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Retribution consists of preventing future crimes from taking place by removing the desire for victims to seek avengement on the defendant (University of Minnesota, N.D). Rehabilitation is put in place to prevent future criminals from offending again by changing their behaviour, in the forms of educational programs or counselling (University of Minnesota, N.D). Deterrence focuses on people and how they choose to obey or violate the laws based on the gains or consequences of the crime (National Institute of Justice, 2016).

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Left Realism was developed by Jock Young, John Lea and Roger Matthews, in the 1980's, in response to the reaction to Right Realism policies and procedures (Thompson, 2016).

Left Realists did not agree with the previous left criminologists, who previously minimised the importance of official crime statistics (Haralambos and Holborn, 2018).They expressed that in previous years, the mass media created fear and marginalised minority, ethnic groups with unreliable statistics (Haralambos and Holborn, 2018). Instead, they expressed that there was in fact reliable evidence about rising crime statistics which vouched for the publics right to be concerned (Haralambos and Holborn, 2018).

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Within left realism, they understand that criminology must engage with the issues of crime control and social policy (Haralambos and Holborn, 2018). Left Realists were also interested in the victims of crime and not just the perpetrators (Haralambos and Holborn, 2018).

Left Realists believe that criminology should focus on dealing with street crimes, which is classed as 'ordinary crime' rather than focusing on elite crimes, such as crimes committed by the upper class (Thompson, 2016).

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Left Realist beliefs on the causes of crime...

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Left Realist beliefs on the causes of crime...

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Left Realists argued that the types of people who commit crimes were affected by either Individual Risk Factors (IRF) or Environmental Risk Factors (ERF) (Thompson, 2021). IRF can be explained by childhood abuse, poor mental health and exclusions from school, and ERF is where children grew up in an area of deprivation and negative experiences with the Police (Thompson, 2021).

When looking at the Left Realists beliefs on the causes of crime, Merton's work on subcultural theories draw similar, which suggests that criminal subcultures were developed in inner cities (ref).

Left Realists believe that there are three major causes for crime - Relative Deprivation, Marginalisation, and Subcultures (Thompson, 2016).

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Relative deprivation refers to the situation where people feel deprived in relation to others, which may be the cause of social media and the fact that wealth and success is thought of as normal (Thompson, 2016). Relative deprivation understands that people's experience of deprivation stems from them comparing what they have in relation to others (Haralambos and Holborn, 2018).

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Marginalisation refers to people having a lack of resources which enable them to participate in society, which results in people feeling distant from others in society and causes resentment and frustration between them (Thompson, 2016).

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Subcultures refers to the response when relative deprivation and marginalisation recognises crime and deviance, explaining that subcultures emerge in a way which divides communities based on their resources, or lack off (Thompson, 2016).

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Left Realism argues that less time with administrative works and more time investigating crimes, the Police would regain the trust of their local communities (Haralambos and Holborn, 2018). If the trust from the public is regained by the Police, Left Realists argue that over 90% of crimes would be solved, as the Police gather information about crimes from public sources (Thompson, 2016).

Left Realism has two solutions to preventing crime - Intervention and Community Based Approaches (Thompson, 2016).

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Example: The Intervention technique was used in the Perry pre - school for disadvantaged black children in Michigan, USA (Thompson, 2016). 3 - 4 children were offered a two year enrichment course which focused on intellect and received weekly home visits to encourage education (Thompson, 2016).  This study found that the selected children had grown up to receive fewer arrests and higher rates of full time employment and graduation from University (Thompson, 2016). It was estimated that for every $1 that was spent on the enrichment programme, $17 were saved on costs such as prison and welfare (Thompson, 2016).

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In 1992, Young and Matthews identified that in order to reduce crime rates, improving the following would benefit the local communities -

improving leisure facilities

reducing income inequalities

improving housing estates

raising the standards of living

and reducing unemployment (Thompson, 2016).

Left Realist believe that if these changes in the community were acted upon, then in the long run it would create a positive change in regards to crime statistics and the community would benefit (Thompson, 2021).

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Blair wanted to make sure that societies and communities were protected from crime, and felt like communities would benefit from introducing -

Neighbourhood watch zones

ASBO's

Family Intervention

Investments into vulnerable young people accessing alternative pathways from crime (Tutor2u, 2022).

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Left Realism acknowledges that crime is a real problem and aims to find the cause of criminal activity, ensuring that communities feel safer and decrease the levels of crime (Thompson, 2016).

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Left Realism focuses on targeting only the crimes of the working class and inner city communities, without taking into consideration the crimes of the elite (Thompson, 2016).

The changes made by the Left Realist government may be disregarded if they were not re-elected, as left realism is a victim based approach (Thompson, 2016).

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The creation of Right Realism was a response to a political debate regarding the increasing trend of crime and what could be done about it (Thompson, 2016). Right Realism is concerned with the individual and the importance of communities, rather than the structures of societies (Thompson, 2016). Within strong communities, expert levels of social control would make an example of offenders and they would lose their status in society (Ricker, 2022).

They place emphasis on having tough control measures to ensure that crime rates are being reduced (Thompson, 2016).

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During Bill Clinton's presidency, he created the 1994 Crime Bill, which was an effort to solve the rising levels of crime (Ricker, 2022). During this Crime Act, it aided Right Realists to understand three causes for crime:

Poor socialisation and development

Personality or biological differences

Criminals receiving weak punishments, which create a criminal mindset (Ricker, 2022).

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Right Realist beliefs on the causes of crime...

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Right Realist beliefs on the causes of crime...

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Right Realism argues that it is the individuals responsibility to keep themselves free from criminal activities, and they choose to live destructive, lawless behaviours, explaining that the individuals who commit crimes lack self - control and morality (Haralambos and Holborn, 2018).

Right Realism also places the cause of crime onto three main theories - Rational Choice Theory, Broken Window Theory, and The Underclass (Thompson, 2016).

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Rational Choice Theory was developed in 1979, by Cohen and Felson during their 'Routine Activities' Theory (Thompson, 2016). It was developed to understand that in most circumstances a combination of things occur such as a lack of opportunities, social control mechanisms and the risk of getting caught prevents crime from taking place (Thompson, 2016).

They then argued that crime needed three conditions to take place:

individuals to be motivated into committing crime

for opportunities and targets to be available

a lack of guardians such as parents or the Police which may prevent crime from taking place (Thompson, 2016).

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Broken Window Theory is based on an article titled 'broken windows' written by James Q Wilson and George Kellings in 1982 (Thompson, 2016). They used the phrase 'broken window' which described the disorder and lack of concern for others evident in some neighbourhoods (Thompson, 2016). These disorders can include graffiti, vandalism, littering, and anti - social behaviours (Thompson, 2016).

Wilson and Kellings expressed that if the community was to leave these 'broken windows' unrepaired, then the community would subconsciously be seen to tolerate these disorders and send out the signal that no-one cares (Ricker, 2022).

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Charles Murray (1989) and the Underclass

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Charles Murray (1989) and the Underclass

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In 1989, Murray developed the theory that an over generous benefit system lead to a growth of and underclass of individuals who could be identified by the following characteristics -

those who commit violent and property crimes

single mother families due to absent fathers and illegitimacy

and economic inactivity's such as not seeking employment (Tutor2u, 2018).

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President Bill Clinton Crime Bill implemented the 'three strike' law which saw offenders to be incarcerated on a life sentence if they were to offend with a violent of serious crime on three occasions (Ricker, 2022).

Right Realists believe that in order to tackle rising crime rates, Environmental crime and Situational crime prevention programmes needed to be put in place (Thompson, 2016).

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Environmental Crime Prevention (ECP) is described as making neighbourhoods more crime resistant, ensuring that there are more Police on the streets and adopting a 'zero tolerance policy' in regards to more minor crimes (Thompson, 2016).

When crime occurs, the formal and informal social control measures are put in place to ensure that anti - social behaviours are prevented so that the area does not deteriorate (Thompson, 2016).

ECP was established from the Broken Window Theory and suggests that due to a lack of order and social controls would lead to crime (Thompson, 2016). Some examples of ECP include:

zero tolerance policing

ASBO's and curfews

street drinking bans

and the three strike rule (in America) (Thompson, 2016).

During the 1990's in New York City, the Government established several successful programs in order to tackle drug dealing, fair dodging, and begging using ECP methods (Thompson, 2016). The end result concluded with a 50% reduction with these specific offences (Thompson, 2016).

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Situational Crime Prevention (SCP) is the focus on making a point of putting potential victims and criminals together, to meet a required outcome of a crime becoming harder to commit (Thompson, 2016).

SCP believes that crime would occur because of the following:

offenders motivated to commit crimes

suitable targets and opportunities

absence of a guardian to promote morals and values

and the fact that crime is based on rational choice (Beckfoot, N.D).

SCP stems from the Rational Choice Theory, it involves reducing the opportunity for crime to take place and increasing the risk of an offender getting caught whilst committing a crime (Thompson, 2016).

SCP involves two ways of reducing crime - increasing surveillance of the population and making buildings, objects, and people harder to steal, kidnap, or damage (Ricker, 2022).

SCP is popular with Government bodies as it is a cheaper option to implement in society and can be taken up by both formal social control groups and local councils, schools and businesses (Thompson, 2016).

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The solution of situational crime prevention has been successful in decreasing the crime levels (Beckfoot, N.D).

With the Right Realist tough perspective on crime, the implementation of imprisonment in the USA, lead to a further decrease in crime statistics. It also lead to a 50% decrease in homicide rates (Beckfoot, N.D).

Right Realist solutions to crime are important when looking at  socially deviant crimes such as removing individuals from the community who litter, drink alcohol in public and other unwanted behaviours (Haralambos and Holborn, 2018). This is due to right realist approaches like the Zero Tolerance policy and the implementation of CCTV (Haralambos and Holborn, 2018).

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Right Realists believe that offenders act in a rational way and that they plan out their crimes based on opportunities, rather than believing that offenders have free will (Beckfoot, N.D).

Right Realism argue that offenders are most likely to have biological differences than non offenders, however empirical evidence suggests that IQ differences are less than 3%, expressing that biological differences are exaggerated (Haralambos and Holborn, 2018). The lowest IQ crimes are interpersonal crimes such as sexual assaults and murder, which right realism does not take into consideration, yet they are concerned with crimes which threaten social order (Bosworth, 2005).

They also ignore the fact that poverty is also a cause of crime, right realists believe that society would benefit from removing the welfare system (Beckfoot, N.D).

Whilst crimes within the community are dealt with by zero tolerance policy, right realist solutions are not effective with dealing with crimes caused by those in poverty such as fraud, as right realists do not considered poverty to be a cause of crime (Bosworth, 2005).

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Both Left and Right realists argue that previous theories, which discuss crime, failed to acknowledge  any realistic solutions to the problem of crime (Beckfoot, N.D).

They understand that previous theories also do not propose any practical solutions to reduce crime statistics (Beckfoot, N.D).

Both approaches are concerned with the impact of crime on its victims, and the fear that it causes (Beckfoot, N.D).

Left and Right Realism both agree with the fact that there has been an increase in crime rates, specifically street crimes, burglary, and assault (Beckfoot, N.D).

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The main differences between Left Realism and Right Realism is the basis on which they place the cause of crime; Left believes that communities influence crime, whilst Right believes that individuals make the rational choice to commit crimes (Thompson, 2016).

Whilst the Left Realists favour with dealing with deeper structural causes of crime such as poverty, Right Realists  believe that crime would benefit from removing some aspects from the welfare system (Beckfoot, N.D).

Left Realists believe in tackling future criminal behaviour and the risk factors that they produce, however, Right Realists focus on having a zero tolerance policy when tackling crime (Beckfoot, N.D).

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Deterrence is described as a theory of choice where individuals are seen to weigh up the costs or benefits of the crime (National Institute of Justice, 2016).

There are many forms of deterrence, however the most prominent form is prison sentences, recruiting more Police officers to patrol, and ensuring that individuals are aware of the consequences of offending are (Wright, 2010).

Within deterrence theory, there are two types of deterrence general and specific (Bosworth, 2005).

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The work of Hobbes, Beccaria, and Bentham influenced the theory of deterrence, especially the individual concepts severity, certainty, and celerity (Bosworth, 2005).

For deterrence theory to be properly achieved in order for the community to feel that punishments in the victims perspective were justified, they must also be given swiftly (Bosworth, 2005).

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General deterrence is designed to keep the general public from committing crimes (Bosworth, 2005). The punishment given to offenders serves as an example for their peers who have not committed an offense, in attempt to prevent them from criminal acts (Bosworth, 2005).

The death penalty and corporal punishments are some examples of general deterrence, which were designed to inflict pain to witnesses of the convicted (Bosworth, 2005).

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Specific deterrence, depending on the sanction given, aims to deter the offender from committing a specific crime in the future (Bosworth, 2005). Specific deterrence believes that if an offender is punished, it will decrease the chances of them reoffending (Bosworth, 2005).

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Empirical studies based on deterrence theory have shown that it is vastly more efficient than sending offenders to prison, regarding the certainty of imprisonment (National Institute of Justice, 2016).

Deterrence theory may also work in regards to the community not engaging in criminal activities solely on the fact that they may witness punishment given to offenders, even if the individuals haven't committed any offenses themselves (Bosworth, 2005).

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Deterrence theory cannot be proven to be the most efficient way of dealing with offenders, as it is only the offenders who are not deterred that are noticed by the criminal justice system (Bosworth, 2005).

Deterrence also works on the basis that criminals are deterred from committing crimes from the threat of punishment and the rational choices that individuals make, however neither can be proven to be the sole reasons that deter a potential criminal among other factors (Bosworth, 2005).

When looking at the empirical evidence of deterrence theory, offenders who receive the death penalty, does not deter other criminals from murder, and this it is in fact counterproductive (Bosworth, 2005). Empirical evidence also argues that offenders who receive a minimum of 30 years in prison have an average of 29% chance that they would re-offend once released, meaning that lengthy sentences are not a deterrence factor (Wright, 2010).

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(Bosworth, 2005), (Haralambos and Holborn, 2018).

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Beccaria (1963) expressed that the seriousness of crimes should be reflected in the sentences given to the offender so that the community feels that justice has been served (Bosworth, 2005). This can be related to left realism as they focus on the communities being in a state of content so trust can be placed with the criminal justice system (Bosworth, 2005).

Part of the Left Realist policies is to propose changes in policing to ensure that they are being responsive to communities, in an attempt to increase public support and decrease crime rates (Haralambos and Holborn, 2018). Deterrence theory does not take into consideration the communities respect for the police or that this may also be a factor in deterring crime (Haralambos and Holborn, 2018).

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(Bosworth, 2005), (Haralambos and Holborn, 2018)

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Right Realism and Deterrence theory can be linked on the basis that deterrence has been modified to include rational choice theory, which is an element that right realists believe is a cause of crime (Bosworth, 2005).

Deterrence theory and right realism can be linked via the suggestion that Tyler (2006) proposed regarding people's compliance with the law and how they will comply if it is perceived in their personal moral codes (Haralambos and Holborn, 2018). Right Realism explains that offenders act from rational choice, deterrence theory expresses that a severe punishment would result in offenders thinking in a rational way and in turn be deterred from committing an offense (Haralambos and Holborn, 2018).

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Reference List for Current Issues in Criminology