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1. Phonemic awareness: an awareness of, and the ability to, manipulate the individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words.

2. Phonics: the study and use of sound/spelling correspondences and syllable patterns to help students read written words.

3. Fluency: reading text with sufficient speed, accuracy, and expression to support comprehension.

4. Vocabulary: the body of words and their meanings that students must understand to comprehend text.

5. Text comprehension: the ability to make meaning using specific skills and strategies, vocabulary, background knowledge, and verbal reasoning skills

Additional components added in the last couple years :

6. Oral language: “Sometimes called spoken language, oral language includes speaking and listening— the ways that humans communicate with one another. Oral language skills provide the foundation for word reading and comprehension. They are at the heart of listening and reading comprehension, serving as a predictor for both.”

7. Writing (written expression and spelling): Writing was added, “due to the reciprocal relationship between written expression and text comprehension.”

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This model reinforces a straightforward interpretation of reading that continues to inform a core conceptual idea around reading in which decoding and language comprehension are both essential to reading comprehension and skilled reading

It includes two key components :

Decoding (or word recognition)

Language comprehension (the ability to understand spoken language)

Both must be present for reading comprehension to be possible

It reinforces the importance of early oral language development composition, both before and during the early grades

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A visual metaphor for developing skills over time that expands upon the essential components of the Simple View of Reading.

This model asserts that, for either of the two essential components of reading (decoding and language comprehension) to develop successfully, students need to be taught the skills necessary for each of those two domains.

Proficiency in reading comprehension can be explained by the overlap in word recognition and oral language skills.

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Model 4 : The Four-Part Processing Model

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Model 4 : The Four-Part Processing Model

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Illustrates how the brain reads or recognizes words and can be useful in guiding educators’ understanding of the underlying processes involved in word recognition, language comprehension, and overall reading comprehension.

Four processors that are active in the brain when reading :

Phonological Processor: Detects, recalls and understands sounds that make up spoken words and controls the production of sounds and words in spoken language

Orthographic Processor : Recognizes, stores and recalls the letters and combination of letters used in written language and stores print information needed to efficiently recognize and recall words when reading and writing/spelling

Meaning Processor: Interprets word meanings and organizes words into meaningful categories according to spelling patterns, concepts, word relationships, word meanings, and; meaningful parts of words

Context Processor: Supports the meaning processor by interpreting words based on other language in the text, experiences, and background knowledge

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Expands the Simple View of Reading to add text, task, and sociocultural context

At its core is the belief that more than just word recognition and language comprehension are needed for children to develop as “active readers”

In addition to decoding and language comprehension, executive function skills, comprehension strategy use, and motivation support reading comprehension.

Reading processes, such as vocabulary and morphological awareness (understanding parts of words, like Latin roots or prefixes), help bridge decoding and language comprehension.

Cultural knowledge and content knowledge are constructs that contribute to reading success

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The features and organization of printed texts, letter formation, and recognizing distinctive features of letters

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Awareness of the segments of sound in words. Phonological awareness is entirely oral and forms the building blocks for later reading.

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A subgroup of phonological awareness that refers to the specific ability to hear, identify, and manipulate individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words. Phonemes are the smallest unit of sound within words.

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Consists of learning sound and spelling patterns in a distinct sequence that allows students to identify the relationship between sounds of spoken language and the letters that represent those sounds in print.

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The idea that letters and letter patterns represent the sounds of spoken language.

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Reading fluency encompasses accuracy, the speed or rate of reading, and the ability to read materials with expression, and comprehension.

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Emphasize active participation for students while providing modeling (I do), scaffolding (we do), and prompting (you do) until students can apply a skill independently

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Teach skills intentionally and in a carefully planned sequence with each foundational skill presented in a logical and recommended sequence, beginning with simple skills and moving to more complex skills.

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Precise, simple, and replicable language

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Precise, simple, and replicable language

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Use precise, simple language and ensure that instructions and explanations are short and clearly stated; use consistent language when modeling a reading skill or conducting a “think aloud.” Think-aloud effectively allows the teacher to demonstrate orally how a skilled reader thinks about a literacy task.

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Repeated opportunities to practice, build fluency, and review

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Repeated opportunities to practice, build fluency, and review

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Provide opportunities for teacher supported guided practice of a previously taught skill, as well as opportunities for independent practice in which students work individually or in small groups.

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Adequate time and exposure to decodable text

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Adequate time and exposure to decodable text

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When students read and re-read decodable texts, they apply skills practice in real-time and connect their phonics and decoding instruction to reading.

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Frequent opportunities to respond and interact

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Frequent opportunities to respond and interact

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Engage students by providing opportunities to respond in small groups. Active participation strategies include choral responses, whiteboards, response cards, or partner talk.

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Specific error correction and high-quality feedback

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Specific error correction and high-quality feedback

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When students make errors, provide specific and precise feedback on the exact part of the incorrect process to ensure they do not continue to practice and solidify errors. Additionally, model the correct response and provide students with opportunities to practice the skill correctly to help cement the new learning

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Print awareness is a a pre-reading skill

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When they receive formal reading instruction, they begin to understand how the system of print functions; that is, print on a page is read from left to right and from top to bottom; that sentences start with capital letters and end with periods, and much, much more.

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Children see that, like spoken language, printed language carries messages and is a source of both enjoyment and information

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When children are read to regularly, when they play with letters and engage in word games, and later, when they receive formal reading instruction, they begin to understand how the system of print functions

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As they hear and participate in reading the simple stories found in predictable and patterned books, children become familiar with how print looks on a page

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Make sure students know how books are organized

Read to children from books with easy-to-read large print

Label objects

Encourage preschool children to play with print

Help children understand the relationship between spoken and written language

Reinforce the forms and functions of print

Teach and reinforce print conventions

Teach and reinforce book awareness

Allow children to practice

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The ability to recognize and manipulate the spoken parts of sentences and words. Examples include being able to identify words that rhyme, recognizing alliteration, segmenting a sentence into words, identifying the syllables in a word, and blending and segmenting onset-rimes

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Is the ability to notice, think about, and work with the individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words. This includes blending sounds into words, segmenting words into sounds, and deleting and playing with the sounds in spoken words.

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Phonological awareness refers to oral language and phonics refers to print

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There are 26 letters in the alphabet and 44 letter sounds

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When children learn to read they must become consciously aware of phonemes, because learning to decode in English requires matching the sounds in spoken words to individual printed letters.

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The activities for teaching phonological awareness in intervention are the same as teaching it to pre-readers, although children who need intervention may require much greater intensity of instruction (e.g., smaller group size, more opportunities for practice) to develop phonological awareness.

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The goal of phonics instruction is to help children learn the alphabetic principle — the idea that letters represent the sounds of spoken language — and that there is an organized, logical, and predictable relationship between written letters and spoken sounds.

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Programs of phonics instruction should be:

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Programs of phonics instruction should be:

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Systematic: the letter-sound relationship is taught in an organized and logical sequence, with many opportunities for cumulative practice. Regular progress monitoring helps ensure that word recognition is taught to mastery.

Explicit: the instruction provides teachers with precise directions for teaching letter-sound relationships

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Children learn how to convert letters or letter combinations into sounds and then how to blend the sounds together to form recognizable words. For example, an unfamiliar word like shark is decoded by blending the sounds for sh, ar, and k. This is the most effective method of instruction for the largest number of children.

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Children learn to analyze letter-sound relationships in previously learned words. They do not pronounce sounds in isolation.

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Children learn to use parts of word families they know to identify words they don’t know that have similar parts — for instance, reading the unknown word shark by comparison to the known word bark.

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In this subtype of analogy phonics, instruction focuses on high-utility phonogram or ‘rime’ families such as -at (bat, cat, fat, sat, etc.) and -an (can, man, fan, tan, plan, etc.).

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Children learn to segment words into phonemes and to make words by writing letters for each phoneme.

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Children are taught letter-sound relationships during the reading of connected text. For example, a child might learn to decode shark in the context of a short story about sharks and other ocean life. Since children encounter many different letter-sound relationships as they read stories, this approach is not systematic or explicit.

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The smallest unit of sound in our spoken language. Pronouncing the word cat involves blending three phonemes: /k/ /ae/ /t/.

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A written letter or a group of letters representing one speech sound. Examples: b, sh, ch, igh, eigh.

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An initial consonant or consonant cluster. In the word name, n is the onset; in the word blue, bl is the onset.

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The vowel or vowel and consonant(s) that follow the onset. In the word name, ame is the rime.

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Two letters that represent one speech sound (diphthong). Examples: sh, ch, th, ph.

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Two letters that together make one vowel sound. Examples: ai, oo, ow.

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The vowel sound sometimes heard in an unstressed syllable and that most often sounds like /uh/ or the short /u/ sound. Example: the “a” in again or balloon. All English vowels have a schwa sound.

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The smallest meaningful units of language. The word cat is a morpheme. Not all morphemes stand alone as words; some are attached to words, usually as affixes. These are called bound morphemes. Examples include: non-, -est, -ing, -er, -ion.

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Read to students regularly and purposefully, including a range of genres and text types.

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Utilize multiple instructional formats (shared reading, guided reading, literature discussion circles, individualized instruction) and regularly reflect on these teaching practices and student progress in order to meet the strengths and needs of students

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Help students build background knowledge of topics and language that enables students to understand what they read.

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Model higher-order thinking skills, using techniques such as think-alouds, to illustrate the range of meaning-making strategies readers utilize in the process of reading, including strategies (e.g., prediction, self-monitoring, reflection) they use before, during, and after engagement with meaningful texts

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In order to reach and respond to the learning needs of each student, educators need to know what those needs are. It is through assessment that educators gain this knowledge and are therefore able to tailor the instructional experience.

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Starting planning from the vantage point of how individuals learn makes instruction more effective for all. Application of the Universal Design for Learning Guidelines is especially helpful in this, as they prompt educators to consider engagement, representation, action, and expression when designing instruction.

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When assessing students, educators have the opportunity to uplift a child’s sense of self and agency as a learner by highlighting what they can do well and what they are ready to learn next.

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Assessment Guiding Principles: These overarching principles situate assessment practice within a larger set of values to ensure maximum access and learning opportunity for children.

• Assessments should be used to determine how to bring students into grade-level instruction, not whether to bring them into it

• The formative assessment process is the strongest tool to support and accelerate learning and growth

• Targeted checks using curriculum-based assessments will support instruction; use of diagnostic assessments and/or formative practices are essential

• All assessments should be given within a larger context that supports students’ social, physical, and emotional wellbeing, honors relationships, and uses culturally responsive practices

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Formative assessment is a planned process to elicit evidence of student learning in order to improve student understanding of the intended learning outcomes. Formative assessment is a process of collecting and responding

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Formative assessment answers the questions:

• “Where are we going as students and teachers?”

• “Where are we now?”

• “How do we get to the learning target?”

The fundamental principles of the definition provided above is that formative assessment:

• is a planned, ongoing process

• occurs during teaching and learning

• intended to elicit and use evidence of student learning

• focused on disciplinary learning

• supports students becoming more self-directed learners

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Strong assessment systems tend to the 3Cs of effective assessment: coherent, comprehensive, and continuous.

• Coherent: All aspects of early literacy assessment and instruction align with Oregon’s language arts standards. The assessment system provides clear information about learning, so educator instructional practices align with what students need to learn next.

• Comprehensive: The approach taken to early literacy assessment provides multiple types of tests (universal screening, diagnostics, progress monitoring, interim tests, and summative tests) and is rooted in robust formative assessment practices. Informed decisions can be made in the moment, periodically throughout the year, and annually to drive improvement of literacy curriculum and instruction.

• Continuous: Early literacy assessment allows for assessment practices that drive the collection and review of the evidence of reading and writing learning that connects to prior learning and identifies the next steps across the school year.