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Culture & Psychology
2025, Vol. 31(4) 1403–1432
© The Author(s) 2025
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DOI: 10.1177/1354067X251340201
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Sexism with a small “S”:Indian women’s perceptions and experiences of benevolent sexism in the workplace

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Sexism with a small “S”:Indian women’s perceptions and experiences of benevolent sexism in the workplace

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This qualitative study, conducted by Jahanbi P Singh and Sumangali Radhakrishnan and published in Culture & Psychology in 2025, focuses on the often-overlooked "benevolent sexism" in the Indian workplace. By interpreting the real experiences of women in male-dominated industries, it reveals the hidden impacts and underlying mechanisms of this seemingly mild form of discrimination on professional women.

The study found that although the female labor force participation rate in India has increased significantly, gender discrimination in the workplace has not yet been eradicated. Compared with overt hostile sexism, benevolent sexism is more difficult to identify and criticize because it wears the cloak of care. Gender stereotypes have become invisible shackles, imposing unnecessary presuppositions and discipline on women. These combined factors make women's career development arduous: their promotion is often hindered, they are prone to being blamed for minor mistakes, there is gender differentiation in task allocation, and they need to make extra efforts to prove their competitiveness. Organizations lack inclusiveness and support: enterprises have insufficient transparency in key processes such as salary and promotion, making it difficult for women to judge whether they have encountered gender discrimination; there are also hidden offenses such as appearance-based comments and exclusive communication. Women's demands and experiences are often ignored.

This article expands the application of gender discrimination theory in the Indian cultural context, makes the issue of benevolent sexism in the workplace explicit, helps women identify hidden discrimination, and also provides specific directions for relevant institutions to carry out gender equality training.

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The first theme is systemic workplace gender inequity, encompassing occupational segregation, the gender pay gap, and the "glass ceiling" barrier to women’s leadership. Studies show women are overrepresented in low-wage, care-focused sectors (e.g., education, healthcare) and underrepresented in high-paying fields like STEM and executive roles—this segregation perpetuates economic disadvantage even for women with equivalent qualifications to men. For instance, a 2023 Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) report notes the adjusted gender pay gap (accounting for hours, experience, and role) remains 14.1%, meaning women earn $0.86 for every $1 men earn for identical work.

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This Wiki will examine the ethical issues of gender discrimination in Australia, including practical challenges and transformative opportunities aligned with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5, Sustainable Development Goal 8, and specific targets. We will draw on ethical theories such as the utilitarianism, Kantian deontology, and Aristotle’s virtue ethics framework to highlight approaches, programs, partnerships, and careers aimed at addressing gender discrimination in Australia.

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Sustainable Development Goal 5 (SDG 5) – Gender Equality

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Sustainable Development Goal 5 (SDG 5) – Gender Equality

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Throughout history, women have been treated more or less unequally. Today, we also regard the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women and girls as a crucial issue. We must ensure that future generations of women and girls know they matter, empower them to achieve their dreams and aspirations, and make them understand that men and women are born equal.

Clearly, the social status of men and women has never been so close as it is now compared to the past. However, although women's employment rate has increased and women's right to education has received greater attention than ever before, gaps still exist in other areas. Women are denied the right to work, and sexual violence and exploitation remain major barriers for women – barriers we must break down.

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The gender pay gap or gender wage gap is the average difference between the remuneration for men and women who are employed.Women are generally found to be paid less than men. There are two distinct measurements of the pay gap: non-adjusted versus adjusted pay gap. The latter typically takes into account differences in hours worked, occupations chosen, education and job experience.[1] In other words, the adjusted values represent how much women and men make for the same work, while the non-adjusted values represent how much the average man and woman make in total.

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Sustainable Development Goal 8 (SDG 8) – Creating Decent and Harmonious Workplaces

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Sustainable Development Goal 8 (SDG 8) – Creating Decent and Harmonious Workplaces

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The workplace is a space where people of all genders and cultural groups communicate and collaborate. Resolving intergroup conflicts and tensions not only ensures work quality and efficiency but also meets employees' psychological needs. Among the issues hindering cooperation, gender discrimination is the most acute.

Target 8.6 states that by 2024, one-fifth of young people worldwide (aged 15-24) will be not in employment, education or training (NEET), missing out on opportunities to gain skills or work experience. Young women are more than twice as likely as young men to be NEET. This shows that workplaces are extremely unfriendly to women, highlighting the acuteness of gender discrimination. To promote sustained economic growth and ensure full employment, gender discrimination is an issue that needs urgent resolution.

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Ethics and Sustainability- CT （time）

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Wu Hanyu s8122921

Sun Haocheng s8079570

Fu Zhengyi s8122908

Li Xingyang s8079427
Zhao Fanshu s8122999

Li Zijia s8123022

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Acknowledgement of country

We acknowledge the Ancestors, Elders and families of the Kulin who are the Traditional Owners and Custodians of University land. As we share our own knowledge practices within the University may we pay respect to the deep knowledge embedded within the Aboriginal community and their ownership of Country.

We acknowledge that the land on which we meet is a place of age-old ceremonies of celebration, initiation and renewal and that the Kulin people’s living culture has a unique role in the life of this region. VU is committed to building better relationships and fostering greater understanding between the wider Australian community and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.

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Occupational segregation is the distribution of workers across and within occupations, based upon demographic characteristics, most often gender. More types of occupational segregation include racial and ethnicity segregation, and sexual orientation segregation. These demographic characteristics often intersect. While a job refers to an actual position in a firm or industry, an occupation represents a group of similar jobs that require similar skill requirements and duties. Many occupations are segregated within themselves because of the differing jobs, but this is difficult to detect in terms of occupational data. Occupational segregation compares different groups and their occupations within the context of the entire labor force. The value or prestige of the jobs are typically not factored into the measurements.

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Gender-based violence (GBV) refers to any kind of violence directed against people due to their gender or gender identification, culture may have a role to play, being lower in egalitarianism societies and higher, sexist (misogynistic and misandrist) societies.

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Misogyny is hatred of, contempt for, or prejudice against women or girls. It is a form of sexism that can keep women at a lower social status than men, thus maintaining the social roles of patriarchy. Misogyny has been widely practised for thousands of years. It is reflected in art, literature, human societal structure, historical events, mythology, philosophy, and religion worldwide.

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Patriarchy is a social system in which positions of authority are primarily held by men. The term patriarchy is used both in anthropology to describe a family or

clan controlled by the father or eldest male or group of males, and in feminist theory to describe a broader social structure in which men as a group dominate society.

Sociobiologists compare human gender roles to sexed behavior in other primates and argue that gender inequality originates from genetic and reproductive differences between men and women. Patriarchal ideology explains and rationalizes patriarchy by attributing gender inequality to inherent natural differences between men and women, divine commandment, or other fixed structures.[4] Social constructionists among sociologists tend to disagree with biological explanations of patriarchy and contend that socialization processes are primarily responsible for establishing gender roles.[5] They further argue that gender roles and gender inequity are instruments of power and have become social norms to maintain control over women.

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Sustainability (from the latin sustinere - hold up, hold upright; furnish with means of support; bear, undergo, endure) is the ability to continue over a long period of time. In modern usage it generally refers to a state in which the environment, economy, and society will continue to exist over a long period of time. Many definitions emphasize the environmental dimension. This can include addressing key environmental problems, such as climate change and biodiversity loss. The idea of sustainability can guide decisions at the global, national, organizational, and individual levels.[6] A related concept is that of sustainable development, and the terms are often used to mean the same thing. UNESCO distinguishes the two like this: "Sustainability is often thought of as a long-term goal (i.e. a more sustainable world), while sustainable development refers to the many processes and pathways to achieve it."

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A glass ceiling is a metaphor usually applied to women, used to represent an invisible barrier that prevents a given demographic from rising beyond a certain level in a hierarchy. The metaphor was first used by feminists in reference to barriers in the careers of high-achieving women. It was coined by Marilyn Loden during a speech in 1978.

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Discrimination is the process of making prejudicial distinctions between people based on the groups, classes, or other categories to which they belong or are perceived to belong, such as race, gender, age, class, religion, disability or sexual orientation. Discrimination typically leads to groups being unfairly treated on the basis of perceived statuses of characteristics, for example ethnic, racial, gender or religious categories. It involves depriving members of one group of opportunities or privileges that are available to members of another group.

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These themes translate to tangible ethical challenges that undermine UN SDG 5 (Gender Equality) and SDG 8 (Decent Work), with clear impacts on Australian communities and businesses.

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These themes translate to tangible ethical challenges that undermine UN SDG 5 (Gender Equality) and SDG 8 (Decent Work), with clear impacts on Australian communities and businesses.

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The rights and status of women in society

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The rights and status of women in society

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A key real-world challenge is economic disenfranchisement of women due to systemic workplace inequity. The persistent gender pay gap and occupational segregation leave women more vulnerable to poverty, especially single mothers and older women. ABS data (2023) shows women are 30% more likely to rely on government welfare in retirement, as lower lifetime earnings limit superannuation savings. Ethically, this violates the principle of distributive justice—businesses that fail to address pay gaps or promote women in leadership perpetuate a cycle of inequality, contradicting SDG 8’s target of "decent work for all." For example, a 2022 study in the Journal of Business Ethics found that Australian companies with male-only executive teams are 40% less likely to have formal pay equity policies, directly contributing to this gap.

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A key challenge is normalized workplace gender-based violence (GBV), violating women’s safety and dignity. Despite laws like the 1984 Sex Discrimination Act, weak business GBV systems/training cause underreporting; 60% of sexual harassment complaints are unresolved (Australian Human Rights Commission, 2022), forcing women to choose career or safety—failing SDG 5 and Kantian deontology. Marginalized women (e.g., Indigenous) face extra barriers, with 50% lower promotion chances (2023 Gender, Work & Organization), as generic policies ignore root inequities.

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Ambivalent Sexism and Neosexism: Examining the Role of Affirmative Action Attitudes in Sustaining Workplace Gender Inequality | EBSCOhost

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Discover this 2025 paper in Gender Issues by Gomes, Alexandra; Giger, Jean-Christophe; Sousa, Cátia; et. al. Abstract: Gender-based affirmative action (GAA) in the workplace, despite targeting gender discrimination, elicits negative reactions. Few studies have explored socio-cognitive factors sustaining critics towards GAA. In this study we aim to fill the gap, asserting that individuals can simultaneously hold neosexist beliefs and positive attitudes towards GAA, forming an attitudinal combination that perpetuates workplace gender inequality. We argue that ambivalent sexism precedes adherence to this combination and that ambivalent sexists, high on both hostile and benevolent sexisms, endorse this combination more than other sexists. In a sample of 792 participants (n = 555 employed in public and private institutions; n = 237 college students), results showed that, men displayed higher levels of hostile and benevolent sexism, as well as neosexism, and supported GAA less than women. Additionally, hierarchical cluster analysis identified four sexist profiles, with an analysis of variance revealing that these profiles were linked to varying levels of neosexism endorsement and support for GAA. Overall, ambivalent sexists reported significantly higher levels of both neosexism and support for GAA compared to hostile, benevolent, or nonsexist participants.

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WOMEN ON BOARDS AND FIRM FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE: A META-ANALYSIS

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WOMEN ON BOARDS AND FIRM FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE: A META-ANALYSIS

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This meta-analysis by Post and Byron (2015) synthesizes 140 studies to examine women on boards (WOB) and firm financial performance, plus contextual impacts. It finds WOB positively correlates with accounting returns, more so in nations with stronger shareholder protections—likely as these drive boards to use women’s unique knowledge/experience. WOB has a near-zero overall link to market performance, but is positive in high-gender-parity countries and negative in low-parity ones, possibly due to social human capital gender gaps affecting investor assessments. Also, WOB correlates positively with boards’ core monitoring and strategy involvement, with the monitoring link stronger under strong shareholder protections. The study notes theoretical/practical implications, future research directions, and limitations like endogeneity.

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Gender-based violence (GBV) in professional and public spaces

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Gender-based violence (GBV) in professional and public spaces

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which intersects with workplace discrimination to limit women’s participation. Research highlights that 1 in 3 Australian women have experienced sexual harassment at work (Australian Human Rights Commission, 2022), with many reporting retaliation or career setbacks when speaking out. This creates a "hostile environment" that discourages women from pursuing promotions or entering male-dominated industries, reinforcing gender disparities.

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where gender discrimination overlaps with race, disability, or socioeconomic status to exacerbate disadvantage. For example, Indigenous Australian women face a 23% higher unemployment rate than non-Indigenous women (Closing the Gap Report, 2023) and are more likely to experience both workplace discrimination and GBV, as systemic racism amplifies barriers to education, mentorship, and safe employment.

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SDG5 – The Widespread Gender Discrimination in the Workplace Highlights the Acuteness of Gender-Related Issues

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SDG5 – The Widespread Gender Discrimination in the Workplace Highlights the Acuteness of Gender-Related Issues

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The core objective of SDG5 is to eliminate all forms of gender discrimination and ensure that women and girls can fully and equally participate in decision-making and leadership at all levels. It places particular emphasis on addressing issues such as gender role stereotyping and unfair opportunity allocation in the workplace. Specifically, it requires ensuring the full participation of women at all decision-making levels, including in both the public and private sectors.

However, the hidden issue of benevolent sexism still persists in the workplace, where women face different professional evaluation criteria than men: managers require women to be "more friendly and proficient in interpersonal interactions," while having no such requirements for men. Gender discrimination is prevalent in the workplace, and leadership positions are dominated by men. The lack of gender equality complaint mechanisms in organizations and insufficient pay transparency further exacerbate gender inequality, highlighting that organizations have failed to fulfill their responsibility of "creating an equal workplace environment" as mandated by SDG5.

Meanwhile, the article reveals the contextual barriers that hinder women's participation in decision-making. Although there is no inherent difference between women and men in terms of work competence, in some countries with acute gender conflicts, the public still tends to voice negative opinions about companies where female senior executives are in the majority.

All the articles point out the acute gender issues that still exist in the workplace and focus on addressing or improving these problems.

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SDG8 – Gender Discrimination in the Workplace Restricts Women’s Ability to Exert Their Capabilities

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SDG8 – Gender Discrimination in the Workplace Restricts Women’s Ability to Exert Their Capabilities

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The core goal of SDG8 is to "promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, achieve full and productive employment, and ensure decent work for all". The key lies in eliminating the obstacles that workplace discrimination poses to the quality of employment and the release of talent value.

The articles collectively point out the career dilemmas faced by women. Women’s mistakes are more likely to be amplified, and they struggle to obtain constructive feedback. Such an environment violates the requirements of decent work. Compared with women, men are more likely to be assigned core business tasks. This distribution model leads to a waste of talent: women’s professional capabilities cannot be applied to core business areas, enterprises miss out on the innovative potential brought by diverse perspectives, and ultimately hinder the sustainable growth of industries. At the same time, to prove their capabilities, women generally face the phenomenon of "overworking". Although women are more competent than men in some aspects of work, gender discrimination prevents them from exerting their abilities, which in turn leads to a decline in work efficiency.

All the papers collectively point out that the issue of gender discrimination against women restricts women’s abilities, thereby hindering economic development.

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Reduce the salary gap and break down the occupational segregation

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Reduce the salary gap and break down the occupational segregation

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To address gender discrimination in Australia—aligned with SDG 5 (Gender Equality) and SDG 8 (Decent Work)—two evidence-based solutions are proposed, grounded in ethical theories. First, mandatory pay transparency audits for businesses with 100+ employees, enforced by the Fair Work Ombudsman. This aligns with Kantian deontology, as it treats women as “ends, not means” by eliminating hidden pay biases, and utilitarianism, as it reduces the gender pay gap (currently 13.3% in Australia, Workplace Gender Equality Agency, 2024) to boost overall workforce satisfaction. Second, corporate unconscious bias training programs integrated into onboarding and leadership development. Drawing on virtue ethics, these programs cultivate empathy and fairness as organizational virtues, addressing occupational segregation—e.g., only 30% of senior roles in STEM are held by women (Australian Academy of Science, 2023).

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Supporting Young Women's Employment and Preventing Workplace Gender-Based Violence

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Supporting Young Women's Employment and Preventing Workplace Gender-Based Violence

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The remaining two solutions further tackle gender discrimination while upholding SDG 5 and SDG 8 commitments. Third, government-funded NEET (Not in Employment, Education, or Training) support for young women, including vocational training in male-dominated fields (construction, tech) and childcare subsidies. This directly targets SDG 8.6, as young women are twice as likely to be NEET as young men (ABS, 2024), and uses utilitarianism by maximizing economic participation. Fourth, workplace anti-GBV (Gender-Based Violence) policies with confidential reporting systems and legal support. Rooted in the ethics of care, this protects women from harm, addressing a key barrier to retention—1 in 3 women report workplace sexual harassment (Australian Human Rights Commission, 2023).

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Four career opportunities related to addressing Australian gender discrimination, linked to SDG 5 and SDG 8, are highlighted below, with links to relevant roles (simulated to reflect VU Employ guidelines).

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Four career opportunities related to addressing Australian gender discrimination, linked to SDG 5 and SDG 8, are highlighted below, with links to relevant roles (simulated to reflect VU Employ guidelines).

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1. Workplace Gender Equality Consultant (e.g., role at Diversity Australia: https://diversityaustralia.com.au/careers/gender-equality-consultant). This role advises businesses on pay audits, bias training, and policy development to meet Workplace Gender Equality Act requirements. It directly tackles the gender pay gap and occupational segregation, aligning with SDG 5 and SDG 8 by fostering inclusive workplaces.

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Youth Employment Program Coordinator (e.g., role at Mission Australia: https://missionaustralia.com.au/jobs/youth-employment-coordinator). The role designs NEET support programs for young women, including skills training and mentorship, directly addressing SDG 8.6. It uses ethical care principles to empower marginalized groups.

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3. Anti-Discrimination Lawyer (e.g., role at the Australian Human Rights Commission: https://ahrc.gov.au/careers/anti-discrimination-lawyer). This role represents women in gender-based discrimination cases (e.g., pay inequity, GBV) and advocates for policy reform, upholding Kantian ethics by defending women’s right to fair treatment.

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4. STEM Gender Inclusion Specialist (e.g., role at Science & Technology Australia: https://sta.edu.au/careers/stem-gender-inclusion-specialist). This role develops initiatives to increase women’s participation in STEM fields (e.g., scholarships, mentorship), reducing occupational segregation and advancing SDG 5 and SDG 8 by leveraging diverse talent.

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Understanding‌ the complexities of achieving SDG 8 and accompanying ethical challenges in worldwide supply chains need key resources, which are basically a few. The  International Labour Organization (2024) gateway has the ultimate framework for understanding official targets and current worldwide progress of SDG 8, thus offering a very essential point of departure for gauging the ongoing gap that exists not only between policy and daily occurrences but also issues such as informal work, modern slavery, and lack of social protection, etc.

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# Cameron & Mayberry (2024) and McCance (2024): Research Insights into Gig Economy Stakeholder Tensions and Ethical Business Solutions

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# Cameron & Mayberry (2024) and McCance (2024): Research Insights into Gig Economy Stakeholder Tensions and Ethical Business Solutions

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The innovative research of Cameron & Mayberry (2024) is a turning point to a critical understanding of the gig economy by giving evidence on how contemporary platform-based business models can structurally create antagonist relationships between stakeholders and systematically erode decent work principles, thus illustrating a considerable and expanding obstacle to inclusive economic growth, sustained. The stakeholder theory by McCance (2024) serves as a bridge to overcome next of kin group impediments with the foundational ethical framework and supplying the essential counter-perspective, which clarifies how morally guided businesses are not only changing the old narrative of shareholder primacy by practically implementing their ethical obligations to employees and communities. These companies furnish a live illustration of the indispensable resolutions and ways to render global supply chains not only fairer but also transparent and accountable.

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# Business & Human Rights Resource Centre: A Hub for Tracking Corporate Performance and Enabling Ethical-Corporate Accountability Engagement

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# Business & Human Rights Resource Centre: A Hub for Tracking Corporate Performance and Enabling Ethical-Corporate Accountability Engagement

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Additionally, Business & Human Rights Resource Centre is a profoundly significant and ever-evolving hub of evidence that tracks the on-ground performance and policies of thousands of companies and, therefore, through the offering of real case studies of both labor rights abuses and the best corporate practices, allows the direct engagement of theoretical ethical challenges with the issue of corporate ​‍​‌‍​‍‌​‍​‌‍​‍‌‍‌‍‍‌‍‌‍‍‌accountability (Business & Human Rights Resource Centre. n.d.).

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The UN SDG5(Gender Equality) and SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) lead us to construct a comprehensive framework for "the ethical issues of gender discrimination in the Australian business sector" to address various challenges associated with this ethical problem, including gender inequality and an undesirable workplace environment. The core of this research is highly aligned with the goals of UN SDG 5 (Gender Equality) and SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth). Supported by relevant theories and local Australian policy cases, it possesses practical operability for alleviating gender discrimination in Australian enterprises. Ethical theories such as Utilitarianism, Kantian Deontology, and Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics framework enable us to examine facts from different perspectives. We understand that as individuals, each of us can contribute to building a more ethical world; we have the ability to organize ourselves, collaborate as a collective moral force, and solve these issues in our society.