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Animals exhibited in these facilities are subject to complete control and live in very different conditions from those in which they…

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Monkeys outperform humans when it comes to cognitive flexibility

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When it comes to being willing to explore more efficient options to solving a problem, monkeys exhibit more cognitive flexibility than humans, according to a study by Georgia State University psychology researchers.

"We are a unique species and have various ways in which we are exceptionally different from every other creature on the planet," said Julia Watzek, a graduate student in psychology at Georgia State. "But we're also sometimes really dumb."

Watzek was the lead author of a paper published in Scientific Reports illustrating how capuchin and rhesus macaque monkeys were significantly less susceptible than humans to "cognitive set" bias when presented a chance to switch to a more efficient option. The research results supported earlier studies with fellow primates, baboons and chimpanzees, who also showed a greater willingness to use optional shortcuts to earn a treat compared to humans who persisted in using a familiar learned strategy despite its relative inefficiency.

"I think we're less and less surprised when primates outsmart humans sometimes," Watzek said.

The test involved establishing a specific strategy to lead to a solution. Through trial and error using a computer, monkeys and humans had to follow a pattern by pushing a striped square then a dotted square and then, when it appeared, a triangle to achieve the goal and receive a reward. For the humans, the reward was either a jingle or points to let them know they got it right. For the monkeys, it was a banana pellet. Wrong results got a brief timeout and no reward.

After the strategy was learned, subsequent trials presented the triangle option immediately without having to push the patterned squares in sequence. All of the monkeys quickly used the shortcut, while 61 percent of the humans did not. In fact, 70 percent of all the monkeys used the shortcut the very first time it was available compared to only one human. (The study involved 56 humans, 22 capuchin and 7 rhesus monkeys.)

"There's a heavy reliance on rote learning and doing it the way you were taught and to specifically not take the shortcut," Watzek said of the human subjects.

"More of the humans do take the shortcut after seeing a video of somebody taking the shortcut, but about 30 percent still don't," Watzek said." In another version we told them they shouldn't be afraid to try something new. More of them did use the shortcut then, but many of them still didn't."

The study illustrates how humans can suffer from learned biases that can lead us to make inefficient decisions and miss opportunities. Often, sticking with what's familiar and proven -- like a commuting route to work -- isn't a big deal with a low cost over an alternative. Other times, using inefficient, biased or outdated practices could have far-reaching consequences. An example would be the most recent global financial crisis when many experts ignored instability warnings and continued practicing risky trading and lending habits that led to a housing market crash.

"To set ourselves up for good decision-making, sometimes that means changing available options," Watzek said. "I'm not proposing to topple the entire Western education system, but it is interesting to think through ways in which we train our children to think a specific way and stay in the box and not outside of it. Just be mindful of it. There are good reasons for why we do what we do, but I think sometimes it can get us into a lot of trouble."

Study co-author Sarah Pope, a former graduate student in the Neuroscience Institute at Georgia State, took the experiment to Namibia and tested it on members of the semi-nomadic Himba tribe, which is not exposed to Western education and lives in a less predictable environment. While more were quicker to use the shortcut immediately, more than half still used the three-step approach as well. In tests of visitors at Zoo Atlanta, children 7-10 were four times more likely than adults to use the shortcut but still more than half continued to use the learned strategy.

"This was a great example of how a really elegant, simple study can be hugely impactful in various contexts," said Sarah Brosnan, a Georgia State psychology professor who oversaw the study and was a co-author of the paper. "It's adding to the larger body of literature on why humans can be so different from other primates."

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behavior; consumer behavior; educational psychology; intelligence; monkeys; animal learning and intelligence; apes; behavioral science

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Monkeys outperform humans when it comes to cognitive flexibility

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When it comes to being willing to explore more efficient options to solving a problem, monkeys exhibit more cognitive flexibility than humans, according to a study by Georgia State University psychology researchers. "We are a unique species and have various ways in which we are exceptionally different from every other creature on the planet," said Julia Watzek, a graduate student in psychology at Georgia State.

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Year of the Monkey: Monkey, Apes, and Humans: How are we different?

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Monkey, Apes, and Humans: How are we different?

By Breanne Cyr, Primates Incorporated Volunteer

When is the last time you received an email from a primate? Chances are, it was not long before you started reading this. That's because along with monkeys and apes, humans are primates, too (1,2,5). Although monkeys, apes, and humans differ from one another, as primates, they share many common features that distinguish them from other animals. What are these differences? What makes us human?

There are many common features among primates. For example, primates have eyes that face forward and are close together, creating 3-D vision that is also in color. With this increase in visual capabilities, most primates have evolved small noses and rely less on their sense of smell. Almost all primates have 10 fingers and 10 toes with nails instead of claws, opposable thumbs or big toes, and tactile finger pads - all characteristics that allow them to grasp and manipulate food or other objects skillfully. In comparison to other animals of their size, primates have long gestation periods, long childhoods, and live significantly longer. They also have comparatively large brains (3).

The great apes - chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, and orangutans - are closest related to humans. In fact, we share about 98% of our DNA with chimpanzees and bonobos and are more closely related to them than they are to gorillas or any other primates. In comparison, humans share 93% of DNA with rhesus monkeys (1). Humans and apes share all the same bones, though they may differ in shape or size, and they also share the same arrangement of internal organs. On average, males are 5-10% larger than females and are more muscular. Unlike most monkeys, neither apes nor humans have an external tail. We share even more of the same diseases with apes than with monkeys and have several blood type systems in common (2).

How are humans different from apes? Before Jane Goodall's discovery that chimpanzees used sticks to fish for termites, many scientists believed that the defining feature of humans was their ability to use tools. Now, however, we've learned that several animals make and use tools, and what makes us distinctly human is a complex mix of physical and psychological factors (6). Physically, human brains are three times larger than ape brains (5), humans are not covered in thick hair, and our anatomy differs to support bipedalism, or walking on two legs. For example, in comparison to apes, our legs are relatively long, and our arms are relatively short and weak. Our feet are proportionately longer and have developed arches. Meanwhile, we have lost the ability to use our feet to grab and manipulate objects effectively as apes do. In terms of reproduction and offspring, giving birth is much more difficult and risky in humans than in apes because human babies are born comparatively large (2). Human babies are born at a less mature stage to help compensate for this large size (2), but this, along with the fact that human babies are not born with the ability to hold on to their mothers (4), leaves our babies more vulnerable. Whereas female apes remain capable of giving birth even when they are very old, humans lose this ability when they go through menopause (2).

Cognitively, apes and humans vary as well. Apes have intelligence levels around that of a three to four-year-old human (2). Similar to humans, apes can identify other individuals and understand their peers' relationships to one another. They perceive and understand the past, present and future. They use reasoning and inference. Apes learn from each other, but they have a much smaller emphasis, if any, on intentional teaching - an element that is prominent in human culture. Apes show culture in that certain behaviors and information are transmitted across generations, but they do not depend on it, and it does not evolve the way that human culture does (5). As a part of human culture, individuals work together to create increasingly complex interactions, ideas, and technologies (2,5).

Despite apes being cognitively intelligent, they lack the extensive verbal communication and the complex social organization demonstrated by humans. Humans are the only animals to create and use symbols or words to communicate (2,4). This allows us to communicate and live in complex societies where we understand each other based on mental constructs that we form through language. While some apes have been taught to communicate using a form of language, humans are the only ones who readily communicate and share in a way that has enabled us to construct civilization (4).

For example, we are able to create cultural entities such as marriage, occupation titles, and political parties that are symbolically understood by society (5). Unlike apes, we live among and communicate extensively with people we don't know, and we are able to communicate without even being near each other - such as by using the telephone, writing emails, or posting on social media (4). Additionally, our use of illustration and written word allows our communication to span through generations in a way that does not occur with apes (4).

Hence, there are many aspects to consider when comparing monkeys, apes and humans, and the boundaries aren't always clear. Many scientists agree that what distinguishes humans from apes most is our ability to use language to form complex functioning in groups, but others believe it is our physical differences, cognition, or culture that sets us apart. If you can't remember all the differences between monkeys, apes, and humans, just remember this: Monkeys (almost always) have tails; apes have the human intelligence of a 3-4 year old child; and humans are the only ones who use Facebook to tell you what they had for breakfast!

Sources:

"Genetics." What does it mean to be human? Smithsonian Institution. April 4, 2016. Retrieved from http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/genetics

O'Neil, Dennis. "Humans." Behavioral Sciences Department, Palomar College. 2012. Retrieved from http://anthro.palomar.edu/primate/prim_8.htm>.

O'Neil, Dennis. "Overview." Behavioral Sciences Department, Palomar College. 2014. Retrieved from http://anthro.palomar.edu/primate/prim_8.htm

Savage-Rumbaugh, Sue, and Fields, William. "Human Uniqueness-Constructions of Ourselves and Our Sibling Species: Pan troglodytes and Pan paniscus."Quo Vadis, Behavioural Biology? Past, Present, and Future of an Evolving Science111.380 (2013): 205-226.

Tomasello, Michael, and Esther Herrmann. "Ape and Human Cognition What's the Difference?."Current Directions in Psychological Science19.1 (2010): 3-8.

"Tool Use." About Chimpanzees: Chimp Behaviour. Jane Goodall Institute of Canada. Retrieved from http://www.janegoodall.ca/about-chimp-behaviour-tool-use.php

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Year of the Monkey: Monkey, Apes, and Humans: How are we different?

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Monkey, Apes, and Humans: How are we different? By Breanne Cyr, Primates Incorporated Volunteer When is the last time you received an email from a primate? Chances are, it was not long before you started reading this. That's because along with monkeys and apes, humans are primates, too (1,2,5).

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Monkeys are cute. There's no doubt about it! Maybe you've seen one in a zoo or on TV or in a movie, and you've thought about getting a pet monkey to call your own. However, before you make the commitment, there are some things you need to know. Read on for everything you should learn before making some monkey business your own business.

It is legal to own a monkey?

The legality of owning a monkey varies, depending on where you live. Some states say absolutely not, whereas other states say it's OK in certain circumstances. If it's legal where you live, you're still required to obtain a permit and show proof of an enclosure big enough that the monkey can live and play.

How much is it to buy and own a monkey?

Cost depends on the type of monkey. Some smaller monkeys (such as capuchin) cost around $7,000. A large ape (such as chimpanzees) cost around $70,000. In addition to this, it's important to consider the lifetime cost of food, diapers and veterinary visits.

What is the life expectancy of a monkey?

Monkeys usually live anywhere from 20 to 40 years.

Are monkeys social creatures?

Yes! Monkeys require a lot of social interaction throughout their lives. They love their fellow monkeys and thrive being around them. Studies show that isolating monkeys from their social group of monkeys creates many social and behavioral problems that can't be reversed.

In addition, monkeys generally want attention on them the vast majority of the time. They don't like being left alone. If they don't get adequate attention, they tend to scream loudly and bite whoever is in reach (and most monkeys have 32 teeth).

What do monkeys eat?

Most monkeys eat things found in nature, such as seeds, nuts and fruits. Some monkeys also enjoy eating small creatures, including spiders, insects and lizards.

Monkeys' specialized diets can be very time-consuming and expensive. If a monkey is placed in captivity and not fed right, the result is usually that the monkey gets diabetes. Once the monkey has diabetes, this requires near-constant monitoring by a veterinarian.

Do monkeys have sweet dispositions?

Just like people, each monkey has his or her own unique personality. Some are more gentle and some are more aggressive. However, even the sweetest baby monkeys grow up to become wild animals. Just because you raise a monkey from the time he or she was a baby doesn't mean it will lose its wild nature. They are all wild animals simply because they are monkeys. Even the sweetest monkeys are unpredictable and can become aggressive at any point, even with their owner.

Can monkeys be kept in a house?

No. People who live in houses simply can't give the basic habitat requirements that monkeys need. They typically need much more space than a traditional house can offer. Plus, monkeys are curious creatures who get into everything. This means that cords, leashes, cleaning products, windows and more could be a death sentence for a monkey.

In addition, monkeys can be very vocal, with many of them making such loud sounds that they can be heard miles away. Neighbors generally won't appreciate this.

Can monkeys be potty trained?

No. Most monkeys cannot be effectively toilet trained. Sometimes, younger monkeys can be partially potty trained, but they lose that ability as they mature. In addition, as they're attempting to potty train, they tend to throw their poop and play with their pee. Because of this, pet monkeys have to wear diapers throughout their lives.

What kind of enclosure should monkeys live in?

Monkeys need a lot of room to move around and play. They like to roam outdoors as much as possible. If they're not in the wild, then they need a secure enclosure that is huge and expensive. Certain states require certain types of enclosures in order to obtain a permit to have a pet monkey. Most of these enclosures have to be a minimum of 30 square feet or more, but the truth is that monkeys never truly acclimate well to living their life in an enclosure of any kind.

What do monkeys need to stay entertained?

Monkeys must have a variety of new toys and exercise equipment to keep them entertained and challenged. Otherwise, they get bored, and that's when they start acting out (throwing things and biting people).

Can humans and monkeys spread diseases between them?

Yes. Monkeys can easily have diseases that are very dangerous to humans -- and vice versa. This is why most zoo professionals wear special garments (to protect against diseases) when dealing with monkeys. However, pet owners probably don't want to wear the special garments 24/7.

What do pet experts say about owning a monkey?

There are a few documented cases where a monkey is well-trained and lives out its entire life with humans without causing harm. However, in the vast majority of cases, the risk to both the humans and the monkey is too high.

Because monkeys need full commitment throughout their entire life, they're simply not meant to be pets. They never grow up and mature like human children do. In essence, they are essentially permanent toddlers who require constant attention and care throughout their entire lives.

The truth is that monkeys -- even the ones who are always pets -- will never be truly domesticated. Monkeys usually live their best lives in rainforests, savannahs, mountainous terrains and treetops. So, instead of getting a pet monkey, pet experts recommend that you support primate sanctuaries where monkeys live free, wild, natural lives.

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Monkeys are cute. There's no doubt about it! Maybe you've seen one in a zoo or on TV or in a movie, and you've thought about getting a pet monkey to call your own. However, before you make the commitment, there are some things you need to know.

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(Image credit: Cary Wolinsky)

The brutal attack last month by a pet chimpanzee on a Connecticut woman was a stark reminder that chimps are up to four times stronger than humans.

One reason, a new study suggests, is that we pay a price for our fine motor skills.

Humans may lack the strength of chimps - our closest relatives on the tree of evolution - because our nervous systems exert more control over our muscles, says evolutionary biologist Alan Walker, a professor at Penn State University. Our fine motor control prevents great feats of strength, but allows us to perform delicate and uniquely human tasks, Walker writes in the April issue of the journal Current Anthropology.

Walker's hypothesis stems partly from a finding by primatologist Ann MacLarnon, who showed that relative to body mass, chimps have much less gray matter in their spinal cords than humans have. Spinal gray matter contains large numbers of motor neurons - nerves cells that connect to muscle fibers and regulate muscle movement.

Chimps are not without fine motor skills, of course. In fact separate study in January found that a relatively new brain area, developed in humans and other primates, gives us all an advantage in this realm.

More gray matter in humans means more motor neurons, Walker proposes. And having more motor neurons means more muscle control.

Our surplus motor neurons allow us to engage smaller portions of our muscles at any given time, she explained. We can engage just a few muscle fibers for delicate tasks like threading a needle, and more for tasks that require more force. Since chimps have fewer motor neurons, each neuron triggers a higher number of muscle fibers and using a muscle becomes more of an all-or-nothing proposition. As a result, chimps often end up using more muscle than they need.

"That is the reason apes seem so strong relative to humans," Walker writes.

Video - Monkey in the Mirror

Top 10 Amazing Animal Abilities

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For the science geek in everyone, Live Science offers a fascinating window into the natural and technological world, delivering comprehensive and compelling news and analysis on everything from dinosaur discoveries, archaeological finds and amazing animals to health, innovation and wearable technology. We aim to empower and inspire our readers with the tools needed to understand the world and appreciate its everyday awe.

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(Image credit: Cary Wolinsky) The brutal attack last month by a pet chimpanzee on a Connecticut woman was a stark reminder that chimps are up to four times stronger than humans. One reason, a new study suggests, is that we pay a price for our fine motor skills.

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Evolution of New Brain Area Allowed Small Motor Skills

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(Image credit: Ron Ritchie)

A relatively new area of the brain's cerebral cortex evolved to enable humans and other primates the necessary small motor skills to pick up small objects and deftly use tools, scientists now say.

In most animals, including cats, rats and some monkeys, the brain's primary motor cortex controls all movements indirectly through the circuitry of the spinal cord, said researcher Peter Strick, professor of neurobiology at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and Pittsburgh's Veterans Affairs Medical Center.

But in humans, some monkeys and the great apes that use tools, another area of the motor cortex developed and is now home to a special set of cortico-motoneuronal (CM) cells, Strick explained. These cells directly control spinal cord motor neurons, which are the nerve cells responsible for causing contraction of shoulder, elbow and finger muscles.

The direct control exerted by CM cells bypasses the limitations imposed by spinal cord circuitry and permits the development of highly complex patterns of movement, such as the finger action needed to type.

"What we've shown is that along with evolution of direct control over motor neurons, a new cortical area has evolved that's right next to the old one," Strick said. "We still have much the same spinal machinery the frog has, but the new cortical area with CM cells endows humans with the superior hand skills to manufacture and use tools.

Chimpanzees are humans' closest relatives. On the evolutionary tree of life, chimps and humans split about 4 million years ago, some researchers think. In a 2007 study, researchers concluded that chimps could make crude tools on their own, suggesting humans likely inherited some of their sophisticated tool skills an ancestor held in common with chimps.

Strick and colleague Jean-Alban Rathelot based their conclusions on a series of experiments in which rabies virus was injected into single muscles in the shoulders, elbows or fingers of monkeys. The virus, chosen because of its unique ability to travel between networked nerve cells, was tracked to locate CM cells in the primary motor cortex.

The discovery allowed another interesting explanation:

The direct connection from the cortex to motor neurons is not present at birth, but develops during the first few months of life and becomes fully mature around 2 years of age, Strick said. So the progress of an infant's motor skills is a display of the establishment of these connections.

The findings were detailed this week in an online edition of the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. The research was funded by grants from the Department of Veterans Affairs, the National Institutes of Health and the Pennsylvania Department of Health.

For the science geek in everyone, Live Science offers a fascinating window into the natural and technological world, delivering comprehensive and compelling news and analysis on everything from dinosaur discoveries, archaeological finds and amazing animals to health, innovation and wearable technology. We aim to empower and inspire our readers with the tools needed to understand the world and appreciate its everyday awe.

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Evolution of New Brain Area Allowed Small Motor Skills

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(Image credit: Ron Ritchie) A relatively new area of the brain's cerebral cortex evolved to enable humans and other primates the necessary small motor skills to pick up small objects and deftly use tools, scientists now say.

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Gorilla strength is estimated to be about 10 times their body weight. Fully grown silverbacks are in actually stronger than 20 adult humans combined. A Silverback gorilla can lift 4,000 lb (1,810 kg) on a bench press, while a well-trained man can only lift up to 885 lb (401.5 kg. Research shows that a gorilla can lift up to 27 times their full body weight.

All gorillas can tear down banana trees without trying too hard, they've escaped from cages by bending the iron bars, and they have a bite force of around 1300 pounds per square inch, double that of a lion.

Gorilla strength vs human: How strong is a gorilla compared to a human?

Are gorillas strong? Of all the primates on earth, Gorillas have an attractive, muscular body just like that of human bodybuilders. Due to their muscular and well-built body, we often wonder: - how much stronger is a gorilla than a human? Or how many times stronger is a gorilla than a human?

Gorillas are the world's largest primates and among the top strongest animals on earth. A silverback gorilla weight is between 136 to 227 kilograms on average.

The average weight of a human is around 80kg. Because of the great gorilla weight and muscular bodies, gorillas are considered to be 4 to 9 times stronger than an average human.

Silverback gorilla strength: How much can gorillas lift? It is also believed that a silverback gorilla has an exceptional strength to lift twice the weight of dead weight lifted by a strong human being.

Silverbacks earn their title as the head and guardian of gorilla troops, which can consist of anywhere between 5 to 30 gorillas.

Their conical shaped heads consist of a crest, which is designed to help support their strong jaw muscles and teeth.

Gorilla vs human: Can a human fight a gorilla?

The strength of a gorilla is exceptional, as noted above, and a human could not go hand in hand with a gorilla and succeed.

In fact, if you were going up in a hand-to-hand fight against any other animal in the world, a silverback gorilla is definitely one of the worst draws you could manage. You would only survive if that was what the silverback wanted.

Also, gorillas are wild animals and the wild nature would not let them fight you like a human to human. They fight wild and this can indeed lead to a very dangerous end of the fight.

This is seen even from their own fights when a silverback gorilla fights with another silverback or any other gorillas.

If gorillas engage bites in the fight, there is no way a human would exchange this bite because gorilla their mouths are larger, they have much more powerful jaws and sharp teeth that can easily penetrate into the soft human flesh.

In fact, if you hit a fully grown Silverback way too hard (provided you're brave enough to actually walk up to him and do it) you will end up breaking your own arm in the attempt.

Gorillas also have thicker skins and skulls compared to human beings which mean that humans need a lot of energy to inflict harm to these great primates.

Mountain gorillas, for example, bear a thick coat designed to fend off the cold climate, but it can also protect from shallow strikes or bites.

The strong arms of gorillas are also longer than those of humans; you can therefore imagine a blow from a thicker body to a softer one.

Note: Although gorillas are strong and are very capable of causing detrimental damage to those most deserving, they are very peaceful creatures and most majestic creatures you definitely enjoy watching in the wild.

The gorilla families you will visit during your Uganda gorilla safaris or Rwanda gorilla tours or the gorilla trekking safari in Congo are well habituated for visitors unless they are provoked or threaten, say when someone uses flash photography. The visitor is always advised to follow the gorilla trekking rules.

How strong is a gorilla punch? How hard can a gorilla punch?

It is believed that a gorilla punch is strong enough to shatter your skull with one slam of its arm:/Between 1300 to 2700 pounds of force.

Gorillas on (avg. 400 lbs) have a muscle mass density almost 4 times higher than the most heavily muscled powerful human you know.

In simple words, if you take 5 cc volume of muscle fibre from each of human and Gorilla, the Gorilla's muscle fibers will weigh 4 times more.

Such is the thickness and those bones which are on average 3 times thicker, heavier and ridiculously calcified compared to a standard human bone.

Those who have seen a full adult silverback gorilla from very close range would really know what kind of an extreme body our genetic cousin possesses.

Gorilla vs lion: Silverback gorilla vs lion

Lions vs gorillas: Gorillas and lions all inhabit the same general area in east Africa. However, the African lion lives in the savannah which is predominantly grassland and gorillas live in thick forests usually at an altitude of 5,400 - 12,400 feet. It is not likely that these two majestic animals would ever meet.

Gorillas are big and an adult male can weigh up to 260 kg while a male Africa lion can 225 kg which is on par with the silverback gorilla.

African male lions have their neck encircled by a thick mane. This thick fur helps in shielding its neck when fighting and intimidating other males.

Gorillas also have large and long canines designed not for flesh, but for intimidation. Though their jaw muscles are strong enough to tear through the bark, roots, bamboo, vines, and twigs they still pale in comparison to the predatory teeth of its opponent: the male lion.

Gorillas' bite force is one of the strongest in the animal kingdom. They have a bite force of around 1300 pounds per square inch, double that of a lion. However, it's hard to say if a gorilla can fight a lion armed with a mouth full of teeth and claws built for hunting.

Loin diet mainly consists of both large and small animals such as zebras, buffaloes and antelopes. They are known to take down prey of up to 1000 kg in size, typically by clamping down on the animal's neck with its massive jaws. Gorillas are primarily herbivorous can also eat small insects.

In short sprints, lions can run up to 50 miles per hour and leap up to 36 feet, giving them the advantage of speed and agility. Their weakness is that what they have in speed, they lack in endurance. Gorillas are able to reach speeds of 20 mph to 25 mph.

Thus, though the lions are extremely powerful, they will tire quickly. The attack of lions always depends upon stealth and an accurate strike. Usually, lions give up their prey after using up all their stamina.

But the question of who would win, gorilla Vs lion, the answer is far from a simple one. The odds could go both ways. Each animal's chances are influenced by the setting of their battle and whether or not the two are aware of one another.

Why are gorillas so strong?

While strolling in one of the greatest national parks of Uganda such as Bwindi Impenetrable National Park or Mgahinga National Park, you will be easily able to notice that one of the visible reasons why arms of these gorillas are so muscled.

These mountain gorillas are known to walk on all fours. And by doing so, they put their arms to lots of stress-related activity that gives them enormous exercises daily. Hence, they don't have to hit the gym to gain muscles as we tend to do.

This constant activity combined with herbivorous food like leaves, stems, bark, fruit and 142 different types of plants that might be one of the key reasons that can explain why these mountain gorillas are so strong & muscular.

To observe these Gorillas better one can have a gorilla trek in Africa, Gorilla trekking in Uganda can be done Bwindi Impenetrable National Park & Mgahinga Gorilla National Park, Rwanda in Volcanoes National Park or the Democratic Republic of Congo in Virunga National Park and Kahuzi Biega National Park

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How strong is a gorilla? How Strong is a Silverback Gorilla?

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HOW STRONG IS A GORILLA? HOW STRONG IS A SILVERBACK GORILLA? Gorilla strength is estimated to be about 10 times their body weight. Fully grown silverbacks are in actually stronger than 20 adult humans combined. A Silverback gorilla can lift 4,000 lb (1,810 kg) on a bench press, while a

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Why Gorillas Matter- Save Gorillas. Save the Planet. - Dian Fossey

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Felix Ndagijimana in the field Seeing these magnificent creatures up close is an experience like no other, and I never grow tired of it. It makes you understand how closely connected we are to them—and once you see that, you understand, really understand, that we have a responsibility to protect the…

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Chimp vs Human! | Memory Test | BBC Earth

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Chimp vs Human! | Memory Test | BBC Earth

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Chimp vs Human! | Memory Test | BBC Earth

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Koko Amazing Talking Gorilla - Befriends kitten & gorilla (recounts death of mother by poachers)

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Koko Amazing Talking Gorilla - Befriends kitten & gorilla (recounts death of mother by poachers)

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Monkeys are as smart as a three-year-old child when it comes to solving puzzles.

Capuchins, chimpanzees and bonobos were able to pull a piece of string after watching how it released a food reward.

Scientists said the findings showed they have the basic intelligence of a human tot as they can understand abstract properties.

Dr Amanda Seed, of the University of St Andrews, said: "We set out to find out how animals conceive the world around them. Do they have any idea that objects have abstract properties, like solidity and weight?

"Or do they rely on learning arbitrary relationships between what you see, what you do and what you get, in the same way we learn to stop at a red light?"

The research published in PLOS One involved a box containing two pieces of string, one broken and one unbroken which connected to food.

By pulling the unbroken piece the monkeys got the treat.

In one experiment the box was covered whereas in another it was open, allowing the monkeys to see that the string was connected to the food.

Both versions required avoiding the broken line and choosing the unbroken one.

In the covered version monkeys had to be shown which string to pull but when they could see the string attached the food, they could work this out unaided.

Individuals of all species performed much better in the uncovered condition as it "made sense" and they could see the string connected to the food.

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The researchers said the study shows monkeys, apes and young children find it difficult to learn what to do with an object, unless they can see its functionality in action.

Added Dr Seed: "We set two tasks with the same outcome, both involved objects that could be seen, but in one the visible object caused the outcome and in the other it did not. We found the monkeys and apes were only able to solve when they could see the object's function.

"Our research shows learning arbitrary patterns is not actually that easy for primates, and even five-year-old children find it hard.

"In comparison, choosing a connected string in a functional context is easy. This suggests these species do have object knowledge and that there is more to their world than meets the eye."

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Monkeys are as smart as a three-year-old child when it comes to solving puzzles. Capuchins, chimpanzees and bonobos were able to pull a piece of string after watching how it released a food reward. Scientists said the findings showed they have the basic intelligence of a human tot as they can understand abstract properties.

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Images of brains from
neurosciencelibrary.org

Chimpanzees have brains that are one-third the size of human brains. Most of this difference reflects the evolutionary expansion of the neocortex in humans, particularly the association cortex, a group of regions that supports such sophisticated cognitive functions as language, self-awareness, and problem solving.

Human and chimpanzees, nonetheless, share many cognitive, communicative, and emotional processes in common, based on similarities in their neurobiological structure and function. Chimpanzees have a prolonged developmental period between birth and adulthood during which socialization occurs and neural structure can be strongly influenced by the environment and learning. Furthermore, chimpanzees, like humans, also have a larger and more gyrified brain than other primates species. There are several other features of the chimpanzee brain that are more similar to humans than to other primates, including: 1) the ability to morphologically define both Broca's and Wernicke's area using similar landmarks to the human brain; 2) the dense distribution of von Economo neurons in the anterior cingulate and frontoinsular cortex; 3) a more complex level of connectivity and function within the arcuate fascicularis and mirror neuron systems.

Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorrhini
Family: Hominidae
Genus and Species: Pan troglodytes
Subspecies: P. t. schweinfurthii, P. t. troglodytes, P. t. ellioti, P. t. verus

Conservation Status: Endangered ( IUCN Red List)
Life span: 40 to 45 years (wild), more than 60 (captive)
Total population: 172,700 to 299,700 (wild), 1,450 (captive)
Habitat range in the wild: Equatorial Africa, from southern Senegal across the forested belt north of the Congo River to western Uganda and western Tanzania
Gestation: 8 months (240 days)
Body Height: 816 mm (M & F)
Body Weight: 40 to 60 kg (M), 32 to 47 kg (F)

Download STL files of chimpanzee and human brains to print 3D models
(click on the images of the brains below to download)

The phylogenetic relationship of chimpanzees to other primates
(Ma = millions of years ago)

Average weight of adult chimpanzee brain: 384 g (0.85 lb)
Average weight of adult human brain: 1,352 g (2.98 lb)
Comparison of human and chimpanzee brain size growth
Source: Robson SL, Wood B (2008) Hominin life history: reconstruction and evolution. J Anat. 212: 394-425.

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Chimpanzees have brains that are one-third the size of human brains. Most of this difference reflects the evolutionary expansion of the neocortex in humans, particularly the association cortex, a group of regions that supports such sophisticated cognitive functions as language, self-awareness, and problem solving.

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It's finally time to set the record straight: As much as we all love monkeys, Dr. Goodall's studies and the work of the Jane Goodall Institute have primarily focused on chimpanzees, not monkeys. Now, I know your next question is probably, "But aren't chimps the same thing as monkeys?" and the answer is, they are not! So what's the difference and why does it matter?

Monkeys, chimpanzees, and humans are primates. Primates are mammals that are characterized by their advanced cognitive development and abilities, grasping hands and feet, and forward-facing eyes, along with other characteristics. Some primates (including some great apes and baboons) are typically terrestrial (move on the ground) versus arboreal (living in the trees), but all species of primates have adaptations to climb trees (EOL). Millions of years ago, primate ancestors evolved different defining characteristics from one another, branching into many species within different groups.

This can get confusing because of the numerous categories of primates: great apes, lesser apes, and Old/New World monkeys, are seemingly similar. All of the groups have similar characteristics, but there are characteristics that separate us. Great apes (humans, chimps, bonobos, gorillas and orangutans) generally have larger brains, larger bodies, and no tail. Dr. Goodall often likes to use Mr. H (a monkey plush toy who travels with her everywhere she goes) in her lectures to demonstrate this difference by asking the crowd, "How can we tell that Mr. H is not a chimpanzee?" She will then dangle Mr. H by his tail and say, "Chimps have no tail!"

Ok, so we understand how to identify great apes, but what about monkeys? There are many different species of monkeys, and what are known as 'lesser apes'. Lesser apes (gibbons and siamangs) are usually smaller in stature, with thin arms, and a slightly smaller brain. Finally, monkeys are divided into "New World" and "Old World" monkeys. Many Old and New World Monkeys have tails, tend to walk on all fours like a cat or dog, and have the smallest brain out of the groups. Some Old World monkeys include baboons and guenons, while some New World monkeys include Capuchin and spider monkeys!

Now let's get back to chimpanzees and humans. Humans did not evolve from chimps, as is a frequent misconception. Chimpanzees and humans share a recent common ancestor, and as some of this ancestral population evolved along one line to become modern chimpanzees, others of this ancestor evolved along a line of various species of early human, eventually resulting in Homo sapiens (you and me!). Chimpanzees are genetically closest to humans, and in fact, chimpanzees share about 98.6% of our DNA. We share more of our DNA with chimpanzees than with monkeys or other groups, or even with other great apes! We also both play, have complex emotions and intelligence, and a very similar physical makeup.

What many people may also not know, is how vital this taxonomy (or the systematic classification of organisms) is to Dr. Goodall and JGI's story! It was in fact Dr. Goodall's run in with the famed paleoanthropologist Dr. Louis Leakey in Kenya, which lead to her initial research in Gombe, Tanzania. Dr. Leakey was trying to understand early humans, and because his only point of reference was fossilized early human remains and other preserved cultural materials, he could not completely understand what early human behavior may have been like. When he met Jane, with her passion for and knowledge about animals, he knew she would be the perfect candidate to study chimpanzees - our closest living primate relative - from which he could conclude what behaviors were likely inherent to our most recent common ancestor and earlier humans. Dr. Leakey asked Jane to study the chimpanzees, Dian Fossey to study mountain gorillas, and Birute Galdikas to study orangutans, and they became known as 'The Trimates.'

In her research, Dr. Goodall made a revolutionary discovery when she observed that the chimps in Gombe were making and using tools. It was groundbreaking because it meant redefining everything that scientists thought they knew about what separated humans and chimpanzees! Furthermore, this redefined the notion that humans lived "outside" of the animal kingdom, and instead placed humans alongside the rest of animalkind. It has also lead to the revelation that other animals also make and use tools, have emotions, intelligence and sentience.

Our relationship to other primates is a dynamic one - and as Jane as often said, "Chimpanzees, more than any other living creature, have helped us to understand that there is no sharp line between humans and the rest of the animal kingdom. It's a very blurry line, and it's getting more blurry all the time."
Want to know more and to support our ongoing research in Gombe, now the longest running wild chimpanzee study in the world? Become a Gombe Science Hero! Find out more and get involved The Jane Goodall Institute is a global community conservation organization that advances the vision and work of Dr. Jane Goodall. By protecting chimpanzees and inspiring people to conserve the natural world we all share, we improve the lives of people, animals and the environment. Everything is connected-everyone can make a difference.

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Chimps, Humans and Monkeys: What's the Difference?

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It's finally time to set the record straight: As much as we all love monkeys, Dr. Goodall's studies and the work of the Jane Goodall Institute have primarily focused on chimpanzees , not monkeys. Now, I know your next question is probably, "But aren't chimps the same thing as monkeys?"

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how smart are gorillas compared to humans - Lisbdnet.com

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The gorilla, who was said to have an IQ of between 75 and 95, could understand 2,000 words of spoken English. The average IQ for humans on many tests is 100,

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Comparing Chimp, Bonobo and Human DNA | AMNH

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Gorilla strength is estimated to be about 10 times their body weight. Fully grown silverbacks are in actually stronger than 20 adult humans combined. A Silverback gorilla can lift 4,000 lb (1,810 kg) on a bench press, while a well-trained man can only lift up to 885 lb (401.5 kg. Research shows that a gorilla can lift up to 27 times their full body weight.

All gorillas can tear down banana trees without trying too hard, they've escaped from cages by bending the iron bars, and they have a bite force of around 1300 pounds per square inch, double that of a lion.

Gorilla strength vs human: How strong is a gorilla compared to a human?

Are gorillas strong? Of all the primates on earth, Gorillas have an attractive, muscular body just like that of human bodybuilders. Due to their muscular and well-built body, we often wonder: - how much stronger is a gorilla than a human? Or how many times stronger is a gorilla than a human?

Gorillas are the world's largest primates and among the top strongest animals on earth. A silverback gorilla weight is between 136 to 227 kilograms on average.

The average weight of a human is around 80kg. Because of the great gorilla weight and muscular bodies, gorillas are considered to be 4 to 9 times stronger than an average human.

Silverback gorilla strength: How much can gorillas lift? It is also believed that a silverback gorilla has an exceptional strength to lift twice the weight of dead weight lifted by a strong human being.

Silverbacks earn their title as the head and guardian of gorilla troops, which can consist of anywhere between 5 to 30 gorillas.

Their conical shaped heads consist of a crest, which is designed to help support their strong jaw muscles and teeth.

Gorilla vs human: Can a human fight a gorilla?

The strength of a gorilla is exceptional, as noted above, and a human could not go hand in hand with a gorilla and succeed.

In fact, if you were going up in a hand-to-hand fight against any other animal in the world, a silverback gorilla is definitely one of the worst draws you could manage. You would only survive if that was what the silverback wanted.

Also, gorillas are wild animals and the wild nature would not let them fight you like a human to human. They fight wild and this can indeed lead to a very dangerous end of the fight.

This is seen even from their own fights when a silverback gorilla fights with another silverback or any other gorillas.

If gorillas engage bites in the fight, there is no way a human would exchange this bite because gorilla their mouths are larger, they have much more powerful jaws and sharp teeth that can easily penetrate into the soft human flesh.

In fact, if you hit a fully grown Silverback way too hard (provided you're brave enough to actually walk up to him and do it) you will end up breaking your own arm in the attempt.

Gorillas also have thicker skins and skulls compared to human beings which mean that humans need a lot of energy to inflict harm to these great primates.

Mountain gorillas, for example, bear a thick coat designed to fend off the cold climate, but it can also protect from shallow strikes or bites.

The strong arms of gorillas are also longer than those of humans; you can therefore imagine a blow from a thicker body to a softer one.

Note: Although gorillas are strong and are very capable of causing detrimental damage to those most deserving, they are very peaceful creatures and most majestic creatures you definitely enjoy watching in the wild.

The gorilla families you will visit during your Uganda gorilla safaris or Rwanda gorilla tours or the gorilla trekking safari in Congo are well habituated for visitors unless they are provoked or threaten, say when someone uses flash photography. The visitor is always advised to follow the gorilla trekking rules.

How strong is a gorilla punch? How hard can a gorilla punch?

It is believed that a gorilla punch is strong enough to shatter your skull with one slam of its arm:/Between 1300 to 2700 pounds of force.

Gorillas on (avg. 400 lbs) have a muscle mass density almost 4 times higher than the most heavily muscled powerful human you know.

In simple words, if you take 5 cc volume of muscle fibre from each of human and Gorilla, the Gorilla's muscle fibers will weigh 4 times more.

Such is the thickness and those bones which are on average 3 times thicker, heavier and ridiculously calcified compared to a standard human bone.

Those who have seen a full adult silverback gorilla from very close range would really know what kind of an extreme body our genetic cousin possesses.

Gorilla vs lion: Silverback gorilla vs lion

Lions vs gorillas: Gorillas and lions all inhabit the same general area in east Africa. However, the African lion lives in the savannah which is predominantly grassland and gorillas live in thick forests usually at an altitude of 5,400 - 12,400 feet. It is not likely that these two majestic animals would ever meet.

Gorillas are big and an adult male can weigh up to 260 kg while a male Africa lion can 225 kg which is on par with the silverback gorilla.

African male lions have their neck encircled by a thick mane. This thick fur helps in shielding its neck when fighting and intimidating other males.

Gorillas also have large and long canines designed not for flesh, but for intimidation. Though their jaw muscles are strong enough to tear through the bark, roots, bamboo, vines, and twigs they still pale in comparison to the predatory teeth of its opponent: the male lion.

Gorillas' bite force is one of the strongest in the animal kingdom. They have a bite force of around 1300 pounds per square inch, double that of a lion. However, it's hard to say if a gorilla can fight a lion armed with a mouth full of teeth and claws built for hunting.

Loin diet mainly consists of both large and small animals such as zebras, buffaloes and antelopes. They are known to take down prey of up to 1000 kg in size, typically by clamping down on the animal's neck with its massive jaws. Gorillas are primarily herbivorous can also eat small insects.

In short sprints, lions can run up to 50 miles per hour and leap up to 36 feet, giving them the advantage of speed and agility. Their weakness is that what they have in speed, they lack in endurance. Gorillas are able to reach speeds of 20 mph to 25 mph.

Thus, though the lions are extremely powerful, they will tire quickly. The attack of lions always depends upon stealth and an accurate strike. Usually, lions give up their prey after using up all their stamina.

But the question of who would win, gorilla Vs lion, the answer is far from a simple one. The odds could go both ways. Each animal's chances are influenced by the setting of their battle and whether or not the two are aware of one another.

Why are gorillas so strong?

While strolling in one of the greatest national parks of Uganda such as Bwindi Impenetrable National Park or Mgahinga National Park, you will be easily able to notice that one of the visible reasons why arms of these gorillas are so muscled.

These mountain gorillas are known to walk on all fours. And by doing so, they put their arms to lots of stress-related activity that gives them enormous exercises daily. Hence, they don't have to hit the gym to gain muscles as we tend to do.

This constant activity combined with herbivorous food like leaves, stems, bark, fruit and 142 different types of plants that might be one of the key reasons that can explain why these mountain gorillas are so strong & muscular.

To observe these Gorillas better one can have a gorilla trek in Africa, Gorilla trekking in Uganda can be done Bwindi Impenetrable National Park & Mgahinga Gorilla National Park, Rwanda in Volcanoes National Park or the Democratic Republic of Congo in Virunga National Park and Kahuzi Biega National Park

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How strong is a gorilla? How Strong is a Silverback Gorilla?

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HOW STRONG IS A GORILLA? HOW STRONG IS A SILVERBACK GORILLA? Gorilla strength is estimated to be about 10 times their body weight. Fully grown silverbacks are in actually stronger than 20 adult humans combined. A Silverback gorilla can lift 4,000 lb (1,810 kg) on a bench press, while a

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The word used to describe a monkey's movement is "locomotion." And while they are not as fast as bullet trains, most monkeys are capable of moving at remarkably high speeds.

There are approximately 130 species of monkeys. The species can be very different from one another physically, based on what field researchers call, "variations caused by selection." This means they adapt in their outward appearance and body type, according to their capabilities. Differences may be reflected in their color, their looks or the ways they move.

All monkeys and great apes are primates. There are four basic types of locomotion for primates: quadrupedal--walking on all fours; bipedal--walking on two feet; vertical clinging and leaping; and brachiation--using arms to propel through trees.

A primate chiefly uses one of the four types but may use all at one time or another. The kind of locomotion each uses indicates its lifestyle. For example, Verreaux sifakas are vertical clingers and leapers--they can leap distances up to 33 feet. While macaque monkeys use all four limbs and flat palms in order to climb or walk and are primarily ground-dwelling. The speeds at which these two species of monkeys move are quite different.

A langur can run along slender branches and race from the bottom to the top of a 100-foot tree in a few seconds versus the baboon, who is clumsy in trees and cannot leap distances. Why so different? Predators.

For arboreal monkeys (the ones who commonly live in tree tops) predators are mostly snakes, carnivores and birds of prey. They are fast leapers but mainly use their skill to cover areas for finding food.

Since the baboon stays on the ground, he is stout and has powerful canines. His enemies include lions, jackals and hyenas, and he is slower but fiercer. Baboons will try to bluff opponents by showing their huge fang teeth. As you can imagine, these species operate at very different speeds.

Locomotion and speed are also closely related to grasp. Small, slow prosimians, who are the size of mice, have strange pads or claw hands because they dig them into trees for food. They practically mope along.

In contrast are the guenons, which spend a great deal of time in the low-level forest. They have dexterous hands and move by leaping into dense foliage. A guenon can move as fast as man can run on ground.

Among the species, the title of fastest goes to patas monkeys. The patas are large monkeys (a male can weigh up to 27 pounds) with long, slender limbs. Patas monkeys have been clocked at up to 34 miles per hour (55 kilometers per hour). For comparison: the world's fastest dog, the greyhound, runs about 45 miles per hour and thoroughbred racehorses typically run at speeds up to 40 miles per hour.

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The word used to describe a monkey's movement is "locomotion." And while they are not as fast as bullet trains, most monkeys are capable of moving at remarkably high speeds. There are approximately 130 species of monkeys. The species can be very different from one another physically, based on what field researchers call, "variations caused by selection."

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Gorilla Physiology

Power/Ability to:

Use the traits of gorillas.

The power to use the abilities of gorillas. Variation of Primate Physiology.

Also Called

Capabilities

The user with this ability either is or can transform into gorillas.

Applications

Associations

Mammalian Physiology

Gorillas are associated with a great number of mystical and supernatural abilities and connections in mythology and folklore, this user with this power may have access to: Community Bond, Enlightenment, Family Intuition, Group-Oriented, Harmony Embodiment, Love Embodiment, Luck Embodiment, Parenting, Safety Embodiment, Supernatural Strength, Tranquility.

Limitations

Dense body may slow the user down or prevent them from swimming.

Known Users

See Also: Gentle Gorilla and Killer Gorilla.

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The power to use the abilities of gorillas. Variation of Primate Physiology. Gorilla Mimicry/Form The user with this ability either is or can transform into gorillas.

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Reading the list of what those hairy apes can learn might make you feel like not-such-a-great ape.

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Reading the list of what those hairy apes can learn might make you feel like not-such-a-great ape.

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Monkeys May Recognize False Beliefs—Knocking Over Yet Another Pillar of Human Cognition

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Apes may be aware of the minds of others—yet another remarkable finding about the cognitive abilities of non-human animals

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New Genome Comparison Finds Chimps, Humans Very Similar at the DNA Level

WASHINGTON, Wed., Aug. 31, 2005 - The first comprehensive comparison of the genetic blueprints of humans and chimpanzees shows our closest living relatives share perfect identity with 96 percent of our DNA sequence, an international research consortium reported today.

In a paper published in the Sept. 1 issue of the journal Nature, the Chimpanzee Sequencing and Analysis Consortium, which is supported in part by the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), one of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), describes its landmark analysis comparing the genome of the chimp ( Pan troglodytes) with that of human ( Homo sapiens).

"The sequencing of the chimp genome is a historic achievement that is destined to lead to many more exciting discoveries with implications for human health," said NHGRI Director Francis S. Collins, M.D., Ph.D. "As we build upon the foundation laid by the Human Genome Project, it's become clear that comparing the human genome with the genomes of other organisms is an enormously powerful tool for understanding our own biology."

The chimp sequence draft represents the first non-human primate genome and the fourth mammalian genome described in a major scientific publication. A draft of the human genome sequence was published in February 2001, a draft of the mouse genome sequence was published in December 2002 and a draft of the rat sequence was published in March 2004. The essentially complete human sequence was published in October 2004.

"As our closest living evolutionary relatives, chimpanzees are especially suited to teach us about ourselves," said the study's senior author, Robert Waterston, M.D., Ph.D., chair of the Department of Genome Sciences of the University of Washington School of Medicine in Seattle. "We still do not have in our hands the answer to a most fundamental question: What makes us human? But this genomic comparison dramatically narrows the search for the key biological differences between the species."

The 67 researchers who took part in the Chimp Sequencing and Analysis Consortium share authorship of the Nature paper. Most of the work of sequencing and assembling the chimp genome was done at the Broad Institute of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., and the Washington University School of Medicine in Saint Louis. In addition to those centers, the consortium included researchers from institutions elsewhere in the United States, as well as Israel, Italy, Germany and Spain.

The DNA used to sequence the chimp genome came from the blood of a male chimpanzee named Clint at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center in Atlanta. Clint died last year from heart failure at the relatively young age of 24, but two cell lines from the primate have been preserved at the Coriell Institute for Medical Research in Camden, N.J.

The consortium found that the chimp and human genomes are very similar and encode very similar proteins. The DNA sequence that can be directly compared between the two genomes is almost 99 percent identical. When DNA insertions and deletions are taken into account, humans and chimps still share 96 percent of their sequence. At the protein level, 29 percent of genes code for the same amino sequences in chimps and humans. In fact, the typical human protein has accumulated just one unique change since chimps and humans diverged from a common ancestor about 6 million years ago.

To put this into perspective, the number of genetic differences between humans and chimps is approximately 60 times less than that seen between human and mouse and about 10 times less than between the mouse and rat. On the other hand, the number of genetic differences between a human and a chimp is about 10 times more than between any two humans.

The researchers discovered that a few classes of genes are changing unusually quickly in both humans and chimpanzees compared with other mammals. These classes include genes involved in perception of sound, transmission of nerve signals, production of sperm and cellular transport of electrically charged molecules called ions. Researchers suspect the rapid evolution of these genes may have contributed to the special characteristics of primates, but further studies are needed to explore the possibilities.

The genomic analyses also showed that humans and chimps appear to have accumulated more potentially deleterious mutations in their genomes over the course of evolution than have mice, rats and other rodents. While such mutations can cause diseases that may erode a species' overall fitness, they may have also made primates more adaptable to rapid environmental changes and enabled them to achieve unique evolutionary adaptations, researchers said.

Despite the many similarities found between human and chimp genomes, the researchers emphasized that important differences exist between the two species. About 35 million DNA base pairs differ between the shared portions of the two genomes, each of which, like most mammalian genomes, contains about 3 billion base pairs. In addition, there are another 5 million sites that differ because of an insertion or deletion in one of the lineages, along with a much smaller number of chromosomal rearrangements. Most of these differences lie in what is believed to be DNA of little or no function. However, as many as 3 million of the differences may lie in crucial protein-coding genes or other functional areas of the genome.

"As the sequences of other mammals and primates emerge in the next couple of years, we will be able to determine what DNA sequence changes are specific to the human lineage. The genetic changes that distinguish humans from chimps will likely be a very small fraction of this set," said the study's lead author, Tarjei S. Mikkelsen of the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard. Among the genetic changes that researchers will be looking for are those that may be related to the human-specific features of walking upright on two feet, a greatly enlarged brain and complex language skills.

Although the statistical signals are relatively weak, a few classes of genes appear to be evolving more rapidly in humans than in chimps. The single strongest outlier involves genes that code for transcription factors, which are molecules that regulate the activity of other genes and that play key roles in embryonic development.

A small number of other genes have undergone even more dramatic changes. More than 50 genes present in the human genome are missing or partially deleted from the chimp genome. The corresponding number of gene deletions in the human genome is not yet precisely known. For genes with known functions, potential implications of these changes can already be discerned.

For example, the researchers found that three key genes involved in inflammation appear to be deleted in the chimp genome, possibly explaining some of the known differences between chimps and humans in respect to immune and inflammatory response. On the other hand, humans appear to have lost the function of the caspase-12 gene, which produces an enzyme that may help protect other animals against Alzheimer's disease.

"This represents just the tip of the iceberg when it comes to exploring the genomic roots of our biological differences," said one of the study's co-authors LaDeana W. Hillier of the Genome Sequencing Center at Washington University School of Medicine. "As more is learned about other functional elements of the genome, we anticipate that other important differences outside of the protein-coding genes will emerge."

Armed with the chimp sequence, researchers also scanned the entire human genome for deviations from normal mutation patterns. Such deviations may reveal regions of "selective sweeps," which occur when a mutation arises in a population and is so advantageous that it spreads throughout the population within a few hundred generations and eventually becomes "normal."

The researchers found six regions in the human genome that have strong signatures of selective sweeps over the past 250,000 years. One region contains more than 50 genes, while another contains no known genes and lies in an area that scientists refer to as a "gene desert." Intriguingly, this gene desert may contain elements regulating the expression of a nearby protocadherin gene, which has been implicated in patterning of the nervous system. A seventh region with moderately strong signals contains the FOXP2 and CFTR genes. FOXP2 has been implicated in the acquisition of speech in humans. CFTR, which codes for a protein involved in ion transport and, if mutated, can cause the fatal disease cystic fibrosis, is thought to be the target of positive selection in European populations.

The chimp and human genome sequences, along with those of a wide range of other organisms such as mouse, honey bee, roundworm and yeast, can be accessed through the following public genome browsers: ( GenBank) at NIH's National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI); the UCSC Genome Browser ( www.genome.ucsc.edu) at the University of California at Santa Cruz; the Ensembl Genome Browser ( www.ensembl.org) at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute and the EMBL-European Bioinformatics Institute; the DNA Data Bank of Japan ( www.ddbj.nig.ac.jp); and EMBL-Bank ( www.ebi.ac.uk/embl/index.html) at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory's Nucleotide Sequence Database.

A high resolution version of the image displayed on this page is available at: www.genome.gov/dmd.

NHGRI is one of 27 institutes and centers at the NIH, an agency of the Department of Health and Human Services. The NHGRI Division of Extramural Research supports grants for research and for training and career development at sites nationwide. Additional information about NHGRI can be found at its Web site, www.genome.gov.
For more information, contact:
Geoff Spencer, NHGRI
(301) 402-0911
spencerg@mail.nih.gov

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New Genome Comparison Finds Chimps, Humans Very Similar at the DNA Level

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WASHINGTON, Wed., Aug. 31, 2005 - The first comprehensive comparison of the genetic blueprints of humans and chimpanzees shows our closest living relatives share perfect identity with 96 percent of our DNA sequence, an international research consortium reported today. In a paper published in the Sept.

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(Image credit: Southwest National Primate Research Center at Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research in San Antonio)

The first primate to get rocketed into space and to be cloned, the rhesus monkey, has now had its genome sequenced, promising to improve research into health and yield insights into human evolution.

Analysis of the monkey's DNA sequence has also deepened a few mysteries in our understanding of the biology of primates when it comes to vital parts of our biology, such as the X chromosome.

Rhesus macaques ( Macaca mulatta) are sandy-furred, pink-faced monkeys that live in the region ranging from Afghanistan to northern India, as well as southern China, and are traditionally held as sacred in Hinduism.

They have a long history as lab monkeys. For instance, the Rh factor in blood discovered in 1937, the presence or absence of which dubs a person's blood type either 'positive' or 'negative,' derives its name from rhesus monkeys. Even now, they are the animals of choice for research into drug addiction and HIV, and roughly two-thirds of all National Institutes of Health-funded primate-related studies use the monkeys. For example, the rhesus monkey Tetra, born in 2000, was the first cloned primate.
93 percent common DNA
The sequence of the rhesus macaque's genome will be a powerful tool for research with the monkeys aimed at understanding human biology, said consortium leader Richard Gibbs, director of the Baylor College of Medicine's Human Genome Sequencing Center in Houston.

"Right now if you perform an experiment on a person, there's no way that you would think that all people are the same, when it comes to a response to a drug or behavior or anything," Gibbs told LiveScience. Macaques have about the range of diversity when it comes to their genetics, "so being able to understand them on a genetic level will help explain variation in their responses and will allow for smarter experiments that make us more clever at deciphering results."

The new analysis of the rhesus monkey genome, conducted by an international consortium of more than 170 scientists, also reveals that humans and the macaques share about 93 percent of their DNA. By comparison, humans and chimpanzees share about 98 to 99 percent of their DNA.

The fact that rhesus monkeys are further away from humans in evolution will help illuminate what makes humans different from other apes in ways that chimps, which are so closely related to us, could not, Gibbs said. (Rhesus monkey ancestors diverged from those of humans roughly 25 million years ago, while chimpanzees diverged from our lineage 6 million years ago.)

In addition, the researchers identified roughly 200 genes that appear to be key players "in defining the shapes of species, in what makes the primates different from us and each other," Gibbs said. These include genes involved in hair formation, sperm-egg fusion, immune response and cell membrane proteins, findings detailed in the April 13 issue of the journal Science.
Unusual role of X chromosome
The research also raised a few surprises. For instance, the monkey's X chromosome showed an unexpectedly large number of times in which its parts got shuffled around. This is consistent with the same mysterious rearrangements seen in the human lineage's X chromosome following the branching off of the chimpanzee, and gives "us new evidence of the unusual role of this sex chromosome in primate evolution," said researcher Aleks Milosavljevic at the Baylor College of Medicine.

Another as yet unexplained phenomenon the sequencing revealed has to do with lumps of DNA known as centromeres, which hold together the two separate strands of DNA that make up a chromosome, acting somewhat like the center of an X. Strangely, nine of the 22 centromeres the monkeys have repositioned themselves on their chromosomes in the last 25 million years. As to why this happened, "no one knows," said researcher Mariano Rocchi at the University of Bari in Italy.

The rhesus monkey genome sequence should prove invaluable to biomedical research, said physician scientist Ajit Varki at the University of California at San Diego, who participated in the chimpanzee genome sequencing project. "And if we can get the genome sequences of one representative from each primate lineage, we could reconstitute the ancestral primate genome--what the genome of our common ancestor some 40 to 50 million years ago looked like," he told LiveScience. "That would be an amazing feat."

Charles Q. Choi is a contributing writer for Live Science and Space.com. He covers all things human origins and astronomy as well as physics, animals and general science topics. Charles has a Master of Arts degree from the University of Missouri-Columbia, School of Journalism and a Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of South Florida. Charles has visited every continent on Earth, drinking rancid yak butter tea in Lhasa, snorkeling with sea lions in the Galapagos and even climbing an iceberg in Antarctica.

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Monkey DNA Points to Common Human Ancestor

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(Image credit: Southwest National Primate Research Center at Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research in San Antonio) The first primate to get rocketed into space and to be cloned, the rhesus monkey, has now had its genome sequenced, promising to improve research into health and yield insights into human evolution.

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Rhesus monkey genome reveals DNA similarities with chimps and humans - The Source - Washington University in St. Louis

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An international consortium of researchers, including scientists at the Genome Sequencing Center, has decoded the genome of the rhesus macaque monkey and compared it with the genomes of humans and their closest living relatives - the chimps - revealing that the three primate species share about 93 p…

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Differences and similarities between human and chimpanzee neural progenitors during cerebral cortex development

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Neural progenitors in humans and chimpanzee organoids show remarkably similar cellular and molecular parameters, but metaphase is longer during human mitosis.

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A common argument from animal rights organizations is that animal models cannot tell us anything useful about human medicine, that animal research is outdated, and should be replaced with other methods. But in a recent article, a group of leading scientists argues that "Primate models still matter" - with the right attention to the animals' social needs and welfare.

The mantra of "Replace, Reduce, Refine" is a common place in the animal research community - with an emphasis on replacing animal models where possible. Yet while most research with vertebrates involves rodents and fish, non-human primates (principally rhesus monkeys) remain a vital model for studying many diseases and conditions. A recent article in the American Journal of Primatology sets out the issues around research with non-human primates.

Research involving nonhuman primates (NHPs) has played a vital role in many of the medical and scientific advances of the past century. NHPs are used because of their similarity to humans in physiology, neuroanatomy, reproduction, development, cognition, and social complexity-yet it is these very similarities that make the use of NHPs in biomedical research a considered decision. As primate researchers, we feel an obligation and responsibility to present the facts concerning why primates are used in various areas of biomedical research. Recent decisions in the United States, including the phasing out of chimpanzees in research by the National Institutes of Health and the pending closure of the New England Primate Research Center, illustrate to us the critical importance of conveying why continued research with primates is needed. Here, we review key areas in biomedicine where primate models have been, and continue to be, essential for advancing fundamental knowledge in biomedical and biological research
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24723482

Kimberley Phillips of Trinity University, San Antonio, Texas and co-authors discuss how non-human primate models are ideal for studying heart and respiratory disease; reproduction and pharmacology; immunology and infectious disease, including vaccines and treatments for HIV/AIDS; behavior, cognition and neuroscience, among many other topics.

Primate and monkey models have contributed to the fight against polio, typhoid and yellow fever, and have made possible advances in treating heart disease, AIDS, cancer, diabetes, asthma, and malaria. Efforts are under way to develop treatments for emerging diseases such as Ebola and avian influenza, and conditions that becoming more common, for example Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's, obesity, arthritis, infertility, and aging.

Nonhuman primates provide unique opportunities for scientists and physicians to study human disease, because while we have important differences, their biology is similar to ours in many ways. Yet this similarity also raises ethical issues, especially with the great apes, according to Phillips et al.

The recent decision by the National Institutes of Health to end support for some forms of invasive biomedical research with chimpanzees reflects the development, by scientists, of alternative models for some types of research as well as reflecting a collective desire to involve chimpanzees only in research that is either noninvasive or otherwise essential to scientific progress.

The use of these animals in research must be carefully considered and conducted in a controlled and thoughtful manner, the authors write. They advocate standards of care that consider not just food, housing and veterinary care, but pay attention to the animals' cognitive, social and psychological needs.

"Efforts are now made to enhance psychological well‐ being through social housing, addressing the specific social and development needs of infants and aged individuals, and providing environmental enrichment," they write.

"We are at a critical crossroads in our society and unless NHP research is given the philosophical, emotional, and financial support and infrastructure that is needed to sustain it and grow, we are in danger of losing irreplaceable unique models and thus, our ability to continue to explore and understand, and develop preventions and treatments for numerous conditions that inflict great suffering on humans."

Andy Fell
To learn more about the role of animal research in advancing human and veterinary medicine, and the threat posed to this progress by the animal rights lobby, follow us on Facebook or Twitter.

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Animal research: Why are we still using monkeys?

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A common argument from animal rights organizations is that animal models cannot tell us anything useful about human medicine, that animal research is outdated, and should be replaced with other methods. But in a recent article, a group of leading scientists argues that "Primate models still matter" - with the right attention to the animals' social needs and welfare.

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One of Newcastle's macaque monkeys. Newcastle University, Author provided

The debate about animal experiments often seems to start from false premises. Unsurprisingly, the conclusions are then often flawed. Opponents claim that animals suffer terrible cruelty. The macaques I use for vital research are well looked after, by a lab full of dedicated people who love working with animals. A huge effort goes into minimising suffering every day. This is not some optional extra, but an integral part of what we do and who we are.

Some claim animal experiments are not necessary. But virtually every medical advance of the last century depended on animals, often to provide the fundamental underpinning of understanding which paved the way to develop successful treatment. My own experience shows that using primates in research still has the potential to help us gain an understanding of how our own bodies work - and how we can repair them - that would be otherwise impossible.

I am a neuroscientist, interested in the fundamental science of how the brain controls movement. We typically take the ability to move in a fluid, coordinated way for granted. Yet any parent will be familiar with the helplessness of a newborn baby. A large part of early childhood is dedicated to learning to move. As an adult, some people suffer damage to the brain's pathways for movement, for example after a stroke. Suddenly, everyday tasks become a tiring, frustrating struggle.

To understand how the brain controls our arms and hands, we need to look inside and measure how brain cells change their activity during movements, how they are connected together, and how they reconfigure after injury. We can make some progress on these issues using non-animal methods now at our disposal. In my own research group, we use magnetic brain stimulators to activate the brain of healthy volunteers, clever instrumented tasks, and recordings of brain waves from the scalp and muscle activity from the skin over contracting muscles.

But these methods all have their limitations. Single cells are individualists. Even cells right next to each other can be carrying totally different messages. When we record from the scalp, we average the signals from many millions of cells. It's a bit like placing a microphone on the ceiling of an airport departure hall, and measuring the sound levels.

This can tell you something - what times of day the airport is busy, and when quiet - but we wouldn't expect to get much insight into the conversations of individual passengers like this. And some aspects of the airport's operations - those outside on the tarmac - would be missed. Equally, some brain centres are so deep beneath the skull that they don't contribute to scalp recordings at all.

In my own work, we use a small number of macaques to gain this fine-grain understanding. Many pathways for movement control are different between primates such as humans and other animals such as rats. Only a primate model can give us information which is relevant to human diseases.

State-of-the-art care

To learn how these pathways are actually used to control movements, in some studies we first teach the macaque to perform complex tasks with their hands or arm. Getting it right is rewarded with a treat (typically fruit or nuts, but chocolate or strawberry yoghurt also sometimes feature). Once they know what to do, we carry out a surgical implant to allow us to record from the brain using fine electrodes, with tips around the same size as single cells.

All surgery is done in a fully equipped operating theatre, with sophisticated anaesthetics and painkilling medication borrowed from state-of-the-art human care. Once the macaque has recovered, we can record from the brain cells while they do the trained task. An animal that is stressed or in pain would not willingly cooperate with the experiments. The animals seem to enjoy the daily interaction with the lab staff and show no distress.

Our studies are right at the crossroads of basic and clinical sciences. We are trying to understand fundamental brain circuits, and how they change in disease and recovery. Over the past ten years, we've shown that a primitive pathway linking brain to spinal cord can carry signals related to hand use. That was a surprise, as until now it was assumed that the primate hand was controlled only by more sophisticated pathways that developed later in evolution.

We have shown that after damage to the newer pathways, such as after stroke, the older pathway is responsible for much of the recovery of hand function which occurs in the following weeks and months. However, this recovery is unbalanced. Connections strengthen more to flexors, which close the hand, than to extensors, which open it. This is why stroke patients often end up with a strong grip, but cannot open the hand to let go.

We have also shown that the older pathway can be powerfully activated by loud clicks. This led us to develop a portable device to deliver clicks to an earpiece, timed precisely relative to weak shocks to a muscle. When healthy subjects wear the device, connections from the primitive pathway can be strengthened or weakened depending on the relative timing of clicks and shocks. We are now testing whether this might help stroke patients strengthen their weak extensor muscles, and so regain better hand function.

Western society is facing a massive challenge of brain diseases, burgeoning because of our ageing population. Many of these brain systems are not the same in humans and rodents, and unless we can find alternatives then we are going to have to expand our use of primates to make progress.

In my opinion, we should not condemn large numbers of people to disability and dependence, but need to use all of the tools of modern science to discover and innovate the solutions. I am confident that the next 50 years will see wonderful progress in treatments for these terrible disorders and primate research will be central to this effort.

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Using monkeys for research is justified - it's giving us treatments that would be otherwise impossible

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The debate about animal experiments often seems to start from false premises. Unsurprisingly, the conclusions are then often flawed. Opponents claim that animals suffer terrible cruelty. The macaques I use for vital research are well looked after, by a lab full of dedicated people who love working with animals.

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Researchers at the Oregon National Primate Research Center at Oregon Health Sciences University have identified monkeys with a genetic mutation that leads to a rare, but devastating blindness-causing syndrome called Bardet-Biedl Syndrome. The finding offers a promising way to develop gene and cell therapies that could treat the condition in people.

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Discovery in monkeys could lead to treatment for blindness causing syndrome

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Researchers at the Oregon National Primate Research Center at Oregon Health Sciences University have identified monkeys with a genetic mutation that leads to a rare, but devastating blindness-causing syndrome called Bardet-Biedl Syndrome. The finding offers a promising way to develop gene and cell therapies that could treat the condition in people.

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By Peggy O'Neill

HUMAN-ANIMAL COMMUNICATIONS AND INTERACTIONS

All animals held in confinement are psychologically and physically at the mercy of their keepers. Keepers include animal care and scientific staff. All keepers must abide by a code of ethics which promotes a sense of healthy respect for all the animals which are on loan to them. This includes respect for the species involved as well as respect for each and every individual.

Primates receive a sense of security and well being when:

a. Caretakers are familiar. Getting to know new staff and their habits is essential.

b. Voice tone and body languages of the people involved is distinctly non-threatening. Harsh words and body movements in proximity to caged primates are exceedingly distressing to the animals. Humans are usually perceived as intruders by the animals instinctively. To keep this fear from becoming a reality is essential.

c. Keepers should never lower themselves to psychological game-playing with animals even if they are threatened and provoked or intimidated by the animals they oversee. Responding to a caged animal's aggressive behavior with taunting or teasing aggressive gestures from keepers is not acceptable in any case.

PRIMATE INTERACTIONS

1. Monkeys and Apes have evolved along with very specific and very complex social hierarchies. Primates develop a sense of well-being by understanding where they fit socially. They must be given adequate time to learn what their social identity is whether they are housed within a group cage with others or if they simply have other monkeys taking up space in their visual field from across the room 24 hours a day. Twenty-four hours easily becomes an eternity if the other looking at you and vocalizing toward you is an intimidating threatening bully or a virtual vegetable.

2. If a nurturing parental figure cannot be housed directly with infants and youngsters it certainly is helpful to allow them proximity where at least visual union or perhaps contact through the cage link is possible.

3. Keep animals in the same proximal arrangement when groupings are interacting in a healthy manner. When caged primates are inflicting injury which is self-directed or directed toward others, start altering cage mates or neighbors so that conflicts can be worked out. Mother Nature provides space for escaping life threatening confrontations. This survival mechanism is simply not available to confined animals, or confined humans for that matter.

NUTRITION

1. A psychologically balanced primate requires appropriate nutritional intake. Diets should be prepared with a technical knowledge of species requirements in mind. Different age groups may have differing needs. Altering the living conditions of the animals may change the intake requirements significantly.

2. Feeding amounts and intake amounts of food can vary drastically. Never assume that because you allotted a specific amount of food to an animal, he will have access to it. The social strategies that primates use were never meant to be fair. Lower ranking animals and young primates eat leftover and higher ranking animals may overeat, that is life. In the wild, there is always a chance to locate more food. In captivity when it's gone, it is GONE! This can be extraordinarily distressing as we can all imagine.

3. The above statement is aimed at group housing situations for captive primates. Sometimes it also relates to animals who reside in individual housing units as well. A primate that is bullied continuously by another or a number of others who reside within visual proximity gets the same message that it would receive from higher ranking animals in the field. If this timid lower-ranking animal is unable to ignore the message it will go without eating food that has been placed in its own cage regardless of whether those threatening outsiders are physically able to attack. He must learn that he can eat without the reprisals that he fears. Simply sitting down to a meal can be a very risky business for non-human primates.

CONTACT COMFORT

We have learned that many primates have evolved a social nature. Those species that are placed in this category, including man, have similar basic needs that must be fulfilled in order to achieve a state of psychological well-being. The first of these needs is CONTACT COMFORT. This presumably means mother.

As responsible keepers of social primates we must fulfill this need. We have some practical alternatives:

a. Leave infants with their mothers until their physical and associated psychological separation can occur without severe stress.

b. Provide satisfactory alternatives to the mother if she is not available.

1. An adopted mother (male/female) willing to bond with the infant and nurture it.

2. Put several, but not large numbers of infants together in a cage or pen after surrogate bonding has taken place so that social and surrogate security is available. Other infants should not serve as the sole source of clinging.

3. Introduce the surrogate to the infant. This is a wooden cylinder attached to a round metal base at an angle that is comfortable for the youngster to cling to for long periods of time. The cylinder is covered with a terry cloth fitted cover that can be removed readily for washing. The device is inexpensive, simple and hygienic and has demonstrated for decades that it successfully provides infants and young animals with prolonged periods of contact comfort. Over the years since the introduction of the standard surrogate, modifications have been made by researchers and animal care staff to further the positive effects of the surrogate apparatus.
Examples of these modified surrogates include:

A sturdy leg is attached to a weighted base and this leg is placed at an angle so that a sling can be suspended from it. This sling or cradle is made of a soft durable fabric that can withstand numerous washings like the terry cloth cover on the standard surrogate. This surrogate provides a cradling effect and allows the young primate responsiveness via motion such as bouncing, rocking, and swinging that is not available on the standard surrogate. These features are more important to some species than others.

A standard style surrogate can be easily modified to provide motion and thus responsiveness to the young primate's activity by removing the steel pipe stem that attaches the cylinder to the weighted base and replacing it with a spring. The spring that is currently being used by researchers is an auto engine valve spring. This modification allows the animal to acquire a greater sense of control and thus well-being. Even artificial mothers can be responsive.

Another example of a contact comfort source for motherless infants who are in such desperate need of security and psychological protection is the waterbed. Just as premature human babies are provided with waterbeds for their sense of well-being, monkeys too are being offered this source of artificial motherhood at various institutions around the country including the University of Wisconsin. At Wisconsin the waterbed is nothing more than a wheel chair cushion. This surrogate mothering method has been particularly effective by reducing the typical symptoms of distressed infants such as self-mouthing, rocking and huddling, and hyperactivity.

SOCIAL EXPERIENCE

The essence of the social primate is lost under the stresses of the nonsocial condition. The animal that develops under these conditions of social deprivation must be considered to be an artificial animal that is no longer useful as a research model. Research findings coupled with the common sense of animal care professionals have led to an understanding of the value of social interaction for primates who live in controlled environments. The behavioral abnormalities resulting from prolonged inactivity and lack of social stimulation coupled with lack of control are readily apparent. Institutionalized animals become regimented by stereotypic (repetitive) patterns of behavior, of which pacing is the most common, in addition to ritualistic behaviors which may become self-directed and self-destructive. They suffer physically and psychologically from lack of control in their daily lives and the means of fulfilling basic behavioral needs. When confronted with monkeys in a more naturalistic social setting they act inappropriately and suffer from rejection or possibly attack resulting in death. At this time more than ever before this dilemma is being acknowledged as a serious problem with solutions available. Primates in some research institutions are being offered periods of social interaction time with other primates even though they are housed in solitary caging. For the psychological welfare of the primates and for the sake of the scientific endeavor it is a must that selected periods of time be set aside on a regular basis for social interaction. Social interaction can serve a very therapeutic function for confined primates. Certain methods can be set forth to ensure that interactions have positive results. (Refer to Primate Interactions Section.) There are so many different situations that may arise here requiring specific analysis that I am hard pressed to confront the possible problems with regard to cage size, species, age groups and their specific needs, breaking bad habits, compatibility problems, etc. These topics will require more time than I have right now. The point that must be made here, regardless of specific individual and institution situations, is that all social primates must receive some form of social interaction to develop a sense of psychological well-being. This simply should not be overlooked.

PHYSICAL AND MENTAL NEEDS

In the wild, primates are typically active animals. If they aren't searching for food, they may be fighting off intruders, playing with peers, investigating the world around them, breeding or sleeping. They have evolved physically to be ready for action and they are capable of engaging in acrobatic maneuvers with great finesse. These abilities are a part of their survival package. Their great investigatory and manipulative skills allow them to locate the very foods that sustain them. When held captive they maintain the potential and abilities that they were born with, but, without sufficient enrichment devices available inside their cages, they reside in a continuous state of unchallenged readiness. Like lack of social stimulation, lack of physical and mental stimulation leads to despair. They remain primed and ready with nowhere to go and nothing to do. Muscles suffer from atrophy and depression may set in. Any kind of stimulus is better than nothing at all and they sometimes start to harass the staff, behave threateningly, urinate on passersby and throw fecal matter at bystanders. They sometimes succeed at getting a degree of control in their lives but it rarely results in positive feedback. When despair sets in the animal may actually attack or injure itself. The result may be lacerations, puncture wounds, loss of hair, weight loss, and a lowering of the immune system resulting in infections. When an animal can't have a social setting to develop a sense of psychological well-being, and for those animals in social settings that take place in an environment void of play and investigatory stimulation, a variety of inexpensive durable, safe and easy to clean apparatus are available:

1. Perches are essential for monkey in cages, social or solitary cages. In solitary cages it provides a place to move to and from. A perch can enable the animal to make use of locomotor skills and it offers access to another visual field. This adds complexity to the environment. In a social cage it provides animals a play stimulus as well as an escape route from one visual plane to another. Animals get on each others' nerves sometimes. If they can't walk out the door and slam it behind them to avoid a fight, they can get into a less conspicuous place out of the way. Avenues of escape are very healthy.

2. Monkeys love to swing and climb. They are designed to make use of trees and they feel most comfortable and secure by nature in high places. Chains, ropes (cotton), and garden hoses are inexpensive apparatus that are easy to install and couldn't go any further in payoff when one sees the pleasure that these items bring to the animals who will utilize them. Socially and physically impoverished animals may not utilize these apparatus to their functional potential at first, but with time their investigation will turn into play. There are stages in the development of psychological well-being. Anxious, fearful, depressed animals will begin to exhibit flashes of exuberant playfulness when they are on the road to recovery.

3. One of my favorite enrichment devices for monkeys in captivity is the simple, charming, inexpensive, durable, heavenly milk crate. Threatened animals can hide in it, older animals can just sit and relax with a calming swinging motion, stressed animals find the swinging motion to provide a calming effect, babies fall asleep in them, and all age groups like to hang from them and play and play and play. Animal care staff find them easy to clean.

4. Primates like to search for their own food and are delighted by a challenge to get at it. A simple white plastic tub with a fitted lid hanging by a cotton rope from the ceiling and attached in such a way that they can't be tipped over but that the animals can have access to a hole in the lid and reach inside to select one handful of food at a time is fun and rewarding. This style of feeding has been designed by animal care staff and requires no extra effort on the part of the personnel. (Sunflower seeds are a highly nutritional food for primates and they will get great pleasure out of sitting and shucking shells for an hour.)

5. Some toys manufactured by major toy companies make marvelous items to stimulate and entertain primates in captivity. Fisher-Price Child Development Toys for very young children are well made, durable, safe, and some are very inexpensive. Other brands also make similar items available at comparable prices. They may not be quite as durable - I have a list of specific toys that I recommend for various situations. Some toys that I purchased many years ago as used toys are still in reasonable condition and popular with the animals. Activity Centers with multiple gadgets and controls are particularly popular. Toys with durable metal mirrors are always special and of course ever-changing according to the disposition of the animal peering into the mirror and the always-changing background image.

6. Non-human primates like to socialize with other critters and have remarkably friendly relationships with other animals. From my own experience, they will form long term bonds with a whole list of other social animals including dogs, kittens, horses, and sheep. Younger animals are more flexible with their choice of associates but some older animals form long-term relationships as well.

There is no limit to what we can do to make primates in captivity more well adjusted and psychologically suited to confinement. Their well-being in a psychological sense has a number of components that must be identified and dealt with. These are the basics and I have listed each of them with comments that come from my training and experience. I hope that you will find this outline and my comments to be useful.
Reproduced with permission of the editor.
Published in Humane Innovations and Alternatives Vol. 1, 1987, p. 1-5.

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Enriching the Lives of Primates in Captivity

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All animals held in confinement are psychologically and physically at the mercy of their keepers. Keepers include animal care and scientific staff. All keepers must abide by a code of ethics which promotes a sense of healthy respect for all the animals which are on loan to them.

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Monkeys are used in animal research only if a particular phenomenon cannot be studied on any other species of animal, such as mice, fish or fruit flies. In the course of evolution, similar structures and functional principles have developed in the brains of monkeys and humans. Such structures and principles are not present in other mammal groups. Neuroscientists can therefore only research complex cognitive functions relating to perception, attention, memory formation and awareness on monkeys.

Because they are biologically so similar to humans, the potential for applying research results to humans is very high. They are therefore used primarily for the final drug safety tests on new medicines before they are used on humans. Moreover, scientists use monkeys to study important fundamental questions on how a healthy organism functions or how to cure fatal illnesses (e.g. Ebola) or severely debilitating disorders (e.g. Alzheimer's). Monkeys therefore play an important role as laboratory animals in infection research and in the neurosciences.

In order to treat neurodegenerative diseases in future, it is important to understand first of all the neural basis of normal cognitive processes, as it is only by doing this that the pathological mechanisms can be systematically investigated. Despite enormous progress in recent decades, our knowledge of the brain is still far from complete, especially when it comes to the higher cognitive functions. Much of what we know is based on studies conducted on relatively simple brains. However, this information is only of limited benefit if we want to understand and treat neurological and psychiatric disorders that are based on complex interactions between the different parts of the brain. Monkeys are currently the only model that can be used to systematically study the relationships between the activity of individual neurons and higher cognitive functions.

The animals most frequently used in brain research are the long-tailed macaque ( Macaca fascicularis) and the rhesus macaque ( Macaca mulatta). More recently, marmosets have also been used with increasing frequency. This is because they exhibit complex social behaviour and many cognitive functions that are similar to those exhibited by humans. Research is conducted less frequently on the three-striped night monkey ( Aotus trivirgatus) and the callitrichid ( Callithrix). In 2015, 0.1 percent of all laboratory animals in Germany were monkeys (2,424). Scientists used 17 percent of monkeys (412) for academic research. The remaining 83 percent were used by industry primarily for prescribed safety tests.

Medical progress through primate research

As laboratory animals, monkeys have already provided important findings for medicine. The rhesus factor incompatibility in a mother's blood and in the blood of her unborn children was discovered as a result of studies conducted on rhesus macaques, hence the name. The vaccinations that prevent polio, measles, yellow fever and Hepatitis B are all based on research that was carried out on monkeys. The treatment of diabetes patients with insulin was researched on monkeys, as was the treatment of patients with leprosy and rheumatoid arthritis. The development of stem cell technology, on which so many hopes are based today, can also be traced back to work with monkeys.
Deep brain stimulation for Parkinson's patients
The development of a new treatment for Parkinson's patients is a compelling example of the successful implementation of findings from research conducted on rhesus macaques. In deep brain stimulation as it is known, electrodes are placed in damaged areas of the brain to electrically stimulate the areas. This can alleviate certain symptoms of the disease, which cannot be treated or can no longer be treated pharmacologically. [Link zum Video]. Efforts are also currently being made to treat certain obsessive-compulsive disorders, pathological obesity and some forms of depression using deep brain stimulation if these conditions do not respond to the available medications. However, this method is still relatively untested and is not free of side effects. In order to be able to minimize these side effects, scientists are also studying exactly how deep brain stimulation works on monkeys.

Research has been ongoing for some time now on a new method in which the spinal cord rather than the brain is stimulated with electrodes. These studies are currently taking place on rats. However, before the results can be transferred to humans, they must be researched on monkeys.
Primates used as a model in dementia research
Monkeys are one of the few species of animal that, like humans, can develop Alzheimer's disease. Studies on long-tailed macaques have shown that they develop protein deposits in the brain, largely similar to those that occur in humans. The corresponding protein that develops in mice and rats, on the other hand, is very different to the one that develops in humans. Researchers can therefore study long-tailed macaques and possibly other monkey species much more effectively to see if they develop these protein deposits in the brain and, more importantly, investigate how they can be prevented.
Primates used as a model in Huntington's disease
Patients with Huntington's suffer from the progressive destruction of an area in the brain that is important for controlling movement and basic mental functions. The brain cells in this area are destroyed by an aberrant protein (Huntingtin), which is formed as a result of a defect in the corresponding gene. The physical symptoms include impairment of the emotions, muscle control, including facial expressions, and ultimately brain function as a whole - the final stage is dementia. This is another disorder that may be better explained using monkeys rather than mice or rats. Genetically modified macaques with a mutated form of the Huntingtin protein in the brain form protein deposits like those that occur in Huntington's patients. The symptoms of the disease are also similar in monkeys and humans. Further research on these animals could therefore lead to new forms of treatment for this currently incurable disease.
Brain-machine interfaces for patients with locked-in syndrome
Certain brain injuries lead to what is termed locked-in syndrome. It causes patients to lose their ability to communicate - whether this is through language, facial gestures or gesticulation. This condition occurs even though the patient is fully conscious and aware of everything around them. The only option for enabling patients to have a minimum of contact with their environment is based on the development of brain-machine interfaces. With this technology, brain activity is extrapolated via electrodes and converted via a computer into signals, which can then be used to control keyboards or robotic arms. To date, the best results have been obtained with implanted electrodes although the conversion of signals into appropriate movements was previously optimized in research on monkeys. Now, patients who are completely paralyzed can regain a certain autonomy in this way. They learn how to move robotic arms using their brain activity and thus to guide food to their mouth or execute keyboard commands in order to write. Efforts are of course also made to extrapolate brain activity from the surface of the head non-invasively using EEG electrodes in order to spare the patients an operation. Unfortunately, as already mentioned, the spatial resolution of this minimally invasive procedure is too low to decipher more complex commands.

In future, these neuroprostheses are expected to be available not only to patients with locked-in syndrome and patients who are completely paralyzed for other reasons. It will, however, also be used for patients who have lost limbs so that they can regain movement using prostheses that are controlled directly by the brain. To this end, neuroscientists are investigating the signals in the motor centres of the brains of macaques.
Brain-machine interfaces in paraplegia
In 2016, for the first time ever, researchers in Switzerland managed to mobilize paralyzed monkeys quite normally by 'wirelessly' transmitting the corresponding brain activity to the spinal cord. Each of the rhesus macaques, whose back right leg was paralyzed, was fitted with a microchip in its brain. The microchip records the activity of neurons in the region that controls movement of the back right leg. In the activity pattern that is recorded, a computer recognizes in real time the intention to walk and sends the relevant signals to a stimulator. This activates the neural circuits in the spinal cord, which control the rhythmic muscle activities involved in walking - a finely tuned tensing and relaxing.

The animals were actually able to use their paralyzed leg again without any training. The researchers' aim is to use this technology one day to enable paraplegic patients to regain control over their legs. For this reason also, technical components that have already been approved for clinical tests were used in this research.

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Monkeys are used in animal research only if a particular phenomenon cannot be studied on any other species of animal, such as mice, fish or fruit flies. In the course of evolution, similar structures and functional principles have developed in the brains of monkeys and humans.