPRO. "29% of players received no pay at all for this competition. This means that 66% had to take unpaid leave - or time off from their other professional activities - in order to take part in the World Cup qualifiers," she continues.

These figures are echoed by former French national team player Mélissa Plaza, who is now a sports psychologist: "For all the teams playing in the D1, we're talking about an average monthly salary of between €1,300 gross and €1,600 gross [...] When you're well below €1,300 gross a month, that means one thing, it means that you're not a professional, that you're not being paid exclusively to play football and that you need to have a job on the side," she explains.

Women's training: a field strewn with obstacles

According to Mélissa Plaza, training conditions for female football players are problematic and inadequate compared to the preparation of their male counterparts:

"We often pick up the scraps left over from the boys. All the equipment that's left over from the boys and that's too big or too small, for example, that's what we pick up. So typically, I've got girlfriends who used to play for FC Nantes not so long ago and they used to collect the size 43 socks left over from the boys. And obviously, a size 43 when you're a size 38 doesn't make sense. Often, they were forced to buy their own socks in their own size".

She adds: "When you're a female footballer today when you're playing in the D1, you can regularly find yourself in situations where you find yourself with the last time slot left free by the boys for training, i.e. the 8 pm / 10 pm slot..."

These obstacles are confirmed by the data collected by FIFPRO.

"We have received reports from dissatisfied players who feel that each confederation needs to make significant improvements to its infrastructure, training pitches, accommodation, transport when travelling, as well as outfits and footwear," explains Alex Culvin. What the data tells us, and what we hear repeatedly from players, is that they are not treated or valued as they should be, either by their club or their federation, and that they often have insufficient and random access to infrastructure and facilities.

From the pitch to the screens: in search of popularity

The media play a key role in perpetuating these inequalities, often giving insufficient coverage to women's sporting events compared to their male counterparts. Greater visibility for women's sports has the potential to inspire future generations to take up the sport. Higher attendance at Women's Super League (WSL) matches, with clubs such as Arsenal Women outnumbering the attendance of men's teams, is a testament to the growing interest and commitment of fans. Such visibility plays an essential role in the popularity of these sports.

As Julian Jappert confirms: "There are huge inequalities between the broadcasting of women's sport and men's sport, even though studies show that viewers are interested and that when the channels finally broadcast and take this financial risk and also in terms of ratings, they get results.

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But the popularity of a sport is built up from childhood, according to Cécile Locatelli, a former football player who is now a coach: "Clubs need to make the effort to put competent people in the right place to be able to motivate and bring these young girls into the sport.

Stefan Bergh, President of the NGO ENGSO, which promotes guidelines for grassroots sport across Europe, is optimistic: "What I've noticed over the last four or even six years is that there are higher and stronger expectations at local level too, on the part of every individual practising sport", explains the analyst. "We are_not only seeing women but also many young men expressing themselves on gender issues in a way that we did not see ten years ago".

According to the President of ENGSO, those in positions of authority should raise society's awareness of gender issues: "People in positions of leadership like myself, as President of ENGSO and also Secretary General of the Swedish Sports Confederation, must set an example in terms of achieving gender parity, but also in terms of ensuring that funding is equal between men and women".

More sexism

Sexism in women's sports is a persistent problem that hinders the progress and equality of women athletes. Despite some progress in the recognition and visibility of women's sports, prejudice and gender stereotypes continue to have a negative influence on the perception of women in sports. Sexist comments and unjustified criticism of women athletes' performances persist, helping to devalue their achievements and talents.

A recent example from Italy illustrates the problem.

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During the broadcast of a women's diving event at the World Swimming Championships being held from 23 to 30 July in Fukuoka, Japan, two sports commentators, Lorenzo Leonarduzzi and Massimiliano Mazzucchi, made degrading and inappropriate comments about the physical appearance of the women divers, live on the national public broadcaster RAI:

"The Dutch girls are fat, like our Vittorioso", "They're big, aren't they", "But in bed, they're all the same", "This one is called Harper, she's a harpist, how do you play the harp? Do you...? "Do you touch it? Do you pinch it".

These degrading comments sparked a wave of indignation among viewers and led to the suspension of the two journalists.

Mélissa Plaza recounts how she too witnessed episodes of sexist violence within her team: "I witnessed the prevailing misogyny in this environment. We 'only' won 3-0 at half-time. The guy who coaches us is extremely unhappy with the score and ends up clearly threatening to rape us" "He tells us 'Do you want to be sluts with me? I'm going to fuck you all one by one."

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Gender inequality in sport: The challenges facing female athletes

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Despite the progress made in women's sport, major challenges remain, particularly regarding equal pay, visibility and training conditions.

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Gender Inequality in Sports | Gender Stats-Education

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I am a true believer in gender equality in general and very passionate about equal recognition, equal rights, and equal pay. I believe that equal rights should not only be an issue when we refer to…

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The sports industry is a different world for women than it is for men. Learn more about seven causes of gender inequality in sports, and how we can progress toward a more equal future.

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It's like walking through a hailstorm...

-Polly R. (pseudonym), parent of gender non-conforming son, describing the hostile environment that LGBT children face in schools, Utah, December 2015

Outside the home, schools are the primary vehicles for educating, socializing, and providing services to young people in the United States. Schools can be difficult environments for students, regardless of their sexual orientation or gender identity, but they are often especially unwelcoming for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) youth. A lack of policies and practices that affirm and support LGBT youth-and a failure to implement protections that do exist-means that LGBT students nationwide continue to face bullying, exclusion, and discrimination in school, putting them at physical and psychological risk and limiting their education.

In 2001, Human Rights Watch published Hatred in the Hallways: Violence and Discrimination against Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Students in US Schools. The report documented rampant bullying and discrimination against LGBT students in schools across the country, and urged policymakers and school officials to take concrete steps to respect and protect the rights of LGBT youth.

Over the last 15 years, lawmakers and school administrators have increasingly recognized that LGBT youth are a vulnerable population in school settings, and many have implemented policies designed to ensure all students feel safe and welcome at school.

Yet progress is uneven. In many states and school districts, LGBT students and teachers lack protections from discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity. In others, protections that do exist are inadequate or unenforced. As transgender and gender non-conforming students have become more visible, too, many states and school districts have ignored their needs and failed to ensure they enjoy the same academic and extracurricular benefits as their non-transgender peers.

This undermines a number of fundamental human rights, including LGBT students' rights to education, personal security, freedom from discrimination, access to information, free expression, association and privacy.

Areas of concern include bullying and harassment, exclusion from school curricula and resources, restrictions on LGBT student groups, and other forms of discrimination and bigotry against students and staff based on sexual orientation and gender identity. While not exhaustive, these broad issues offer a starting point for policymakers and administrators to ensure that LGBT people's rights are respected and protected in schools.

LGBT Experiences in School

Social pressures are part of the school experience of many students, regardless of sexual orientation or gender identity. But the experience can be particularly difficult for LGBT students, who often struggle to make sense of their identities, lack support from family and friends, and encounter negative messaging about LGBT people at school and in their community.

In some instances, teachers themselves mocked LGBT youth or joined the bullying. Lynette G., the mother of a young girl with a gay father in South Dakota, recalled that when her daughter was eight, "she ran home because they were teasing her. Like, 'Oh, your dad is a cocksucker, a faggot, he sucks dick.' ... She saw a teacher laughing and that traumatized her even worse."

Students also reported difficulty accessing information about LGBT issues from teachers and counselors, and found little information in school libraries and on school computers. In some districts, this silence was exacerbated by state law. In Alabama, Texas, Utah, and five other US states, antiquated states laws restrict discussions of homosexuality in schools. Such restrictions make it difficult or impossible for LGBT youth to get information about health and well-being on the same terms as heterosexual peers. "In my health class I tested the water by asking [the teacher] about safer sex, because I'm gay," Brayden W., a 17-year-old boy in Utah, said. "He said he was not allowed to talk about it."

The effects of these laws are not only limited to health or sexuality education classes. As students and teachers describe in this report, they also chilled discussions of LGBT topics and themes in history, government, psychology, and English classes.

Many LGBT youth have organized gay-straight alliances (GSAs), which can serve as important resources for students and as supportive spaces to counteract bullying and institutional silence about issues of importance to them. As this report documents, however, these clubs continue to encounter obstacles from some school administrators that make it difficult for them to form and operate.

When GSAs were allowed to form, some students said they were subject to more stringent requirements than other clubs, were left out of school-wide activities, or had their advertising defaced or destroyed. Serena I., a 17-year-old bisexual girl in Utah, said: "It's mental abuse, almost, seeing all these posters up and yours is the only one that's written on or torn down."

Often, LGBT students also lacked teacher role models. In the absence of employment protections, many LGBT teachers said they feared backlash from parents or adverse employment consequences if they were open about their sexual orientation or gender identity.

Discrimination and bigotry against transgender students took various forms, including restricting bathroom and locker room access, limiting participation in extracurricular activities, and curtailing other forms of expression-for example, dressing for the school day or special events like homecoming. "They didn't let me in and I didn't get my money back," said Willow K., a 14-year-old transgender girl in Texas who attempted to wear a dress to her homecoming.

LGBT students also described persistent patterns of isolation, exclusion, and marginalization that made them feel unsafe or unwelcome at school. Students described how hearing slurs, lacking resources relevant to their experience, being discouraged from having same-sex relationships, and being regularly misgendered made the school a hostile environment, which in turn can impact health and well-being.

Acanthus R., a 17-year-old pansexual, non-binary transgender student in Utah, said it was "like a little mental pinch" when teachers used the wrong pronouns. "It doesn't seem like a big deal, but eventually you bruise."

Comprehensive approaches are urgently needed to make school environments welcoming for LGBT students and staff, and to allow students to learn and socialize with peers without fearing exclusion, humiliation, or violence. Above all:

States should repeal outdated and stigmatizing laws that deter and arguably prohibit discussion of LGBT issues in schools, and enact laws protecting students and staff from bullying and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity.

Schools should ensure that policies, curricula, and resources explicitly include LGBT people, and that the school environment is responsive to the specific needs of LGBT youth.

Teachers and administrators should work to make existing policies meaningful by enforcing protections and intervening when bullying or discrimination occurs.

To State Legislatures

Ensure that state laws against bullying and harassment include enumerated protections on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity;

Ensure that state non-discrimination laws include explicit protections from discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity, particularly in education, employment, and public accommodations;

Repeal laws that preclude local school districts from providing enumerated protections against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity;

Repeal laws that prohibit or restrict discussion of LGBT issues in schools.

To State Departments of Education

Ensure that teachers, counselors, and other staff receive training to familiarize them with the issues LGBT students might face;

Promulgate model guidelines for school districts to follow to make schools safe and inclusive for LGBT youth.

To School Administrators

Ensure that school policies against bullying and harassment include enumerated protections on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity;

Ensure that the school provide comprehensive sexuality education that is inclusive of LGBT youth, covers same-sex activity on equal footing with other sexual activity, and is medically and scientifically accurate;

Ensure that GSAs and other LGBT student organizations are permitted to form and operate on the same terms as all other student organizations;

Ensure that same-sex couples are able to date, display affection, and attend dances and other school functions on the same terms as all other student couples;

Ensure that students are able to access facilities, express themselves, and participate in classes, sports teams, and extracurricular activities in accordance with their gender identity.

To the US Congress

Enact the Equality Act or similar legislation to prohibit discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity in employment, education, federal funding, and public accommodations;

Enact the Student Non-Discrimination Act or similar legislation to prohibit discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity in schools;

Enact the Safe Schools Improvement Act or similar legislation to encourage states to enact strong policies to prevent bullying and harassment that are inclusive of sexual orientation and gender identity;

Enact the Real Education for Healthy Youth Act or similar legislation to support comprehensive sexuality education and restrict funding to health education programs that are medically inaccurate, scientifically ineffective, or unresponsive to the needs of LGBT youth.

Human Rights Watch conducted research for this report between November 2015 and May 2016 in five US states: Alabama, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Texas, and Utah. The sites were chosen as a regionally diverse sample of states that, at time of writing, lacked enumerated statewide protections against bullying and discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity in schools.

Human Rights Watch contacted potential interviewees through nongovernmental organizations, LGBT organizations in high schools and middle schools, and LGBT organizations in post-secondary institutions where recent graduates reflected on their high school experiences. The research focused on public schools, including public charter schools, rather than private schools that enjoy greater autonomy to act in accordance with their particular beliefs under US law. Researchers spoke with 358 current or former students and 145 teachers, administrators, parents, service providers, and advocates for LGBT youth.

All interviews were conducted in English. No compensation was paid to interviewees. Whenever possible, interviews were conducted one-on-one in a private setting. Researchers also spoke with interviewees in pairs, trios, or small groups when students asked to meet together or when time and space constraints required meeting with members of student organizations simultaneously.

Researchers obtained oral informed consent from interviewees, and notified interviewees why Human Rights Watch was conducting the research and how it would use their accounts, that they did not need to answer any questions they preferred not to answer, and that they could stop the interview at any time. When students were interviewed in groups, those who were present but did not actively participate and volunteer information were not recorded or counted in our final pool of interviewees.

In this report, pseudonyms are used for interviewees who are students, teachers, or administrators in schools to protect their privacy and mitigate the risk of adverse consequences for participating in the research. Unless requested by interviewees, pseudonyms are not used for individuals who work in a public capacity on the issues discussed in this report.

Agender: Does not identify with any gender.

Aromantic: Experiences little or no romantic attraction to other people.

Asexual: Experiences little or no sexual attraction to other people.

Biromantic: Romantically attracted to two or more sexes or genders.

Bisexual: Sexually or romantically attracted to two or more sexes or genders.

Cisgender: Sex assigned at birth conforms to identified or lived gender.

Demiboy: Only partly male, regardless of sex assigned at birth.

Demigirl: Only partly female, regardless of sex assigned at birth.

Demisexual: Feels attraction only to those with whom they have a strong emotional bond.

Gay: Male is primarily sexually or romantically attracted to other males.

Genderfluid: Gender fluctuates and may differ over time.

Gender Identity:Deeply felt sense of being female or male, neither, both, or something other than female and male. Does not necessarily correspond to sex assigned at birth.

Gender Non-Conforming: Does not conform to stereotypical appearances, behaviors, or traits associated with sex assigned at birth.

Genderqueer: Identifies as neither male nor female, both male and female, or a combination of male and female, and not within the gender binary.

Lesbian: Female is primarily sexually or romantically attracted to other females.

LGBT: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender.

Non-Binary: Identifies as neither male nor female.

Pansexual: Sexual or romantic attraction is not restricted by sex assigned at birth, gender, or gender identity.

Sexual Orientation: Sense of attraction to, or sexual desire for, individuals of the same sex, another sex, both, or neither.

Transgender: Sex assigned at birth does not conform to identified or lived gender.

Successes, with Limits

LGBT communities in the United States have won a number of victories over the past decade. Among other milestones, advocates have successfully fought to include sexual orientation and gender identity in federal hate crimes legislation, repeal the "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" policy that banned LGBT persons from serving in the US military, and prohibit discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity in employment by the federal government and its contractors and subcontractors. The US Supreme Court has also extended the constitutional right to marry to same-sex couples nationwide.

When LGBT youth experience family or community rejection, schools can ideally function as safe and affirming environments for them to learn, interact with peers, and feel a sense of belonging. Yet efforts to ensure such conditions for LGBT youth in schools have historically encountered strong political, legal, and cultural resistance, and continue to face such resistance today, often due to the charge that adults are "indoctrinating" or "recruiting" youth into being LGBT.

"No Promo Homo" Laws

In some instances, pervasive anxieties about indoctrination and recruitment in schools have prompted state and local efforts-some of them successful-to limit what teachers may say about LGBT topics in the classroom.

Alabama state law dictates that "[c]ourse materials and instruction that relate to sexual education or sexually transmitted diseases should include all of the following elements ... [a]n emphasis, in a factual manner and from a public health perspective, that homosexuality is not a lifestyle acceptable to the general public and that homosexual conduct is a criminal offense under the laws of the state."

Texas state law specifies that the Department of State Health Services "shall give priority to developing model education programs for persons younger than 18 years of age," and "[t]he materials in the education programs intended for persons younger than 18 years of age must ... state that homosexual conduct is not an acceptable lifestyle and is a criminal offense under Section 21.06, Penal Code."

Utah state law prohibits public schools from using materials for "community and personal health, physiology, personal hygiene, and prevention of communicable disease" that include instruction in "the intricacies of intercourse, sexual stimulation, or erotic behavior; the advocacy of homosexuality; the advocacy or encouragement of the use of contraceptive methods or devices; or the advocacy of sexual activity outside marriage."[20]

They appear alongside more general restrictions on sexuality education, including provisions requiring or encouraging abstinence education. Although each of these restrictions specifically appears in portions of state law addressing instruction in sexuality education, their chilling effects often extend much further.

As Nora F., an administrator in Utah, said:

As interviews with administrators, teachers, and students demonstrate, the practical effect of these outdated laws has been to discourage discussion of LGBT issues throughout the school environment, from curricular instruction to counseling to library resources to GSA programming. Many teachers avoided or silenced any discussion of LGBT issues in schools. At times, this was because they were unsure what it meant to "advocate" or "promote" homosexuality and feared they would face repercussions from parents or administrators if they were too frank or supportive of students. At other times, teachers refused to teach the antiquated, discriminatory messages that some no promo homo laws require them to convey when homosexuality is discussed, and so declined to address LGBT topics at all. Without clear instruction on what the laws permit, many teachers reported that they or their colleagues erred on the side of caution, excluding information that parents or administrators might construe as falling within their scope.

Impact on LGBT Students of Discrimination and Victimization

GLSEN's findings are consistent with governmental and academic studies that consistently show that LGBT youth are at elevated risk of adverse mental health outcomes, including depression, anxiety, substance abuse, and suicidality. According to a study by the Williams Institute, a research institute at the UCLA School of Law, a disproportionate 40 percent of youth experiencing homelessness identify as LGBT, due in large part to families rejecting their sexual orientation or gender identity.

Amanda Keller, director of LGBTQ Programs and the Magic City Acceptance Center at Birmingham AIDS Outreach in Alabama, said students often told her they wished fellow students would "just hit them or lash out rather than just ignoring them, ignoring their identity, walking into them and pretending there's nobody there." Vanessa M., a counselor in Pennsylvania, said: " That stuff, it not only builds, but it takes a toll on their psyche where they don't like themselves."

At time of writing, 19 states and the District of Columbia had enacted laws prohibiting bullying on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity statewide. Research indicates that laws and policies that enumerate sexual orientation and gender identity as protected grounds are more effective than those that merely provide a general admonition against bullying. Without express protections for sexual orientation and gender identity that are clearly conveyed to students and staff, bullying and harassment against LGBT students frequently goes unchecked.

Schools that have enacted protections do not always clearly convey them to students, faculty, and staff. In interviews, many students and teachers expressed uncertainty or offered contradictory information as to whether their school prohibited bullying on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity, even in schools where enumerated protections were already in place.

Many students reported that school personnel did not raise the issue of bullying on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity at assemblies and educational programming on bullying held at their school.

Interviewees identified multiple types of bullying and harassment that they encountered in schools, each of which has consequences for LGBT students' safety, sense of belonging, and ability to learn.

Physical Bullying

Yet some students did face persistent physical violence at school and many said their schools took no effective steps to stop it. Sandra C., the mother of a 16-year-old gay boy in Utah, described a pattern of harassment that culminated in her withdrawing her son from the school:

Some students who experienced physical violence hesitated to tell adults for fear that reporting would be ineffectual or make the situation worse. Willow K., a 14-year-old transgender girl in Texas, recalled being abused by members of the football team in seventh grade:

In one incident in Montgomery, Alabama in 2014, a gay high school student was surrounded and assaulted by a group of male students who punched and kicked him repeatedly, breaking his arm and leg. As Paul Hard, a counselor in Alabama, recalled:

Kevin I., a 17-year-old transgender boy in Utah, said:

When administrators react indifferently to bullying and harassment, it can deter students from coming forward. Alexander S., a 16-year-old transgender boy in Texas, said:

Alexander's parents finally learned of the bullying after he attempted suicide. He has continued to struggle with depression and suicidal thoughts, and has been repeatedly admitted to inpatient care for treatment.

Verbal Harassment and Hostile Environments

Almost all of the students interviewed for the report reported encountering verbal harassment in their school environment, even in the most LGBT-friendly schools. In some schools, derogatory phrases like "that's so gay" and slurs like "dyke" or "faggot" were used by students to belittle or taunt peers, whether or not the targets identified as LGBT. Students stressed that even these generalized slurs contributed to a sense of hostility and danger in the school environment.

In each of the five states where interviews were conducted, researchers encountered schools where slurs were ubiquitous. Katrina I., a 17-year-old gay girl in Alabama, noted: "All the time, I hear slurs. I hear 'queer' thrown around a lot, the F word [faggot] thrown around a lot." Joel W., a genderfluid 17-year-old in Pennsylvania, said: "I hear slurs almost every single class." Ryan K., an 18-year-old student in South Dakota, concurred: "I hear it like every class period." In addition to "that's so gay," "faggot," and "dyke," transgender students reported encountering anti-transgender slurs like "tranny" or being referred to with dismissive, dehumanizing terms like "it" or "fe-man."

Students also encountered anti-LGBT graffiti and slurs written on the school building, tests and papers, and personal property, and noted that their schools failed to investigate or rectify the vandalism. Kayla E., a 17-year-old lesbian student in Pennsylvania, said:

Students noted that some of the verbal harassment they encountered occurred in spaces that were unmonitored by teachers, administrators, and other staff, such as hallways, cafeterias, buses, and locker rooms. Yet even in classrooms and in communal spaces where school personnel were present, many students said teachers did little to intervene to stop slurs and verbal harassment.

Colin N., an 18-year-old transgender boy in Pennsylvania who heard slurs daily, said:

Charlie O., a genderfluid 17-year-old in Texas, described a similar incident:

In sophomore history class, we had to stand up and say our name and one thing we're part of, and I said 'Charlie, and GSA,' and a girl said 'what's GSA?,' and a boy in the corner said, 'That's the faggot club.' The teacher just kind of looked at him. The teachers turn a blind eye.

In some instances, teachers and administrators' willingness to effectively respond to slurs was compromised by laws or policies restricting the discussion of LGBT issues in schools. Alice L., a 53-year-old mother of a transgender student in Utah, said: "I've talked to teachers who are like, 'I'd like to stop it, but I don't know what to say, and particularly in light of Utah's laws where I can't promote homosexuality.'"

Lynette G., the mother of a young girl with a gay father in South Dakota, said the role of teachers in teasing was problematic as early as elementary school:

In addition to tacit encouragement, some teachers themselves made dismissive or derogatory comments about LGBT people, sometimes passing off such remarks as jokes and on other occasions appearing to intend disparagement. Bianca L., a 16-year-old bisexual girl in Alabama, said:

Michelle A., a genderfluid 18-year-old student in South Dakota, said: "I built something in a day ... and I said it wasn't really good, and he [the teacher] said, 'Well, that's lesbian construction.'"

Tristan O., a 21-year-old transgender man in Pennsylvania, recalled that when he was in school, many of his teachers made gay jokes with students, and "when teachers or authority figures make comments, you're stuck with those people in school. And that chips away at you." Kelly A., a 19-year-old gay cisgender woman in Utah, remembered: "Teachers said 'that's so gay' - my gym teacher, a math teacher, and a science teacher." Students also identified coaches and JROTC [Junior Reserve Officers Training Corps] personnel who called students "gay," "fags," or feminizing or sexist terms. Eliza H., an 18-year-old bisexual girl in Alabama, recalled: "[M]y girlfriend walked me to class and she came in and held my hand, and [the teacher] told me we're going to hell because we're together." Cheyenne F., a 17-year-old transgender student in Alabama, recalled being told in class by a health teacher "that America's acceptance of gays and abortion was the cause of the fall of the Twin Towers," a reference to the attacks of September 11, 2001.

Condemnation of students on religious grounds was particularly evident in interviews in Utah. Approximately 60 percent of Utah's population belongs to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, more commonly known as the Mormon Church. Across the state, public schools give students release time in which the school disclaims responsibility for the student and allows them to leave the campus. During this period, students may attend seminary classes in church buildings adjacent to public schools for religious instruction. Students described strong pressure to attend seminary.

Cyber Bullying

LGBT students described a double-edged relationship with technology and social media, which allowed them to find communities online to explore their sexual orientation and gender identity, but also exposed them to bullying and harassment.

Students acknowledged that cyberbullying is a problem for middle and high schoolers generally, but said LGBT students could be particularly vulnerable to harassment. Miley D., a 17-year-old bisexual girl in Alabama, suggested: "O nline, if you're open about anything about yourself, you're prone to be bullied. And if you're LGBT, it's 10 times worse."

Alexander S., a 16-year-old transgender boy in Texas, said:

Sexual Harassment

Unlike gay and bisexual boys, who were rarely treated as sex objects by their peers, lesbian and bisexual girls said they were regularly propositioned for sex by straight male classmates.

Other students described invasive questions about sexual practices and genitalia, which were most often reported by transgender and gender non-conforming youth. Kayla E., a 17-year-old lesbian girl in Pennsylvania, said:

In addition to sexual harassment, lesbian and bisexual girls and transgender and gender non-conforming students were subject to overt threats of sexual assault. Tracy M., an 18-year-old in Texas, said:

Julian L., a 15-year-old transgender boy in South Dakota, described being threatened during his freshman year by a senior:

Exclusion and Isolation

A lack of friends and feelings of loneliness were common for LGBT youth. Jonah O., a 16-year-old gay boy in Alabama, said:

A common example was belittling comments or exclusion from group activities. As Ginger M., a 17-year-old bisexual girl in Utah, asked: "[H]ow do you go to the administration with that? Someone laughed because I'm gay?" According to Dave W., a 44-year-old teacher and GSA advisor in Pennsylvania, such slights "make a difference after a while... People don't look you in the eye, teachers don't call on you in class, they have lower expectations of you."

LGBT students responded to isolation and exclusion in different ways. Some recounted how they carefully policed their behavior, dress, and friendships to fit in and avoid harassment. Max R., a 13-year-old student in Pennsylvania, commented:

Others responded by distancing themselves even further from their peers. Caleb C., a gay non-binary 20-year-old in Utah, recalled :

Exclusion and Isolation by LGBT Peers

Reporting and Retaliation

Schools typically encourage students to report when they are bullied or harassed by students or adults. Yet some students who did report physical bullying, verbal harassment, or sexual harassment were rebuffed.

Garrett B., a 16-year-old pansexual transgender boy in Alabama, described inaction when he reported threats of physical violence:

Students reported being told their schools could not address bullying or harassment without proof, and used the fact that they lacked the evidence necessary to discipline a student to justify inaction. Furthermore, students who tried to document various forms of bullying and harassment with their phones or cameras found themselves being punished for using devices in school.

Noah P., a 14-year-old transgender boy in Texas, said:

Students who engaged or fought back faced additional barriers or punishment, even when the instigator went unpunished. Ginger M., a 17-year-old bisexual girl in Utah, said:

Jordan L., a gay 17-year-old student in Texas, said:

Schools directly teach and instruct students with curricular offerings. But they also provide physical and mental health resources, library materials, access to the internet, extracurricular and noncurricular activities, and opportunities to socialize. In each of these areas, students noted that LGBT perspectives were either neglected or expressly excluded on the grounds that they were not appropriate or relevant for youth.

As LGBT people become more visible, research suggests that students are coming out or exploring their sexual orientation and gender identity at younger ages. The silence surrounding LGBT issues in schools not only sends a message to students that their identities are somehow inappropriate, but leaves them ill-prepared to deal with issues that schools equip their heterosexual and cisgender peers to handle.

Classroom Instruction and Discussion

Adults echoed students' perceptions that teachers and administrators treated LGBT issues more cautiously than others. Amy L., a teacher in Pennsylvania, said: "We read Will Grayson, Will Grayson last year, and a lot of the male students didn't want to read it because it had two students that are gay, and the school let them opt out and read a different book. We don't do that for other things."

Teachers in some schools silenced students who attempted to raise LGBT issues as a topic of discussion. Rowan C., a 15-year-old pansexual genderfluid student in Alabama, noted:

In some instances, teachers rebuked students for speaking up about LGBT issues. Angela T., a 17-year-old girl in Pennsylvania, said:

In some instances, teachers rebuked students who brought up LGBT issues or themes. Catherine G., a 17-year-old asexual girl in Alabama, recalled one such incident in a story-writing exercise in seventh grade:

Even some supportive teachers, fearing backlash, expressed reluctance to engage with LGBT topics in class. Sharon B., a teacher and GSA advisor in Alabama, said:

Horacio J., a teacher and GSA advisor in Alabama concurred:

Comprehensive Sexuality Education

In each of the states where interviews were conducted, students said the sexuality education they received was nonexistent or inadequate-only teaching abstinence, for example-often because it was not taught or was not a required component of the curriculum. However, when it was taught in their school, they said it was especially limited for LGBT youth.

Some teachers placed LGBT issues off-limits or made clear they would not be teaching about same-sex activity. Miley D., a 17-year-old bisexual girl in Alabama, described how the coach who taught her health class:

Evan H., a 19-year-old man in Utah, said:

Placing the onus on students to ask questions or raise LGBT issues made it difficult for them to elicit the information that they needed to lead safe, healthy, and affirming sexual lives. For many students, it was not clear what information they would need in the future or what questions they should ask. Caleb C., a gay non-binary 20-year-old in Utah, said: "Utah teaches abstinence plus, so it's abstinence only but students can ask questions. Which sucks, because kids don't know what to ask."

When students themselves tried to raise questions that were pertinent to LGBT youth, instructors more typically reacted with embarrassment or deflection. Kevin I., a 17-year-old transgender boy in Utah, said:

As a result, many teachers err on the side of avoiding any discussion of LGBT issues at all, in sexuality education and in the curriculum generally. Even in Pennsylvania and South Dakota, which did not have a statewide no promo homo law, individual schools imposed their own limits on discussions of same-sex activity. These took various forms, from regulating curricula to restricting what teachers say in the classroom to punishing teachers who addressed LGBT issues in a frank manner.

Pauline J., a community health educator in Pennsylvania, described

In addition to LGBT issues, some students said that asexuality was not addressed in health curricula. Andrea L., a 17-year-old asexual girl in Pennsylvania, said:

The need for LGBT students to receive comprehensive sexuality education is clear. LGBT youth encounter a number of health issues that existing health classes fail to address. As Pauline J., a community health educator in Pennsylvania, said:

Although discussions of same-sex activity were restricted at the state level and by individual schools and instructors, transgender issues were also virtually absent from classroom discussions, despite the unique health concerns that transgender youth face. Joel W., a 17-year-old asexual, genderfluid student in Pennsylvania, said:

The absence of LGBT-inclusive information is particularly detrimental insofar as LGBT youth may not know where else they can obtain trustworthy information about sexuality. Many students either were not out to their parents or said their parents did not accept their sexual orientation or gender identity, limiting their ability to obtain information about sexuality when it was not provided at school.

Cameron S., a 16-year-old boy in South Dakota, said:

Refusal to convey accurate, nonjudgmental information about same-sex activity and other LGBT issues puts LGBT youth at heightened risk of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Maureen Gray, coordinator of the Northeastern Pennsylvania Rainbow Alliance, recalled a conversation with a HIV-positive young man in his early twenties:

The absence of LGBT-inclusive comprehensive sexuality education not only left students ill-equipped to navigate sexual activity, but often exacerbated feelings of difference, exclusion, or stigmatization. Students underscored that the sexuality education they received took for granted that they were cisgender and heterosexual. Discussions of puberty and bodily development presumed that students were cisgender; indeed, some students were divided by sex, so students who were assigned female at birth attended a discussion of women's development and bodies and students who were assigned male at birth attended a discussion of men's development and bodies.

Similarly, students noted that discussions of sexual activity, relationships, and marriage almost always operated under the assumption of heterosexuality. When same-sex relationships were acknowledged, students said it was typically as a cursory aside rather than a consistent, integrated recognition of their equal validity.

Counseling and Support

Many schools provide counselors to ensure that the academic and mental health needs of students are reliably met. Counseling is particularly important for LGBT youth, who face stressors at home and in schools that put them at a high risk for adverse mental health and academic outcomes.

These findings suggest that LGBT youth are in particular need of counselors who are attuned to their unique needs and risk factors. Unfortunately, students often lack access to supportive, culturally competent counseling in schools. None of the states surveyed required counselors to be trained on sexual orientation or gender identity, leaving it up to individual counselors to seek out cultural competency training on LGBT issues.

The result was that very few students interviewed by Human Rights Watch regarded the school counselor's office as a resource or supportive space. Natalie D., a 17-year-old agender student in Utah, called the school counselor "completely useless." Ginger M., a 17-year-old bisexual girl in Utah, observed: "The counselors don't have any resources," and "asked us to bring stuff back." As Cam I., a 17-year-old bisexual student who dropped out of high school in Texas, said:

They weren't really good about grappling with mental health issues. And that's something that's really prevalent for people in the LGBT community.... That definitely factored into the decision to leave the school system.

In the absence of clear indications that counselors were accepting and inclusive of LGBT youth, many students expressed reluctance to utilize them as a resource. Some counselors overtly signaled they were unwilling or unable to be nonjudgmental resources for LGBT youth. Paul Hard, a counselor and professor in Alabama, recalled a case

In the absence of training, and with laws pertaining to gender and sexuality in schools-including anti-bullying laws and no promo homo laws-counselors may incorrectly believe they cannot counsel LGBT youth without parental permission. Rebecca C., an 18-year-old lesbian girl in Alabama, recalled seeking help from a counselor in eighth grade when she had nowhere else to turn:

Counselors may also incorrectly believe they are obligated to report a student's sexual orientation or gender identity to their parents when that fact is divulged to them. Nora F., an administrator in Utah, pointed out that this is encouraged by ambiguities in the state's anti-bullying law, which requires parental notification when children are bullied in school:

Maintaining confidentiality is critically important when serving LGBT youth, due in large part to the withdrawal of support or repercussions they may experience when their sexual orientation or gender identity is disclosed to parents, teachers, or other adults. Nonetheless, counselors, teachers, and other school personnel may fail to grasp the importance of confidentiality.

As students attested in interviews, any interaction with school personnel about one's sexual orientation or gender identity-reporting bullying, meeting with a counselor, attending the GSA, wearing gender-affirming clothes in school, or requesting access to an all-gender restroom-could be fraught with risk that students would be outed to other staff, their classmates, or their family members.

Administrators outed Alexis J., a genderfluid 19-year-old in Texas, to their family:

Incidents of outing and concerns about counselor confidentiality discouraged other students from coming forward, limiting their access to resources. Natalie D., a 17-year-old agender student in Utah, said:

Her friends stopped talking to her, and her mother kicked her out of the house. She's been crammed back in the closet. And she was tortured in high school.

Library and Internet Resources

Schools provide libraries, technological tools, and access to the internet, and in so doing, act as providers and gatekeepers for students seeking information about various topics.

However, information about sexual orientation and gender identity is often scarce. Censorship of LGBT content in schools not only sends a discriminatory and stigmatizing message that LGBT content is inherently inappropriate, but deprives students of the right to access information that could be important to their development, health, and safety.

Most students reported that they were not aware of any books or information on LGBT topics in their school libraries. Hannah L., a teacher in Utah, said:

The absence of available material meant that students looked elsewhere, typically, in commercial bookstores or on the internet, where information may be available but not necessarily curated for elementary, middle, and high school students.

Filters that schools apply to web access may limit students' ability to get information about LGBT topics using school-provided tools, and deprive students of information regarding their health, rights, and resources in their community.

William J., a 17-year-old gay boy in Texas, said: "On the school computers, when I'm trying to find stuff about LGBT youth, it'll say 'blocked site.'" Sharon B., a teacher and GSA advisor in Alabama, noted: " I had two students write a paper on a TED talk on homosexuality, and they also had to write the paper at home because they weren't able to do it at school." Veronica I., an 18-year-old student in South Dakota, said censorship can affect studies:

Forming Gay-Straight Alliances

Schools typically set out requirements that students must follow in order to form non-curricular student groups, including that students write a group charter or constitution, identify a faculty sponsor, and complete any necessary paperwork to begin meeting.

While all groups, regardless of focus, must theoretically adhere to the same requirements, interviews with students and teachers indicate that it can be harder to establish a GSA than other student groups, both because of stronger scrutiny by administrators, school boards, and parents and because GSAs may lack faculty support.

Students' perceptions were confirmed by teachers themselves, who said they were concerned that being openly supportive of LGBT youth could cost them their jobs. Renee F., a teacher and GSA advisor in Utah, said "The first time I was approached to be the GSA advisor, I was like, I'm not tenured, I'd better not." Sharon B., a teacher and GSA advisor in Alabama, recalled: " I didn't know this at the time, but when I started the GSA, parents went to the school board and tried to get me fired."

Fears of backlash against GSAs were particularly discouraging for staff who were themselves LGBT. A number of GSA leaders noted that they were able to be resources for LGBT youth precisely because they were straight, and would not face the scrutiny or backlash that an LGBT counterpart would likely face. Vanessa M., a counselor in Pennsylvania, recalled discussions she had about starting a middle school GSA:

Concerns about backlash or retaliation could prevent those with firsthand knowledge of LGBT issues, who might function as role models for LGBT youth, to remain closeted or keep their distance from the GSA. One advocate for LGBT youth in Alabama said:

Whether because of school policy or because of a fear of retaliation, GSAs in the schools examined were almost always the product of student advocacy, and not begun by teachers who recognized the need for a safe and nonjudgmental space for LGBT students and allies in school. George Taylor, an LGBT youth advocate with Shared Goals LLC in Alabama, said:

Nora F., an administrator in Utah, said:

You have to find a sponsor, so when you're in the heart of conservative Texas, you have to go through a school of classic white Christian teachers and you're really scared because they have a cross by their desk and you're like, are they those kinds of Christians?

Even with faculty backing, students attempting to form GSAs encountered other obstacles. Despite court rulings deeming the practice impermissible under the Equal Access Act, some students noted that they were told they had to broaden their GSA's mission in order to obtain approval. Levi B., a 16-year-old gay boy in Utah, said:

Other students were told they could form a GSA, but were not allowed to use terms like "LGBT" or "queer" in the name, mission, or advertising. Such a stance creates particular problems for groups with members or leaders whose primary identification is not gay or lesbian-for example, students who are bisexual, transgender, queer, or questioning. Lucas K., an 18-year-old transgender boy in South Dakota, recalled:

The use of "queer" was a particular sticking point for administrators, who treated it as a slur rather than recognizing that it could also be a term reclaimed by LGBT communities. Piper N., a 15-year-old pansexual student at another high school in South Dakota, said:

When students expressed interest in forming a GSA, or even persisted and satisfied the necessary requirements, some school administrators stonewalled students, delaying discussions or approval until interested students gave up or graduated from the school. Jayden N., a 16-year-old gay boy in Texas, described how his principal appeared to stall approving a GSA before a local LGBT activist and a supportive adult in the school system helped push the issue on his behalf:

Mia E., a 16-year-old pansexual girl in Pennsylvania, was similarly stonewalled and ultimately unsuccessful when she tried to start a GSA:

Operating Gay-Straight Alliances

Even after students successfully formed GSAs, administrators at times imposed obstacles to their free and successful operation. When they are strictly or selectively enforced, even seemingly neutral requirements can preclude students from operating GSAs. In overt and subtle ways, GSAs were discouraged from building their membership, advertising their existence to the school community, or undertaking programming.

GSA advisors and members identified parental permission requirements as a formidable barrier to organizing and operating GSAs. Whether they are generally applicable to student clubs or specifically enforced against GSAs, these requirements exclude students who cannot obtain permission from their parents or guardians or worry about the potentially serious consequences-for example, being rejected, forced into therapy, withdrawn from school, kicked out, disowned, or subjected to violence-if their parents or guardians suspect they might be LGBT. As a result, the students who are in most need of the supportive environment provided by a GSA are often effectively barred from attending or participating.

In some instances, parental permission requirements were selectively applied against the GSA but not against other clubs. Joe J., a teacher and GSA advisor in Utah, said:

Some students did not feel they could tell their parents about their involvement with the GSA for fear they would be barred from attending or would face repercussions. Lucia B., a high school student in Pennsylvania, said:

Her classmate Ashley D., an 18-year-old girl, said:

In some instances, students said that administrators turned away announcements from the GSA or persistently neglected to make those announcements as they would for other groups. Serena I., a 17-year-old bisexual girl in Utah, observed: "We've put in announcements and they skip them." GSA advisors ran into this problem as well. Arthur C., a teacher and GSA advisor in Texas, said: "I'd put announcements in weekly and they'd often go unread. The students who'd read them would laugh or start to read them and stop." Isabel M., a GSA advisor in South Dakota, noted that after a particularly contentious backlash from parents against the Day of Silence, her school's GSA was prohibited from making announcements outright.

Some students said that even after GSAs were allowed to form, school personnel restricted the words and messaging they were able to use in announcements and posters. Jayden N., a 16-year-old gay boy in Texas, said:

Misty A., a teacher in Texas, similarly recalled:

One of the most pervasive problems that GSAs faced was posters being ripped, defaced, or destroyed without consequence. Ethan B., a 16-year-old transgender boy in Texas, said:

Other GSA advisors and members explained that, because their posters were so regularly defaced, they had simply stopped making them and advertising the club in the common areas of the school.

Kevin I., a 17-year-old transgender boy in Utah, said of his GSA:

Some school administrators also strictly and selectively enforced prohibitions on involvement with speakers or groups beyond the school. Jayden N., a 16-year-old gay boy in Texas, said: "We also weren't allowed to announce events from outside groups that were part of us. But other groups would announce community events." Lucas K., an 18-year-old transgender boy in South Dakota, encountered the same resistance with his GSA:

Some GSAs were prohibited from raising awareness, speaking out against discrimination, or undertaking other programming. Patrick J., a teacher and GSA advisor in South Dakota, said the GSA had been told it could not hold a fundraising bake sale, although he noted " student council is selling root beer floats tomorrow. And the sports teams sell food like that."

Many LGBT students, teachers, and staff face overt discrimination and acts of bigotry because of their sexual orientation or gender identity.

As the testimonies of LGBT students, teachers, and administrators show, discrimination and bigotry against LGBT people in school environments can be subtle or overt. Transgender, gender non-conforming, and non-binary youth in particular have faced discrimination and bigotry in schools, due in part to the pervasively gendered nature of many school environments, a lack of clarity about the legal obligations that schools must meet when issues arise, and a lack of training and familiarity on the part of school personnel.

Bullying and discrimination, together with a range of other practices that students identified, can lead to LGBT students being seen as anomalous or excluded from the school community. Repeated slights and microaggressions created a hostile environment for many LGBT youth in schools.

Bigotry and Fear of Repercussion Faced by LGBT Staff and Faculty

Discussions of LGBT issues in schools often focus on LGBT youth, who are especially vulnerable to bullying, harassment, and adverse academic and mental health outcomes. Yet LGBT school personnel also encounter adverse treatment because of their sexual orientation and gender identity. LGBT teachers who were out at school frequently faced harassment from students. Victoria P., a 16-year-old lesbian girl in Pennsylvania, said:

Sometimes, adverse treatment came from other faculty and staff as well. Arthur C., a transgender teacher in Texas, said:

Kevin D., a gay teacher in Texas, cited an instance when his partner kissed him on the cheek at the school door, and a student told their parent, who reported it to the principal.

Such a hostile climate can lead teachers who have not 'come out' to fear doing so. Isabel M., a GSA advisor in South Dakota, said:

Many interviewees-LGBT-identified and not-also voiced concerns about potential employment consequences of openly supporting LGBT students. In addition to the reluctance to sponsor GSAs, teachers said they wanted to avoid any perception they were expressly supportive on LGBT issues because they feared backlash from parents or school administrators. Glenda Elliott, a member of the Safe Schools Coalition in Alabama, said:

[F]aculty have no protection if they are gay, and those that might be willing to be supportive-and I've had them tell me this-they're afraid to be a strong advocate or ally, because they'll be shunned by colleagues, and they're not sure their principal will support them. You're talking about older people, in their 40s, 50s, 60s, when you're talking about principals and superintendents-and they're not changing overnight.

Nora F., an administrator in Utah, explained how this spilled into classroom instruction:

Even though outright firing was said to be rare, teachers still feared adverse consequences and hostility from colleagues and supervisors. Marisol J., an administrator in Texas, said:

Reticence about being too visible as LGBT or supportive of LGBT youth can limit the ability of supportive teachers to help students in need. Ellen A., a transgender teacher in Utah, recalled a difficult incident prior to her transition at school:

A lack of employment non-discrimination protections fueled the fear and uncertainty that teachers faced. Genie Taylor, an LGBT youth advocate with Shared Goals LLC in Alabama, explained: "If those policies were in place, according to what we've heard from teachers, they'd feel more comfortable standing up for kids if they weren't concerned about being outed." Ellen A. underscored the importance of such protections in her own decision to come out as transgender and transition in the workplace. "Senate Bill 296 in the state of Utah made it less threatening for me to lose my job."

Same-Sex Couples in Schools

Casey Akers, a sophomore at Timber Creek High School in Fort Worth, Texas, made local headlines in 2015 when her school stopped her from making a "promposal" inviting another girl in her school to prom. As she explained in an interview, "I had a friend who was a senior, and just as friends, she asked if we'd be prom dates. Texas has a thing where we prompose to people, where you ask someone to go to prom in a special way. So before school started, I asked an administrator if I could do a promposal, just when and how, not who I was asking. The same administrator found me at lunch and asked if I was asking a girl to prom, and I said, 'yes,' and she said I couldn't because it was not appropriate. The school let out a rule or notice that they had never let anyone do promposals [in her school district]. But the next day there were promposals going on with no consequence. The rule said any promposals would have consequences, but there were no consequences."

Other students reported school personnel discouraging them from bringing a same-sex date to prom, telling them that they could not do so, or refusing them a reduced price couple's ticket. Kyra S., an 18-year-old queer woman in Alabama, recalled:

Gabby W., a 19-year-old bisexual woman in Alabama, encountered similar resistance with her same-sex date:

Caleb C., a gay non-binary 20-year-old in Utah, recalled:

Access to Facilities

One of the most pressing concerns for transgender students is safety in bathrooms and locker rooms. Proponents of bathroom and locker room restrictions cite student safety as a reason to require students to use facilities according to their sex assigned at birth. But when schools require transgender girls to use the men's room or require transgender boys to use the women's room-which teachers do not monitor-they put them at risk of physical, verbal, or sexual assault from other students or adults.

Transgender students interviewed by Human Rights Watch said that being made to use facilities that did not correspond to their gender identity made them feel unsafe at school or exposed them to verbal and physical assault. Willow K., a 14-year-old transgender girl in Texas, recalled of her required eighth grade gym class:

The previous year, Willow had been assaulted by a group of football players in the locker room, making the requirement that she use the male locker room particularly difficult. Alexis J., a self-described genderfluid 19-year-old in Texas, recalled a gym class where"I had to strip down to girly underwear in front of a bunch of dudes. And they're like, 'Faggot.' And this was freshman year, so they're just vicious."

Transgender students expressed particular concern about physical assault and harassment in boys' bathrooms and locker rooms, but described harassment in girls' bathrooms and locker rooms as well. Kevin I., a 17-year-old transgender boy in Utah, said:

And while many of the transgender students interviewed identified strongly as boys or girls and wanted to use the corresponding facilities, many others said they did not feel safe in either space and felt their only option was to forego bathrooms, gym classes, and gendered extracurricular activities with their peers altogether.

The tendency to see LGBT people and issues as inherently sexual also colored lesbian, gay, and bisexual students' interactions in locker rooms. This was an especially prominent theme in interviews with young lesbian and bisexual women. Charlie O., a 17-year-old pansexual genderfluid student in Texas, offered an example:

Caleb C., a gay non-binary 20-year-old in Utah, said:

As a result of discomfort, harassment, and exclusion, some LGBT students opted not to take gym class. In some states and school districts, however, gym class is required to graduate, putting LGBT students in difficult positions. Some students interviewed for this report took gym classes online, bypassing the physical and social benefits of taking those classes with their peers. As noted above, others remained in gym classes but avoided changing or participating, often receiving poor grades as a result.

A number of medical authorities have emphasized that social transition, including access to bathrooms consistent with one's gender identity, is among the most important aspects of transition, and is crucial to transgender students' health and well-being.

Parents of transgender youth observed the repercussions of restricted access to facilities, particularly in elementary schoolers and middle schoolers. In an interview with Human Rights Watch in Texas, Tanya H., the mother of a nine-year-old transgender boy named Elijah, recalled:

A year ago at this time, he was having a really hard time, and he'd go into the girl's bathroom and girls would yell, 'There's a boy in here!' and he couldn't go to the boys' bathroom, and so he stopped going to the bathroom. There were a lot of meltdowns.

When Elijah mentioned suicide and was briefly hospitalized, his mother spoke to administrators to ensure that he would be treated as a boy when he started at a new school in the fall. Tanya recalled:

He was kind of worried about going to a new school, and he said, 'If I can go as a boy, okay.' He's just fallen into it, and he's so much happier.... He's making friends who know him as a boy.

Ingrid A., the parent of a transgender girl in fifth grade in Pennsylvania, recalled a similar shift when her daughter transitioned at school:

She was a darker child, prior. When she would be angry, her tantrums would go to a dark place: 'I want to die,' 'God made a mistake,' 'I'm not supposed to be a boy.'... But that year of transition, she just became comfortable with herself and you just saw this kid blossom.

Proponents of restrictions on bathroom and locker room access often cite the privacy or discomfort of cisgender students using the same facilities as a justification for excluding transgender youth. However, as described above, these concerns are far outweighed by the harmful and potentially dangerous impact on transgender students of policies that deny them the use of facilities that correspond to their gender identity. Such discrimination can also undermine transgender students' right to privacy, by effectively outing them as transgender to peers and school staff.

Some schools have allowed transgender students to use alternative facilities, including faculty bathrooms normally off-limits to students, as an alternative to giving them free access to facilities that correspond with their gender identity. This is not an adequate compromise. Several transgender students told us that requesting or using all-gender options that cisgender students did not use served to convey their transgender status to faculty, staff, and peers as well. Silas G., a 15-year-old transgender boy in South Dakota, said: "My teacher would grill me, 'Why are you going to the nurse?'.... And I got yelled at for using the faculty bathroom." Teagan W., a 16-year-old transgender boy in Texas, said when using the faculty bathroom, "I get a lot of weird looks from teachers. I'll wait until teachers go in so they're not like, 'What are you doing?'"

On the other hand, some transgender students prefer the use of all-gender facilities because they do not feel comfortable in bathrooms that correspond to the gender binary. In these situations, schools should take steps to minimize the degree of unwanted scrutiny this generates, including by instructing teachers to refrain from interrogating students' use of alternative facilities.

For students who feared strong disapprobation, violence, or being kicked out of their house if their transgender status was disclosed to their parents, the threat of disclosure can discourage them from talking with school officials about bathroom access, including discussions of all-gender alternatives.

Privacy is indeed lacking in many school bathroom and locker room facilities. Some schools have removed stall doors from bathrooms in an effort to deter drug use and other prohibited behavior. And many if not most school locker rooms require students to change clothes and/or shower in a shared, communal space without curtains or other barriers.

Restrictions on bathroom usage also compromise transgender students' education and their ability to participate fully in the school community on an equal footing with others. When students are preoccupied with the unavailability of safe places to relieve themselves, forego participation in gym classes, or suffer other negative impacts resulting from discriminatory restrictions, they are less able to learn and participate fully in school.

Ursula P., a 16-year-old transgender girl in Alabama, said:

They refused to put me in girls' PE last year, and I was scared to go in the locker room and [change clothes] and wouldn't participate, and so I failed. I requested to do girls' PE and it's been over a month; I don't think they're making the decision. And I need a whole year of PE to graduate.

In some instances, students who had been offered the use of all-gender bathrooms noted that these were inconveniently located-often distant from classrooms, and far less prevalent than gendered options.

Zack T., a 16-year-old transgender boy in Texas, said:

The unavailability of safe and accessible bathrooms and locker rooms also compromises participation in the school community more generally. For example, students described strategies of leaving the campus entirely to find a bathroom at a gas station, fast food restaurant, or other establishment that they could use safely and comfortably, and, as a result, missing out on opportunities to eat lunch or socialize with peers. Students also explained that they did not participate in extracurricular activities - primarily sports, but also choir, drama, and other activities - because they expected they would have to participate as their sex assigned at birth in the activity and any associated use of locker rooms or bathrooms for out of town trips.

Some students told Human Rights Watch that all-gender facilities, introduced as an option available to all students, would be their preferred solution, and lessen the stress of gender policing by peers and teachers.

Participation in School Events and Extracurricular Activities

In many schools, LGBT students are deterred or effectively excluded from participating in school events, extra-curriculars, or everyday activities because of their sexual orientation or gender identity. As a result, they are deprived of the full education that their heterosexual, cisgender peers enjoy.

Across many US states, transgender students face restrictions related to participation in sports and other extracurricular activities. The treatment of transgender students in public school sports varies considerably from state to state.

In some states, students are allowed to participate consistent with their gender identity. In others, students may participate consistent with their gender identity if they have undergone some form of medical intervention, typically hormone treatments. A number of states use case-by-case evaluations or lack any guidelines to determine how students participate. And in some states, students are required to participate in extracurricular activities as their sex assigned at birth.

Although most of the issues that students identified with sports and extracurricular activities involved restrictions based on gender identity, some lesbian, gay, and bisexual students noted pervasive hostility on the basis of sexual orientation. Francesca K., an 18-year-old lesbian girl in Alabama, said:

Expression and Dress

LGBT students often experienced rigorous policing of how they dressed and expressed their gender. Wearing gender-affirming clothing is an important part of social transition, making such regulations particularly stressful and humiliating for transgender youth.

Sometimes, this policing of transgender and gender non-conforming youth happened during the school day. Caleb C., a gay non-binary 20-year-old in Utah, recalled a student who was routinely punished for wearing women's clothing.

At other times, policing happened at events and other occasions. Willow K., a 14-year-old transgender girl in Texas, recalled: "I tried to wear a dress-I bought my ticket, went to homecoming wearing a dress, and they didn't let me in and I didn't get my money back." Julian L., a 15-year-old gay transgender boy in South Dakota, observed that in JROTC: " I asked like five times last year if I could wear the men's uniform, and they said they'd look into it but never did.... I want to feel like the other guys."

Even when students were not punished, adults at times ridiculed them for gender non-conformity, including clothing. Adrian C., a 17-year-old student in Utah, said:

Glenda Elliott of the Alabama Safe Schools Coalition said no promo homo laws are invoked to justify censorship:

School Events

In some instances, school spirit events and competitions explicitly or implicitly excluded LGBT youth. For example, in some schools, same-sex couples were excluded from elections to the homecoming court or other school competitions. Malia E., an 18-year-old bisexual girl in Texas, recalled: "The sponsor for student council didn't allow us to put up two guys for homecoming court. She said, 'You don't have to try to make a statement.'" Carol G., an administrator in Texas, recalled an incident where "the senior class nominated two men for a cutest couples contest, and the teacher in charge took them out of it, and then lied to the administrator by saying they had withdrawn."

Even when parents complained, schools let the days proceed. Rhoda B., a parent in South Dakota, reached out to the high school to urge them to change the theme and was rebuffed: " I reached out to school board members, and every one of them, for the most part, said 'I can't believe they're doing it either'... but nobody did anything about it."

Gender Policing

Even in high school, students described being instructed to divide into teams of boys or girls, being seated in alternating boy-girl patterns, or being addressed in gendered ways, with rigid policing of who goes where. Susanna K., a parent and school photographer in Utah said:

Names and Pronouns

Students spoke favorably of strategies teachers employed to ensure their gender identity was respected. One common tactic was to pass out notecards at the beginning of the year where students could write information they wanted the teacher to know; for example, their preferred name and pronouns, any medical information that might be pertinent, any disabilities or learning difficulties, or other concerns.

While some schools and teachers invited students to identify their names and pronouns, a more typical arrangement was that it was up to transgender students to identify themselves and their name and pronouns to their teachers on a case-by-case, class-by-class basis. Putting the onus on students to inform teachers was a stressful process, particularly when teachers rejected the student's gender identity. Because schools and school personnel typically did not indicate to students that they would respect names and pronouns, some students declined to take the risk of volunteering that information.

Tanner H., a pansexual 18-year-old in Texas, said:

Anthony G., a 16-year-old demisexual transgender boy in Texas, said:

In many instances, students observed that they had informed teachers of their identified name and pronouns, but teachers failed to use them and routinely misgendered the student before their peers. Silas G., a 15-year-old transgender boy in South Dakota, said:

Paolo V., a 19-year-old transgender man in Texas, recalled:

A further effect of misgendering in class was to stigmatize transgender students in front of peers. Charlie O., a 17-year-old pansexual genderfluid student in Texas, said of another student:

Tristan O., a 21-year-old transgender man in Pennsylvania, agreed:

Record Keeping

The use of incorrect names and pronouns was exacerbated by administrators' refusal or failure to update student information in school records. Some transgender students said they were told the school was unable to update any school records unless they had legally changed their name and gender. Administrators in other schools did update student information without incident, however, particularly in their internal records.

Willow K., a 14-year-old transgender girl in Texas, said:

While schools do have recordkeeping obligations related to statewide testing, social services, and other legal requirements, as well as entry into the Selective Service System, the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA), and other federal programs, some schools have demonstrated that internal systems can be successfully modified to include spaces for identified name and gender, such that that information appears on roll call, grading sheets, and other internal systems.

Schools may not realize that in many instances, documents and materials that reflect a student's gender need not include gender at all. Where gender is pertinent, schools can either provide a menu of options beyond male and female or, ideally, leave an open-ended space for students to provide the gender with which they identify. Systems can be put in place for students to change their identified gender in school records, recognizing that the gender on a student's birth certificate or initial records in kindergarten may not be the student's gender in middle school or high school.

Graduation

Many of the human rights problems LGBT students face in schools also undermine their right to education. The US Constitution does not guarantee the right to education but the laws or constitutions of all 50 US states recognize that all children are entitled to primary and secondary education. The right to education is protected under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). The US has signed but not ratified the ICESCR and is therefore not bound by its provisions. However, the ICESCR provides an important source of guidance as to the necessary content of the right to education and the measures needed to uphold it.

Violence and Bullying

Article 19 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) speaks directly to the need to protect children from all forms of physical and mental violence. The Committee on the Rights of the Child, the expert body charged with interpreting state obligations under the CRC, has emphasized that bullying constitutes physical or mental violence against children and that it "not only harms a child's physical and psychological integrity and well-being in the immediate term, but often has severe impact on his or her development, education, and social integration in the medium and long term." UNICEF has similarly urged states to take steps to curb anti-LGBT bullying, noting "robust evidence to suggest that LGBT children and youth exposed to discrimination are more likely to consider or attempt suicide than their peers."

Freedoms of Expression, Association, and Assembly

As part of the right to freedom of expression, Article 19 of the ICCPR recognizes the "freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds." This right is not restricted to adults; it is guaranteed to "everyone." The Convention on the Rights of the Child reaffirms that children, like adults, have "freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing, or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of the child's choice." The absence of education related to LGBT issues and the continued existence of no promo homo laws undermines the right to freedom of expression for both students and teachers. The UN Human Rights Committee, reviewing a conviction under Russia's law prohibiting "propaganda of homosexuality among minors," thus concluded that "there is no doubt that there has been a restriction on the exercise of the author's right to freedom of expression" under such laws.

Right to Privacy

While making every effort to ensure that the school environment welcomes and includes LGBT students, education policies should also seek to ensure respect for LGBT students' privacy. In particular, schools should take steps not only to respect the gender identity of transgender students, but to refrain from treating those students in a manner that could "out" them against their will to other members of the school community. In practice there is substantial overlap between many of the steps needed to display full respect for a transgender student's gender identity and those needed to protect their privacy-such as consistent use of students' preferred names and pronouns, reflecting their gender identity.

Discrimination

Education, Personal Development, and the School Environment

To State Legislatures

Ensure that state laws against bullying and harassment include enumerated protections on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity;

Ensure that state laws against bullying and harassment respect student confidentiality and do not encourage disclosure of a student's sexual orientation or gender identity to parents without prior discussions with the student;

Ensure that state non-discrimination laws include explicit protections from discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity, particularly in education, employment, and public accommodations;

Repeal laws that preclude local school districts from providing enumerated protections against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity;

Repeal laws that prohibit or restrict discussion of LGBT issues in schools;

Enact laws that provide for comprehensive sexuality education in schools that is medically and scientifically accurate, is inclusive of LGBT youth, and covers same-sex activity on equal footing with other sexual activity;

Repeal laws that require parental permission to join GSAs and access other age-appropriate resources and support;

Enact laws permitting transgender students to access facilities and participate in classes, sports teams, and extracurricular activities in accordance with their gender identity;

Modify any building regulations that require particular numbers or percentages of gendered restrooms in public or commercial buildings to permit the designation of all-gender restrooms.

To State Departments of Education

Ensure that teachers, counselors, and other staff receive sufficient training and support to intervene in bullying and harassment when it occurs;

Ensure that teachers, counselors, and other staff receive training to familiarize them with the issues LGBT students might face;

Promulgate model guidelines for school districts to follow to make schools safe and inclusive for LGBT youth;

Develop a system to integrate school records that reflect a student's name and pronouns with state operated databases and standardized testing.

To School Administrators

Ensure that school policies against bullying and harassment include enumerated protections on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity;

Ensure that school policies against bullying and harassment establish and clearly specify what constitutes bullying, procedures for victims to lodge complaints, consequences for perpetrators, and protections against retaliation;

Notify students that cyberbullying is unacceptable, establish clear reporting guidelines, and train staff to identify and respond to incidents. Have systems in place to document cyberbullying, report it to authorities when appropriate, and offer counseling and support to students who are targeted.

Ensure that school policies against bullying and harassment are circulated to the school community and clearly understood by students, faculty, staff, and third-party providers operating in the school setting;

Require a response to all reported incidents of bullying and harassment, whether or not the victim files a written complaint;

Require schools to document all incidents of bullying and harassment and how the incident was addressed;

Ensure that the school provide comprehensive sexuality education that is inclusive of LGBT youth, covers same-sex activity on equal footing with other sexual activity, and is medically and scientifically accurate;

Ensure that GSAs and other LGBT student organizations are permitted to form and operate on the same terms as all other student organizations;

Consider facilitating and supporting the formation of GSAs and other LGBT student organizations at the middle school level;

Ensure that same-sex couples are able to date, display affection, and attend dances and other school functions on the same terms as all other student couples;

Ensure that students are able to access facilities, express themselves, and participate in classes, sports teams, and extracurricular activities in accordance with their gender identity;

Consider erecting stalls, barriers, and privacy curtains to maximize student privacy in all bathrooms, locker rooms, and shared facilities;

Designate all-gender restrooms in easily accessible locations throughout the school where feasible, particularly where single-user restrooms are currently gendered;

Incorporate all-gender restrooms and private changing and shower areas into new construction of school facilities;

Modify school recordkeeping systems to allow students to specify the name and pronouns they wish to use in school and ensure those identifiers are respected by staff and faculty and reflected in class lists, yearbooks, diplomas, and other documentation, to the extent permitted by law;

Create avenues for graduates to obtain updated school records and diplomas consistent with their gender identity;

Take steps to ensure that agender or non-binary students are able to fully participate throughout the school environment.

To the US Congress

Enact the Equality Act or similar legislation to prohibit discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity in employment, education, federal funding, and public accommodations;

Enact the Student Non-Discrimination Act or similar legislation to prohibit discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity in schools;

Enact the Safe Schools Improvement Act or similar legislation to encourage states to enact strong policies to prevent bullying and harassment that are inclusive of sexual orientation and gender identity;

Enact the Real Education for Healthy Youth Act or similar legislation to support comprehensive sexuality education and restrict funding to health education programs that are medically inaccurate, scientifically ineffective, or unresponsive to the needs of LGBT youth.

To the US Department of Education

Develop a system to integrate school records that reflect a student's name and pronouns with federally operated databases and programs like Selective Service Registration and the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA).

Ryan Thoreson, researcher in the LGBT Rights Program, wrote this report based on research undertaken from November 2015 to May 2016. Additional interviews were conducted by Michael Bochenek, senior counsel in the Children's Rights Division.

The report was reviewed by Graeme Reid, director of the LGBT Rights Program; Michael Bochenek, senior counsel in the Children's Rights Division; Megan McLemore, senior researcher in the Health and Human Rights Division; Antonio Ginatta, US advocacy director; Chris Albin-Lackey, senior Legal advisor; and Danielle Haas, senior Program editor. Production assistance was provided by Oliva Hunter, Publications associate; Fitzroy Hepkins, administrative manager; and Jose Martinez, senior coordinator.

Human Rights Watch would like to thank M. Dru Levasseur of Lambda Legal and the experts and organizations that assisted us in reaching out to potential interviewees, especially Youth First in Dallas, TX; LGBTQ Saves in Fort Worth, TX; GALA Youth in Carrollton, TX; Hatch Youth in Houston, TX; Out Youth in Austin, TX; the Utah Pride Center in Salt Lake City, UT; Equality Utah in Salt Lake City, UT; the ACLU of South Dakota in Sioux Falls, SD; the Center for Equality in Sioux Falls, SD; the Black Hills Center for Equality in Rapid City, SD; the Magic City Acceptance Project in Birmingham, AL; the Alabama Alliance for Healthy Youth in Birmingham, AL; the Alabama Safe Schools Coalition in Birmingham, AL; Montgomery Pride United in Montgomery, AL; Free2Be in Huntsville, AL; the ACLU of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, PA; the Mazzoni Center in Philadelphia, PA; the LGBT Center of Central Pennsylvania in Harrisburg, PA; the Bradbury-Sullivan LGBT Community Center in Allentown, PA; and the NEPA Rainbow Alliance in Pittston, PA.

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This report documents a range of problems facing LGBT students. The concerns include bullying and harassment, exclusion of LGBT topics from school curricula and resources, restrictions on LGBT student groups, and discrimination and bigotry from both classmates and school personnel on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity.

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Challenging the status quo has been a recurring theme in women's sports for decades. UA athletes like Kelley O'Hara, Lindsey Vonn and Natasha Hastings have all led the charge for progress in sports. Women in every league have pushed for resources, attention, screen time, money, and led the way in protesting gender inequality, social injustice, and racism.

Studies have shown that participation in sport has a lifelong impact on the development of girls. Athletics have been proven to be outstanding markers and builders of successful women. Level aside, the theme is clear: participation in sports has an impact on career trajectory - 96% of women in C-suite level positions played sports beyond elementary school. Many senior leaders at Under Armour also belong to this group, having played sports themselves as girls.

So when the pandemic struck in 2020, it was the resilience that women have cultivated that was so crucial in combating new struggles in their day-to-day lives as mothers and professionals, from the fresh concerns that women have shouldered, to the emotional, mental, and financial burdens left in its wake.

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BUILDING FUTURE LEADERS THROUGH A COMMITMENT TO GIRLS SPORTS

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Challenging the status quo has been a recurring theme in women's sports for decades. UA athletes like Kelley O'Hara, Lindsey Vonn and Natasha Hastings have all led the charge for progress in sports. Women in every league have pushed for resources, attention, screen time, money, and led the way in protesting gender inequality, social injustice, and racism.

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The RSPO is the global standard for the sustainable production of palm oil. When palm oil is produced in adherence to RSPO standards, growers help to protect the environment and the local communities who depend on the crop for their livelihoods, so that palm oil can continue to play a key role in food security, economic development, and food supply chains. We should continue to use RSPO certified sustainable palm oil in products, as replacing it would result in more deforestation and natural habitat conversion. RSPO certified products that use palm oil from 'Segregated' or 'Identity Preserved' supply chains offer the greatest assurance of sustainable palm oil.

Along with other organisations, WWF plays an active role in influencing and shaping the RSPO standard to make sure it puts in place more safeguards for people and the planet. In November 2018, the RSPO standard was strengthened and it now represents an essential tool that can help companies achieve their commitments to palm oil that is free of deforestation, conversion of other natural habitats like peatlands, and the exploitation of people.

8. What is being done in the UK?

In 2012, the UK Government recognised that we were part of the palm oil problem and could also be part of the solution. They set a commitment for 100% of the palm oil used in the UK to be from sustainable sources that don't harm nature or people. In 2019, 70% of the total palm oil imports to the UK were sustainable. This is great progress but there is more to be done to get to 100%.

An area that represents a substantial gap in the uptake of certified sustainable palm the use of palm-derived ingredients in animal feed - for chickens, pigs and cows, for example. Much of this palm oil material is unlikely to be certified. This area requires much stronger transparency and ambition from the UK industry, and is going to be critical over the coming years if we are to truly tackle the UK's palm oil footprint.

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Palm oil is one of the most efficient and widely used vegetable oils that comes from the fruit of oil palm trees. We've broken down they key facts.

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What is Palm Oil? Facts About the Palm Oil Industry

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As palm oil plantations spread rapidly, deforestation impacts wildlife habitats and human communities. The sustainable production and harvesting of palm oil is imperative.

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Imagine an ingredient that makes soaps foamier, crisps crispier, and can even make cookies healthier - all while feeding animals, and fuelling cars!
What is this magical mystery ingredient, you ask? Well, gang, it's palm oil - and you can find it almost everywhere! But what is palm oil, and why does it have a bad reputation, when it comes to the planet? Read on to find out...

What is palm oil?

Palm oil is harvested from the fruit of oil palm trees ( Elaeis guineensis). Squeezing the fleshy fruit will produce crude palm oil, while crushing the kernel (seed) of the fruit will produce palm kernel oil.

Oil palm trees are native to Africa and historically grew in countries to its west and south-west. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, they were introduced to Indonesia and Malaysia. Today, these countries produce over 85% of the global supply of palm oil!

What is palm oil used for?

Well, the answer is just about everything! Almost 50% of the packaged products in supermarkets contain palm oil, because it's such an adaptable ingredient that can be used in a huge variety of things.

Its texture can help make things spreadable, it helps give products a longer shelf-life, and importantly, it has no odour or colour, so it doesn't affect the look or smell of the products it's used in. All these benefits make it very attractive to manufacturers.

Check out this list of everyday items you might find at the supermarket. Can you guess which ones contain palm oil?

- Toothpaste

- Frozen pizza

- Shampoo

- Lipstick

- Biscuits

- Packaged bread

- Margarine

- Ice cream

- Cereal

- Soap

How many did you guess? If you guessed all of them, then you're right!

Why is palm oil bad?

Before palm oil ends up in your products, oil palm trees have to be grown on a plantation (an area of land used to farm crops), and that plantation takes up land. In fact, with global demand for palm oil being so high, oil palm plantationsnow cover of Indonesia and Malaysia.

To make way for palm oil plantations, huge areas of rainforest are being destroyed. In fact, palm oil production is one of the biggest reasons for deforestation around the world. As forests are torn up, the endangered species that live in them - like orangutans, elephants and gorillas - suffer, too. If nothing changes, many of these species may soon become extinct.

And that's not all, because the cutting down of trees and an increased risk of on plantations causes lots of carbon dioxide to be released into the atmosphere. And that's bad news for climate change!

How can I help?

Thankfully, there is a better way of doing things. More and more companies around the world are using sustainable palm oil. This means palm oil that's used and produced in a way that doesn't harm the environment. And others are creating brilliant products that avoid palm oil altogether!

TOP TIP!

You can check whether a product contains sustainable palm oil by looking for the RSPO label, which was created by the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil to signal that a product uses responsibly sourced palm oil. It can be a little hard to find, so make sure you keep your eyes peeled!

You can also do your own research and find out which of your favourite products containpalm oil. If they do and you don't know if it's sustainable or not, then why not get in contact with the manufacturer, and ask them about it? You can make a difference!

Check out this list by the Ethical Consumer. It lists all the common products that contain palm oil and includes palm-oil free options, too!

Thanks to Vlad Hilitanu; Fikri Rasyid; Peter Bond; Nazarizal Mohammad; Ihsan Aditya; Bishnu Sarangi, and Tafilah Yusof for the images used in this article.

What did you think of our palm oil article? Let us know your thoughts by leaving us a comment, below!

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What is palm oil: facts for kids - National Geographic Kids

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Imagine an ingredient that makes soaps foamier, crisps crispier, and can even make cookies healthier - all while feeding animals, and fuelling cars! What is this magical mystery ingredient, you ask? Well, gang, it's palm oil - and you can find it almost everywhere!

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Palm oil is literally everywhere - in our foods, cosmetics, cleaning products and fuels. It's a source of huge profits for multinational corporations, while at the same time destroying the livelihoods of smallholders. Displacement of indigenous peoples, deforestation and loss of biodiversity are all consequences of our palm oil consumption. How could it come to this? And what can we do in everyday life to protect people and nature?

5-minute info - palm oil

The issue - rainforest on our dinner tables and in our fuel tanks

The impact - suffering and death in producer countries, climate havoc

The solution - a revolution on our dinner tables and in our fuel tanks

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Palm oil - deforestation for everyday products

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Palm oil is literally everywhere - in our foods, cosmetics, cleaning products and fuels. It's a source of huge profits for multinational corporations, while at the same time destroying the livelihoods of smallholders. Displacement of indigenous peoples, deforestation and loss of biodiversity are all consequences of our palm oil consumption.

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Kids Go Green: Reducing Food Waste | PBS LearningMedia

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Learn about the impact of food waste on the environment in this video animation from WNET. In this clip, students discover ways to reduce food waste. Refer to the accompanying discussion questions and teaching tips for ideas on using this video to help students consider ways to conserve food.
For mo…

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Bow Seat Ocean Awareness Program s is a Massachusetts-based nonprofit that activates the next wave of ocean leaders through the arts, science, and advocacy. They believe that changing our world starts by inspiring and energizing young people to imagine a better future, and empowering them to create it themselves.

Bow Seat's annual Ocean Awareness Contest challenges teens around the world to explore the connections between human activities and the health of our oceans through art, writing, film, and music. Many focus on plastic pollution and its impact on ecosystems, wildlife, and human health. Bow Seat also hosts the Marine Debris Creative Advocacy Competition, which challenges students to design and lead creative campaigns in their community that fight plastic pollution.

Nearly 7 ,000 young people worldwide have participated in Bow Seat programs since the organization's launch in 2011. All under the age of 18, Bow Seat's students are artists, activists, and environmental leaders who are making real changes for their local streets, rivers, and coasts. Meet some of them below! This community of young wavemakers spans almost every U.S. state and more than 60 countries, but are passionate about using their creative voice to fight for our oceans. Here are some of their winners from 2017. Get inspired and get involved - Bow Seat's 2018 program deadline is June 18th!

14-year-old Blue Brasher-Rues from Fayetteville, Arkansas

Blue was inspired to show her landlocked community that even though they are far from the coast, their actions impact the ocean. To raise awareness and concern about the issue of marine debris, Blue planned and curated a student art show and open mic. Blue partnered with the OMNI Center for Peace, Justice & Ecology to host the event, and secured donations and sponsorships from local businesses. The successful event connected hundreds of attendees with each other and the environment through visual art, poetry, music, and storytelling. Community members left with grocery bags made from recycled t-shirts and feelings of hope and possibility for creating a wave of positive change.
"I have always had a passion for protecting our Earth, and especially the water on it that gives life to all. We are not near the ocean, but our land and water are connected. We are a part of an ecosystem, and marine debris has a detrimental effect on our web of existence. It is the job of the people who know about an issue to spread knowledge and passion on that subject. I am ecstatic to know that I can do anything I set my mind to! And I want everyone in my generation knows that they can too."
Fremont Middle School Enviro Club from Oxnard, CaliforniaVanessa Garcia Torres, Isabel Arenas, Victor Godoy, Exivany Ramirez, and Amara Martinez

Enviro Club members created a plastic Quetzalcoatl - the Mesoamerican serpent revered as the giver of life and the God of intelligence, creation, and self-reflection - out of one day's worth of the school's discarded plastic trash. The Quetzalcoatl was displayed during the school's Zero Waste Week, with a poster asking for self-reflection about how every individual can contribute to ending plastic pollution. During the campaign, the Enviro Club members collected 500+ signatures urging their School Board to adopt policies to end the use of polystyrene trays and spork packages and to replace these items with reusable options. The campaign culminated in presentations to the school district's Director of Child Nutrition Services and the School Board, where the Quetzalcoatl served as the centerpiece during both meetings.
"Our school has been discarding approximately 500 polystyrene trays and spork packages with straws per day, in addition to hundreds of chip bags. These plastic pollutants either end up in the landfill or on the school's field, where the mower turns them into plastic shrapnel. The wind blows it out onto the street, into the storm drain, and, ultimately, directly into the ocean, which is only three miles away."
14-year-old Addie Farmer and Lainey Randall from Portland, Maine

Addie and Lainey launched a campaign to raise awareness of and inspire action around marine debris by introducing NOAA's Marine Debris Tracker mobile application to their community. The duo set an ambitious goal for the community to collect and log 5,000 pieces of trash in approximately one month. Addie and Lainey conducted multiple outreach activities, including: communicating with their school community through posters, newsletters, and morning announcements; testifying before the Portland City Council; and presenting to the Gulf of Maine Research Institute. They were even featured on a local television news segment! Addie and Lainey concluded their campaign with a cleanup at East End Beach. They were joined by 30 volunteers who picked up litter and used the Marine Debris Tracker app to log in data. Together, they collected nearly 6,000 pieces of trash, bringing the month-long total to almost 8,000 items - 3,000 over their initial goal!

Soo Bin Cho, Cheyenne Bridge, Sage Nelson, and Lauren Richardson from Irvine/Newport, California

As interns for the city of Newport Beach's Office of Natural Resources, students Soo Bin, Cheyenne, Sage, and Lauren researched the issue of marine debris, conducted local clean-ups, and analyzed their findings. The group wanted to show others how litter - and, in particular, plastic - has a direct impact on marine wildlife, so they created "Maurice," a whale mural painted on a wooden board with a garbage bag for a stomach. They used Maurice for educational outreach activities and brought him to a local pier, where they encouraged visitors to pick up trash and deposit it in Maurice's "stomach." The team found that their interactive mural greatly enhanced their conversations about marine debris with beachgoers of all ages.
"The ocean holds significance in all of our hearts, and we wanted to do anything we could to help protect it. We were astounded by the amount of marine debris found at the beach and its impact on wildlife. We feel strongly about environmental advocacy and want to contribute to greater environmental awareness."
Middle School Students at High Tech Middle North County from San Marcos, California

Middle school students involved in "The Ripple Effect" campaign led several projects to raise awareness about plastic pollution, including participating in beach cleanups, creating a children's book about marine debris, building an informational website and social media campaign, hosting an exhibition for their school community, and raising money to purchase a water bottle filling station at their school. The highlight of their project was creating a life-size whale sculpture out of marine debris, now prominently displayed in their school. Thanks to their hard work, they were able to shift the culture of their school to be more focused on environmental conservation.
"The most meaningful part of the project was learning how quickly we are filling the ocean with plastic and just how much plastic exists in the ocean. We had no idea how it was affecting the animals in the ocean and the food that we eat. We also realized how easy it is to stop using plastic ... every time we grab something that has plastic wrapping on it, we recognize that and prevent ourselves from using it, or use it much less. We are now more interested in helping others see the value in doing the same thing. We now see that one person or a small group can have an impact - and we believe this is a very important mindset for our generation to have." And because art is activism, too, here are some of the poets, painters, and filmmakers making waves of change!
14-year-old Dafne Murillo from Lima, Peru
"I've been involved in two annual beach cleanup projects, and I've been stunned by the countless bottles and plastic bags that are spread across the shoreline. This inspired my piece. My art is my version of the iceberg metaphor: people can only see the portion above the surface but are oblivious of the portion undersea. I feel this is the case in Peru (as in many other countries). People can appreciate our whales, yet fail to realize that by continuing to litter the sea with their plastic waste, they are responsible for the harm of marine wildlife through ingestion or entanglement." "As someone who lives and has grown up on the beach, plastics and the harm they can cause to marine life and the environment are a concerning and pressing issue for me. Whenever I walk on the beach I always pick up as much plastic as I can find to help preserve the beauty of the beaches. Seeing how much plastic gets stuck in ocean gyres and by dissecting albatross boluses, I have become more aware of what happens to the plastics that we use. I hope that my film will help someone else realize the dangers of plastic and take little steps to make their daily life more eco-friendly."
Lauren Krikorian from San Francisco, California
never forget
Akhila Bandlora from Phoenix, AZ

i.
the girl with sea foam fingers writes letters
on napkins left on beaches like loose change,
words stumbling down staircases of five-seven-five haikus
- i want an ocean,
the one mama whispers of,
when she eats, sleeps, prays -
she ties them to the webbed foot of a seagull,
sends it off to the governor-
"the tide is coming."
he laughs, the kind of laugh that corrodes,
shoos the seagull - lulls it to sleep with plastic wrappers and bottles -
throws the napkin away to land up exactly where the girl found it,
dips his pen into the seagull's carcass to sign a bill
for a factory to dump their industrial waste into the ocean
- man made trashcan.

The girl's eyes are seismic; the world shifts.

ii.
It's 1972,
the year oysters pearl, fish jump, and crabs claw;
the girl trades her haikus for ballads, her flat chest
for fruit cup breasts, their apathy for her unrest
the sailors; they call her a woman.
she gargles the sea in her mouth to remember why she's fighting,
pulls trash left on beaches and from washed up animal carnage,
dumps it on the governor's desk-
"the tide is here."
chants reduce, reuse, and recycle outside the homes of oil-guzzling men,
she leaks into classrooms, salt water ferments the walls,
teaches her children how to protect;
the world watches her,
until its eyes cataract,
teeth chip,
lips parch,
and ears burst.
And finally, it listens-
births the Marine Mammal Protection Act,
MPRSA, the ocean dumping act,
holds the UN Convention on the law of the sea-
All promises to defend.
she smiles,
whistles to the whoosh of the waves,
and shows her children how to protest -
The fight is not over.

iii.
It's 2017,
where climate change is an alternative fact,
the ocean an afterthought instead of a forethought;
but it's still her first thought.
her bones are soft like coral,
hair long like coast and gray like gravel,
voice throaty as a frog's-
her battle ending,
the war still raging-
her children, we do not forget;
when our president pulls out of the Paris Agreement,
elects a denialist to run the EPA,
cuts its budget by thirty percent,
we grab conch shells and march on-
"the ocean is rising and so are we"-
she braids kelp through her hair,
washes her body with the sea,
tells us to never forget,
and we say we never will.

Qinlin Li from Southborough, Massachusetts
"There are several factors that led to my passion for, and involvement in, sustainability, but I think my community has been my greatest impact, particularly my home country of China, and my own family's involvement in and concern regarding pollution and sustainability. As a resident of China for the majority of my life, I have read about and seen firsthand how the environment has been polluted by the irresponsible behavior of people. I became interested in sustainability, hoping to do my part to raise sustainability awareness, by reducing my own waste of single-use products, reusing and recycling paper, and modeling so others would do the same. Through my artwork, I wish to raise an awareness of the threat of irresponsible plastic usage and inspire others to reduce their use of these synthesized materials."
"Bottled Home"
"I have always had a special spot in my heart for the sea, but over the years I have noticed definite changes in my local ecosystem, so I created this piece as a voice of my concern. When I started to work on the trash hand monster, I tried to use vibrant colors and large amounts of detail as I wanted it to be the focal point of the piece. The plastic industry also advertises their products with flashy colors to entice their consumers, but are secretly a monster in disguise."
13-year-old Maxwell Sagermann from Santa Barbara, California

Inspiring, aren't they? Check out Bow Seat's website to see more amazing projects designed by young people who are making the oceans - and the world - a better place for all of us. A special thank you to the Bow Seat team for making this possible!

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Meet the Terrific Teens with Pollution Solutions! - Greenpeace USA

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Bow Seat Ocean Awareness Programs is a Massachusetts-based nonprofit that activates the next wave of ocean leaders through the arts, science, and advocacy. They believe that changing our world starts by inspiring and energizing young people to imagine a better future, and empowering them to create it themselves.

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Guest article by Amy Blyth of London Vegan Diaries and Our Big Fat Travel Adventure.
Looking for a way to help stray dogs in Thailand?

A number of dog shelters and rescue projects operate throughout the Land of Smiles. You can find them everywhere from the forested north of the country to the sun-drenched southern islands.

Here are five of the top places to volunteer with dogs in Thailand and how to apply.

How To Volunteer With Stray Dogs in Thailand

Before You Volunteer

Volunteering abroad can be a great way to enrich your travels. However, it's important to make sure the project you devote your time to is ethical. To ensure you help rather than harm the local community, do some research on the organisation first.

Find out if it's a non-profit and search for volunteer reviews. And if you have to pay a fee, understand where that money goes.

It's also vital to be realistic about what you can achieve when you volunteer abroad. You won't change the world in a few weeks. Over time, though, the work of hundreds of volunteers like you will make a huge impact.

Here are some other key things to remember before you volunteer with dogs abroad:

Always make sure you have travel insurance

Check your travel vaccinations are up to date

Be prepared to work in a potentially hot, humid environment

Bring suitable clothes, closed shoes, bug spray and sunscreen

Ready to jet off to Thailand now? Here are five of the best dog projects that accept volunteers from all over the world.

Top Places to Volunteer with Stray Dogs in Thailand

Lanta Animal Welfare

Location: Koh Lanta

Cost: free. Volunteers must arrange their own accommodation, food and transport. Check here to compare accommodation options on Koh Lanta.

Requirements: there's no age limit, but volunteers do need a good level of English and must be committed and passionate about helping animals.
Apply to volunteer at Lanta Animal Welfare
If you're visiting the south, Koh Lanta Animal Welfare is the perfect place to volunteer with dogs. The rehoming and healthcare centre for stray cats and dogs was set up by Norwegian expat Junie Kovacs back in 2005.

Since then, the team has sterilised and treated over 15,000 animals and dramatically reduced the island's street animal population. Additionally, they've managed to rehome hundreds of animals locally and overseas.

What's great about Lanta Animal Welfare is that you can simply visit the centre if you don't have time to volunteer. Take one of the hourly, volunteer-led tours to meet the resident cats and dogs and learn about how the shelter is run.

You can come between 9am and 5pm to cuddle and play with over 30 cats in the Kitty City. Or you can offer to walk the dogs in the morning or late afternoon.

Longer volunteer placements are more beneficial for Lanta Animal Welfare, preferably for at least a week. You can apply for one of the following opportunities:

Volunteer Opportunities at Lanta Animal Welfare

· General volunteer - to socialise with the animals, walk the dogs, clean enclosures, do some gardening or complete general maintenance tasks.

· Volunteer host - if you're outgoing and fluent in English, you can volunteer to lead visitor tours. This means spending one day per week behind the scenes to learn about the animals, so you can share their stories when you show tourists around.

· Media volunteers - create video and photo content for the Lanta Animal Welfare website and social media channels. You need your own equipment for this role such as a laptop, camera and editing software.

· Vet and vet nurse volunteer - for qualified vet and vet nurses with at least three years of experience who can commit to longer stays to help the resident Thai vets.

· Flight volunteers - are needed to help animals who've been adopted get to their rescue home abroad. There's no cost involved and Lanta Animal Welfare will arrange all the paperwork and procedures.

The Dog Rescue Project

Location: Elephant Nature Park (ENP), near Chiang Mai

Cost: from 7,000 THB per week

Requirements: valid passport, insurance and up-to-date vaccinations. You must be an enthusiastic adult (16-and-17-year-olds should be accompanied by a legal guardian) who loves animals.
Apply to volunteer at the Dog Rescue Project
Want to live among elephants in northern Thailand? Then volunteer at the Elephant Nature Park's Dog Rescue Project.

Set in a valley an hour from Chiang Mai, the park was established in the '90s by a Thai woman named Lek. She has spent her whole life rescuing abused elephants from the logging and tourism industries.

The elephants are given medical treatment and left to roam the valley. They are never forced to work or give rides to tourists.

In 2011, Lek and her husband Darrick also launched the Dog Rescue Project after saving over 2,000 dogs from the Bangkok floods, many of whom they rehomed at the ENP. Since then, they've also rescued dogs suffering from disease and abuse in the local community.

Many of these dogs wander freely among the elephants, while others live in large outdoor dog runs with pools and play equipment. There's also an animal hospital with a full-time vet and Thai mahouts who tend to the animals daily.

Volunteer placements at the Dog Rescue Project run from Sunday to Sunday (lasting up to four weeks), and the 7,000 THB per-week fee covers transport to and from the park, comfy accommodation shared with other volunteers and buffet meals.

The buffet is always fully vegetarian with lots of vegan dishes from Thailand, Southeast Asia and beyond. Work days run from 8am to 5pm with a 90-minute lunch break, and duties include:

Walking the clinic dogs who are caged while they receive care

Cleaning out their cages

Feeding the clinic dogs (some may require hand-feeding and medication)

Socialising with the dogs

Bathing and de-ticking animals

Helping with office tasks or site maintenance

Visitors from all over the world also adopt dogs from ENP. While some owners are able to fly back with their dog, many have to travel ahead while the dog completes his or her vaccinations and travel procedures.

So, the project often needs flight volunteers to travel with the dogs from Thailand to their new home. There's no cost for this, and the project will arrange everything for you, including check-in at the airport, and at the other end, you'll be met by the dog's new owner.

Koh Chang Animal Project

Location: Koh Chang

Cost: free. Volunteers are responsible for their transport, food and accommodation. There are plenty of hotels and guesthouses on Koh Chang to suit all budgets. Check here to compare hotel prices.

Requirements: the project is always looking for help from vets, vet nurses and general volunteers who love animals.
Apply to volunteer at Koh Chang Animal Project
Koh Chang lies just a few hours south of Bangkok, so it's the perfect volunteer destination if you're on a short trip to Thailand and can't travel far. American Nurse Lisa McAlonie set up the project in 2002 after visiting the island and witnessing the difficult lives street dogs face.

Locals have known Lisa for over 16 years now and trust her to provide emergency care, vaccinations and sterilisations for their pets.

While Lisa and her vet team provide services for free, supported by private donations, locals pay for the medicines and materials or donate what they can.

Work includes wound management, emergency services, parasite control and of course sterilising and vaccinating animals to keep the island's stray population healthy and under control. Lisa also does some great work educating local people on how to care for their animals.

Koh Chang Animal Project is a smaller facility, covering 120 square metres, with a clinic, surgery and lab, ICU and four large outdoor dog kennels. To volunteer, email Lisa directly (mcalonie@hotmail.com) and give as much or as little time as you can.

Volunteers need to arrange their own accommodation, transport and food. This is a more intimate volunteer placement, and you'll likely help with cleaning, feeding and socialising the animals.

Soi Dog Foundation

Location: Phuket

Cost: free. Volunteers must pay for their food, accommodation and transport, although there is a shuttle service to and from town to the sanctuary for 100 THB per day. Check here to view accommodation options in Phuket.

Requirements: unaccompanied volunteers must be at least 16 (those under 18 need written consent from a legal guardian) and have medical insurance. Accompanied volunteers eight and over are also welcome.

The shelter is busy in high season from November to April, so there's a greater need for volunteers in low season from May to October.
Apply to volunteer at Soi Dog Foundation
Soi Dog Foundation has been helping street dogs and cats since 2003, offering treatment, rehoming, rescue and vaccination services.

To date, the foundation has also managed to spay and neuter about 80 percent of the stray population in Phuket and also has mobile sterilisation clinics that operate across Thailand.

An important part of Soi Dog's work involves campaigning for animal welfare rights across Asia and fighting to end the region's dog meat trade.

Over 800 volunteers come to Soi Dog Foundation each year, and their primary role is to spend time with the dogs and cats so that they grow to trust people and are more adoptable. The work schedule is Monday to Friday, 9am to 4pm with a one-hour lunch break.

You'll start with an induction morning, which includes a tour of the centre, and then you'll be introduced to the run of dogs you'll be responsible for during your placement. Each run holds around 25 dogs, all former street animals.

The main duties are to walk the dogs so that they get used to being on the lead and can enjoy some quality time outside of their run each day. There's a selection of dog walking routes around the shelter, as well as a great off-lead area where the dogs can play.

There's also a chance to spend time in the cattery to cuddle and play with the cats. Soi Dog Foundation also welcomes volunteer vet and vet nurses and is always looking for flight volunteers.

Phangan Animal Care for Strays Foundation

Location: Koh Phangan

Cost: free. Volunteers are responsible for travel, accommodation and food costs. The Foundation may be able to offer discounted accommodation for longer volunteer stays. Check here to see more accommodation options on Koh Phangan.

Requirements: volunteers need to be at least 21 years old and committed to helping animals.
Apply to volunteer at Phangan Animal Care for Strays Foundation
Koh Phangan might be known for its crazy full moon parties on the beach, but the island is also home to this great foundation that helps stray cats and dogs.

Founded in 2001 when there was no vet service on the island, the clinic now focuses on reducing the suffering of stray and wild animals. This includes spaying and neutering to keep the population under control.

The foundation provides excellent hospital care for temple, stray and wild animals, many of whom may have been involved in traffic accidents or sadly, been poisoned.

Staff also work to educate locals on responsible pet ownership and what to do when they encounter injured animals. Every animal admitted to the hospital is vaccinated for rabies, distemper and parvo.

Phangan Animal Care for Strays Foundation relies on donations and volunteers to run, as there are only three full-time staff members. The project is always looking for clinic assistants, vets and vet nurses to work alongside their full-time team.

General volunteers usually work Monday to Friday, 8.30am to 4.30pm and help to feed, clean and provide general love for the animals.

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How to Volunteer with Street Dogs in Thailand

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Dogs living on the streets of Thailand have a rough life, but there are some great organizations on the ground that welcome help from tourists. Here's where you can volunteer with dogs in Thailand!

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Creating a better future for stray dogs and cats in Southern Thailand! Saving Thailand’s forgotten dogs. Read more!

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Bangkok & California, Sep 30 (IPS) - When I started living in Thailand, I noticed something peculiar that I had never seen in other countries I had visited before. It was the stray dogs. I ran into so many stray dogs when jogging on the streets.

At first, I was scared of them because they might attack me, as I had read in news articles. Surprisingly, most of these stray dogs in Thailand seemed friendly. Unfortunately, since they slept on dirty streets and drank sewage water, they contracted various diseases such as rabies, babesiosis, inflammation of the lungs, canine monocytic ehrlichiosis, etc.

As a pet owner, I felt they were not supposed to be on the streets. Imagine, my Woods, a little Bichon Frisé, out on dirty streets bitten by ticks and getting rabies! It just breaks my heart. Every time I look at the stray dogs in Thailand, they look like my Woods. And I wondered, "Where do these stray dogs come from? And why do Thai people leave them on the streets?" Then I had a big awakening and decided I needed to help these stray dogs. This is how I began my public campaign and fundraising for stray dogs.

Before launching my campaign, I wanted to get some facts about health-related issues for stray dogs and found that they also affect Thai people's welfare. Last year, I read a news article about a 39-year-old woman in Surin, Thailand, who died of rabies after taking care of stray animals. A study revealed that almost 87.5% of dogs in Thailand have rabies and are not vaccinated against the disease. This was shocking to me, especially because getting a rabies vaccine for the dog is the first thing to do when adopting a dog in Korea, where I grew up. Knowing that humans rarely survive rabies infections, many Thai people are concerned about the stray dogs around them carrying rabies. I decided to organize a campaign to support rabies vaccination for stray dogs in Thailand because rabies affects the welfare of dogs and people.

While organizing the campaign, I found something unique about Thai culture regarding the motivation for raising dogs. Unlike in South Korea, where dogs are treated as life companions for people, Thai people raise dogs to show off their status. As Thai royal families love dogs, many Thai people follow suit. But then, without having enough resources to maintain proper care for their dogs, people abandon these poor creatures onto the streets. And that's how they end up having so many stray dogs. I realized that without changing Thai people's minds about dogs, there would be more stray dogs would suffer. My ultimate goal is to spread the message that we have to be responsible for how these dogs become abandoned on the streets, and that, by doing so, we will be able to build a safer community where dogs and humans can happily coexist. The message is clear: Dogs are family. As we need proper health care, they need one too.

So let me talk about my campaign. To spread our message, we designed t-shirts with our slogan, 'Dogs are Family.' We also printed out a poster explaining that 'Dogs' Lives Matter,' and that this campaign is for both people and dogs. Thanks to the support from a digital character company, ' UZZUZZU MY PET', we could use their characters as a mascot of our campaign.

We also had a very special interview with the founder of the Voice Foundation, Chollada Sirisant. In her interview, she explained that many Thai people are not aware of the money that it takes to keep a dog as a pet. Some people abuse the Buddhist beliefs that value the lives of all animals and abandon dogs at the Buddhist temples.

Even now, there are stray dogs that keep breeding and creating more stray dogs. This is a serious ethical problem, as more and more dogs wander around the streets, where they do not belong, and inevitably become susceptible to rabies. Due to the irresponsible behavior of humans, more dogs are getting in danger, eventually affecting us humans with the fear of rabies.

According to Chollada, adopting stray dogs isn't always best for them because some of the rescued dogs wish to go back to the street. This means that so long as they get their rabies vaccine and get neutered, Thai people can coexist with stray dogs. Time will play a role in shaping the new ecosystem. I have seen how animal farms in Korea were reported and brutally criticized on social media, ending the inhumane treatment of dogs in Korea. I believe there is also hope for a change in Thai culture.

I look forward to seeing changes in how Thai people think of animal rights as more people get motivated and get involved in our actions via social media.

IPS UN Bureau Report
Note: Junwoo Na was the team leader Edited by Hanna Yoon © Inter Press Service (2022) - All Rights Reserved Original source: Inter Press Service

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What Stray Dogs Need in Thailand: Family and Love

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Bangkok & California, Sep 30 (IPS) - When I started living in Thailand, I noticed something peculiar that I had never seen in other countries I had visited before. It was the stray dogs. I ran into so many stray dogs when jogging on the streets.

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Scrolling through TikTok, your kids probably see goofy jokes, lip-synching videos ... and lots and lots of clothes. That's because fashion hauls-videos in which an influencer rips open packages stuffed with new clothes and models them in front of the camera-are all over social media.

On TikTok, "#haul" videos have racked up 13.2 billion views; on Instagram, 2.5 million posts include the hashtag. And if you've ever found yourself on the receiving end of a child begging for new clothes they've seen on social media, you know how tough it can be to argue against an influencer.

But children probably aren't aware of the environmental impact that experts fear these videos are having. The content often features what's known as fast fashion: mass-produced, ultra-trendy, inexpensive clothing made with cheap fabrics that are made at breakneck speeds by low-wage workers. In fact, a report from Rest of World, a journalism nonprofit organization, found that between July and December 2021, fast-fashion company Shein added between 2,000 and 10,000 new styles to its app each day.

Fashion haul videos have actually been a thing on YouTube since at least 2008. The problem? According to Aja Barber, sustainability consultant and author of Consumed, a book that explores the impact of fast fashion on the environment, this content encourages a model of consumption that's hurting the planet. Indeed, research from the consulting firm McKinsey & Company shows that consumers are buying about 60 percent more clothing per person than in 2000, and they keep the items half as long. And quickly producing massive amounts of cheap products has an environmental impact, from growing crops for raw materials to transporting the goods to incinerating the castoffs.

"You see TikTok haul videos where someone buys thousands of dollars of merchandise from a brand, and it's a big box of stuff that they might only wear once," Barber says. And children often mimic trends they see on social media, including fashion hauls that aren't good for the planet. Here's how to talk to kids about their haul-filled feeds-and the environmental impact of their closets.

The environmental cost of fashion

Accurate numbers around the fashion industry are difficult to come by. But the World Economic Forum estimates that about 150 billion new clothing items are produced each year, and the United Nations has reported that the energy-intensive production, transportation, and packaging of all these garments generates nearly 10 percent of global carbon dioxide emissions.

Although all fashion production has an environmental impact, Barber says the lightning-fast speed and enormous scale of fast fashion exacerbate the problems.

Fast fashion's cycle of waste often begins with its raw materials. A study published in the journal Nature found that polyester-an inexpensive synthetic fiber made from petroleum-accounted for 51 percent of fashion textile production in 2018 and is often the fabric of choice for fast fashion manufacturers. When washed, polyester clothing releases hundreds of thousands of tiny plastic fibers, which make their way into the environment through wastewater. Researchers from the Institute for Polymers, Composites, and Biomaterials estimated that 35 percent of ocean microplastics comes from synthetic clothing.

Moving the materials through a global supply chain that relies on cheap labor also has an emissions cost. For example, a raw material like cotton might be grown in Pakistan, shipped to China to manufacture the textile, and then shipped again to Bangladesh to sew the garment.

Finally, the clothing is transported to consumers across the globe. In the past, most clothing was shipped to retailers in container boats, but because fast fashion depends on churning out new trends as quickly as possible, air cargo shipments are becoming increasingly common. A report from the environmental consulting group Quantis estimated that switching just one percent of clothing transportation from boat to airplane could increase the industry's carbon footprint by 35 percent.

Because fast fashion is designed to be discarded after a few uses-both because it's made with less durable materials and quickly falls out of style-much of it ends up incinerated or in landfills. In the United States, over nine million tons of clothing and footwear ended up in landfills in 2018, up from 1.3 million tons in 1960, according to the Environmental Protection Agency. And fast fashion garments donated to charity are often sent to low- or middle-income countries, only to be landfilled or burned there, according to reporting from ABC.

Getting kids to care about clothes and the planet

Members of Gen Z and Alpha (ages 12 to 26 and kids 11 and younger, respectively) are famously passionate about fixing environmental problems, from participating in school climate strikes to filing environmental lawsuits. So why can't they quit fast fashion culture?

Barber suspects that children and teens simply may not fully understand the impact of fashion on the environment. "I think the average young person doesn't realize that, for example, polyester is plastic, and it comes from fossil fuels," she says. "When we talk about plastic waste, people are thinking about food packaging, but they're not thinking about fashion."

And the pull of all those cheap clothes worn by a supercool influencer is hard to resist-even for eco-savvy kids. After all, fun TikTok and YouTube videos don't show the costs of creating the clothes. But parents can take steps to make sure young viewers understand their impact on the environment and discourage overconsumption. Here's how to get started.

Make the environment part of the purchase. A kid might think they're being budget-minded when they beg for cheap clothes, but parents can help shift their mindset to also focus on the eco-impacts of their purchase. Before you agree to click "buy," ask them to find out things like where the item was made, how many miles the item would fly, and the carbon emissions produced by that flight. ( This clothing calculator can help put things in perspective.) Then see if they'd rather find a more sustainable, local option.

Reveal the influencers. If your child shows you a haul video and asks to buy a new piece of clothing, Michelle Nelson, a professor in the Charles H. Sandage Department of Advertising at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, recommends asking pointed questions so they understand that haul videos are often advertisements: Why is that person showcasing this particular fashion brand? Do you think that they were paid? How much do you think this haul would cost someone who isn't receiving the items for free?

"If we don't know that we're being persuaded, then maybe we're not so critical of the message," Nelson says. "[Children] think 'Oh, that influencer looks really cool and I see my friends are liking it.' If we don't know that it's advertising, we're just more susceptible." ( Here's how to talk to your kids about advertising -including influencer content.)

Buy slow, buy better. If your child is asking for a non-essential item, tell them to ask you about it again in a week or two. Taking time to think about a purchase can sometimes be all a kid needs to lose interest. If they're still asking, look for a quality garment made of lower-impact materials (think plant-based linens or wool). Third-party certifications from independent review organizations like Certified B Corps and Fair Trade Certified brands can indicate that an item has been made sustainably.

Be thoughtful about purchases. Help kids build healthy purchasing habits by establishing some of your own fashion do's and don'ts. For example, limit everyone's clothing purchases to one item per month. You can also give children a fixed allowance so they think through purchases more carefully and start learning about budgeting. ( Read why too much stuff can make kids unhappy.)

Buy secondhand. "I think it's hard to say, 'Oh, don't buy this stuff'-I don't want to be the Debbie Downer all the time," Barber says, who speaks with school groups in the United Kingdom about fast fashion and consumerism. Instead, she encourages them to consider buying the brands they love secondhand to lighten their impact on the environment-and their wallets. Websites like Depop, Poshmark, and threadUP are places to start, but supporting a local shop is a great way to cut out packaging waste and shipping emissions.

Spot "greenwashing." Some fast fashion brands have launched sustainability initiatives to lessen the environmental impact of their clothing, but some consumer protection groups say these claims can be misleading. Companies aren't actually required to disclose their social and environmental practices or information about their supply chains, so work with your kids to do some extra research. Fashion Revolution ranks 250 of the world's largest fashion brands on the transparency of their social and environmental practices; you can also search for clothing brands using Rank a Brand.

Use social media for good. Fashion influencers often focus on external qualities, says Rachel Rodgers, an associate professor in the Applied Psychology Program for Eating and Appearance Research at the Northeastern University Bouvé College of Health Sciences. Instead, she suggests that parents focus on other influences in their child's life. "For example, [compliment] a child on their qualities and achievements, not their outfit," she says. Rodgers also suggests that parents encourage kids to fill their social media feeds with content that reflects their interests instead of #hauls. Whether it's baking, dancing, or crafting, content that aligns with who they are can make kids' feeds more holistic and less consumeristic.

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Talking to kids about fast fashion and the environment

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TikTok 'haul' videos promote cool clothes-but children likely aren't aware that the content could be impacting the planet.

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Fast fashion is 'fast' in a number of senses: the changes in fashion are fast, the rate of production is fast; the customer's decision to purchase is fast; delivery is fast; and garments are worn fast - usually only a few times before being discarded.

The rise of fast fashion has had devastating consequences, from its reliance on plastic fabrics and its enormous carbon footprint to its erosion of workers' rights.

In this article we explain what we mean when we say 'fast fashion' and why it is so bad for people and the planet.

What is fast fashion?

In the last few decades, we have seen fashion trends changing more and more quickly. Pressures on workers to produce more and at lower prices have grown alongside pressures on consumers to turn to the newest trends.

Fast changing trends

At its heart, the fast fashion business model relies on consumers endlessly buying more clothes. Brands tempt consumers by offering ultra-cheap garments (for example, Missguided's £1 bikini) and ever-changing new ranges. At the time of writing, fast fashion brand Shein featured 21,139 clothes under the 'New in' section of its website.

Fashion brands have long used new styles and lower prices to attract customers, but previously brands would plan new ranges many months, even years, in advance. The pace of change was relatively slow and there were fewer products on offer. In comparison, fast fashion is focused on responding to ever-changing consumer tastes as quickly as possible.

For example, in the BBC's 'Breaking Fashion' show we see Manchester-based fast fashion company, In the Style, reproducing a bodysuit worn by Kylie Jenner. The company manages to have the piece designed, manufactured and on sale within 10 days of the piece first being worn publicly by the celebrity.

The rise of fast fashion is intertwined with social media and celebrity/influencer culture. A celebrity posts a photo wearing a new outfit, and their followers want it, so fast fashion brands rush to be the first to provide it. Fast fashion brands often target young people - so called Gen Zs -, who have been brought up amongst social media and influencer culture. In fact, a recent survey found that almost 75% of 18-24 year olds believe influencers can be held somewhat accountable for the rise in disposable fashion.

Of course, the flow of causality is not that simple: fast fashion brands are not simply reacting to consumer demand, they are also creating it. But the essential point is that these brands operate on the basis of constantly producing new lines of clothes to meet the insatiable and ever-changing consumer demand for all things new.

Fast production

Faster changing trends means that producers are under pressure to manufacture clothes more and more rapidly. Factories are expected to produce new lines with only a couple of month's notice, meaning that their workload - and therefore the amount of employment they can offer to workers - is unpredictable and insecure.

The drive to produce garments rapidly has led many UK fast fashion companies to reshore clothing production to the UK, where previously almost all clothing brands sourced from less-economically developed countries such as Bangladesh or Vietnam.

Leicester has become a central hub for clothing production and many of the scandals associated with workers' rights in the UK have been found in factories in the city.

The exploitation of workers in fast fashion supply chains is partly the result of brands pressuring suppliers to produce clothes as cheaply and quickly as possible. We talk about this more below.

Fast sale and delivery

The low-cost of fast fashion items encourages fast sale. The average person in the UK buys 60% more clothing today than in 2000. We buy more clothes per person in the UK than in any other country in Europe, and our addiction has grown - with online searches for 'cheap clothes' increasing 46.3% during the first coronavirus lockdown.

Even if you are out-of-pocket you can buy items using Klarna and other easy credit services. Its post-purchase payment options allow you to defer paying for your garment for 14 to 30 days, much like a payday loan.

Most companies also offer cheap deals for quick delivery. At the time of writing, Boohoo offered unlimited next-day delivery for one year for just £7.99.

Fast use

It's estimated that the average item of clothing is worn just 14 times, and in 2019 The Guardian reported that one in three young women considered an item worn just once or twice to be old.

Much modern clothing is not made to last. Due to super-fast production, designs are generally not well stress-tested before sale, and cheap synthetic fabrics are used in order to keep costs low. Much of it will end up in landfill after only being worn a handful of times.

Five things you need to know about fast fashion

The problems with fast fashion

What are the environmental problems with fast fashion?

The endless creation of new clothes comes with a heavy environmental price. Every year the sector requires 93 billion cubic meters of water, which is enough to meet the consumption needs of five million people, and is responsible for around 20% of industrial water pollution as a result of textile treatment and dyeing.

There are also numerous problems with the materials and processes used. For example, cotton production uses 6% of the world's pesticides and 16% of insecticides.

The industry also has a heavy carbon footprint, which is responsible for up to 10% of total global carbon emissions, and estimated to increase by 50% by 2030.

The above problems affect the clothing sector more broadly, but one issue is particularly endemic to fast fashion: plastic.

How much plastic do clothes contain?

The rise of fast fashion has been heavily dependent on synthetic fibres such as polyester, nylon, acrylic and elastane, which are made from heavily processed petrochemicals (fossil fuels). These materials are cheap to produce - polyester, for example, costs half as much per kilo as cotton - and therefore allow brands to keep prices low, though with a high environmental price-tag.

Polyester is the most widely used of these synthetic fibres and is now found in over half of all textiles produced. It is generally produced from polyethylene terephthalate, better known as PET, a type of plastic derived from crude oil and natural gas - also used to make items such as plastic bottles.

The ubiquitousness of plastic in clothing means that the textile sector accounts for 15% of total plastic use; the only sectors that use more are construction and packaging. Many brands are making a song and dance about using recycled plastics for their clothes, but a recent report by the RSA found that the actual level of recycled content was pitifully low. Across four major online fast fashion brands, the use of recycled fabrics was a mere 4%.

Our analysis of Shein's website found its recycled content was even lower, at only 0.5%, despite the brand claiming, " When selecting materials, we do our best to source recycled fabric, such as recycled polyester."

Recycling plastics where possible has some benefits, but it does nothing to address the problem of microfibres - the miniscule bits of fabric that are released when clothes are worn, washed, or disposed of, that find their way into our bodies and the natural world.

According to the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, clothes release half a million tonnes of microfibres into the ocean every year, equivalent to more than 50 billion plastic bottles.

These fibres have been found almost everywhere: from the summit of Mount Everest to the placentas of unborn babies. We still do not know the effects they may have.

How much waste does the clothing industry cause?

The industry is also responsible for enormous amounts of textile waste. The amount of textiles being produced globally per person has more than doubled from 5.9kg to 13kg over the period 1975-2018.

Many of the clothes bought are thrown away after being worn just a handful of times: the industry produces an estimated 92 million tonnes of textiles waste annually, much of which is burnt or finds its way to landfill, while less than 1% of used clothing is recycled into new garments.

Some of this waste consists of items that never even reached the consumer - clothing lines that have become outdated and so are destroyed instead of sold.

Atacama clothing mountain highlights over-consumption

The shocking reality of fast fashion's waste problem hit the headlines in November 2021 with an Agence France-Presse (AFP) report on the mountains of discarded clothing ending up in Chile's Atacama Desert. A total of 59,000 tons of second-hand clothing is said to arrive in Chile for resale each year from Europe, the US and Asia. However, an estimated 39,000 tons is unable to be sold and ends up dumped in the desert.

The situation highlights the myriad of problems in the fashion industry. The over-consumption of new clothing means that even an increasingly thriving second-hand clothing market cannot keep up, and this is exacerbated by the amount of poor-quality clothing not suitable for resale.

While second-hand markets certainly play a huge role in reducing the carbon impact of clothing when replacing the purchase of new items, a system where clothing gets shipped around the world multiple times, only to be wasted anyway is clearly not sustainable.

Clothing made of plastics

The piles mounting up in the Atacama, and in landfills across the world, are not biodegradable. Much of our clothing is made from synthetic plastics and also contains chemicals harmful to the environment.

Many fashion brands are pledging to address the issue of the use of virgin plastics in clothing manufacture, a material derived from the fossil fuel industry. However, this is often by replacing it with recycled synthetics.

And this may well be from recycled plastic bottles but, as a recent Guardian article points out: "PET bottles are also part of a well-established, closed-loop recycling system, where they can be efficiently recycled at least 10 times. The apparel industry is 'taking from this closed-loop, and moving it into this linear system because most of those clothes won't be recycled', said Maxine Bédat, Executive Director of New Standard Institute. "Converting plastic from bottles into clothes may actually accelerate its path to the landfill, especially for low-quality, fast-fashion garments which are often discarded after only a few uses."

The fashion industry, governments and consumers need to act to slow down consumption and ensure that garments are sustainable at every stage of their life cycle, from fibre production, to manufacture, to end-of-life.

Why is it bad for workers?

In order to offer clothes at ultra low prices, fast fashion brands need their costs to be low. One of the main ways of doing this is to drive down the wages of garment workers in the supply chain.

For years, brands have 'chased the cheap needle' around the world, seeking countries with the lowest labour standards so that garment workers can be easily exploited. In recent years, many UK fast fashion brands have found the cheap needle closer to home, often in quasi-legal factories in cities such as Leicester.

In the UK, Boohoo has become somewhat the symbol of fast fashion's worker exploitation problem. Numerous exposés have shown that while the pockets of Boohoo's directors are bursting at the seams, the people who actually stitch the seams of its clothing are paid a pittance, with some found to have been paid under half the minimum wage.

The Levitt report, which looked in depth at Boohoo's Leicester supply chain, found that "The allegations of unacceptable working conditions and underpayment of workers are not only well-founded but are substantially true." Levitt also claimed that these problems were endemic to the system and likely found across Boohoo's supply chain.

Worker exploitation is an essential part of the fast fashion model. If an item is very cheap, chances are that the person who produced it was paid little.

A 2022 report Unbearable Harassment: The Fashion Industry and Widespread Abuse of Female Garment Workers in Indian Factories, found that every single woman spoken to for the report (90), had either experienced or witnessed gender-based violence and harassment (GBVH) carried out by male supervisors and managers at the factories they worked at.

"Verbal, physical, and sexual harassment exists in every garment factory - not just this one. It existed before COVID, it exists during COVID, and it will exist after COVID..." Smita, Tamal Nadu.

The report goes on to state that:

"Violence on the factory floor cannot be dismissed as just a factory-level problem; rather, it must be understood as an industry-wide culture of violence driven by the business model of global fashion brands".

Which are the leading fast fashion brands?

It is important to note that most of the fashion sector has become 'faster' in recent years. As such, even the more mainstream, established brands will be 'fast' to some extent. However, there are some brands that stand out as much faster than the rest:

Boohoo, which also owns the following brands: Burton, Coast, Debenhams, Dorothy Perkins, Karen Millen, MissPap, Nasty Gal, Oasis, Pretty Little Thing, Wallis, Warehouse

In the Style

I Saw it First

Missguided

If a brand is offering vast numbers of 'new in' clothes (usually thousands of new items every day) and its products are super cheap, then it is a fast fashion brand.
UPDATE
Missguided collapsed at the end of May 2022, leaving suppliers and workers out of pocket for months of completed orders.

The Frasers Group, controlled by the Sports Direct founder Mike Ashley, has reportedly bought the company out of administration for £20m. This process will take around two months to complete.

We will review the impact of the collapse and new owner in due course.

Meanwhile, Labour Behind the Label have campaigned to demand workers and suppliers are paid, amidst reports that many are owed thousands of pounds.

Update from COP26 on fashion

Considering its comparative carbon impact, maybe the fashion industry deserved more focus at the recent COP26 summit in Glasgow, but it was not totally without attention.

In the second week, an update to the Fashion Industry Charter for Climate Action was announced, with more ambitious targets for carbon reduction to align with the Paris Agreement's 1.5-degree aim. The charter currently has 130 signatories including brands such as H&M, Primark, Levi's, Chanel and Adidas.

A request for government-backed incentives for using sustainable materials was also submitted by global non-profit Textile Exchange, with its COO, Claire Bergkamp, stating: "We need both regulations to stop bad action and incentives for sustainable materials to help reduce the price burden that currently exists for sourcing more responsibly. Our hope is through trade incentives and tariff reductions, we can level the playing field, without placing the burden on suppliers across the value chain".

The call was supported by 50 of the world's largest fashion and textile companies. It is an interesting turn of events considering the UK Government's complete reluctance to regulate the UK fashion industry as recommended by the 2019 Fixing Fashion report. The call could also be viewed as a profit-driven industry with a history of wreaking havoc on the environment, now demanding it be subsidised for doing the right thing. However, it is true that with such a harmful and complex industry strong legislation is badly needed to start curtailing fashion's destructive path.

Awful conditions at a Shein factory exposed

A Channel 4 documentary broadcast autumn 2022 went undercover at a Shein factory to expose predictably awful conditions and exhausted, exploited workers.

The brand is also shown to copy designs from independent designers, rely on unpaid influencers for its marketing, and use manipulative sales techniques such as countdown timers and multi-buys to encourage overconsumption.

Yet the company is hugely popular and massively outsells its fast fashion rivals. Despite many similar documentaries and decades of campaigning on garment worker rights, it seems that cheap clothes are an addiction we just can't break.

Check out our clothing guides to find some much more ethical options for new clothes, or choose second hand.

What progress has been made in the decade since the Rana Plaza disaster?

The Rana Plaza disaster and the Accord

April 2023 marks the 10th anniversary of the Rana Plaza disaster in Bangladesh which killed more than 1,100 garment workers, an event that exposed the appalling human cost of fast fashion. Simon Birch asks what progress, if any, has been made over the past decade in the fight against fast fashion.

Following the Rana Plaza disaster the Bangladesh Accord was established. This was the first and only legally binding agreement that holds brands to account for health and safety in the garment industry, and is designed to prevent another Rana Plaza tragedy from ever happening again.

"The Accord represents a significant victory for textile workers," says Anna Bryher from Labour Behind the Label, one of the UK's leading campaign groups against fast fashion. "There's been a massive improvement in the safety of clothing factories in Bangladesh," acknowledges Bryher.

Whilst this is welcome good news, the bad news is that the Accord hasn't done anything to address the pitifully low wages that Bangladeshi garment workers still receive.

But whilst the global fast fashion business model is still based on exploitative low wages, the brands themselves are now coming under increasing pressure.

Profits at fast fashion pioneers ASOS and Boohoo are tumbling whilst last year Missguided, one of the UK's flagship fast fashion companies went bust, all largely as a result of the cost-of-living crisis that's seen soaring costs of everything from cotton to shipping.

Environmental claims from fast fashion companies under the spotlight

Last year, the UK's Competition and Markets Authority launched an investigation into whether eco-friendly and sustainability claims made by the fast fashion chains Asos, Boohoo and George at Asda constitute greenwashing.

Meanwhile over in Europe, the EU is stepping up its fight against throwaway culture by aiming to end fast fashion by 2030.

In an ambitious initiative launched last year, the EU announced its intention to vastly expand its clothing design rules on recycling and sustainability. In just seven years' time, all textiles sold within the EU must be recyclable, free of hazardous substances and contain a high percentage of recycled fibres.

All these actions are clearly good news for the environment but the bottom line is that fast fashion still demands the exploitation of garment workers.

However, it's important to remember that the problem is with the clothing companies, not with the clothing industry.

"We all need clothes and the clothing industry provides millions of jobs around the world from farmers who provide the cotton and fabrics to workers in garment factories," says Heather Webb, a former researcher at Ethical Consumer who has since worked within the fast fashion industry as an ethical trade analyst.

"Big fashion brands are consistently treating the factories they buy from poorly and it's the workers and environment who suffer," says Fiona Gooch from Transform Trade that campaigns for a more ethical global trading system.

"We need a fashion watchdog to regulate UK garment retailers along the same lines as the existing supermarket watchdog that's successfully reduced the unfair buying practices of the UK's largest food retailers," explains Gooch. "A fashion watchdog would reduce abusive and unfair purchasing practices of the garment retailers which would ultimately benefit garment workers."

Whilst acknowledging that a fashion watchdog would be a good thing, Anna Bryher believes that it wouldn't fix the problem of low wages within the clothing industry. What's needed says Bryher is new legislation to enable clothing brands to be held to account for their unfair purchasing practices.

Heather Webb agrees. "We need government intervention in the market," says Webb. "One of the key things that could improve both the pay and working conditions of garment workers is a law outlawing the unethical buying practices of clothing brands."

Progress by brands is extremely slow

The Ethical Fashion Report published in 2023, 10 years after the first edition, found that although there has been some progress for garment workers, overall change is still too slow. Their research found that at the current rate of progress, it would be 75 years before all companies are paying a living wage at even a minimum of one factory per company. The vast majority of clothing companies (84%) were not sourcing from any factories which paid a living wage.

Find out more in the report and also use the charity's 'Speak Out' tool to see how individual brands are doing and let them know what you think.

People's clothing habits are changing

Despite the pervasiveness of fast fashion, things are beginning to improve.

New research from WRAP has found that compared with similar research carried out in 2013, we are wearing our clothes for slightly longer. Jeans, for example, now have a longevity of just over four years, compared to just over three in 2013. The research also found that more than half of us are happy to buy second hand clothes; nearly 60% of us put a lot of effort into maintaining our clothes; and that a similar proportion look for ways to repair clothes when they're damaged.

The WRAP research also estimates that the UK's wardrobes hold 1.6 billion items of unworn clothes, an average of 31 items for each adult. And yet we're still spending more than £4 billion on shopping for clothes each month. WRAP makes the point that as textiles and fashion are responsible for between 4% and 8% of global greenhouse gas emissions, we need a revolution in our clothing habits to make our wardrobes sustainable.

Circular clothing industry

The purpose of the WRAP research was to understand the population's receptiveness to circular business models for clothing. These included second hand, upcycling, subscription, rental (pay-per-wear) and repair (where a brand repairs an item of clothing a customer has purchased from it for a fee).

WRAP found that 40% of people are likely to use a subscription service and that 58% are open to using a repair service. Among those who have already used a circular business model, the majority said they would do so again.

WRAP argues that this shows there is a clear case for clothing brands and retailers to adopt circular business models.

Read the full WRAP report into clothing longevity on their website and read tips on repairing and buying second hand in our article on upcycling and buying second hand clothing.

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What is fast fashion and why is it a problem? | Ethical Consumer

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Alex Crumbie explores the growing concern about the social and environmental impacts of the fast fashion clothing industry and sets out what's wrong with fast fashion.

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The American Dream - the idea that anyone who is determined and works hard can get ahead - has long defined the promise of the United States. Yet the reality is that life chances for Americans are now determined to a significant degree by the wealth of our parents. The dream that hard work and playing by the rules will lead to greater opportunity and a steady climb up the economic ladder is increasingly challenging to achieve, particularly for struggling families.

When the already rich are the prime beneficiaries of economic gains, the playing field is clearly not level, diminishing the chances of economic mobility for the most disadvantaged. Economic inequality in the United States is now at its highest level in nearly a century. Our country has the most unequal distribution of income and wealth of all developed nations. For those who earn low wages and have few to no assets, narrowing pathways to the middle class and diminished hopes of getting ahead threaten the well-being of millions of low-income families and their children.

The Growing Divide

For three decades after World War II, low- and middle-income families saw their incomes grow as the overall economy grew. Income growth was strong and broadly shared. But since the late 1970s, except for a brief period in the 1990s, the incomes of ordinary families have diverged from the economy as a whole: Most income gains have gone to high earners, while incomes for middle- and working-class families have stagnated or declined. In 2011, 48% of income went to the top 10% of earners and 19% of income went to the top 1%; in comparison, the top 1% took home 8% of total income in the 1970s. The country has not experienced this level of income inequality since the 1920s.

The wealth gap is far starker than the income gap. The top 1% own 40% of the nation's financial wealth, while the bottom 80% own only 7%. Over the last 30 years, the bottom 60% of the population has seen their wealth decline, while the top 5% has grown increasingly richer. Wealth inequality continues to grow and has been exacerbated by the uneven economic recovery. Further, disparities in financial wealth are a prime factor perpetuating racial and ethnic inequities.

Stagnant Economic Mobility

Despite the myth of economic mobility in America, families face the reality that intergenerational economic mobility has not changed much over the last 40 years. If anything, it has declined. Children born to families at the lower end of the income scale have a particularly hard time improving their economic position relative to their parents. In fact, mobility in the United States has become so stagnant; it's lower than in Canada and many European countries, including the United Kingdom, Germany and France.

In the United States, children born to parents in the lowest fifth of the income scale are quite likely (42%) to end up there as adults. Similarly, children of parents in the highest-income group are very likely to stay there (39%). Upward mobility has proven particularly difficult for African-American families to sustain. Fully 45% of black children whose parents were solidly middle-income end up falling to the bottom of the income distribution, compared with only 16% of their white peers.

The wealth gap is one reason African-American families are more vulnerable to downward mobility: white and black families of similar income levels have vastly different amounts of wealth. Without financial assets, it's difficult for families to bounce back after a crisis and to sustain hard-won gains from one generation to the next.

Families Need Assets to Invest in Their Kids

While a basic level of income enables parents to provide for their children's day-to-day needs, assets - such as savings, home equity, life insurance and stocks and bonds - allow parents to offer their children a better future. Research shows that family assets (defined as total net worth and liquid assets such as savings and mutual funds) positively impact academic achievement in grade school, as well as college attendance and completion.

Assets improve outcomes for children in several ways. By helping families weather temporary economic hardships, such as job loss or high medical bills, savings and other liquid assets reduce parent stress and may improve parenting. Assets also give parents the financial means to invest in their children's education. In addition, savings and asset accumulation reinforce and may help create a more forward-looking, future orientation in parents and children alike. In short, helping families accumulate assets can increase their long-term financial stability, improve economic mobility and bolster children's chances for success regardless of race or ethnicity.

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Why Income Inequality Hurts Kids and Families

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The American Dream - the idea that anyone who is determined and works hard can get ahead - has long defined the promise of the United States. Yet the reality is that life chances for Americans are now determined to a significant degree by the wealth of our parents.

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Innovative Ways to Create More Urban Green Spaces - Project Learning Tree

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Green spaces in urban areas add natural beauty, improve our health, increase biodiversity, reduce smog and air pollution, retain rainwater, and trap CO2.

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Here are six examples of green spaces in cities that can and should be integrated into our urban planning.

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Who benefits from nature in cities? Social inequalities in access to urban green and blue spaces across Europe

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Parks, urban forests, tree-lined streets and riverbanks support urban well-being by providing space for rest, relaxation and exercise, and by keeping temperatures down. However, not everyone across Europe enjoys equal access to green space in cities. This briefing reviews the evidence of socio-economic and demographic inequalities in access to the health benefits derived from urban green and blue spaces across Europe.

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What are the causes of air pollution in inner cities - and how bad is it?

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Exploring what causes air pollution and poor air quality in cities, how bad it is in London and other cities, and how it affects our health.

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The problem of atmospheric air pollution in cities is very multifaceted. It affects both the problem of population morbidity, and the problem of negative impact on flora and fauna, and in general the problem of deterioration of the ecological situation in cities.

This problem is one of the most important in cities. This is due to the fact that increasing air pollution has a negative impact not only on animals and plants, but also on humans.

Air, despite its implicit visibility, plays a key role in sustaining life on Earth. However, air pollution affects human health, ecosystems and climate, posing serious challenges to modern society.

Origins of Air Pollution

Air pollution has different origins. It can be natural and anthropogenic.

Natural air pollution is natural, i.e. it is caused by natural processes. It can be, for example, the activity of volcanoes, weathering of rocks, etc.

Anthropogenic atmospheric pollution is associated with human activity - with emissions of various pollutants. Naturally, anthropogenic pollution is much greater in scale than natural atmospheric pollution.

Anthropogenic pollution can be of different types: local, regional and global.

Local pollution is characterized by increased content of pollutants in some small areas. It can be, for example, a city.

Regional pollution, in turn, is characterized by a larger area than local pollution, but does not affect the entire planet.

Global pollution is associated with changes in the atmospheric air as a whole. It leads to environmental changes on a planetary scale.

In addition, atmospheric pollution can also be classified by aggregate state. It is by aggregate state that pollutant emissions into the atmospheric air can be gaseous, liquid and solid. Gaseous emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere include sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and others. Liquid emissions of pollutants into the air include acids, salt solutions and other substances. Solid pollutants include lead, soot, carcinogens and other substances.

Causes of Air Pollution in Urban Environments

Air pollution in urban environments is caused by many factors that complement each other. Thus, they create serious problems for the environment and public health. Here are the main causes of urban air pollution:
Motor vehicles
Automobiles, trucks, motorcycles and other internal combustion vehicles (gasoline or diesel powered engines) are among the major sources of urban air pollution. They emit various harmful substances such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate matter (PM) that form atmospheric smog.
Industry
Factories, mills and other industrial plants release large amounts of toxic substances including chemicals, gasses and particles into the atmosphere. This leads to the formation of industrial smog, which can be especially severe in areas with high industrial activity.
Home stoves and fireplaces
Using solid fuels such as wood, coal, and wood waste to heat homes during the winter is a common practice in many cities. This process releases hazardous substances such as sulfur dioxide (SO2), particulate matter, and other harmful compounds.
Power plants
Thermal power plants, especially those that run on fossil fuels, are significant sources of air pollution. They emit huge amounts of greenhouse gasses such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) into the atmosphere, which increase the greenhouse gas effect and affect the climate.
Construction and Demolition
Construction sites can be sources of temporary air pollution due to dust, particles and chemicals used in construction processes and building dismantling.
Waste disposal
Poorly organized or uncontrolled waste disposal results in the release of harmful gasses and particles that pollute the atmosphere. Incineration of waste in landfills or in the open air results in the emission of harmful gasses and particles that pollute the atmosphere.
Meteorological conditions
For certain causes, air pollution can be exacerbated by meteorological conditions. For example, a reverse cold front can trap pollutants in the low atmosphere. This leads to increased concentrations of pollutants at ground level.

Solutions to the problem of air pollution in the urban environment

Solving the problem of air pollution in urban environments requires a comprehensive approach and joint efforts by government agencies, the public and industry. Each city has its own unique characteristics and challenges regarding air pollution. Therefore, effective solutions must be tailored to the specific situation. Nevertheless, combined efforts to reduce emissions will help to create a clean and healthy urban environment for the population and future generations.
Developing public transportation
City governments should wildly invest in the development of public transportation, such as subways, streetcars, buses, and trains. Creating a network of convenient and accessible public transportation routes will encourage more people to use it. This will lower the amount of private cars on the road.
Encourage the use of environmentally friendly cars
Governments should provide subsidies and tax breaks for the purchase and usage of environmentally friendly vehicles such as electric and hybrid cars. It is also critical to establish electric vehicle charging infrastructure.
Implement regulations and standards
Vehicle and industrial emissions regulations and standards must be tightened. This could involve regulating nitrogen oxide and particulate matter emissions, as well as implementing sophisticated cleaning systems in industrial units.
Reducing energy consumption
Energy-saving technologies and efficient energy use will help minimize greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution from power plants.
Improvement of waste management system
Modern recycling and trash management strategies will aid in the reduction of harmful emissions linked with improper waste management. State governments should also promote recycling and trash management.
Promotion of renewable energy
It is critical to develop and encourage renewable energy sources such as solar and wind energy. This will aid in reducing reliance on fossil fuels and greenhouse gas emissions.
Designing smart cities
Smart cities use cutting-edge technology to improve transportation, energy efficiency, and resource management. Their development has the potential to drastically reduce air pollution while also improving the quality of life for city people.
Education and public awareness
Conducting educational programs and information campaigns on air pollution issues and the need of addressing them will serve to enhance public awareness and inspire active citizen participation in problem solving.

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Air Pollution in Urban Environments: Causes and Solutions - Sustainable Living

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The problem of atmospheric air pollution in cities is very multifaceted. It affects both the problem of population morbidity, and the problem of negative impact on flora and fauna, and in general the problem of deterioration of the ecological situation in cities.

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Every day around 93% of the world's children under the age of 15 years (1.8 billion children) breathe air that is so polluted it puts their health and development at serious risk. Tragically, many of them die: WHO estimates that in 2016, 600,000 children died from acute lower respiratory infections caused by polluted air.

A new WHO report on Air pollution and child health: Prescribing clean air examines the heavy toll of both ambient (outside) and household air pollution on the health of the world's children, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. The report is being launched on the eve of WHO's first ever Global Conference on Air Pollution and Health.

It reveals that when pregnant women are exposed to polluted air, they are more likely to give birth prematurely, and have small, low birth-weight children. Air pollution also impacts neurodevelopment and cognitive ability and can trigger asthma, and childhood cancer. Children who have been exposed to high levels of air pollution may be at greater risk for chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease later in life.

"Polluted air is poisoning millions of children and ruining their lives," says Dr Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, WHO Director-General. "This is inexcusable. Every child should be able to breathe clean air so they can grow and fulfil their full potential."

One reason why children are particularly vulnerable to the effects of air pollution is that they breathe more rapidly than adults and so absorb more pollutants.

They also live closer to the ground, where some pollutants reach peak concentrations - at a time when their brains and bodies are still developing.

Newborns and young children are also more susceptible to household air pollution in homes that regularly use polluting fuels and technologies for cooking, heating and lighting

"Air Pollution is stunting our children's brains, affecting their health in more ways than we suspected. But there are many straight-forward ways to reduce emissions of dangerous pollutants," says Dr Maria Neira, Director, Department of Public Health, Environmental and Social Determinants of Health at WHO.

"WHO is supporting implementation of health-wise policy measures like accelerating the switch to clean cooking and heating fuels and technologies, promoting the use of cleaner transport, energy-efficient housing and urban planning. We are preparing the ground for low emission power generation, cleaner, safer industrial technologies and better municipal waste management, " she added.

Key findings:

Air pollution affects neurodevelopment, leading to lower cognitive test outcomes, negatively affecting mental and motor development.

Air pollution is damaging children's lung function, even at lower levels of exposures

Globally, 93% of the world's children under 15 years of age are exposed to ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) levels above WHO air quality guidelines, which include the 630 million of children under 5 years of age, and 1.8 billion of children under 15 years

Action by the health sector to inform, educate, provide resources to health professionals, and engage in inter-sectoral policy making.
Full report
Implementation of policies to reduce air pollution: All countries should work towards meeting WHO global air quality guidelines to enhance the health and safety of children. To achieve this, governments should adopt such measures as reducing the over-dependence on fossil fuels in the global energy mix, investing in improvements in energy efficiency and facilitating the uptake of renewable energy sources. Better waste management can reduce the amount of waste that is burned within communities and thereby reducing 'community air pollution'. The exclusive use of clean technologies and fuels for household cooking, heating and lighting activities can drastically improve the air quality within homes and in the surrounding community.

Steps to minimize children's exposure to polluted air: Schools and playgrounds should be located away from major sources of air pollution like busy roads, factories and power plants.

In low- and middle-income countries around the world, 98% of all children under 5 are exposed to PM2.5 levels above WHO air quality guidelines. In comparison, in high-income countries, 52% of children under 5 are exposed to levels above WHO air quality guidelines.

More than 40% of the world's population - which includes 1 billion children under 15 - is exposed to high levels of household air pollution from mainly cooking with polluting technologies and fuels.

About 600'000 deaths in children under 15 years of age were attributed to the joint effects of ambient and household air pollution in 2016.

Together, household air pollution from cooking and ambient (outside) air pollution cause more than 50% of acute lower respiratory infections in children under 5 years of age in low- and middle-income countries.

Air pollution is one of the leading threats to child health, accounting for almost 1 in 10 deaths in children under five years of age.

WHO's First Global Conference on Air Pollution and Health, which opens in Geneva on Tuesday 30 October will provide the opportunity for world leaders; ministers of health, energy, and environment; mayors; heads of intergovernmental organizations; scientists and others to commit to act against this serious health threat, which shortens the lives of around 7 million people each year. Actions should include:

BreatheLife air pollution campaign: BreatheLife is a partnership of WHO, UN Environment and the Climate and Clean Air Coalition to Reduce Short-lived Climate Pollutants that aims to increase awareness and action on air pollution by governments and individuals. www.breathelife2030.org

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More than 90% of the world's children breathe toxic air every day

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Every day around 93% of the world's children under the age of 15 years (1.8 billion children) breathe air that is so polluted it puts their health and development at serious risk.

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Air pollution affects the human body in the short and long term, in ways that are detrimental to health. Vulnerable people appear to be most at risk, as highlighted by studies linking air pollution to decreased cognitive performance among the elderly and others suggesting that poor air quality is especially dangerous to children.

A recent report published by UNICEF supports this alarming fact. Using data from Queen Mary University of London, researchers found that children were exposed to higher levels of pollution, particularly while walking to school and on the playground, and that the effects of this pollution were more serious on children than on adults. While the study was carried out in the UK, the data has implications for children around the world.

Lead researcher Abigail Whitehouse says: "These findings are alarming, and it is therefore essential that policymakers provide guidance for parents and introduce targeted measures that address children's vulnerability during these peak periods."

"We need to know where, when, how and to what children are being exposed and then put effective mitigations in place to protect them," she adds.

The World Health Organization reports that in 2016, 6.5 million premature deaths were linked to household and ambient air pollution, with almost 94 per cent of the deaths occurring in low and middle income countries. The problem is exacerbated in urban areas. According to the United Nations Children's Fund, 17 million babies around the world are breathing toxic air.

A number of factors explain why the risks for unborn babies, newborns and young children are highest. Since children are still growing, air pollution harms them during the developmental stage of their life, causing lifelong health problems. Exposure to air pollution at a young age can hinder lung growth, inhibit brain development and increase the risk of conditions such as asthma.

An additional factor that influences exposure to pollutants is height, especially in urban areas. Because children are shorter than adults, they are closer to the ground and therefore to the exhaust pipes of vehicles. Additionally, young children breathe faster, meaning they take in more air relative to their body weight. The study found that compared with adults, children walking on busy roads may be exposed to up to a third more air pollution. This is a significant finding, especially for the children around the world who walk to school every day.

Air pollution was also found to increase the risk of certain diseases, such as lung cancer, heart disease and acute respiratory infections, notes the World Health Organization. While this impacts people of all ages, babies and young children are more at risk. For example, air pollution can increase the risk of pneumonia, which is responsible for the deaths of almost one million children under the age of five each year, making it the number one killer of children around the world. This phenomenon is most evident in babies and toddlers. In 2016, of all deaths that year attributable to air pollution, eight per cent were children under the age of five, compared with one per cent for children between the ages of five and fifteen.

Fortunately, solutions are readily available. For example, municipalities can establish clean air zones for kids who walk to school and minimize vehicle traffic along certain routes. Globally, air pollution can be reduced by switching to renewable forms of energy and heavily reducing the emissions in the transport sector. Making these changes now is important to ensure that our children aren't burdened with irreversible health issues that limit their futures.
Learn more about the global #BreatheLife campaign, led by the World Health Organization, UN Environment and the Climate & Clean Air Coalition, which supports a range of cleaner air initiatives that cover 43 cities, regions, and countries, reaching over 97 million people.

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Young and old, air pollution affects the most vulnerable

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Air pollution affects the human body in the short and long term, in ways that are detrimental to health. Vulnerable people appear to be most at risk, as highlighted by studies linking air pollution to decreased cognitive performance among the elderly and others suggesting that poor air quality is especially dangerous to children.

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Children are particularly vulnerable to air pollution, from when they are in the womb to when they reach adulthood.

Over 1,200 deaths in people under 18 years of age are estimated to be caused by air pollution every year in EEA member and collaborating countries .

Air pollution also causes low birth weight, asthma, reduced lung function, respiratory infections and allergies in children and adolescents, as well as increased risks of adult chronic diseases.

Traffic, heating, and industry are the main sources of air pollution in Europe; while emissions have declined, air pollution levels are still not safe.

Air quality policies should protect the health of children and adolescents by explicitly taking into account differences in their biology and exposure pathways.

Improving air quality in around schools and kindergartens, in other child-centric settings, and during activities like school commutes and sports, can help reduce exposure.

Children and adolescents cannot protect themselves from air pollution, or vote for or influence relevant policies; only adults can do it for them, and it is urgent.

Children and air pollution: understanding the problem

Protecting children's health is frequently cited as a key objective in major policies on climate and the environment such as the zero pollution action plan (European Commission, 2020). Though most children across EEA member countries are healthy (Eurostat, 2019; WHO, 2023), there are reasons for concern regarding environmental risks to their health. Children and adolescents are more susceptible than adults to most adverse environmental factors; in some cases they may be more exposed than adults too (Valent et al., 2004); and they can do little to change the situation or protect themselves. That is especially true for air pollution, the largest environmental risk for children in Europe.

There are many factors that make children and adolescents especially vulnerable to air pollution. Children's breathing rates are higher than those of adults and they also take in more air per kilogram of body weight. Because of their lower physical height, they breathe air closer to the ground where some pollutants, especially from traffic exhausts, are emitted and become concentrated. Their acquired dose of pollution is also elevated since they breathe faster and are often more physically active (Osborne et al., 2021). Moreover, children inhale a larger fraction of air through their mouths than adults. Due to this increased oral breathing, pollution penetrates deep into the lower respiratory tract, which is more permeable (US EPA, 2019). Children's bodies and organs, including their lungs, are also still in development (Chen et al., 2015), which further increases risk. Furthermore, children's developing immune systems are weaker than those of adults, strengthening the effects of pollution (WHO, 2018). Figure 1 illustrates key characteristics of children's and adolescents' vulnerability and exposure to air pollution.

Figure 1. Infographic on children's exposure to air pollution

Ambient air pollution and children: sources and exposure

Air pollution is the contamination of indoor or outdoor air by any agent that modifies its natural characteristics. It comes from both natural and, particularly, man-made sources, which include everything from road traffic and residential heating exhausts, through to factory chimney stacks and a wide variety of other sources (EEA, 2022a, 2022c). Air pollution affects urban and rural areas, and comes in many forms, from ambient air particles, ozone and nitrogen oxides, to second-hand smoke (SHS), smoke from the burning of biomass in households, mould spores, mites and allergens, and toxic chemicals like formaldehyde (Trasande et al., 2016; Carreras et al., 2019; Rojas-Rueda et al., 2019; WHO, 2022). Some of the aforementioned pollutants and sources are more frequent or found at higher concentrations indoors. They are the subject of ongoing research at the EEA and findings will be summarised in forthcoming publications. Boxes 1 and 2 in this briefing provide some highlights on indoor air pollutants.

This briefing however focuses on outdoor ambient air pollution, a term that is used interchangeably with 'air pollution' hereafter. Depending on the pollutant, different sources of ambient air pollution are the main drivers of exposure, as illustrated in Figure 2 below (EEA, 2022b).

Figure 2: Percentages of contribution to primary emissions of major hazardous air pollutants by source (EU-27, 2020)

Source: EEA (2022a). NMVOC: non-methane volatile organic compounds; NO X: nitrogen oxides; PM 2.5: particles with a diameter smaller than 2,5 microns; PM ₁₀: particles with a diameter smaller than 10 microns; SO ₂: sulphur dioxide.

Explore different chart formats and data here

Children's and adolescents' exposure to air pollutants partly mimics that of adults, but it also differs in specific ways. Children are already exposed to air pollution while in their mothers' wombs, and after birth they are typically exposed to air pollution in child-centric settings such as: outside in the grounds of schools and kindergartens; in classrooms where ambient air pollution worsens indoor air quality; and during activities like commuting to school and afterschool activities. Smaller children are also exposed to air pollution closer to the ground, where the concentrations of some pollutants are higher. Children and adolescents tend to spend more time outdoors and are more physically active than adults, potentially increasing their exposure to ambient air pollution. In addition, as is the case with other environmental risks, poorer children tend to be systematically more exposed to and affected by air pollution (Fairburn et al., 2019) than their better-off counterparts.

How does air pollution affect children?

Children are affected by ambient air pollutants from the womb through to adulthood. Every year in EEA member and collaborating countries, air pollution is estimated to cause over 1,200 deaths and the loss of over 110,000 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs, a measure of the burden of disease caused by a risk factor) among those aged under 18 (GBD Collaborative Network, 2020). These deaths, along with a significant burden from non-fatal diseases, are caused by air pollution through a variety of mechanisms and health outcomes, which are explored below.

Before birth, ambient air pollution increases the risk of babies being smaller during pregnancy (a condition known as 'small for gestational age', or SGA) (Pun et al., 2021; Health Effects Institute, 2022; Nyadanu et al., 2022), having a low birth weight (Yang et al., 2020; Ghosh et al., 2021) as well as having an increased risk of pre-term birth (US EPA, 2020; Nyadanu et al., 2022; Yu et al., 2022). All of these can increase the risk of different health problems later in life. Though the evidence is less clear, particulate matter has also been linked to an increased risk of spontaneous abortion and still births (Grippo et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2021; Zhu et al., 2022). Despite solid epidemiological data, the biological mechanisms are not fully understood for most of the pre-natal risks of air pollution.

After birth, ambient air pollution increases the risk of several types of adverse health outcomes for children and adolescents. For example, it increases the risk of respiratory infections in children, including acute lower respiratory infections, pneumonia, upper respiratory infections and otitis media (ear infections) (Mehta et al., 2013; Nhung et al., 2017; Bowatte et al., 2018; King et al., 2018; Låg et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2020; Health Effects Institute, 2022; Ziou et al., 2022). Short-term exposure to air pollution may also exacerbate allergies, including allergic rhinitis (runny nose), eczema and conjunctivitis (itchy eyes) in children (US EPA, 2015, 2017, 2019, 2020).

Children's lung function and lung development are also affected by ambient air pollution, especially by ozone and nitrogen dioxide (NO ₂) in the short term, and by fine particles (PM 2.5) in the long term. This effect can be seen both in healthy children and also in children with asthma, which can be exacerbated by pollution (US EPA, 2010, 2017, 2019, 2020; WHO, 2018, 2021a; Garcia et al., 2021; Holm and Balmes, 2022).

Asthma affects over 9% of children in the EU (Selroos et al., 2015), placing a large burden on children, their families and societies. The risk of developing asthma itself and asthma-like symptoms is clearly linked to long-term exposure to air pollution (US EPA, 2010, 2015, 2017, 2019, 2020; Zu et al., 2018; Låg et al., 2020; Yan et al., 2020; Bettiol et al., 2021; Han et al., 2021; Health Effects Institute, 2022). This has been observed both in epidemiological studies and in the laboratory, where the mechanisms for this effect have been studied and confirmed. Asthma symptoms can range from mild to very severe, even life-threatening. Exposure to short term increases in air pollution increases the risk of asthma hospitalisation and emergency department visits for children (Mustafić et al., 2012; Lim et al., 2016; US EPA, 2015, 2017, 2019, 2020; Huang et al., 2021; Zheng et al., 2021; Health Effects Institute, 2022).

Ambient air pollution may also be linked to other types of health problems in children. For example, there is growing evidence that air pollution affects children's brain development, contributes to cognitive impairment, and that it may play a role in the development of some types of Autistic Spectrum Disorders (US EPA, 2015, 2019, 2020; Dutheil et al., 2021; Health Effects Institute, 2022; Lin et al., 2022). Some studies have also observed a link between traffic-related air pollution, with benzene playing a key role, and leukaemia in children (Orsini et al., 2012; Filippini et al., 2019; Wei et al., 2021).

Box 1. Indoor air pollution, second-hand smoke, and children's health

In addition to ambient air pollution from traffic, heating, industry, etc., children's health is also threatened by other airborne pollutants, like second-hand smoke and chemicals. Children can be exposed to these pollutants both outdoors and indoors.

Indoor air pollution (IAP): European children spend most of their time indoors, and indoor air pollution can significantly affect their health and well-being. Sources of IAP include: some building products and furnishings that release toxic chemicals; materials like some mineral fibres and legacy-asbestos still remaining in buildings; natural pollutants like radioactive radon. Outdoor air pollution also contributes to indoor air pollution, as does smoking, burning candles, allergens and dust, among others. Two types of air pollutants are of particular importance indoors: mould, and several types of toxic chemicals. Mould is a frequent indoor health hazard for adults and children alike, for whom it increases the risk of developing asthma, asthma exacerbation, wheeze, allergic rhinitis, and respiratory infections (Gern et al., 1999; Dick et al., 2014; Tham et al., 2014; Kanchongkittiphon et al., 2015; Sharpe et al., 2015; Hurraß et al., 2017; Fakunle et al., 2020, 2021). The concentrations of certain chemicals that are toxic for adults and children, such as formaldehyde and other volatile organic compounds (VOC), flame retardants, and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) tend to be much higher in indoor air. However, our knowledge of the sources, concentrations, status of, and trends in indoor air pollution in Europe lags far behind that of outdoor air pollution.

Second-hand tobacco smoke (SHS): there is no safe level of SHS exposure, and children are particularly vulnerable to it both before and after birth (Öberg et al., 2010). About 12% of European children are regularly exposed to SHS at home (Carreras et al., 2020), and socially disadvantaged children and adolescents are also more likely to be exposed to SHS at home (59%) than children of parents with high socioeconomic status (21%) (Kuntz and Lampert, 2016). In children, SHS is estimated to cause up to 13% of all new cases of asthma, 20% of lower respiratory infections, 15% of cases of otitis media, and over 20% of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (Öberg et al., 2010, 2011; Hänninen et al., 2011; Carreras et al., 2019, 2020; GBD Collaborative Network, 2020).

The exposure of children to toxic chemicals in Europe, mould, SHS, and poor indoor air quality are the subject of current work at the EEA, to be released in forthcoming publications. Additional information on indoor air quality is available as part of the EEA's zero pollution monitoring assessment and the WHO guidelines for indoor air quality concerning dampness and mould, selected pollutants, and household fuel combustion.

Reducing children's exposure to air pollution

Good progress has been made towards reducing air pollution from industry, transport, and homes - thereby reducing the number of deaths of all ages linked to air pollution as a result. In the EU-27, total emissions of all pollutants have consistently declined from 2005 to 2020 (the latest year with validated data). Figure 3 shows the trend in total emissions of particularly harmful air pollutants, indexed as a percentage of their value in the reference year 2005. Though the decline of all pollutants is good news, the decline of particulate matter, both PM ₁₀ and PM 2.5, is of special importance, given their overall impact on the health of Europeans.

Figure 3. Trends in EU-27 emissions of selected air pollutants, as a percentage of 2005 levels

Declining emissions have resulted in a decrease in concentrations. However, while ambient air pollution concentrations are decreasing in Europe, they continue to be unsafe, and 91% of the urban population is still exposed to air pollutant concentrations above the 2021 WHO air quality guidelines (EEA, 2022c). Taking action to protect European children from air pollution is thus urgent, and it is the responsibility of adults to do so. While the need for a proactive stance on the part of adults to protect children against air pollution may seem obvious, it is worth considering some key underlying reasons:

Children and adolescents usually lack the knowledge and/or capacity to act to protect themselves by reducing their exposure. They cannot decide where they live, go to school, and commute; and they generally cannot interpret or act on air quality data or signs of air pollution.

They are particularly exposed, particularly vulnerable and will suffer the health consequences of today's air pollution in the future, yet they can do very little about it.

Environmental policies have traditionally not taken them fully into account, because most data used to design those policies were from studies on adult humans and adult animals. These policies implicitly treat them as 'little adults' by not considering their particular vulnerabilities and distinct biology.

Children and adolescents cannot directly influence these policies, since they have no vote, and their interest groups have limited leverage in increasingly complex policy landscapes.

These facts were already highlighted by the EEA and WHO Europe 20 years ago (EEA and WHO Europe et al., 2003) and are still true today.

Policies and interventions targeting air pollutants can be categorised according to whether they aim at reducing emissions (prevention), reducing concentrations (mitigation) or avoiding individual exposure (avoidance) (Public Health England, 2019). There are entire catalogues of existing and proposed policies and interventions within these categories (Burns et al., 2020), including those mentioned in this briefing.

To ensure that air pollution policies and interventions adequately protect children and adolescents, it is important that they explicitly acknowledge and integrate the different exposures and biology of these groups, rather than treating them implicitly as little adults. Ideally, air pollution decisions and policies should be informed by specific risk assessments to children's health, while also setting out a clear framework to protect children and adolescents from polluted air at the places and settings where they are most at risk, including prenatally. Involving the groups and institutions involved in childcare, education and health, as well as encouraging the engagement of parents and/or caregivers can promote buy-in and foster success.

Reducing the concentration of air pollutants will help protect all Europeans, including children. However, until air pollution is reduced to safer levels, preventing exposure is the most effective way of protecting children's health. Ultimately, all air pollution policies designed to reduce exposure ought to be implemented down to local levels of government, where the exposures actually occur. The examples of good practices listed in this briefing are only a subset of possible policies, focused mostly on avoidance (i.e. reducing exposure to air pollution). They are highlighted because they are highly local and actionable, and they focus on an easily identifiable context where children are exposed to air pollution: within care and educational settings.

Good practices at the local level: focus on schools and kindergartens

Locally, where exposures occur, certain good practices can be considered to reduce exposures in children. Frequently, these good practices focus on the different microenvironments where children spend most of their time: home, schools/kindergartens (including school gates, drop-off zones, classrooms and playgrounds), indoor and outdoor activities which are neither at home nor at school, and transport including school commutes. Air pollution concentrations in school grounds, playgrounds and drop-off points are heavily influenced by proximity to nearby roads, traffic density and traffic flow (Rivas et al., 2018; Boniardi et al., 2021; Osborne et al., 2021). For example, in a recent study the concentration of PM 2.5 was found to intensify by approximately a factor of three at the school entrance during drop-off hours, as cars queued (Kumar et al., 2020). Reducing ambient air pollution around schools can contribute significantly to reducing the dose of air pollutants inhaled by schoolchildren daily. This reduction can be achieved in various ways.

Installation of clean air zones around schools. Establishing 'clean air zones' around schools can reduce the concentration of pollutants found around them. Lower pollution levels can be achieved through restrictions on traffic, such as no-idling zones around schools (Ryan et al., 2013; Rumchev et al., 2021; Mendoza et al., 2022), 'school streets' (i.e. with a traffic ban at the start and end of the school day in the immediate vicinity of the school), or relocation of drop off/pick-up points away from school entrances (Davis, 2020; Den Hond et al., 2020; Koppen et al., 2020; van Poppel et al. 2020 Huertas-Delgado et al., 2022).

Siting of new schools and commuting modes. If a school is still in the planning stage, children's exposure to air pollution can be reduced by placing the school away from pollution sources or hotspots of high air pollution, as already mandated in various European countries (NICE, 2017; Rijkswaterstaat Environment, 2022; Senatsverwaltung für Umwelt, Mobilität, Verbraucher- und Klimaschutz, 2022). This principle should be applied cautiously, however, as the location of a school influences the primary modes of travel to and from it (An et al., 2021). A school built at a site with better air quality might be further away from housing areas, thus requiring a commute by motorised transport which could in turn lead to higher exposure levels at the school. A school located closer to the children's housing, meanwhile, may be reachable on foot or by bike, reducing traffic and leading to better air quality in the vicinity. Commuting modes and routes are another area of action where good practices can reduce exposure. For example, when the same home-school route is taken by children walking and commuting by car, the pedestrians experience a higher dose of pollutants. However, by taking an alternative background route or avoiding proximity to traffic queues, pedestrians can lower their dose. In fact, studies show that pedestrians may be willing to change their route when presented with pollution information (Dirks et al., 2016; de Nazelle et al., 2017; Rafiepourgatabi et al., 2021; Wolfe et al., 2021), switching to alternative routes with less exposure ('background routes').

More children walking to school also reduces motorised traffic and the resulting pollution from private vehicles. Placing schools away from high-volume roads and within a walkable distance from home can benefit children's health via a lower exposure to air pollution (An et al., 2021), particularly when background routes are used. It can also benefit children's health through increased physical activity (Chillón et al., 2015) - an important consideration given that in most situations the benefits of physical activity outweigh the risks of air pollution (Tainio et al., 2021). Ultimately however, economic, social, and other considerations may preclude altering the siting of schools or changing commuting modes.

Design of schools. The design of school and childcare facilities can contribute to minimising the exposure of children to air pollution while onsite. This may entail locating the most frequented rooms or areas as far away from road traffic as possible, shielding the playground behind buildings, walls or green infrastructure (i.e. using plants), and allowing natural ventilation patterns that promote pollutant dispersion (An et al., 2021). At the same time, care must be taken to avoid unfiltered ventilation when there are high pollution levels outdoors near the school. Green infrastructure can filter some air pollutants and alter the airflow - thus changing pollution concentrations in local microenvironments (Abhijith et al., 2017). The type, height and porosity of vegetation heavily influences this cleaning effect, but various solutions from ivy screens to hedge fences have proved effective locally (Tremper et al., 2015: Tremper and Green, 2018; Tomson et al., 2021; Redondo-Bermúdez et al., 2022). Beyond their air quality enhancing effect, green infrastructure in and around schools provides multiple social and environmental co-benefits, including cooling, sun protection, opportunities for physical activity, water storage, habitat conservation, etc. (Redondo-Bermúdez et al., 2022). Nevertheless, the level of greening around schools in urban areas in Europe is low. On average, just over 10% of the area within a 300m radius of educational facilities is green, and only 6% is covered by trees (EEA, 2023). Schools with the greenest surroundings tend to be in northern Europe (Figure 4).

Map 1. Percentage of green space around schools in European cities

Box 2. Improving indoor air quality in schools - chemicals and mould

Children spend many hours indoors at school and kindergartens, so measures to reduce indoor air pollution in those spaces are crucial to reduce their overall exposure. Reducing toxic chemicals and mould is crucial for good indoor air quality in schools.

Establishing regulations to improve indoor air quality and limit values for common air pollutants in places where sensitive populations gather is a crucial start (Vlaamse Regering, 2004; Lowther et al., 2021; UBA, 2023; Gouvernement de France, 2022). Clear sources of exposure to indoor air pollutants such as cleaning, painting, etc. should be organised to minimise children's exposure, by scheduling them to take place after school hours, using low-emission cleaning products and materials, prioritising wet cleaning, fitting vacuum cleaners with HEPA filters, minimising the use of toxic chemicals, and using technologies like sorptive boards (surfaces engineered to trap certain pollutants) and CO ₂ monitoring in classrooms as an indicator of indoor air quality. In most school settings, outdoor air quality can be better than indoor air quality on several parameters, and ventilation is a prime tool to improve indoor air quality in classrooms and laboratories. It lowers CO ₂ levels and the risk of aerosol-transmitted diseases, removes moisture (and associated mould risks - see below), as well as odours and toxic chemicals from construction products, furniture and cleaning agents (Fisk, 2017; Aguilar et al., 2022). Ventilation of buildings can be improved by: (1) opening windows and doors to bring in ambient air, (2) using heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) devices, and ensuring exhaust fans in bathrooms and kitchens are working properly, and (3) communicating necessary background knowledge and instructions to students, parents, faculty and staff (Beregszaszi et al., 2013; European Commission et al., 2014; Baldauf et al., 2015; Jhun et al., 2017; Rivas et al., 2018; Thevenet et al., 2018; Brand et al., 2019; WHO Europe, 2022).

Mould only grows when there is sufficient moisture, so detecting sources of moisture is the first step to controlling it. Leaking pipes, overflows, rain seeping through cracks or gaps in roofs, spills from blocked gutters, leaky window frames and rising damp are frequent causes of excess moisture, often leaving 'tidemarks' that should be interpreted as warning signs for mould. Another typical source of moisture is condensation, due to high humidity indoors and worsened by low temperatures and poor ventilation. Such sources of moisture should be eliminated, and any dampness removed via ventilation, dehumidifiers, etc. Thereafter, mould should be removed from affected areas. If the mould-affected area is large, or mould is present in the building structure and materials, removal should be done by qualified professionals, according to local and national standards. Finally, to stop mould and dampness from reoccurring, basic prevention measures should be undertaken including opening windows daily, using fans in bathrooms and kitchens, maintaining mechanical ventilation where installed, watching for and repairing leaks, and avoiding condensation on cold surfaces (WHO Europe, 2009; WHO, 2022).

Preventing smoking in or around schools. The reduction of smoking in all its forms, especially in child-centric settings such as in and around schools and kindergartens, is of key importance to reduce children's overall exposure to SHS, despite the fact that it can also occur at home, in vehicles and elsewhere. Exposure to SHS has been observed to be significantly reduced by implementing smoking bans in all public places (Liang et al., 2016; El Sharkawy et al., 2021; Laverty et al., 2021; Nogueira et al., 2022). A recent study in Germany (Burkhardt et al., 2023) measured an 82% decline in a biomarker of tobacco smoke in the urine of non-smokers from 1995 to 2019, and largely attributes this to smoking bans and regulations limiting SHS following European legislation. Bans can benefit children when implemented with a special emphasis and consistent enforcement in and around schools and kindergartens. Interventions establishing family rules for smoke free vehicles (e.g. when commuting to school), smoking counselling to parents or caregivers, strict enforcement of complete tobacco bans in and around schools, and awareness campaigns against SHS have all shown to work in reducing children's exposure to SHS (Blaakman et al., 2013; Bunik et al., 2013; Sharifi et al., 2014; Collins et al., 2015, 2020; Hoehn et al., 2016; Mason et al., 2016; Caldwell et al., 2018; Collins et al., 2018; Turner et al., 2020). More evidence on SHS impacts on children and good practices to reduce exposure will be published in forthcoming EEA products.

In addition to the good practices considered above, there is a wide range of local measures that can help protect the general population against air pollution. Well-informed residents are generally in a better position to demand action on air pollution and protect themselves from it. Two key EEA products can help citizens understand more about the air quality where they live. The European Environment Agency's European Air Quality Index gives near-real time assessments of air quality for more than 3,500 air quality monitoring stations across Europe. The European city air quality viewer allows citizens to check how the air quality was in their city over the past 2 years and to compare it with air quality in other cities across Europe.

What the EU is doing about ambient air pollution

While reducing European children's and adolescents' exposure to air pollution is crucial and urgent, the surest way to keep them safe in the long term is by making the air we all breathe cleaner. The EU bases its clean air policy on three main pillars: (1) the National Emissions reduction Commitments (NEC) Directive (EU, 2016); (2) source-specific legislation for key sources of air pollution (European Commission, 2022a); and (3) the Ambient Air Quality Directives (EU, 2004, 2008), which set air quality standards (EEA, 2021). In October 2022, the European Commission published a proposal for a revision of the Ambient Air Quality Directive, including the following key measures (EEA, 2022a):

Stricter thresholds for pollution, more closely aligned with the new recommendations set in 2021 by WHO (2021b).

Enhancing the right to clean air; improved access to justice in case of noncompliance.

More effective penalties and compensation possibilities for violating air quality rules.

Strengthened rules for air quality monitoring to support preventive action and targeted measures.

Requirements to improve air quality modelling, especially where air quality is poor.

Better public information.

The above measures are aligned with other legislative proposals, such as the revision of the Industrial Emissions Directive and recent proposals on Euro 7 emission standards for road vehicles, which will support the achievement of stricter air quality standards. They are key to achieving one of the goals of the zero pollution action plan: reducing by 2030 the number of premature deaths caused by exposure to PM 2.5 by at least 55% compared with 2005 levels (European Commission, 2022b). In the international context, the EU Member States work closely with other UN Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) member countries to control international air pollution under the UNECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution.

It should be noted that achieving the goals and air pollution levels set forth by current EU policies and regulation will still not mean that the air in Europe is safe for children and adolescents. For example, there is no evidence of a safe level or a threshold of exposure to PM 2.5 below which no adverse health effects occur, and in the past research has tended to detect health impacts of air pollution at progressively lower levels. This notwithstanding, air in Europe which is cleaner overall will significantly contribute to making our children and adolescents healthier.

References

Identifiers

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While air pollution affects everyone, children and adolescents are particularly vulnerable because their bodies, organs and immune systems are still developing. Air pollution damages health during childhood and increases the risk of diseases later in life, yet children can do little to protect themselves or influence air quality policies.

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How playing sports benefits your body ... and your brain - Leah Lagos and Jaspal Ricky Singh

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Is leadership taught or is it something we're born with?

It's a tough question, but it's a little of both. There is no set "leadership" personality type, and leaders come in all shapes and sizes. Some children seem to be natural leaders whereas other children seem to be natural followers.

Often these traits are linked with whether they tend to be introverts or extroverts. The extrovert is often the leader and vice versa especially among young children. But this doesn't mean that if your child is naturally shy he or she can't be a leader. It also doesn't mean that if your child is a "natural" leader that they are going to be an effective leader. As most adults know, there are many people in leadership positions who are terrible leaders.

The good news is that leadership skills can be developed. Here are 13 ways to grow your child's leadership skills.

1) Remember that your child's personality will change.

Many psychologists suggest that we all have a core personality, but that our experiences also change who we are over time.

Your child may not be a leader right now, but that doesn't mean you shouldn't keep trying to build their leadership skills. They just may not be ready yet, or haven't had an opportunity to show their leadership skills.

2) Don't ask your child to be a leader in an unfamiliar environment.

Leadership is linked with self-confidence, and your child will be far more likely to lead in a familiar situation than a novel one. Giving your child added responsibilities in a new situation is just going to make them feel pressured and nervous.

Imagine asking your child to be captain in a sport they have never played before. Compare that with giving them a leadership position in an environment where they are considered knowledgeable or experienced.

3) Encourage them to lead even when not the best player.

A common mistake made by coaches and many others is assuming that the best players or performers should be the leaders. This isn't true. Sometimes the best players are the worst leaders!

4) Let them make decisions for themselves.

We're all familiar with the helicopter parent who "hovers" over their child. Don't be that parent! To become a leader, they need to be empowered to make their own choices.

5) Provide decision-making opportunities.

Allow your child the opportunity to make decisions, even simple ones. For more complex decisions, work with them to decide what options are available and the pros and cons of each option.

6) Teach them to be ethical and moral.

Research suggests that people are more willing to be led if the leader is conscientious, agreeable, humble, and shows integrity and gratitude. These are traits that can be taught or encouraged. What follower wouldn't want to be encouraged, praised, and be treated fairly?

As a parent, set the example at home but also show them examples, ideally in sports, where a leader has demonstrated leadership traits. How can you expect your child to demonstrate leadership skills without seeing them from you as a parent?

7) Give them leadership opportunities at home.

Find ways to build leadership at home by placing your child in positions for leadership and also success (see point 2). It can be things such as cooking a meal or being the leader while playing a board game, for example.

The key is to provide them opportunities to gain experience overseeing or leading others.

8) Encourage academics and reading.

Reading to your child and having your child read to you fosters imagination and creativity. A good leader sometimes needs to find the answer themselves, and if you have not developed that skill in your child, it's not going to magically happen.

Reading encourages imagination and allows your child to place themselves in the story. It can also help teach values and empathy (see point 6).

9) Let your child fail.

Too often, parents want to jump in and solve a problem for their child when the best thing for them is to let the situation unfold so they can experience failure. Think about it like this: if a child is continually praised, coddled, and protected, what happens when the parent is not there and they have to face reality?

Be supportive during failure, but let your child fail when appropriate, and use it as a teaching moment. Ask your child "What can you learn from this experience so that you don't make the same mistakes?"

10) Teach perseverance.

A good leader knows that you have to work hard to accomplish your goals and that you just have to keep at it until success is achieved.

11) Teach positivity.

Similar to perseverance, positive thinking can be taught. It requires you to set the example, but also try to reverse negative thinking. "We were horrible compared to that team. They're far more experienced, older, and bigger."

It might be true, and your child's team might have just experienced a thrashing, but help them find something positive from the situation. It may be the encouragement the team gave each other, their team's scores, or that your child had improved a particular aspect of their game from practice.

12) Choose coaches and teams wisely in youth sports.

Winning isn't everything, and it's important to find coaches that support the development of your child over their win-loss record.

Find a coach willing to let all members play, who lets players try different roles, and allows players to grow through their successes and failures.

13) Don't force it.

Not everyone is or should be a leader. Some prefer to be followers and that's perfectly okay. It's important to remember that while you use these points to build leaderships skills in your child, leave it up to them to determine whether they want to lead.

If they don't, accept that and don't push the matter. Later in life they may choose to lead and will then need the skills you've helped them develop now.

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13 Tips to Boost Leadership Skills in Youth Athletes

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By Dr. Timothy Baghurst, Associate Professor of Health and Human Performance, Oklahoma State University

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The Power of Play: How Athletic Activities Foster Leadership Skills in Children

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Explore how athletic activities in Atlantic County can cultivate leadership skills in children. Learn more on our latest blog post.

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Jack J. Lesyk, Ph.D.

You don't have to be a professional athlete or an Olympic champion to be a successful athlete. Nor do you have to have a room full of trophies, win a state championship, or make the front page of the sports section. Successful athletes that I've worked with include an eleven year-old figure skater who has not yet won a competition, a high school golfer with a zero handicap, a middle-aged runner whose goal is to complete her first marathon, a weight lifter who holds several world records, and an Olympic medalist.

What these athletes have in common is that their sport is important to them and they're committed to being the best that they can be within the scope of their limitations - other life commitments, finances, time, and their natural ability. They set high, realistic goals for themselves and train and play hard. They are successful because they are pursuing their goals and enjoying their sport. Their sport participation enriches their lives and they believe that what they get back is worth what they put into their sport.

There are nine, specific mental skills that contribute to success in sports. They are all learned and can be improved with instruction and practice. At the Ohio Center for Sport Psychology we work with serious athletes of all ages and ability levels to help them learn and sharpen these important skills.

We believe that our work is worthwhile because the same mental skills that athletes use in achieving success in sports can be used to achieve success in other areas of their lives.

A Brief List of the Nine Mental Skills

Successful Athletes:

1. Choose and maintain a positive attitude.

2. Maintain a high level of self-motivation.

3. Set high, realistic goals.

4. Deal effectively with people.

5. Use positive self-talk.

6. Use positive mental imagery.

7. Manage anxiety effectively.

8. Manage their emotions effectively.

9. Maintain concentration.

Mental Skills Training

These nine mental skills are necessary for performing well in sport as well as in non-sport performance situations. At the Ohio Center for Sport Psychology:

We believe that these skills are learned and can be improved through instruction and practice.

We begin our work with each individual by assessing his current proficiency in each of the skills.

We develop a plan for teaching and enhancing the specific skills that need improvement for the individual.

We periodically reassess the client's proficiency in each of the skills in order to evaluate our progress.

The Performance Pyramid

Although each of the nine skills is important, its primary importance will occur during one of three phases: long-term development, immediate preparation for performance, and during performance itself.

Level I - These mental skills constitute a broad base for attaining long-term goals, learning, and sustaining daily practice. They are needed on a day-by-day basis for long periods of time, often months and years.

Level II - These skills are used immediately before performance to prepare for performance. They maybe used just before competition begins, or immediately before a specific performance action, such as a golf shot or a free throw in basketball.

Level III - These skills are used during actual performance behavior.

The pyramid below represents the relationship of the nine skills to one another. Each of the higher levels incorporates and is based upon the skills of the preceding levels.

Detailed Descriptions of the Nine Mental Skills

1. Attitude

Successful athletes:

Realize that attitude is a choice.

Choose an attitude that is predominately positive.

View their sport as an opportunity to compete against themselves and learn from their successes and failures.

Pursue excellence, not perfection, and realize that they, as well as their coaches, teammates, officials, and others are not perfect.

Maintain balance and perspective between their sport and the rest of their lives.

Respect their sport, other participants, coaches, officials, and themselves.

2. Motivation

Successful athletes:

3. Goals and Commitment

Successful athletes:

4. People Skills

Successful athletes:

5. Self-Talk

Successful athletes:

6. Mental Imagery

Successful athletes:

7. Dealing Effectively with Anxiety

Successful athletes:

8. Dealing Effectively with Emotions

Successful athletes:

Accept strong emotions such as excitement, anger, and disappointment as part of the sport experience.

Are able to use these emotions to improve, rather than interfere with high level performance

9. Concentration

Successful athletes:

Know what they must pay attention to during each game or sport situation.

Have learned how to maintain focus and resist distractions, whether they come from the environment or from within themselves.

Are able to regain their focus when concentration is lost during competition.

Have learned how to play in the "here-and-now", without regard to either past or anticipated future events.

Application of the Nine Mental Skills to Non-sport Performance Situations

The nine mental skills associated with athletic success are the same mental skills associated with performance in a wide variety of non-sport, performance situations. Let's take a look at some of these.

Characteristics of A Performance Situation:

The situation is often scheduled or anticipated in advance.

The situation usually has a defined beginning and an end.

The circumstances are known in advance.

The rules and constraints are known in advance.

The results are evaluated by standards (or natural consequences) that are usually known in advance.

The results are uncertain and may involve psychological risk and/or danger.

The results are important to the performer.

The performer's behavior is goal-oriented.

The results are influenced by the performer's skillful behavior

Examples of Performance Situations

An important job interview

Performing a solo with a symphony orchestra

Auditioning for a role in a drama production

Giving a class presentation

Taking a driver's examination

Giving a talk to the PTA

Testifying in court

Taking the state medical exam

Performing brain surgery

Landing an airplane

A firefighter entering a burning building

Participating in a military or police attack

An astronaut landing a vehicle on the surface of the moon

Rock Climbing

At the Ohio Center for Sport Psychology we help people develop the important skills necessary for high-level performance in sport and non-sport performance situations.

Copyright © 1998 Ohio Center for Sport Psychology

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You don't have to be a professional athlete or an Olympic champion to be a successful athlete. Nor do you have to have a room full of trophies, win a state championship, or make the front page of the sports section.

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Sports can help kids stay fit, make friends, and develop important qualities like determination and discipline. Unfortunately, 70 percent of young athletes drop out of team sports by age 13, citing lack of fun as their main reason for quitting.

Enter sport psychologists, who are using theory, research and applied strategies to help kids enjoy sports more and stay in them longer. In particular, they're working with coaches and young athletes to foster climates that nurture kids' effort, dedication and team cohesiveness. They're also looking at what exactly "fun" means to kids, and are helping to foster enjoyment in practical ways, such as helping kids set and achieve goals and support their teammates, and helping coaches deploy better communication skills.

A focus on effort

A centerpiece of this work is an approach developed, studied and validated over the past 35 years by University of Washington psychologists Ron Smith, PhD, and Frank Smoll, PhD. Called the Mastery Approach to Coaching, it includes training coaches to praise athletes for effort and dedication, not just for winning; to deal with athletes' mistakes by praising things that went right and offering positive coaching on what went wrong; and to help teams make their own rules, so they are more likely to abide by them.

This approach stands in contrast to what are called ego-involving approaches that encourage winning at all costs, even at the expense of team relationships and athletes' well-being.

The researchers' method "isn't a focus on the outcome of competition, on winning and losing, but on something that occurs during the process of competition-personal effort," Smoll says.

In dozens of studies, Smith and Smoll have found the approach leads to better coach-athlete relationships; lower performance anxiety; and more fun, mutual respect, self-esteem, team harmony and self-mastery, both in sports and in school. It has also reduced youth sports dropout rates from 30 percent to 5 percent. Over the years, the duo has trained more than 26,000 youth sport coaches in the intervention, and scores of researchers use the model or variations to test new issues in the field.

One example is University of Southern Maine sport psychologist Erin Hatch, PsyD, who has combined Smith and Smoll's mastery model and another evidence-based model called the Coping Cat to help support young athletes who are anxious or have anxiety disorders. Besides mastery skills, coaches and athletes learn such anxiety-reducing techniques as cognitive restructuring, deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, problem-solving and reinforcement of anxiety-related coping skills, tailored to the youth sport setting.

In a May 2015 paper in the Journal of Sport Psychology in Action that is based on her dissertation, Hatch describes a pilot study of 12 youth recreation coaches who were trained to share these methods in ways that don't call attention to youngsters who are shy or anxious. Instead of pulling kids away from the team and coaching them individually, for example, she encourages coaches to share anxiety-busting techniques with the team as a whole and to say they use these skills themselves.

"The idea is to make these interventions part of the culture of the team so it's not this weird, strange thing that's being given to one person because they are struggling," Hatch explains.

Support and respect

Another researcher aiming to improve the psychosocial atmosphere of youth sports is Mary D. Fry, PhD, who directs the Sport and Exercise Psychology Lab at the University of Kansas. She and her colleagues have developed a model called "the caring climate," which they define as a culture that is interpersonally inviting, safe and supportive, and provides an experience where young athletes are valued and respected. The researchers have also developed a measure of such climates, and have conducted studies on the caring climate intervention, in press at the International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching.

The team has found that young athletes in high-caring climates are more likely than those in climates focused mainly on winning to say they're committed to their sport. They also report being less embarrassed about their athletic efforts and more interested in continuing to play on the same team and in the same sport. In addition, young athletes in such environments report greater empathy for others, more engagement in prosocial behaviors, better emotional regulation, more hope and happiness, and less depression and sadness than those in less caring climates.

Caring climates even carry physiological benefits, Fry and colleagues have found. In a 2013 study in the Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, University of Kansas doctoral student Candace M. Hogue, Fry and colleagues found that college students trained in juggling by caring climate coaches had much lower stress-related cortisol levels and showed more effort, self-confidence and excitement about their sport at the end of training than peers randomized to ego-involving coaches.

Mapping out fun

Taking a detailed look at what constitutes "fun" in sports for today's young people-and how to maximize it-is Amanda J. Visek, PhD, associate professor at The George Washington University.

Using a technique called concept mapping, she asked 142 youth soccer players and their coaches and parents to brainstorm all of the things they thought made playing youth sports fun. They came up with 81 "fun determinants" in all, then sorted the determinants into 11 categories.

The study results-described in a 2015 paper in the Journal of Physical Activity and Health and rendered in a format called FUN MAPS that is easy for coaches to use-yielded some surprises, Visek notes. Players rated the most important category as "trying hard," and they rated it higher than adults. Least important to kids were the glitzier perks of youth sports, such as having nice gear, earning medals or trophies, and traveling to new places to play.

The findings offer a concrete way to help youngsters get the most out of their sports experiences and stay involved.

"It's one thing to say that parents or coaches should do this or that, or talk about the outcomes they want to achieve through youth sport participation," Visek says. "But the FUN MAPS break the process down and give people a step-by-step guide on how to promote the most fun sport experiences for kids in ways that can help improve their sport performance, enhance their development, and sustain their participation."

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Put me in, coach: How to spark kids' love of sports

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Sport psychologists use theory, research and applied strategies to foster kids' enjoyment of sports.

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The 2030 Agenda and the Global Compact on Refugees (GCR) stress the importance of equal access to quality education for all forcibly displaced children, youth and their host communities, regardless of legal status, gender or disability.

At the end of 2018, there were over 70 million forcibly displaced people around the world; 25.9 million were refugees, with half under the age of 18. More than 78 per cent of these refugees live in exile in South Asia, the Middle East and Africa, many for as long as it takes to complete a primary or secondary education. Therefore, education for people forced to flee must be planned with protracted situations in mind.
Refugee education should not be a short-term crisis intervention dependent upon unpredictable and unsustainable funding.
The GCR underscores the importance of humanitarian and development partner support to governments, so that they can strengthen the national education systems in their countries to benefit all children and youth, including refugees, asylum seekers, returnees and stateless learners, to foster self-reliance and successful integration within the host community. This approach builds from trends in refugee protraction, as well as global and regional consensus that education for refugees, like children and youth everywhere, is a medium-to long-term social service that should be embedded within national systems, rather than a parallel short-term crisis intervention dependent on unpredictable and unsustainable funding.

Inclusion in national education systems creates the conditions for all children and youth, including refugees, asylum seekers, returnees and the stateless, to receive education accredited by national authorities and recognized through regional equivalency procedures. Participation in host country education systems facilitates transition through education levels. This has become especially crucial for youth at post-primary levels, where lack of certification has created barriers to enter into secondary education, technical and vocational education and training, professional opportunities and tertiary education that all contribute to self-actualization and self-reliance.

For inclusion to be successful, education systems must be responsive and resilient to crisis. It is therefore important that:

Forced displacement is addressed in education sector policy;

Protocols for humanitarian action and contingency plans aligned with education sector planning are in place in the event of a crisis;

Governments and development donors support flexible financing structures that can absorb and allocate additional funding to crisis-affected regions, once humanitarian funding begins to diminish.

It is also important that refugees and other people of concern are represented in all stages of education sector planning, from assessments to planning, to review, so their needs are identified and taken into consideration.

Who is a refugee?

Refugees are people fleeing conflict or persecution. They are defined and protected in international law and must not be expelled or returned to situations where their life and freedom are at risk.

Key Messages

Of the 19.9 million refugees around the world, 7.4 million of them are of school age. Half of them, 4 million children, are unable to attend school.

Globally, 92% of children and youth are enrolled in primary, 84% in secondary and 37% in tertiary education. In 2017, only 61% of refugee children and youth were enrolled in primary school, only 23% in secondary school, and just 1% in tertiary education.

Education is a basic human right, as outlined in the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child and the 1951 Refugee Convention.

Education reduces risks of forced recruitment, child labour, sexual exploitation and child marriage, among others.

Education provides a safe place for refugee children and youth to learn and connect meaningfully with peers within the normal routine of a classroom.

Education strengthens community resilience and equips learners with knowledge and skills to find long-term solutions.

Education empowers refugees by giving them knowledge and skills to live productive, fulfilling and independent lives.

Education helps refugees to become self-sufficient, enabling them to learn about themselves and the world around them, as they strive to rebuild their lives and communities.

Lack of documents and financial resources, limited availability of schools (especially secondary) and xenophobia are some of the main reasons that prevent refugees from accessing education.

This collection was developed with the support of the UNHCR Education Section, Copenhagen.

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The 2030 Agenda and the Global Compact on Refugees (GCR) stress the importance of equal access to quality education for all forcibly displaced children, youth and their host communities, regardless of legal status, gender or disability. At the end of 2018, there were over 70 million forcibly displaced people around the world; 25.9 million were refugees, with half under the age of 18.

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Children around the world deserve the opportunity to learn and reach their full potential, but for millions of displaced children, there are many challenges to accessing quality education. According to UNHCR's 2022 education report, nearly half of all school-aged refugee children are not in school.

For students like Emma, a refugee from Burundi, education can be the key to unlocking a brighter future. However, many refugee students face barriers that prevent them from continuing their education after being forced to flee their homes, such as lack of access to schools, technology and learning tools, language barriers and discrimination.

Though the path to quality education for displaced youth may be difficult, UNHCR recognizes the power and importance of education through programs like Instant Network Schools (INS), DAFI Scholarships and Educate A Child. UNHCR is helping displaced youth like Emma, a DAFI recipient, achieve their dreams.

"To say I am happy to be getting this degree is an understatement," says Emma. "I am not only happy but also humbled that I am among the many refugee youths who have been given the chance to fly our flags higher."

Learn how four UNHCR programs are empowering young refugees, like Emma, and giving them hope for a brighter future.
Educate A Child (EAC)
Since 2012, Educate A Child (EAC) has partnered with UNHCR to provide quality primary education to over 1.4 million refugee and internally displaced children around the world. For educators like María and Uriel, the EAC program has been vital for their students at Antonio Damiano Cajas Elementary School in Tapachula, Mexico.

Tapachula has a large population of undocumented migrants in transit, asylum seekers waiting for their claims to be processed and internally displaced individuals - 20 percent of whom are unaccompanied children and adolescents.

A barrier to education in the area is that, according to Mexican refugee law, asylum seekers must remain in the location where they first apply for refugee status while their cases are being assessed. This leads many families to intentionally postpone enrolling their children in school until they relocate to their final destination. Additionally, many parents believe that registering their children in school will be costly and prioritize other basic needs-such as food and shelter-over education.

But María understands the value of education and is proud to be part of the EAC program in Tapachula. "We believe that education is a human right, regardless of nationality. Access to education supports a child's development and is beneficial for the child, family and community," says María.

UNHCR has been working closely with EAC to improve the quality of teaching and learning, ensure safe learning environments, raise awareness for education and strengthen partnerships with local education authorities to provide learning opportunities to more displaced children.

"The support that we have had from UNHCR has come a long way," says Maria "We also feel supported when we receive donations, and that someone else is recognizing the needs."
Instant Network Schools (INS) Program
Established in 2013 by the Vodafone Foundation and UNHCR, Instant Network Schools (INS) provide young refugees, host communities and their teachers with access to digital tools, resources, internet connectivity and teacher training and support. This ensures that refugees and children from host communities have access to accredited, quality and relevant learning opportunities.

"The Instant Network School classroom is very nice, and the tablet experience is really good," explains WaadAllah, a Syrian refugee and student at the Al Farooq Omar school in Cairo, Egypt. "I like the new way of teaching and I have benefited a lot from it," she continues.

As of November 2021, multiple schools in the greater Cairo area have launched the INS program, enabling students like WaadAllah to learn and excel in their courses. Since the program was implemented in schools across Cairo, approximately 18,000 students, 360 teachers and 54,000 members of the community in Egypt have been reached.

To date, the INS program has established 84 Instant Network Schools in Egypt, South Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Mozambique and Kenya. The program has enrolled 158,780 students and benefited 293,535 additional people, including teachers, coaches, community members and family members.
The DAFI (Albert Einstein German Academic Refugee Initiative) scholarship program
Over the last three decades, the DAFI scholarship program has transformed the lives and futures of over 21,500 refugee students around the world, including many students from Syria, Afghanistan, South Sudan and Somalia. These scholarships provide hope to young refugees in challenging circumstances and help them build brighter futures.

In 2021, DAFI scholarships enrolled over 8,300 young refugees from 53 nationalities in 55 countries. This is an increase of nearly 1,000 students compared to the previous year. The program aims to achieve gender parity, with female students making up 41 percent of all DAFI scholarship recipients in 2021.

The program received a record number of applications in 2021, with more than 15,800 applicants, reflecting the growing demand for higher education scholarships and opportunities for refugees.

For Noëlla, a refugee from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the DAFI scholarship changed her life. After graduating from high school in 2014, she couldn't afford college and had to rely on odd jobs to make a living. In 2017, she applied for the DAFI program and was awarded a three-year scholarship. She even went on to serve as the president of the DAFI Association in Zambia.

"When I applied, I knew I had potential, but I was nervous because I had stayed home for so long," says Noëlla, who is now a graduate. "I am really glad that DAFI came around for me."
Accelerated Education (AE) program
UNHCR's Accelerated Education (AE) programs provide access to education for disadvantaged and out-of-school youth, largely benefitting children who have missed out on learning due to conflict, poverty and marginalization.

These programs are flexible, age-appropriate and run in an accelerated timeframe to help students who are behind on their schooling complete a certified, equivalent level of education in a shorter period of time. The programs focus on increased and more effective learning, with an emphasis on reading and math, and often include a socio-emotional learning component. They allow flexibility to meet the unique needs of refugee learners, such as eighteen-year-old Sudanese refugee Roza.

After completing a UNHCR-supported AE program with excellent grades, Roza was able to continue on to secondary school where she furthered her studies in science. "I am the first person in my family to go to secondary school," says Roza.

"Education is important for us refugees so we can develop our country once we go back home," she continues. "Once I finish my studies, I want to go back to the Nuba mountains to be close to my family and make a difference in our community."
How to help...
Educational programs are empowering young refugees to create a bright future for themselves, giving them newfound hope after the challenging circumstances they have faced. With support from UNHCR, students like Roza and Emma, and teachers like Maria and Uriel, have the tools and resources to learn and thrive.

By becoming USA for UNHCR's newest monthly donor, you too can play a vital role in helping displaced children thrive and achieve their dreams.

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Four UNHCR education programs transforming the lives of young refugees

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Children around the world deserve the opportunity to learn and reach their full potential. Learn how four UNHCR programs are empowering young refugees and giving them hope for a brighter future.