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Economic - Social - Political - Environmental

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The official government page for data in England.

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The UK's largest independent producer of official statistics and the recognised national statistical institute of the UK.

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A storyboard is a graphic organizer that plans a narrative or, for instance, a writing objective. Special software can be used to create visual storyboard, which are a powerful way to visually present information.

The layout consists of sequential panels, each functioning as a frame within the narrative. The linear direction of the cells is perfect for storytelling, explaining a process, and showing the passage of time. At their core, storyboards are a set of sequential drawings that tell a story with key points. By breaking a story into linear, bite-sized panel, it allows the author to focus on each cell separately, without distraction. A good frame helps to make sure that the narrative writing stays consistent and is represented in a certain way. And during the storyboarding process, you can demonstrate the ideas you want to put across to your audience. Find out more on how you can use a storyboard or book creator to work for you.

Over the last 80+ years, the use of storyboards has grown. Following the roots of animation and movie-making, storyboards are used by advertisement agencies for commercials, directors for plays, and artists for comics. They have also found their way into the business world for modeling how customers will interact with new products.

We all need to plan for something, whether it be at work, school, or home. Storyboarding out your desired outcome, even in a very simplified manner, helps you prepare for potential issues, make sure your plan is sound, and/or communicate ideas with others. Today, the purpose extends to a wide array of fields, catering to various needs and objectives. Whether you use storyboards professionally or personally, they serve as indispensable tools for planning, visualization, and communication. There are many uses for them in the entertainment industry, the business world, and education. Here are a few ideas to get you started!

Entertainment Industry

Business World

Education

Plan for shots in a live-action video
(commercial, vlog, TV show, film, etc.)

Pitch a product idea

Keep track of characters in a text

Plan a narrative for animation

Make "How-To" instructions

Summarize a text

Plan scenery for a stage production

Illustrate potential outcomes

Show steps in an experiment

Plan or create a graphic novel or comic

Present ideas to peers and colleagues

Create an illustrated story

Storyboard Example

Here are a few different examples to showcase how this visual approach can be used:
Example 1: Advertising
The business world has recognized the need to create storyboards for modeling customer interactions with new products. Also, they help to map out the entire process from start to finish. They are used to plan how each advertisement will look, how it will be presented, and where it will appear. Additionally, a video storyboard provides an opportunity for marketers to test different versions of their ads with potential customers.
Example 2: Film and Television
Various visual style templates are used in the process of making movies or TV shows. They are used by directors to plan how each scene will be shot and edited together. The drawings help arrange the order of events, determine the camera angles, and figure out if special effects need to be added.
Example 3: Education
They can be used to plan out any type of lesson, from a simple math problem to an elaborate science experiment. By breaking down each step into individual components and drawing them out on paper or using software to create CGI projects, educators can better see how the lesson will flow and make sure that all necessary materials are covered. They can also be used to help students organize and create visual aids such as comics or videos that can be used when explaining complex concepts.

Storyboarding Process

The process begins with creating a framework with defined visual style for your project. You'll need to decide on the length, format, and structure of your storyboard. Once you have a plan in place, it's time to start sketching out each step. Depending on the complexity of the project, this could take anywhere from a few minutes to several hours.

With an animated storyboard, every frame needs to be illustrated with its theme. This is a great opportunity to explore different layouts, angles, and special effects. Once you've completed the sketches, it's time to add text and captions. This is where you can really bring the story to life by adding dialogue and sound effects.

When all of the rough sketches are finished, the next step in the process is to start adding annotations or descriptions to explain what each frame is intended to convey. Then you need to review your work and make any necessary changes before presenting it to others. Finally, if you're using software, you can upload your storyboard to an online platform so that others can view it and comment on it.

Detailed storyboards are an incredibly powerful tool that can help you plan out your next project with ease. They allow you to visualize the entire story before committing any resources and make it easy to communicate your ideas with others. Whether you're creating an advertisement, film, or educational material, storyboarding is key. It is an essential tool for any collaborative project, as it helps to organize ideas, plan for potential issues, and communicate with collaborators.

What is Storyboarding Graphic Organizer?

A storyboard graphic organizer is a tool used to plan out the visual effects of a story to give it a better overall visual flow. This can include uploading images, text, media, and sound. It is divided into panels or cells that represent moments in the story. A storyboard typically contains information about each cell, such as its title and description, along with notes about how it relates to the narrative as a whole. The purpose is to help the author create a visual plan for their story and make sure everything they need flows together logically. They can also be used as a way to add important details and structure to stories that might otherwise seem too abstract or difficult to explain.

In summary, a storyboard is an effective way to plan and organize narratives. By breaking the story into separate cells, authors can focus on each part of the narrative and create a visual plan that helps ensure everything flows together smoothly. They are helpful for understanding how different elements of a story relate to each other and for adding detail and structure to stories that might otherwise be hard to explain.

Traditional storyboards are created manually (by drawing on paper, boards, etc.), but today many software programs exist to make the process easier and more efficient. Tools like Storyboard That provide a range of templates and options for a frame, making it easy to create professional-looking projects quickly.

Film and Entertainment Industry

The ultimate in visual storytelling is film. Storyboards were first used for this purpose and work just as well (if not better) than they did in the 1930s. By storyboarding before filming, you can better plan out your camera angles, setting, props, actors, effects and so on and be more industrious during production. Storyboarding ahead of time also checks to see that your script makes sense and allows you to correct errors before they become too expensive to fix.
These are some film projects that greatly benefit from storyboarding.

Commercial advertisement

Television show (with or without commercial breaks)

Instructional video

Feature film

Independent Film

YouTube & Vimeo Videos

Business

Using a storyboard lets you rapidly and easily experiment with a number of choices until you figure out what feels natural and right for you needs. Take a look at all of our Business Resources.

Education

Types of Storyboards

There are many different types you can use to convey your message. Here are a few:

Cartoon-Style: Perfect for comic-style stories or instructional comics. This type of storyboard uses hand-drawn pictures that capture the mood and emotion of the narrative.

Motion Graphic: This is a great choice for television, film, and digital media projects. It features motion graphics like transitions, wipes, and zooms to add movement and excitement to the story.

Photo-Realistic: This type is ideal for realistic settings such as corporate training videos or commercials. The images used should look as real as possible while still telling a compelling story.

Whiteboard: The perfect solution for educational or informational videos. It features scribbles, arrows, and text boxes to convey information quickly and concisely.

No matter which type you choose, you will be able to get your message across more effectively with a visual representation that everyone can understand.

What Are the Benefits of Using a Storyboard to Communicate Your Ideas Visually?

1. Enhances understanding: Visual aids like storyboards make it possible to simplify and clarify otherwise incomprehensible concepts. It can also show how different parts of a project fit together or lead the audience through a story.

2. Saves time: Making a storyboard before filming your video or making your infographic will enable you to save both time and energy during the production process. Without devoting too much time to the project, you can quickly sketch out what needs to be done and identify where changes are required.

3. Creates consistency: They ensure that everyone involved in the project is on the same page about what needs to be done and how it should look when completed. This will result in a better end and save time in the long run.

4. Helps with budgeting: An accurate budget that takes into account all of the costs involved in producing your project can be drafted with the help of a detailed plan of action. This can be useful for preventing wasteful spending or going over budget on certain aspects of the project.

5. Universal use: A storyboard planner is a great tool for anyone to use when communicating ideas, whether it's a corporate training video or a movie, education in schools, business, and more. With the right design, you can create visuals that clearly convey your message and help people understand it better.

6. Easy to share: A storyboard is a visual representation of an idea that can be easily communicated to others once it has been created. It can be printed out or sent via email so that all team members can review it and provide input on how to improve it. As a result, everyone is more likely to be on the same page, and the process will be more fruitful overall.

7. Improves efficiency: They aid in concentration and productivity by providing a framework for your ideas. This will greatly improve the efficiency and timeliness of making a video or other visual project.

Using storyboards, you can communicate your ideas visually, ensuring that everyone involved in the project has the same expectations and is working toward the same goals. By taking some time to plan ahead, you can save yourself time, money, and effort in the long run while achieving an excellent final product.

Tips for Creating an Effective Storyboard

Creating these designs can seem like a daunting task, but with just a few tips, you can make it easier and more effective. Here are some things to keep in mind when creating your storyboard:

1. Have a clear goal: Make sure you have a clear idea of what you want to achieve with your storyboard and how it will fit into the overall project. This will ensure that all parties are on the same page about the contents of each box and the final product.

2. Keep it organized: If you're going to use a storyboard, you should label each box with a descriptive name and include only the information that's relevant. This organizer will serve as a useful resource for keeping track of information and facilitating quick retrieval when needed.

3. Use sketches or images: Using sketches or images can be a great way to get an idea of how something should look without having to explain it in words.

4. Make revisions as needed: It's important to remember that storyboards are not set in stone, so don't be afraid to make changes or edits as needed. The quality of the final visuals for your project will be greatly enhanced by doing so.

5. Create a timeline: Making a timeline can allow you to manage your tasks and complete them in a timely manner.

By keeping these tips in mind, you'll be able to create an effective storyboard that will get your project off to the right start. With the right graphic organizer, you can easily convey your message and engage viewers with visuals that are both attractive and effective.

By keeping these tips in mind, you'll be able to get your project off to the right start. With the right storyboard graphic organizer, you can easily convey your message and engage viewers with visuals that are both attractive and effective.

Best Storyboarding Software

One of the options to choose when looking for the best storyboarding software on the market is Storyboard That. It has a number of useful features and tools for you to create designs quickly and efficiently. We offer several plans for different budgets and needs, so you can get everything you need without paying for features that you don't. If you are looking to create the perfect storyboard, Storyboard That has got you covered!

The Bottom Line

Storyboards can be useful even in the most unexpected cases. By taking some time to plan ahead, you can save yourself time, money, and effort in the long run while achieving an excellent final product. While storyboarding has its advantages, it's important to remember that not every situation calls for this type of visual communication. Before you decide if a storyboard is the best way to go, you should think about your needs and goals.

Now Get Started!

Here at Storyboard That, we have expanded on the traditional storyboard and have made multiple layouts and we encourage you to use one in any way that you can think of! Visual communication and storytelling will make you think about the most important things and get you to collaborate in a whole new way. Detailed designs will assist you in creating a plan of attack and turn your ideas into visuals that everyone can understand. Get started today and see just how powerful the storyboarding process is.

How Storyboarding Can Be Used As A Collaborative Tool For Group Projects And Presentations In Any Subject Area

Frequently Asked Questions about Storyboards

What kinds of storyboards can I make?

You can create a storyboard of any kind with Storyboard That! Choose from a variety of layouts including traditional, chart, spider map, timeline, T-chart, and so much more! The storyboard examples that we provide for all of our activities are sure to wow and inspire you and your students to create magic of your own.

What's another word for storyboarding?

Another term for storyboarding is "visual planning" or "visual outlining." It involves creating a visual representation or sequence of images to plan and organize a narrative or project.

What is the meaning of storyboarding in simple terms?

Storyboarding is a process of creating a series of visual frames or panels that outline the key elements of a story, project, or presentation. It is a way to visually plan and organize information, making it easier to understand and communicate.

What is a storyboard and its purpose?

A storyboard is a graphic organizer that consists of sequential panels or frames used to plan and visualize a narrative, project, or presentation. Its purpose is to break down complex ideas into manageable parts, maintain consistency, and communicate concepts effectively. Storyboards are versatile tools used in various fields such as entertainment, business, and education.

What is a storyboard in theater?

In theater, a storyboard is a visual tool used to plan and organize the staging, scenes, and sequences of a theatrical production. It helps directors and designers to visualize how the play or performance will unfold on the stage, including the placement of actors, props, and set changes.

What are the 5 parts of a storyboard?

Making a typical storyboard consists of the following five parts or phases:

1. Define the Project Goals and Objectives: Identify the project's learning objectives, scope, and roles.

2. Brainstorm and Research: Generate ideas, gather information, and organize content.

3. Plan and Create the Storyboard: Decide on the structure, format, and visual elements, then collaboratively create the storyboard.

4. Review and Feedback: Share the storyboard for input, incorporate feedback, and finalize it.

5. Presentation: Use the storyboard as a guide to create and rehearse the project presentation.

https://www.storyboardthat.com/articles/e/what-is-a-storyboard
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What is a Storyboard? - Free Storyboard Graphic Organizer

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Discover the magic and delight of a storyboard with StoryboardThat. Learn why storyboards are phenominal tools for film, business, & education.

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All about Mexico.

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Mexico is a country located in North America with a North Pacific Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea coastline. Neighboring countries include Belize, United States, and Guatemala. Mexico is crossed by two mountain ranges known as Sierra Madre Oriental and Sierra Madre Occidental, which are the extension of the Rocky Mountains from northern North America. The government system is a federal republic; the chief of state and head of government is the president. Mexico has a free market economy in which the prices of goods and services are determined in a free price system. Mexico is a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP).

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Mexico is a country located in North America with a North Pacific Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea coastline. Neighboring countries include Belize, United States, and Guatemala. Mexico is crossed by two mountain ranges known as Sierra Madre Oriental and Sierra Madre Occidental, which are the extension of the Rocky Mountains from northern North America.

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All about England.

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United Kingdom is an island country spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, located in Western Europe comprising England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. United Kingdom is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel, and the Irish Sea. It lies near vital North Atlantic sea lanes and is only 35 km from France and linked by tunnel under the English Channel. The geography is mostly rugged hills and low mountains. The government system is constitutional monarchy and a Commonwealth realm; the chief of state is the queen, and the head of government is the prime minister. The United Kingdom has an advanced open market economy in which the prices of goods and services are determined in a free price system.

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United Kingdom is an island country spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, located in Western Europe comprising England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. United Kingdom is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel, and the Irish Sea.

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All about Spain.

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Spain is a country located in Southwestern Europe. The coastlines include the Bay of Biscay, Mediterranean Sea, and Northern Atlantic Ocean. Neighboring countries include Andorra, France, Gibraltar, Portugal, and Morocco. Spain controls a number of territories in northern Morocco including several enclaves and the Canary Islands. Spain borders the Pyrenees Mountains, but much of the country is high plateaus. The government system is a parliamentary monarchy; the chief of state is the king, and the head of government is the president. Spain has a mixed capitalist economy in which there is a variety of private freedom, combined with centralized economic planning and government regulation. Spain is a member of the European Union (EU).

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Spain is a country located in Southwestern Europe. The coastlines include the Bay of Biscay, Mediterranean Sea, and Northern Atlantic Ocean. Neighboring countries include Andorra, France, Gibraltar, Portugal, and Morocco. Spain controls a number of territories in northern Morocco including several enclaves and the Canary Islands.

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All about France.

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France is a country located in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France, the mainland in Europe, borders the Bay of Biscay, English Channel, Belgium, Spain, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Monaco, Andorra, and Luxembourg. France is linked to the United Kingdom by the Channel Tunnel, which passes underneath the English Channel. The government system is a republic; the chief of state is the president, and the head of government is the prime minister. France has a mixed economic system which includes a variety of private freedom, combined with centralized economic planning and government regulation. France is a member of the European Union (EU).

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France is a country located in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France, the mainland in Europe, borders the Bay of Biscay, English Channel, Belgium, Spain, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Monaco, Andorra, and Luxembourg.

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Flag of France, vertically striped blue-white-red national flag. Blue and red are the traditional colors of Paris, while white is associated with the House of Bourbon. The flag was seen to embody all the principles of the Revolution: liberty, equality, fraternity, democracy, secularism, and modernization.

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Geography, Environment, People, Economy, Military, Transportation, etc..

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Introduction

France today is one of the most modern countries in the world and is a leader among European nations. It plays an influential global role as a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, NATO, the G-7, the G-20, the EU, and other multilateral organizations. France rejoined NATO's integrated military command structure in 2009, reversing DE GAULLE's 1966 decision to withdraw French forces from NATO. Since 1958, it has constructed a hybrid presidential-parliamentary governing system resistant to the instabilities experienced in earlier, more purely parliamentary administrations. In recent decades, its reconciliation and cooperation with Germany have proved central to the economic integration of Europe, including the introduction of a common currency, the euro, in January 1999. In the early 21st century, five French overseas entities - French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, and Reunion - became French regions and were made part of France proper.

Visit the Definitions and Notes page to view a description of each topic.

Geography

slightly more than four times the size of Georgia; slightly less than the size of Texas

metropolitan France: generally cool winters and mild summers, but mild winters and hot summers along the Mediterranean; occasional strong, cold, dry, north-to-northwesterly wind known as the mistral

French Guiana: tropical; hot, humid; little seasonal temperature variation

Guadeloupe and Martinique: subtropical tempered by trade winds; moderately high humidity; rainy season (June to October); vulnerable to devastating cyclones (hurricanes) every eight years on average

Mayotte: tropical; marine; hot, humid, rainy season during northeastern monsoon (November to May); dry season is cooler (May to November)

Reunion: tropical, but temperature moderates with elevation; cool and dry (May to November), hot and rainy (November to April)

metropolitan France: coal, iron ore, bauxite, zinc, uranium, antimony, arsenic, potash, feldspar, fluorspar, gypsum, timber, arable land, fish; French Guiana: gold deposits, petroleum, kaolin, niobium, tantalum, clay

agricultural land: 52.7% (2018 est.)

arable land: 33.4% (2018 est.)

permanent crops: 1.8% (2018 est.)

permanent pasture: 17.5% (2018 est.)

forest: 29.2% (2018 est.)

other: 18.1% (2018 est.)

fresh water lake(s): Lake Geneva (shared with Switzerland) - 580 sq km

Rhin (Rhine) (shared with Switzerland [s], Germany, and Netherlands [m]) - 1,233 km; Loire - 1,012 km
note - [s] after country name indicates river source; [m] after country name indicates river mouth

Atlantic Ocean drainage: Loire (115,282 sq km), Seine (78,919 sq km), Rhine-Maas (198,735 sq km), (Adriatic Sea) Po (76,997 sq km), (Mediterranean Sea) Rhone (100,543 sq km)

metropolitan France: flooding; avalanches; midwinter windstorms; drought; forest fires in south near the Mediterranean;

overseas departments: hurricanes (cyclones); flooding;

volcanism: Montagne Pelee (1,394 m) on the island of Martinique in the Caribbean is the most active volcano of the Lesser Antilles arc, it last erupted in 1932; a catastrophic eruption in May 1902 destroyed the city of St. Pierre, killing an estimated 30,000 people; La Soufriere (1,467 m) on the island of Guadeloupe in the Caribbean last erupted from July 1976 to March 1977; these volcanoes are part of the volcanic island arc of the Lesser Antilles that extends from Saba in the north to Grenada in the south

People and Society

French (official) 100%, declining regional dialects and languages (Provencal, Breton, Alsatian, Corsican, Catalan, Basque, Flemish, Occitan, Picard); note - overseas departments: French, Creole patois, Mahorian (a Swahili dialect)

major-language sample(s):
The World Factbook, une source indispensable d'informations de base. (French)

The World Factbook, the indispensable source for basic information.

improved: urban: 100% of population

rural: 100% of population

total: 100% of population

unimproved: urban: 0% of population

rural: 0% of population

total: 0% of population (2020 est.)

improved: urban: 100% of population

rural: 100% of population

total: 100% of population

unimproved: urban: 0% of population

rural: 0% of population

total: 0% of population (2020 est.)

Environment

metropolitan France: generally cool winters and mild summers, but mild winters and hot summers along the Mediterranean; occasional strong, cold, dry, north-to-northwesterly wind known as the mistral

French Guiana: tropical; hot, humid; little seasonal temperature variation

Guadeloupe and Martinique: subtropical tempered by trade winds; moderately high humidity; rainy season (June to October); vulnerable to devastating cyclones (hurricanes) every eight years on average

Mayotte: tropical; marine; hot, humid, rainy season during northeastern monsoon (November to May); dry season is cooler (May to November)

Reunion: tropical, but temperature moderates with elevation; cool and dry (May to November), hot and rainy (November to April)

agricultural land: 52.7% (2018 est.)

arable land: 33.4% (2018 est.)

permanent crops: 1.8% (2018 est.)

permanent pasture: 17.5% (2018 est.)

forest: 29.2% (2018 est.)

other: 18.1% (2018 est.)

fresh water lake(s): Lake Geneva (shared with Switzerland) - 580 sq km

Rhin (Rhine) (shared with Switzerland [s], Germany, and Netherlands [m]) - 1,233 km; Loire - 1,012 km
note - [s] after country name indicates river source; [m] after country name indicates river mouth

Atlantic Ocean drainage: Loire (115,282 sq km), Seine (78,919 sq km), Rhine-Maas (198,735 sq km), (Adriatic Sea) Po (76,997 sq km), (Mediterranean Sea) Rhone (100,543 sq km)

Government

description: bicameral Parliament or Parlement consists of:
Senate or Senat (348 seats - 328 for metropolitan France and overseas departments and regions of Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, Reunion, and Mayotte, 2 for New Caledonia, 2 for French Polynesia, 1 for Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, 1 for Saint-Barthelemy, 1 for Saint-Martin, 1 for Wallis and Futuna, and 12 for French nationals abroad; members indirectly elected by departmental electoral colleges using absolute majority vote in 2 rounds if needed for departments with 1-3 members, and proportional representation vote in departments with 4 or more members; members serve 6-year terms with one-half of the membership renewed every 3 years)
National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (577 seats - 556 for metropolitan France, 10 for overseas departments, and 11 for citizens abroad; members directly elected by absolute majority vote in 2 rounds if needed to serve 5-year terms)

elections:
Senate - last held on 24 September 2023 (next to be held by 30 September 2026)
National Assembly - last held on 12 and 19 June 2022 (next to be held on 30 June 2027)

election results:
Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by political caucus (party or group of parties) LR 139, SER 69, UC 51, RDPI 21, CRCE 17, LIRT 17, EST 16, RDSE 14: composition - men 222, women 126, percent of women 36.2%
National Assembly - percent of vote by party/coalition in the first round - ENS 25.8%, NUPES 25.7%, RN 18.7%, UDC 11.3%, other 18.5%; seats by party/coalition in the first round - NUPES 4, ENS 1; percent of vote in the second round - ENS 38.6%, NUPES 31.6%, RN 17.3%, UDC 7.3%, other 5.2%, seats by party/coalition in the second round - ENS 244, NUPES 127, RN 89, UDC 64, other 48; composition - men 362, women 215, percent of women 37.3%

Citizen and Republican Movement or MRC [Jean-Luc LAURENT]
Debout la France or DLF [Nicolas DUPONT-AIGNAN]
Democratic Movement or MoDem [Francois BAYROU]
Ecologist Pole or PE
Ensemble or ENS [Richard Ferrand] (electoral coalition including RE, MoDem, Horizons, PRV)
Europe Ecology - the Greens or EELV [Marine TONDELIER]
French Communist Party or PCF [Fabien ROUSSEL]
Horizons [Hubert VALADE]
La France Insoumise or FI [Jean-Luc MELENCHON]
Liberties, Independents, Overseas and Territories or LIOT [Bertrand PANCHER, Christopher NAEGELEN]
Movement of Progressives or MDP [Robert HUE]
National Rally or RN [Jordan BARDELLA] (formerly National Front or FN)
New Democrats or LND [Aurelien TACHE, Emilie CARIOU] (formerly Ecology Democracy Solidarity or EDS)
New Ecological and Social People's Union or NUPES [collective leadership] (electoral coalition including FI, PE, PS, PCF)
Radical Party of the Left or PRV [Laurent HENART]
Reconquete or REC [Eric ZEMMOUR]
Renaissance or RE [Stephane SEJOURNE]
Resistons! [Jean LASSALLE]
Socialist Party or PS [Olivier FAURE]
The Patriots or LP [Florian PHILIPPOT]
The Republicans or LR [Eric CIOTTI]
Union of Democrats and Independents or UDI [Jean-Christophe LAGARDE]
Union of Right and Center or UDC [Christian JACOB] (electoral coalition including LR, UDI)

total World Heritage Sites: 51 (44 cultural, 6 natural, 1 mixed); note - includes one site in New Caledonia and one site in French Polynesia

selected World Heritage Site locales: Chartres Cathedral (c); Palace and Park of Versailles (c); Prehistoric Sites and Decorated Caves of the Vézère Valley (c); Pyrénées - Mont Perdu (m); Cistercian Abbey of Fontenay (c); Paris, Banks of the Seine (c); The Loire Valley between Sully-sur-Loire and Chalonnes (c); Pont du Gard (Roman Aqueduct) (c); Amiens Cathedral (c); Palace and Park of Fontainebleau (c); Historic Fortified City of Carcassonne (c); Gulf of Porto: Calanche of Piana, Gulf of Girolata, Scandola Reserve (n)

Economy

$6.356 trillion (2019 est.)
$6.058 trillion (2018 est.)

comparison ranking: 3

euros (EUR) per US dollar -

Exchange rates:
0.845 (2021 est.)
0.876 (2020 est.)
0.893 (2019 est.)
0.847 (2018 est.)
0.885 (2017 est.)

Energy

electrification - total population: 100% (2021)

338.425 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)

from coal and metallurgical coke: 26.971 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)

from petroleum and other liquids: 225.865 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)

from consumed natural gas: 85.589 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)

comparison ranking: total emissions 18

Communications

Transportation

294

civil airports: 64

military airports: 22

joint use (civil-military) airports: 5

other airports: 204

note: paved runways have a concrete or asphalt surface but not all have facilities for refueling, maintenance, or air traffic control; the length of a runway required for aircraft to safely operate depends on a number of factors including the type of aircraft, the takeoff weight (including passengers, cargo, and fuel), engine types, flap settings, landing speed, elevation of the airport, and average maximum daily air temperature; paved runways can reach a length of 5,000 m (16,000 ft.), but the "typical" length of a commercial airline runway is between 2,500-4,000 m (8,000-13,000 ft.)

metropolitan France: 8,501 km (1,621 km navigable by craft up to 3,000 metric tons) (2010)

major seaport(s):
Atlantic Ocean: Brest, Calais, Dunkerque, Le Havre, Nantes
Mediterranean Sea: Marseille

container port(s) (TEUs): Le Havre (3,018,550) (2021)

LNG terminal(s) (import): Dunkerque, Fos Cavaou, Fos Tonkin, Montoir de Bretagne

river port(s): Bordeaux (Garronne); Nantes - Saint Nazaire (Loire); Paris, Rouen (Seine); Strasbourg (Rhine)

cruise/ferry port(s): Calais, Cherbourg, Le Havre

note 1: begun in 1988 and completed in 1994, the Channel Tunnel (nicknamed the Chunnel) is a 50.5-km (31.4-mi) rail tunnel beneath the English Channel at the Strait of Dover that runs from Folkestone, Kent, England to Coquelles, Pas-de-Calais in northern France; it is the only fixed link between the island of Great Britain and mainland Europe

note 2: France operates two icebreakers, one PC 3 or 4 class icebreaker based in French Polynesia for operations in Antarctica and one PC 5 or 6 class icebreaker based in the North Atlantic
note - PC indicates a Polar Class vessel: PC 3 - year-round operation in second-year ice which may include multi-year ice inclusions (ice thickness up to 2.5 m); PC 4 - year-round operation in thick first-year ice which may include old ice inclusions (ice thickness up to 120 cm); PC 5 - year-round operation in medium first-year ice which may include old ice inclusions (ice thickness up to 70-120 cm); PC 6 - summer/autumn operation in medium first-year ice which may include old ice inclusions (ice thickness up to 30-70 cm)

Military and Security

1.9% of GDP (2023 est.)
1.9% of GDP (2022 est.)
1.9% of GDP (2021)
2% of GDP (2020)
1.8% of GDP (2019)

comparison ranking: 65

generally 17-30 years of age for both men and women with some variations by service, position, and enlisted versus officer; basic service contract is for 12 months; no conscription (abolished 2001) (2023)

note 1: in 2023, women comprised more than 16% of the uniformed armed forces

note 2: French citizens can also volunteer for the Voluntary Military Service (VMS), which allows unemployed youth aged 18-25 to learn a trade or gain work experience while receiving basic military training and sports activities; French citizens may also joint the military operational reserve up to age 72

note 3: men between the ages of 17.5 and 39.5 years of age, of any nationality, may join the French Foreign Legion; those volunteers selected for service sign five-year contracts

the French military is a large, experienced, and professional force with a long history, a global footprint, and a wide range of missions and responsibilities; it operates under France's overall defense and national security strategy, currently defined through the five major strategic functions of anticipation, prevention, deterrence, protection, and intervention; the military's responsibilities include protecting French territory, population, and interests, and fulfilling France's commitments to NATO, European security, and international peacekeeping operations under the UN; it is the largest military in the EU and has a leading role in the EU security framework, as well as in NATO; in recent years, it has actively participated in coalition peacekeeping and other security operations in regions such as Africa, the Middle East, and the Balkans, frequently taking a lead role in these operations; the military has more than 30,000 troops deployed worldwide and regularly conducts large-scale exercises and participates in a variety of bi-lateral and multinational exercises; it also has a domestic security mission, including providing enhanced security at sensitive sites and large events and support during national crises or disasters, such as fighting forest fires; in recent years, defense responsibilities have expanded to include cyber and space domains

the first permanent French Army was established in the 15th century; the French Army (or Land Army) today has 12 divisional-level commands, which includes commands for aviation and special forces and two combat divisions comprised of six brigades of airborne, armored, light armored, marine infantry, and mountain infantry forces, as well as a bi-national Franco-German mechanized brigade; the Army also has some garrison units for France's overseas possessions

the French Navy (created in 1626) operates worldwide and conducts missions ranging from policing illegal fishing to combat operations involving air and missile strikes; it is a key component of France's nuclear deterrent; the Navy is organized into a surface force, a submarine and strategic force, naval aviation, a marine and commando force, and a maritime gendarmerie; its principal warships include an aircraft carrier, about 20 destroyers or frigates of various types, six ocean-going patrol ships, three helicopter carrier/amphibious assault ships, six nuclear-powered attack submarines, and four nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (note - France became a nuclear power in 1960)

French military aviation was officially established in 1912 although its roots go back to the formation of a military balloon unit in 1794; France was the first country to categorize air squadrons into fighter, bomber, and reconnaissance types; the current Air and Space Force is organized into commands for air, air defense, space, and strategic operations; it has over 550 fixed and rotary wing aircraft, including about 200 domestically made fighters and multipurpose fighter aircraft

in 2010, France and the UK signed a declaration on defense and security cooperation that included greater military interoperability and a Combined Joint Expeditionary Force (CJEF), a deployable, combined Anglo-French military force for use in a wide range of crisis scenarios, up to and including high intensity combat operations; the CJEF has no standing forces, but would be available at short notice for French-UK bilateral, NATO, EU, UN, or other operations; combined training exercises began in 2011; as of 2020, the CJEF was assessed as having full operating capacity with the ability to rapidly deploy over 10,000 personnel capable of high intensity operations, peacekeeping, disaster relief, and humanitarian assistance

the French Foreign Legion, established in 1831, is a military force that is open to foreign recruits willing to serve in the French military for service in France and abroad; the Foreign Legion is an integrated part of the French Army and is comprised of approximately 8,000 personnel; its combat units are a mix of armored cavalry and airborne, light, mechanized, and motorized infantry regiments (2023)

Space

has one of Europe's largest space programs and is a key member of the European Space Agency (ESA), as well as one of its largest contributors; has independent capabilities in all areas of space categories except for autonomous manned space flight; can build, launch, and operate a range of space/satellite launch vehicles (SLVs) and spacecraft, including exploratory probes and a full spectrum of satellites; trained astronauts until training mission shifted to ESA in 2001; develops a wide range of space-related technologies; hosts the ESA headquarters; participates in international space programs such as the Square Kilometer Array Project (world's largest radio telescope) and International Space Station (ISS); cooperates with a broad range of space agencies and commercial space companies, including those of China, Egypt, individual ESA member countries, India, Indonesia, Israel, Japan, Mexico, Russia, the UAE, the US, and several African countries; has a large commercial space sector involved in such areas as satellite construction and payloads, launch capabilities, and a range of other space-related capabilities and technologies (2023)

note: further details about the key activities, programs, and milestones of the country's space program, as well as government spending estimates on the space sector, appear in Appendix S

Terrorism

Terrorist group(s): Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps/Qods Force; Islamic State of Iraq and ash-Sham (ISIS); al-Qa'ida

note: details about the history, aims, leadership, organization, areas of operation, tactics, targets, weapons, size, and sources of support of the group(s) appear(s) in Appendix-T

Transnational Issues

Madagascar claims the French territories of Bassas da India, Europa Island, Glorioso Islands, and Juan de Nova Island; Comoros claims Mayotte; Mauritius claims Tromelin Island; territorial dispute between Suriname and the French overseas department of French Guiana; France asserts a territorial claim in Antarctica (Adelie Land); France and Vanuatu claim Matthew and Hunter Islands, east of New Caledonia

metropolitan France: transshipment point for South American cocaine, Southwest Asian heroin, and European synthetics;

French Guiana: small amount of marijuana grown for local consumption; minor transshipment point to Europe;

Martinique: transshipment point for cocaine and marijuana bound for the US and Europe

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France today is one of the most modern countries in the world and is a leader among European nations. It plays an influential global role as a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, NATO, the G-7, the G-20, the EU, and other multilateral organizations.

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Introduction

Written by Maciamo in March 2005

Prehistory & Antiquity

England was settled by humans for at least 500,000 years. The first modern humans (homo sapiens) arrived during the Ice Age (about 35,000 to 10,000 years ago), when the sea levels were lower and Britain was connected to the European mainland. It is these people who built the ancient megalithic monuments of Stonehenge and Avebury.

Between 1,500 and 500 BCE, Celtic tribes migrated from Central Europe and France to Britain and mixed with the indigenous inhabitants, creating a new culture slightly distinct from the Continental Celtic one. This was the Bronze Age.

The Romans tried a first time to invade Britannia (the Latin name of the island) in 55 BCE under Julius Caesar, but weren't successful until 43 CE, during the reign of Emperor Claudius. In 122 CE, Emperor Hadrian built a wall in the north of Britannia to keep the barbarian Pics at bay.

The Romans controlled most of present-day England and Wales, and founded a large number of cities that still exist today. London, York, St Albans, Bath, Exeter, Lincoln, Leicester, Worcester, Gloucester, Chichester, Winchester, Colchester, Manchester, Chester, Lancaster, were all Roman towns, as in fact were all the cities with names now ending in -chester, -cester or -caster, which derive from Latin castrum ("fortification").

The Anglo-Saxons

The Romans progressively abandoned Britannia in the 5th century as their Empire was falling apart and legions were needed to protect Rome.

With the Romans gone, the Celtic tribes started fighting with each others again, and one of the local chieftain had the not so brilliant idea to request help from the some Germanic tribes from the North of present-day Germany and South of Denmark. These were the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who arrived in the 5th and 6th centuries.

However, things did not happen as the Celts had expected. The Germanic tribes did not go back home after the fight, and on the contrary felt strong enough to seize the whole of the country for themselves, which they did, pushing back all the Celtic tribes to Wales and Cornwall, and founding their respective kingdoms of Kent (the Jutes), Essex, Sussex and Wessex (the Saxons), and further north East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria (the Angles). These 7 kingdoms, which rules over all England from about 500 to 850 AD, were later known as the Anglo-Saxon heptarchy.

The Vikings

From the second half of the 9th century, the Norse from Scandinavia started invading Europe, the Swedes taking up Eastern Europe, Russia (which they founded as a country) and the Byzantine Empire, the Norwegians raiding Scotland and Ireland, discovering and settling in the Faroe Islands, Iceland and Greenland (and were in fact the first Europeans to set foot in America in 1000 AD), while the Danes wrought havoc throughout Western Europe, as far as North Africa.

The Danes invaded the North-East of England, from Northumerland to East Anglia, and founded a new kingdom known as the Danelaw. Another group of Danes managed to take Paris, and obtain a grant of land from the King of France in 911. This area became the Duchy of Normandy, and its inhabitants were the Normans (from 'North Men' or 'Norsemen', another term for 'Viking').

The Normans

After having settled in their newly acquired land, the Normans, adopted the French feudal system and French as official language.

During that time, the Kings of Wessex had resisted and eventually vanquished the Danes in England in the 10th century. But the powerful Canute the Great (995-1035), king of the newly unified Denmark and Norway and overlord of Schleswig and Pomerania, led two other invasions on England in 1013 and 1015, and became king of England in 1016, after crushing the Anglo-Saxon king, Edmund II.

Edward the Confessor (1004-1066) succeeded to Canute's two sons. He nominated William, Duke of Normandy, as his successor, but upon his death, Harold Godwinson, the powerful Earl of Wessex, crowned himself king. William refused to acknowledge Harold as King and invaded England with 12,000 soldiers in 1066. King Harold was killed at the battle of Hastings (by an arrow in the eye, as the legend as it), and William the Conqueror become William I of England. His descendants have sat on the throne of England to this day.

William I (1027-1087) ordered a nationwide survey of land property known as the Domesday Book, and redistributed land among his vassals. Many of the country's medieval castles were built under William's reign (eg. Dover, Arundel, Windsor, Warwick, Kenilworth, Lincoln...).

The Norman rulers kept their possessions in France, and even extended them to most of Western France (Brittany, Aquitaine...). French became the official language of England, and remained it until 1362, a bit after the beginning of the Hundred Years' War with France. English nevertheless remained the language of the populace, and the fusion of English (a mixture of Anglo-Saxon and Norse languages) with French and Latin (used by the clergy) slowly evolved into modern English.

12th & 13th centuries : Royal intrigues & troubled successions

The English royals after William I had the infamous habit to contend for the throne. William's son, William II was killed while hunting, and it is believed that he was in fact murdered, so that William's second son, Henry, could become king. Henry I's succession was also agitated, with his daughter Matilda and her cousin Stephen (grandson of William I) starting a civil war for the throne. Although Stephen won, Matilda's son succeeded him as Henry II (1133-1189). It is under Henry II that the University of Oxford was established.

The following struggle of Henry II's two children was made famous by the legend of Robin Hood. Richard I "Lionheart" was hardly ever in England, too busy defending his French possessions or fighting the infidels in the Holy Land. During that time, his brother John "Lackland" usurped the throne and startled another civil war.

John's grandson, Edward I "Longshanks" (1239-1307) spent most of his 35-year reign fighting wars, first against his barons led by Simon de Montfort (see Kenilworth), then on the 9th Crusade, back home annexing Wales, and last but not least against the Scots, led by William Wallace and Robert the Bruce, whose proud resistance was immortalised in the Hollywood movie Braveheart.

Edward I' son, Edward II, was all his father wasn't. He didn't like war, preferring to party with his friends. He also happened to be gay, which led to his imprisonment and tragic murder by his wife and her lover (see Gloucester).

14th & 15th centuries : Hundred Years' War & War of the Roses

Edward III (1312-1377) succeeded his father at the age of 15 and reigned for 50 years (the second longest reign in English history after Henry III, queens excluded). His reign was marked by the beginning of the Hundred Years' War (1337-1416) and epidemics of bubonic plague ("Black Death"), which killed one third of England (and Europe's) population.

Edward III was often fighting in France, and the government was controlled de facto by his third son John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. John of Gaunt's son, Henry Bolingbroke, took advantage of his cousin Richard II's absence to proclaim himself King Henry IV (1367-1413). Escaping several assassination attempts, Henry also had to deal with the revolt of Owen Glendower, who declared himself Prince of Wales in 1400, then with the rebellion of the Earl of Northumberland.

Henry V (1387-1422), famously defeated the French at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, but his pious and peace-loving son Henry VI (1421-1471), who inherited the throne at just one year old, was to have a much more troubled reign. The regent lost most of the English possessions in France to a 17-year old girl (Joan of Arc) and in 1455, the Wars of the Roses broke out. This civil war opposed the House of Lancaster (the Red Rose, supporters of Henry VI) to the House of York (the White Rose, supporters of Edward IV). The Yorks argued that the crown should have passed to Edward III' second son, Lionel of Antwerp, rather than to the Lancasters descending from John of Gaunt.

One of the key players was Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, nicknamed "the Kingmaker", for deposing Henry VI for Edward IV, then again Edward for Henry 9 years later.

Edward IV's son, Edward V, only reigned for one year, before being locked in the Tower of London by his evil uncle, Richard III (1452-1485), although probably not as evil as Shakespeare depicted him in his play. The reason is that Lancastrian Henry Tudor (1457-1509), the half-brother of Henry VI, defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, and became Henry VII, founder of the House of Tudor, for which Shakespeare wrote.

Henry Tudor's son is maybe England's most famous and historically important ruler, the magnificent Henry VIII (1491-1547).

The 16th century Renaissance

Henry VIII

Henry VIII is remembered in history as one of the most powerful kings of England. Except for getting married six times, desperate for a male heir, Henry changed the face of England, passing the Acts of Union with Wales (1536-1543), thus becoming the first English King of Wales, then changing his title of Lord of Ireland into that of (also first) King of Ireland (1541).

In 1533, Henry divorced his first wife, Catherine of Aragon (Queen Mary's mother, see Peterborough) to remarry Anne Boleyn (Queen Elizabeth I's mother), the Pope excommunicated Henry, and in return, Henry proclaimed himself head of the Church of England. To assure the control over the clergy, Henry dissolved all the monasteries in the country (1536-1540) and nationalised them, becoming immensely rich in the process.

Henry VIII was the last English king to claim the title of King of France, as he lost his last possession there, the port of Calais (although he tried to recover it, taking Tournai for a few years, the only town in present-day Belgium to have been under English rule).

It was also under Henry VIII that England started exploring the globe and trading outside Europe, although this would only develop to colonial proportions under his daughters, Mary I and especially Elizabeth I (after whom Virginia was named).

Henry VIII's children

The 10-year old Edward VI inherited the throne at his father's death in 1547, but died 6 years later and was succeeded by his elder half-daughter Mary. Mary I (1516-1558), a staunch Catholic, intended to restore Roman Catholicism to England, executing over 300 religious dissenters in her 5-year reign (which owned her the nickname of Bloody Mary). She married the powerful King Philip II of Spain, who also ruled over the Netherlands, the Spanish Americas and the Philippines (named after him), and was the champion of the Counter-Reform (read "Inquisition"). Marry died childless of ovarian cancer in 1558, and her half-sister Elizabeth ascended the throne.

The great Virgin Queen Elizabeth I (1533-1603) saw the first golden age of England. It was an age of great navigators like Sir Francis Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh (see Plymouth), an age of enlightenment with the philosopher Francis Bacon (1561-1626), and playwrights such as Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593) and William Shakespeare (1564-1616).

Her reign was also marked by conflicts with France and Scotland (bound by a common queen, Mary Stuart), then Spain and Ireland. Elizabeth was an undecisive and prudent ruler. She never married, and when Mary Stuart tried and failed to take over the throne of England, Elizabeth kept her imprisoned for 19 years (most of the time in Chatsworth House under the guard of the Earl of Shrewsbury), before finally signing her act of execution.

Elizabeth died in 1603, and ironically, Mary Stuart's son, James VI of Scotland, succeeded Elizabeth as King James I of England - thus creating the United Kingdom.

The 17th century : Religious troubles & Civil War

James I (1566-1625) was a Protestant, like Elizabeth, and aimed at improving relations with the Catholics. But 2 years after he was crowned, a group of Catholic extremists led by Guy Fawkes attempted to place a bomb at the parliament's state opening, when the king and his entourage would be present, so as to get rid of all the Protestant aristocracy in one fell swoop. The conspirators were betrayed by one of their number just hours before the plan's enactment. The failure of the Gunpowder Plot, as it is known (see Coughton Court), is still celebrated throughout Britain on Guy Fawkes' night (5th November), with fireworks and bonfires burning effigies of the conspirators' leader.

The divide between Catholics and Protestant worsened after this incident. James's successor Charles I (1600-1649) was eager to unify Britain and Ireland, and wanted to do so as an absolute ruler of divine right, like his French counter-part Louis XIV. Despite being an (Anglican) Protestant, his marriage with a French Roman Catholic combined with policies at odd with Calvinist ideals and his totalitarian handling of the Parliament eventually culminated in the English Civil War (1642-1651). The country was torn between Royalist and Parliamentarian troops, and most of the medieval castles still standing were destroyed during that period (eg. Kenilworth, Corfe, Bodiam...).

Charles was beheaded, and the puritan leader of the Parliamentarians, Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658), ruled the country as a dictator from 1649 to his death. He was briefly succeeded by his son Richard at the head of the Protectorate, but his political inability prompted the Parliament to restore the monarchy in 1660, calling in Charles I' exiled son, Charles II (1630-1685).

The Restoration

The "Merry Monarch", as Charles II was known, was better at handling Parliament than his father, although as ruthless with other matters. It is during his reign that the Whig and Tory parties were created, and that the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam became English and was renamed New York, after Charles' brother, James, Duke of York (and later James II).

Charles II was the patron of the arts and sciences. He helped found the Royal Society and sponsored architect Sir Christopher Wren, who rebuilt the City of London of the Great Fire of 1666, and constructed some of England's greatest edifices. Charles acquired Bombay and Tangiers through his Portuguese wife, thus laying the foundation for the British Empire.

Although Charles produced countless illegitimate children, 14 of whom he acknowledged (including the Duke of Monmouth, the Duke of Northumberland, the Duke of Grafton, the Duke of Cleveland, the Duke of Richmond and the Duke of St Albans), his wife couldn't bear an heir, and when he died in 1685 the throne passed to his Catholic and unpopular brother James.

The Glorious Revolution

James II's religious inclinations and despotism led to his quick removal from power in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. His Protestant daughter Mary, married to his equally Protestant nephew, William of Orange. The couple was "invited" by the Protestant aristocracy to conduct an invasion from the Netherlands. They defeated James' troops at the Battle of the Boyne, and deposed James II with limited bloodshed. James was allowed to escape to France, where he remained the rest of his life under the protection of Louis XIV. His son and grandson later attempted to come back to the throne, but without success.

The new ruling couple became known as the "Grand Alliance". The parliament ratified that all kings or queens would have to be Protestant from then on. After Mary's death in 1694, then William's in 1702, James's second daughter, Anne, ascended the throne. In 1707, the Act of Union joined the Scottish and the English Parliaments thus creating the single Kingdom of Great Britain and centralising political power in London. Anne died heirless in 1714, and a distant German cousin, George of Hanover, was called to rule over the UK.

The House of Hanover

German Georges

When George I (1660-1727) arrived in England, he couldn't speak a word of English, and the legend has it that he was mistakenly arrested while strolling around his palace's garden when questioned by his staff who weren't familiar with his appearance.

The king's inability to communicate well with his government and subjects led him to appoint a de facto Prime Minister in the person of Robert Walpole (1676-1745). This marked a turning point in British politics, as future monarchs were also to remain more passive figures, letting the reins of the government to the Prime Minister.

George II (1683-1760) was also German born, and combined the title of Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Archtreasurer and Prince-Elector of the Holy Roman Empire to that of King of Great-Britain and Ireland. He was a powerful ruler, and the last British monarch to personally lead his troops into battle. Hanoverian composer G.F. Handel was commissioned to compose his coronation anthem ("Zadok the Priest"), which has been sung at every coronation since.

The British Empire expanded considerably during his reign and the song "God Save the King" also developed during that period. Some other notable changes include the replacement of the Julian Calendar by the Gregorian Calendar in 1752, and the New Year was officially moved from 25 March to 1 January.

George III : American, French & Industrial Revolutions

The first Hanoverian king to be born in England with English as his native language, George III (1738-1820) had one of the most troubled and interesting reign in British history. He ascended the throne during the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) opposing almost all the major Western powers in two teams, chiefly British against French, and ended in a de facto victory for the UK, which acquired New France (Quebec), Florida, and most of French India in the process.

However, 13 years later, the American War of Independence (1776-1782) started after the British government imposed a series of taxes on the colonies. The 13 American colonies were finally granted their independence in 1782 and formed the United States of America. 7 years later, the French Revolution broke out, and Louis XVI was guillotined. George III suffered from an hereditary disease known as porphyria, and his mental health seriously deteriorated from 1788. By 1811 he was permanently insane (see Regency below). In 1800, the Act of Union merged the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland.

During that time, Britain had to face the ambitions of Napoleon to conquer the whole of Europe. Admiral Nelson's naval victory at Traflagar (off the coast of Spain) in 1805, and Wellington's decisive victory at Waterloo saved the UK, and further reinforced its international position. The 19th century would be dominated by the British Empire, spreading on all five continents, from Canada and the Caribeans to Australia and New Zealand, via Africa, India and South-East Asia.

Another notable fact of George III's reign was the start of the Industrial Revolution, with James Watt's famous steam engine and the mechanisation of the manufacturing industry transforming the face of England to this day. Great industrial cities such as Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds and Sheffield emerged as the new economic centres of the country, their population booming several fold. The gap between the rich and the poor increased considerably, as was poignantly described by Charles Dickens in such novels as David Copperfield or Oliver Twist.

Regency & Reforms

During George III's insanity (1811-1820), the Prince of Wales was appointed as Regent, then became King George IV (1762-1830) at his father's death. The Regent was known for his extravagance and liking for women. He was more often diverting himself in his magnificent Oriental-style pavilion in Brighton than worrying about the affairs of state in London, leaving the power to the Prime Minister, Lord Liverpool (1770-1828), during most of his reign.

George IV notoriously had poor relationships with his father, and especially his wife, Caroline of Brunswick, refusing to recognise her as Queen and seeking to divorce her.

The King and Lord Liverpool were opposed to the Catholic Emancipation, i.e. the issue of reducing restrictions on the political rights of Roman Catholics. The Duke of Wellington, however, passed the Catholic Relief Act in 1829 during his term as Prime Minister (1828-1830).

George IV died in 1830, and was replaced by his brother, William IV (1765-1837). In 1831, the Whig party came back to power and Earl Grey (1764-1845), the new Prime Minister (after whom the tea is named), reformed the electoral system.

On the cultural scene, the early 19th century was highly prolific. It was the Romantic period, with poets like Lord Byron (1788-1824), Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822) or John Keats (1795-1821) and novelist Jane Austen (1775-1817). Also worth noting is that the world's first steam train was launched on the Stockton and Darlington railway (North-East England) in 1825 by George Stephenson (1781-1848).

The British Empire & Victorian England

In 1837, William IV died of liver disease and the throne passed to the next in line, his 18-year old niece Victoria (1819-1901), although she did not inherit the Kingdom of Hanover, where the Salic Law forbid women to rule.

Victoria didn't expect to become queen, was still unmarried and inexperienced in politics, and had to rely on her Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne (1779-1848), after whom the Australian city is named. She finally got married to her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (1819-1861), and both were respectively niece and nephew of the first King of the Belgians, Leopold I (of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha).

Prince Albert organised the Great Exhibition (the first World Fair) in 1851, and the profits were used to found the great South Kensington Museum (later renamed the Victoria and Albert Museum) in London.

Britain asserted its hegemony on virtually every part of the globe, although this resulted in numerous wars, as for example the Opium Wars (1839-42 & 1856-60) with Qing China, or the Boer Wars (1880-81 & 1899-1902) with the Dutch-speaking settlers of South Africa.

In 1854, the the United Kingdom was brought into the Crimean War (1854-56) on the side of the Ottoman Empire and against Russia. One of the best known figure of that war was Florence Nightingale (1820-1910), who fought for the improvement of the women's condition and pioneered modern nursing (see Claydon House).

In 1861, Albert died prematurely at the age of 42. Victoria was devastated and retired in a semi-permanent state of mourning. She nevertheless started a romantic relationship with her Scottish servant John Brown (1826-1883), and there were even talks of a secret marriage. This episode of Victoria's life has been the object of the film Mrs Brown.

The latter years of her reign were dominated by two influential Prime Ministers, Benjamin Disraeli (1808-1881) and his rival William Ewart Gladstone (1809-1898). The former was the favourite of the Queen, and crowned her "Empress of India" in 1876, in return of which Victoria creating him Earl of Beaconsfield. Gladstone was a liberal, and often at odd with both Victoria and Disraeli, but the strong support he enjoyed from within his party kept him in power for a total of 14 years between 1868 and 1894. He legalised trade unions, advocated both universal education and universal suffrage (well, at least for men).

Queen Victoria was to have the longest reign of any British monarch (64 years), but also the most glorious, as she ruled over 40% of the globe and a quarter of the world's population.

The Two World Wars

Victoria's numerous children married in about all European Royal families, which owned her the affectionate title of "grandmother of Europe". Her son, Edward VII (1841-1910) was the uncle of German Emperor Wilhelm II, Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, King Alphonso XIII of Spain, and Carl Eduard, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, while George I of the Hellenes and King Frederick VIII of Denmark were his brothers-in-law; and King Albert I of Belgium, Manuel II of Portugal, King Ferdinand of Bulgaria, Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands, and Prince Ernst August, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, were his cousins.

The alliances between these related monarchs escalated in the Great War (WWI) of 1914-1918 when Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated in Sarajevo, and Austria declared war on Serbia, which in turn was allied to France, Russia and the UK. The First World War left over 9 million dead (including nearly 1 million Britons) throughout Europe, and financially ruined most of the countries involved. The monarchies in Germany, Austria, Russia and the Ottoman Empire all fell, and the map of central and eastern Europe was redesigned.

The consequences in Britain were disillusionment with the government and monarchy, and the creation of the Labour Party. The General Strike of 1926 and the worsening economy led to radical political changes, and women were granted the same universal suffrage as men (from age 21 instead of previously 30) in 1928.

In 1936, Edward VIII (1894-1972) succeeded to his father George V, but abdicated the same year to marry Wallis Simpson, a twice divorced American woman. His brother then unexpectedly became George VI (1895-1952) after the scandal.

Nazi Germany was becoming more menacing as Hitler grew more powerful and aggressive. Finally Britain and France were forced to declare war on Germany after the invasion of Poland in September 1939, and so started the Second World War. The charismatic Winston Churchill (1874-1965) became the war-time Prime Minister in 1940 and his speeches encouraged the British to fight off the attempted German invasion. In one of his most patriotic speeches before the Battle of Britain (1940), Churchill address the British people with " We shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender." And indeed, Britain did not surrender.

The Postwar

In 1945, the UK was bankrupt and its industry destroyed by the Blitz war, and the British Empire was dismantled little by little, first granting the independence to India and Pakistan in 1947, then to the other Asian, African and Caribbean colonies in the 1950's and 60's (in the 70's and 80's for the smaller islands of the eastern Caribbean).

Most of these ex-colonies formed the British Commonwealth, now known as the Commonwealth of Nations. 53 states are now members of the Commonwealth, accounting for 1.8 billion people (about 30% of the global population) and about 25% of the world's land area.

In 1952, Elizabeth II (b. 1926) ascended the throne at the age of 26. Although she somewhat rehabilitated the image of the monarchy, her children did not, and their sentimental lives have made the headlines of the tabloid newspapers at least since the marriage of Charles, Prince of Wales, with Lady Diana Spencer (see Althorp) in 1981.

Pop and Rock music replaced colonial remembrances in the 1960's with bands like the Beattles, Pink Floyd, the Rolling Stones or Black Sabbath. The Hippie subculture also developed at that time.

The 70's brought the oil crisis and the collapse of the British industry. Conservative PM Margaret Thatcher (b. 1925) was elected in 1979 and stayed until 1990. She privatised the railways and shut down inefficient factories, but also increased the gap between the rich and the poor by cutting on the social security. Her methods were so harsh that she was nicknamed the 'Iron Lady'.

Thatcher was succeeded in her party by the unpopular John Major, but in 1997, the "New Labour" (more to the right than the "Old Labour") came back to power with Tony Blair (b. 1953). Blair's liberal policies and unwavering support of neo-conservative US President George W. Bush (especially regarding the invasion of Iraq in 2003) disappointed many Leftists, who really saw in Blair but a Rightist in disguise. But Blair has also positively surprised many by his intelligence and remarkable skills as an orator and negotiator.

Nowadays, the English economy relies heavily on services. The main industries are travel (discount airlines and travel agencies), education (apart from Oxford and Cambridge universities and textbooks, hundreds of language schools for learners of English), music (EMI, HMV, Virgin...), prestige cars (Rolls Royce, Bentley, Jaguar, Lotus, Aston Martin, MG...), fashion (Burberry, Dunhill, Paul Smith, Vivienne Westwood, French Connection...), and surprisingly to some, food (well especially tea, biscuits, chocolates and jam or companies like Unilever and Cadburry-Schweppes).

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Written by Maciamo in March 2005 England was settled by humans for at least 500,000 years. The first modern humans (homo sapiens) arrived during the Ice Age (about 35,000 to 10,000 years ago), when the sea levels were lower and Britain was connected to the European mainland.

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Geography, Environment, People, Economy, Military, Transportation, etc..

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Introduction

The site of several advanced Amerindian civilizations - including the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya, and Aztec - Mexico was conquered and colonized by Spain in the early 16th century. Administered as the Viceroyalty of New Spain for three centuries, it achieved independence early in the 19th century. Elections held in 2000 marked the first time since the 1910 Mexican Revolution that an opposition candidate - Vicente FOX of the National Action Party (PAN) - defeated the party in government, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). He was succeeded in 2006 by another PAN candidate Felipe CALDERON, but Enrique PEÑA NIETO regained the presidency for the PRI in 2012. Left-leaning anti-establishment politician and former mayor of Mexico City (2000-05) Andrés Manuel LÓPEZ OBRADOR, from the National Regeneration Movement (MORENA), became president in December 2018.

Mexico is currently the second-largest (after Canada) goods trading partner of the US with nearly $780 billion in two-way goods trade in 2022. Mexico's GDP contracted by 8.2% in 2020 due to pandemic-induced closures, its lowest level since the Great Depression. Mexico's economy is rebounding; it grew by 4.8% in 2021, driven largely by increased remittances, despite supply chain and pandemic-related challenges, and grew by 3% in 2022.

The US-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA, or T-MEC by its Spanish acronym) entered into force on 1 July 2020 and replaced its predecessor, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Mexico amended its constitution on 1 May 2019 to facilitate the implementation of the labor components of USMCA.

Ongoing economic and social concerns include low real wages, high underemployment, inequitable income distribution, and few advancement opportunities, particularly for the largely indigenous population in the impoverished southern states. Since 2007, Mexico's powerful transnational criminal organizations have engaged in a struggle to control criminal markets, resulting in tens of thousands of drug-related homicides and forced disappearances.

Visit the Definitions and Notes page to view a description of each topic.

Geography

slightly less than three times the size of Texas

agricultural land: 54.9% (2018 est.)

arable land: 11.8% (2018 est.)

permanent crops: 1.4% (2018 est.)

permanent pasture: 41.7% (2018 est.)

forest: 33.3% (2018 est.)

other: 11.8% (2018 est.)

Rio Grande river mouth (shared with US [s]) - 3,057 km; Colorado river mouth (shared with US [s]) - 2,333 km
note - [s] after country name indicates river source; [m] after country name indicates river mouth

Atlantic Ocean drainage: (Gulf of Mexico) Rio Grande/Bravo (607,965 sq km)
Pacific Ocean drainage: (Gulf of California) Colorado (703,148 sq km)

tsunamis along the Pacific coast, volcanoes and destructive earthquakes in the center and south, and hurricanes on the Pacific, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean coasts

volcanism: volcanic activity in the central-southern part of the country; the volcanoes in Baja California are mostly dormant; Colima (3,850 m), which erupted in 2010, is Mexico's most active volcano and is responsible for causing periodic evacuations of nearby villagers; it has been deemed a Decade Volcano by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to its explosive history and close proximity to human populations; Popocatepetl (5,426 m) poses a threat to Mexico City; other historically active volcanoes include Barcena, Ceboruco, El Chichon, Michoacan-Guanajuato, Pico de Orizaba, San Martin, Socorro, and Tacana; see note 2 under "Geography - note"

People and Society

Spanish only 93.8%, Spanish and indigenous languages 5.4%, indigenous only 0.6%, unspecified 0.2%; note - indigenous languages include various Mayan, Nahuatl, and other regional languages (2020 est.)

major-language sample(s):
La Libreta Informativa del Mundo, la fuente indispensable de información básica. (Spanish)

The World Factbook, the indispensable source for basic information.

improved: urban: 100% of population

rural: 98.3% of population

total: 99.7% of population

unimproved: urban: 0% of population

rural: 1.7% of population

total: 0.3% of population (2020 est.)

improved: urban: 99.9% of population

rural: 96.4% of population

total: 99.2% of population

unimproved: urban: 0.1% of population

rural: 3.6% of population

total: 0.8% of population (2020 est.)

Environment

agricultural land: 54.9% (2018 est.)

arable land: 11.8% (2018 est.)

permanent crops: 1.4% (2018 est.)

permanent pasture: 41.7% (2018 est.)

forest: 33.3% (2018 est.)

other: 11.8% (2018 est.)

Rio Grande river mouth (shared with US [s]) - 3,057 km; Colorado river mouth (shared with US [s]) - 2,333 km
note - [s] after country name indicates river source; [m] after country name indicates river mouth

Atlantic Ocean drainage: (Gulf of Mexico) Rio Grande/Bravo (607,965 sq km)
Pacific Ocean drainage: (Gulf of California) Colorado (703,148 sq km)

Government

description:

bicameral National Congress or Congreso de la Unión consists of:
Senate or Cámara de Senadores (128 seats; 96 members directly elected in multi-seat constituencies by simple majority vote and 32 directly elected in a single, nationwide constituency by proportional representation vote; members serve 6-year terms)

Chamber of Deputies or Cámara de Diputados (500 seats; 300 members directly elected in single-seat constituencies by simple majority vote and 200 directly elected in a single, nationwide constituency by proportional representation vote; members serve 3-year terms)

elections:
Senate - last held on 1 July 2018 (next to be held in July 2024)

Chamber of Deputies - last held on 6 June 2021 (next to be held in July 2024)

election results:

Senate - percent of vote by party - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - MORENA 58, PAN 22, PRI 14, PRD 9, MC 7, PT 7, PES 5, PVEM 5, PNA/PANAL 1; composition (as of July 2018) - men 65, women 63, percent of women 49.2%

Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - MORENA 197, PAN 111, PRI 69, PVEM 44, PT 38, MC 25, PRD 16; composition - men 250, women 250, percent of women 50%; note - overall percent of women in National Congress 49.8%

note: as of the 2018 election, senators will be eligible for a second term and deputies up to 4 consecutive terms

Citizen's Movement (Movimiento Ciudadano) or MC [Clemente CASTAÑEDA Hoeflich]
Institutional Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario Institucional) or PRI [Claudia RUIZ Massieu]
Labor Party (Partido del Trabajo) or PT [Alberto ANAYA Gutiérrez]
Mexican Green Ecological Party (Partido Verde Ecologista de México) or PVEM [Karen CASTREJÓN Trujillo]
Movement for National Regeneration (Movimiento Regeneración Nacional) or MORENA [Mario DELGADO Carillo]
National Action Party (Partido Acción Nacional) or PAN [Antonio CORTÉS Mendoza]
Party of the Democratic Revolution (Partido de la Revolución Democrática) or PRD [Jesús ZAMBRANO Grijalva]
This Is For Mexico (Va Por México) (alliance that includes PAN, PRI, and PRD)
Together We Make History (Juntos Hacemos Historia) (alliance that included MORENA, PT, PVEM) (dissolved 23 December 2020)

total World Heritage Sites: 35 (27 cultural, 6 natural, 2 mixed)

selected World Heritage Site locales: Historic Mexico City (c); Earliest 16th-Century Monasteries on the Slopes of Popocatepetl (c); Teotihuacan (c); Whale Sanctuary of El Vizcaino (n); Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve (n); Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Valley (m); Historic Puebla (c); El Tajin (c); Historic Tlacotalpan (c); Historic Oaxaca and Monte Albán (c); Palenque (c); Chichen-Itza (c); Uxmal (c)

Economy

54.3% of GDP (2017 est.)
56.8% of GDP (2016 est.)

comparison ranking: 90

$456.713 billion (2019 est.)
$448.268 billion (2018 est.)

comparison ranking: 29

Mexican pesos (MXN) per US dollar -

Exchange rates:
20.272 (2021 est.)
21.486 (2020 est.)
19.264 (2019 est.)
19.244 (2018 est.)
18.927 (2017 est.)

Energy

electrification - total population: 100% (2021)

463.739 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)

from coal and metallurgical coke: 43.24 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)

from petroleum and other liquids: 260.311 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)

from consumed natural gas: 160.188 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)

comparison ranking: total emissions 13

Communications

Transportation

Military and Security

0.7% of GDP (2022 est.)
0.7% of GDP (2021)
0.6% of GDP (2020)
0.5% of GDP (2019)
0.5% of GDP (2018)

comparison ranking: 150

the Mexican military is responsible for defending the independence, integrity, and sovereignty of Mexico, as well as providing for internal security, disaster response, humanitarian assistance, and socio-economic development; in recent years, internal security duties have been a key focus, particularly in countering narcotics trafficking and organized crime groups, as well as border control and immigration enforcement; the constitution was amended in 2019 to grant the president the authority to use the armed forces to protect internal and national security, and courts have upheld the legality of the armed forces' role in law enforcement activities in support of civilian authorities through 2028; the military also provides security for strategic facilities, such as oil production infrastructure, and administers most of the country's land and sea ports and customs services, plus the approximately 2,700 branches of a state-owned development bank; in addition, President LOPEZ OBRADOR has placed the military in charge of a growing number of infrastructure projects, such as building and operating a new airport for Mexico City and sections of a train line in the country's southeast

the Mexican Army is a lightly armed force comprised largely of infantry supplemented by mechanized or motorized forces; it is primarily focused on internal security operations vice conventional warfare, and its posture and composition reflects an internal focus over external threats; much of the force is deployed throughout the country in 12 military regional commands and 48 subordinate military zones, giving the Army a country-wide presence and the ability to respond immediately to a crisis; force strengths in each zone vary according to the security situation, from a single infantry battalion to over 10 infantry battalions and small motorized cavalry regiments, plus other units on rotation; the Army's principal mobile combat forces are approximately 10 light or mechanized/motorized infantry brigades, three special forces brigades, and a paratrooper brigade, which are separate from the units under the military zones; the National Guard has up to 12 military police brigades; the Air Force's inventory reflects its chief roles of supporting the Army, conducting counter-narcotics operations, and providing assistance during natural disasters; its fixed-wing combat aircraft include a handful of US-made fighters acquired in the 1980s and about 30 light attack planes; the Air Force also has more than 30 transport aircraft, as well as about 100 multipurpose helicopters

the Mexican Navy is largely a coastal patrol force but has a growing blue water capability; it has a range of missions including maritime law enforcement, security of maritime facilities, resources, and the environment, humanitarian assistance, and search and rescue; it has fleet commands for both the Pacific and Caribbean Sea/Gulf of Mexico, plus naval aviation, and naval infantry forces; the Navy's warships include five frigates and more than 100 patrol vessels of varying sizes and capabilities; the Naval Infantry Corps (Cuerpo de Infantería de Marina) has both external and internal security responsibilities, including providing port security, protecting the coastal fringe, and patrolling major waterways; it also has had a significant role in combating narcotics trafficking and organized crime; the Corps has more than 30 combat battalions, which include amphibious, commando, infantry, paratrooper, security, and special operations forces (2023)

Space

the AEM's focus is on coordinating Mexico's space policy and the country's commercial space sector, including developing specialists, technologies, and infrastructure, and acquiring satellites; manufactures and operates communications and scientific satellites; conducts research in a range of space-related capabilities and technologies, including satellites and satellite payloads, telecommunications, remote sensing, Earth and weather sciences, astronomy, and astrophysics; has relations with a variety of foreign space agencies and commercial space industries, including those of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, the European Space Agency (ESA) and its member states (particularly France, Germany, and the UK), India, Peru, Russia, Ukraine, and the US; leading member of the Latin American and Caribbean Space Agency (ALCE) (2023)

note: further details about the key activities, programs, and milestones of the country's space program, as well as government spending estimates on the space sector, appear in Appendix S

Transnational Issues

Mexico-Belize: Mexico and Belize are working to solve minor border demarcation discrepancies arising from inaccuracies in the 1898 border treaty

Mexico-Guatemala: Mexico must deal with thousands of impoverished Guatemalans and other Central Americans who cross the porous border looking for work in Mexico and the US

Mexico-US: the US has intensified security measures to monitor and control legal and illegal persons, transport, and commodities across its border with Mexico

significant source and transit country for fentanyl, fentanyl-laced counterfeit pills, other synthetic opioids, cocaine from South America, heroin, marijuana, and methamphetamine destined for the United States; a destination for synthetic drug precursor chemicals from China, India, and other countries

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The site of several advanced Amerindian civilizations - including the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya, and Aztec - Mexico was conquered and colonized by Spain in the early 16th century. Administered as the Viceroyalty of New Spain for three centuries, it achieved independence early in the 19th century.

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Take a chronological journey through the key periods in England's past. Explore thousands of years of history and discover how the changes that the country has seen can be traced through English Heritage's sites.

Learn how the daily lives of ordinary people have altered over the centuries, and how seismic shifts in power and religion permanently shaped the nation.

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Discover thousands of years of England's history, stretching from the arrival of the earliest known humans 900,000 years ago to the 63-year reign of Queen Victoria. Take a chronological journey through the key periods in England's past, and discover how the changes that the country has seen can be traced through English Heritage's sites.

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History
Early History
The Olmecs, Mexico's first known society, settled on the Gulf Coast near what is now Veracruz. Remembered for the giant head sculptures they carved from native stone, the Olmecs had two main population centers: San Lorenzo, which flourished from about 1200 to 900 B.C., and La Venta in Tabasco, which lasted until about 600 B.C.

Did you know? The three colors of Mexico's flag hold deep significance for the country and its citizens: green represents hope and victory, white stands for the purity of Mexican ideals and red brings to mind the blood shed by the nation's heroes.

By 300 B.C., villages based on agriculture and hunting had sprung up throughout the southern half of Mexico. Monte Albán, home to the Zapotec people, had an estimated 10,000 inhabitants. Between 100 B.C. and 700 A.D., Teotihuacán, the largest pre-Columbian city in the Americas, was constructed near present-day Mexico City. The civilization that built it is also called Teotihuacán, and the influence of this culture can be seen throughout the Veracruz and Mayan regions. At its zenith, with a population estimated at 200,000, the civilization is thought to have controlled a large portion of southern Mexico. The empire of Teotihuacán was overthrown in the 7th century, but the spectacular city survives today.

The Mayans, widely considered to be pre-Columbian America's most brilliant civilization, thrived between approximately 250 and 900 A.D. They developed a calendar and writing system and built cities that functioned as hubs for the surrounding farming towns. The ceremonial center of Mayan cities featured plazas surrounded by tall temple pyramids and lower buildings called "palaces." Religion played a central role in Mayan life, and altars were carved with significant dates, histories and elaborate human and divine figures. The Mayan civilization collapsed in the early 10th century, likely due to overpopulation and the resultant damage to the ecological balance.

The Toltec civilization also influenced Mexico's cultural history. Historians have determined that the Toltec people appeared in central Mexico near the 10th century and built the city of Tula, home to an estimated 30,000-40,000 people. Some have speculated that the Toltecs performed human sacrifices to appease the gods. One of their kings, Tezcatlipoca, is said to have ordered mass sacrifices of captured enemy warriors. Because many Toltec architectural and ritualistic influences can be found at the Mayan site of Chichén Itzá in northern Yucatán, many researchers believe that Toltec exiles fled to Yucatán and created a new version of Tula there.

The Aztecs, the last of pre-Columbian Mexico's great native civilizations, rose to prominence in the central valley of Mexico around 1427 by partnering with the Toltecs and Mayans. This triple alliance conquered smaller cultures to the east and west until the Aztec empire spanned Mexico from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf Coast. At their height, the Aztecs ruled 5 million people via a tightly-structured system of self-supporting units called calpulli. Each unit had its own governing council, schools, army, temple and land but paid tribute to the supreme leader of the empire. Influenced by earlier Mexican civilizations, the Aztecs conducted extraordinary religious ceremonies that featured dances, processions and sacrifices.
Middle History
Spaniard Hernán Cortés arrived at Veracruz in 1519. Believing that Cortés might be the serpent god Quetzalcoatl, Aztec King Moctezuma II invited the conquistador to Tenochtitlán. This gesture proved disastrous because Cortés formed many allies on his way to the city. In May 1521, Cortés and his followers attacked and conquered the Aztecs. Cortés then colonized the area and named it Nueva España (New Spain). By 1574, Spain controlled a large portion of the Aztec empire and had enslaved most of the indigenous population. Worse, the diseases brought into the society by the Spaniards devastated the indigenous population of Nueva España, killing an estimated 24 million people between 1521 and 1605.

The Catholic Church's influence was felt in the region when missionaries began arriving in 1523. The missionaries built many monasteries and converted millions of people to Catholicism.

During this tumultuous time, colonists in Nueva España who had been born in Spain (peninsulares) clashed with Spaniards who had been born in Mexico (criollos). Many criollos had become rich and wanted equal political power, which now resided with the peninsulares.

Concerned about the Catholic Church's ever-growing power, King Carlos III of Spain expelled the Jesuits from Nueva España in the late 1700s. Napoleón Bonaparte 's occupation of Spain in 1808 compromised the country's political and economic structure, which in turn weakened Spain's grip on Nueva España.

Recent History
On September 16, 1810, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a parish priest from the town of Dolores, issued a call to rebellion. In response, rebel leader Vicente Guerrero and defected royalist general Agustín de Itúrbide collaborated to gain Mexico's independence from Spain in 1821. Together they drafted a Mexican constitution. However, in 1822, Itúrbide declared himself emperor of the country. A year later, Antonio López de Santa Anna overthrew Itúrbide and drew up a new constitution that established a federal Mexican republic composed of 19 states and four territories. From 1823 to 1836, Santa Anna served as president, squelching Texas' stand for independence in the battle of the Alamo during his last year in office. He was later defeated by American forces during the Mexican-American War and, by 1855, had gone into exile. Following Mexico's occupation by the French in the mid-1800s, Porfírio Díaz served as president from 1876 to 1909.

Despite ushering in the industrial age and greatly improving the country's infrastructure, Díaz was a dictator who bestowed political favors on the very wealthy citizenry, largely ignored the poor and ruled ruthlessly by force.

The Mexican people, tired of the unbalanced distribution of wealth and power, initiated the Mexican Revolution in 1910. The 10-year civil war resulted in at least 2 million casualties. Finally, in 1934, Lázaro Cárdenas became president and reestablished the ancient ejido system, which established communally shared tracts of farmland. The system benefited both the citizens and the economy. World War II further stimulated the nation's development through the development of roads, the building of factories and the establishment of irrigation systems.

Mexico Today

Mexico's population has greatly increased since World War II, but the distribution of wealth remains imbalanced. Due to negligible legislative assistance, the poor are generally unable to improve their socio-economic status. The state of Chiapas exemplifies the problems caused by financial imbalance. In 1994, the Zapatista National Liberation Army rose up to challenge discrimination against Chiapas' poor.

Although their rebellion was unsuccessful, the Zapatistas continue to fight against imbalanced land ownership and power distribution, with little success. Further complicating the already problematic social division is the ever-growing problem of drug trafficking, which has contributed to political and police corruption and helped widen the gap between the elite and the underprivileged.

In recent years, the building of foreign-owned factories and plants (maquiladoras) in some of Mexico's rural areas has helped draw the population away from Mexico City and redistribute some of the country's wealth. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) of 1994 increased Mexico's financial ties to the United States and Canada, but the Mexican economy remains fragile. Despite its problems, the Mexican economy, with its growing industrial base, abundant natural resources and variety of service industries, remains important to Latin America.

Today, tourism is a major contributor to the Mexican economy. People flock to Mexico from all over the world to sample the country's cultural diversity, bask in the lush tropical settings and take advantage of relatively low prices. U.S. tourists constitute the majority of visitors to the country. In the past, tourists traveled mainly to Mexico City and the surrounding colonial towns of the Mesa Central; unfortunately, the capital city's reputation has suffered due to social and environmental problems, notably high levels of air pollution and crime. Tourists still flock to the beaches of the world-famous resorts in Acapulco, Puerto Vallarta, Ixtapa-Zihuatanejo, Mazatlán, Cancún and Puerto Escondido.

Facts & Figures

Full Name: United Mexican States

Capital: Mexico City (Distrito Federal)

Major Cities (population): Mexico City (8,720,916), Ecatepec de Morelos (1,688,258), Guadalajara (1,600,940), Puebla (1,485,941), Tijuana (1,410,700), Juárez (1,313,338), León (1,278,087), Zapopan (1,155,790), Nezahualcóyotl (1,140,528), Monterrey 1,133,814

Border Countries: Belize and Guatemala to the southeast; United States to the north

Size/Area: Total: 758,249 square miles (1,972,550 square kilometers) - Water: 2.5 percent

Population: 103,263,388 (2005 Census)

Independence: Declared on September 16, 1810 - Recognized by Spain on September 27, 1821

Monetary Unit: Pesos

Fun Facts

The three colors of Mexico's flag hold deep significance for the country and its citizens: green represents hope and victory, white stands for the purity of Mexican ideals and red brings to mind the blood shed by the nation's heroes.

The flag's dramatic emblem is based on the legend of how the Mexicas (or Aztecs) traveled from Aztlán to find the place where they could establish their empire. The god Huitzilopochtli advised them that a sign-an eagle devouring a serpent atop a Nopal cactus-would appear to them at the exact spot where they should begin construction. On a small island in the middle of a lake, the Mexicas came upon the scene exactly as Huitzilopochtli had described it. They immediately settled there and founded the city of Tenochtitlán, which is now Mexico City, the country's capital.

Mexico is the third-largest country in Latin America after Brazil and Argentina.

At the beginning of the 21st century, Mexico's population surpassed 100 million.

Mexico has the largest population of Spanish speakers in the world.

With almost 25 million residents, Mexico City is one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world.

Mexico has the world's second-highest number of Catholics after Brazil.

At nearly 2,000 miles, the border between Mexico and the United States is the second-longest in the world, after the border between the United States and Canada.

Mexicans comprise the largest group of legal immigrants in the United States.

Mexico is located in an area known as the Pacific "Ring of Fire." This region, one of Earth's most dynamic tectonic areas, is characterized by active volcanoes and frequent seismic activity. The highest point in the country, Citlaltépetl (also called Orizaba) and the active volcano Popocatépetl are among the many volcanic peaks in Mexico. The Great Ball Court at Chichén Itzá Mexico, which was used for ritualistic sports by the ancient Mayans, is the largest such court the world, measuring 166 by 68 meters (545 by 232 feet). The game, which involved elements similar to those of soccer and basketball, was played by two teams whose number varied according to region.

Tequila, a liquor for which Mexico is famous, is made from the native blue agave plant. Named after the city where it originated, Tequila is primarily manufactured near Jalisco, which is 65 kilometers (40 miles) northwest of Guadalajara.

Mexico is the world's leading producer of silver. An area called the Silver Belt-which encompasses Guanajuato and Zacatecas in the Mesa Central, Chihuahua in the Mesa del Norte and San Luis Potosi farther east-saw significant mining activity during the colonial period.

Mexico hosted the Summer Olympics in 1968 and the FIFA World Cup soccer championship in 1970 and 1986.

The Mexico City Arena-one of the largest bullfighting arenas in the world-seats 50,000. Another 35 arenas are located throughout the country.

Landmarks

Chichén Itzá
Chichén Itzá is an ancient Mayan city located on the Yucatán Peninsula. At its peak, around 600 A.D., it was the center of power in the region. Many of the original stone palaces, temples and markets remain throughout the city.

Teotihuacán
Teotihuacán, an ancient city possibly built by the Toltecs, is located in the state of Mexico. The city rose to power in 150 A.D. and was a strong influence on Mayan culture. It is also the location of the world's third largest pyramid, the Pirámide del Sol (Pyramid of the Sun).

Paquimé featured a ceremonial area, temple structures, a ball court, pyramids and effigy mounds, including one that resembled a cross with perfect astronomical orientation. Turkeys and parrots were kept in special cages, possibly to supply feathers used for ceremonial and personal adornment.

Cuarenta Casas
Cuarenta Casas (Forty Houses) are cliff dwellings located in the state of Chihuahua and discovered by the Spaniards around the 16th century. Despite the name, only about a dozen adobe apartments are carved into the west cliff-side of a dramatic canyon at La Cueva de las Ventanas (Cave of the Windows). Cuarenta Casas is believed to have been an outlying settlement of Paquimé in the 13th century.

Buildings
Palacio Nacional Mexico City is home to the three-story Palacio Nacional (National Palace), built in 1563 on the site of the Aztec leader Moctezuma's palace. Originally, the palace housed all three branches of the government. Today, however, only the executive branch resides there. Palacio Nacional was destroyed by fire twice, once in 1659 and again in 1692. It was reconstructed in 1693 and remains largely unchanged today.

In the early to mid-1900s, Diego Rivera painted a collection of huge murals on the walls of the palace that illustrate the colorful history of Mexico. The palace is also home to Mexico's Liberty Bell.

Catedral Metropolitana
Located at the north side of Mexico City's town square, Catedral Metropolitana is the largest and oldest cathedral in all of Latin America. Construction on the building, which blends Baroque and Neoclassical styles, began in 1573 and took three centuries to complete. The cathedral features 14 chapels, five altars and numerous statues, paintings and altarpieces of Christ and the saints.

Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl
Located on the eastern rim of the Valle de Mexico, Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl are Mexico's second- and third-highest volcanic mountains. Craterless Iztaccíhuatl is dormant and a popular site for mountain climbing; however, Popocatépetl, whose Aztec name means Smoking Mountain, has erupted more than 20 times since the arrival of the Spanish. It continues to spout plumes of gas and ash and is carefully monitored by scientists.

Popular Locales
Mexico City
Mexico City, the second-largest metropolitan area in the world after Tokyo, is home to numerous attractions, including the Palacio Nacional and the Catedral Metropolitana.

AcapulcoWith its golden beaches, tropical jungles and renowned daredevil cliff-divers, Acapulco remains the best-known and most popular resort town in Mexico.

The Baja Peninsula
The Baja Peninsula along Mexico's west coast, is famous for its long coastline of fine white beaches, peaceful bays and imposing cliffs.

Culture

People
Citizens of Mexico highly value their nation, independence and community. Their culture is a composite of influences handed down by countless civilizations. From the early Mesoamerican civilizations to the diverse populations that live there today, Mexico's citizens have remained proud of their heritage and their country.

Many rural communities maintain strong allegiances to regions, often referred to as patrias chicas (small homelands). The large number of indigenous languages and customs in these regions, especially in the south, naturally accentuate cultural differences. However, the indigenismo (ancestral pride) movement of the 1930s played a major role in unifying the country and solidifying national pride among the various populations.

Family remains among the most important elements in Mexican society, both in private and public life. From infancy to old age, an individual's status and opportunities are strongly influenced by family ties. Many households, in both rural and urban areas, are inhabited by three or more generations due to the economic advantage (or necessity) of sharing one roof. Mexicans generally establish strong links to family members, including in-laws and friends of the family, who are generally thought of as aunts and uncles. The elderly, adults, teenagers and small children commonly attend parties and dances together. Weddings are generally lavish family-oriented events as are the traditional quinceañera celebrations given in honor of a young woman's 15th birthday.

Languages
The majority of the Mexican population speaks Spanish, the official national language. However, another 60 indigenous languages are still spoken in Mexico, including Maya in the Yucatán; Huastec in northern Veracruz; Nahuatl, Tarastec, Totonac, Otomí and Mazahua mainly in the Mesa Central region; Zapotec, Mixtec and Mazatec in Oaxaca; and Tzeltal and Tzotzil in Chiapas.

Religion
Catholicism has become the dominant Mexican religion since first being introduced during Spanish colonization in the 16th century. Currently, more than 75 percent of Mexico's population is Catholic, making Mexico the second-largest Catholic country in the world after Brazil. During the Mexican Revolution of 1917 and the administration of President Plutarco Elías Calles (1924 - 1928), there was a strong anti-clerical movement. This idea became less prevalent in the between 1940 and 1960. In fact that era saw a boom in the construction of new churches.

The Basílica of Guadalupe, built between the 16th and 18th centuries to honor Mexico's patron saint, is located in Mexico City. Each year, hundreds of thousands of people, many of them peasants, travel from near and far to worship at the shrine. Although this is probably the most important and beloved religious site in Mexico, thousands of other churches, convents, pilgrimage sites and shrines exist throughout the country.

Mexico's present population consists of Roman Catholics (76.5 percent), Protestants (6.3 percent), Pentecostals (1.4 percent), and Jehovah's Witnesses (1.1 percent). Another 14.7 percent are non-religious or are of other faiths.

On December 12, El Día de la Virgen De Guadalupe, Mexico honors its patron saint. During January, the city of Morelia celebrates the fiesta of the Immaculate Conception, and on the 17th of that month, pets and livestock are adorned with flowers and ribbons for the fiesta of San Antonio Abad.

Día de los Muertos (Day of the Dead), which occurs on November 1, has ancient Aztec and Mesoamerican roots. This day is set aside to remember and honor the lives of the deceased while celebrating the continuation of life. Halloween (October 31st) and All Souls' Day (November 2nd) are also locally important holidays. During this period, families celebrate the spirits of departed loved ones in various ways, including erecting ofrendas (small altars) in their houses, decorating tombs and eating skull-shaped candies (calaveras) and sweet breads. It is a time for celebrating ancestors-with whom many believe they can communicate during these events-and embracing death as natural and inevitable rather than as something to be feared.

On October 12 of each year, the Día de la Raza (Race Day) is celebrated in recognition of the mestizo (mixed) character of Mexico' s indigenous and European population. Widely celebrated patriotic events include Independence Day (September 16) and Cinco de Mayo (May 5), which commemorates the Mexican victory over French invaders in 1862.

Cuisine
Mexican cuisine varies greatly by region but depends heavily on an ancient trinity of staples: corn (maize), beans and squash.

Another staple, rice, is usually served alongside beans. Mexicans also tend to make liberal use of avocados (often in the form of guacamole), chili peppers, amaranth, tomatoes, papayas, potatoes, lentils, plantains and vanilla (a flavoring that is pre-Columbian in origin). Salt and hot peppers (often served in a red or green sauce) are the most common condiments; maize tortillas complement most main dishes.

Popular dishes vary by region and individual circumstances, but some of the more widely enjoyed foods are tortillas (flat bread wraps made from wheat or maize flour), enchiladas, cornmeal tamales (cooked within corn husks or banana leaves), burritos, soft-shell tacos, tortas (sandwiches of chicken, pork or cheese and vegetables enclosed in a hard roll), stuffed chili peppers and quesadillas (tortillas filled with soft cheese and meat). Other favorites are soups and spicy stews such as menudo (made from beef tripe and fresh vegetables) and pozole (stewed hominy and pork). Seafood dishes such as pulpo (octopus), chipachole (spicy crab soup) and ceviche (seafood marinated in lime or lemon juice) are popular in coastal areas. In Oaxaca and a few other states, fried and spiced chapulines (grasshoppers) are considered a delicacy. A favorite among the Nahuatl Indians is huitlacoche (corn fungus) served wrapped in fat-fried quesadillas.

Among the preferred desserts are sweet breads, chocolates and dulce de leche (caramelized milk), which is also called leche quemada or burned milk. On city sidewalks and streets, little bells announce the approach of paleteros, ambulatory vendors whose small insulated carts are filled with frozen paletas (popsicle-like treats made from creams or juices) and ice cream. Sugar-battered flautas (deep-fried filled corn tortillas) are popular with children of all ages.

Meals are often washed down with aguas frescas (watery sweet drinks, usually roselle flowers), horchata (a milky rice-based drink) and drinks flavored with watermelon or other fresh fruit. Also popular are licuados (fruit shakes or smoothies). During the Christmas holidays and on the Day of the Dead, one of the more popular drinks is atole (or atol), a hot combination of corn or rice meal, water, and spices.

Several well-known alcoholic beverages made in Mexico are derived from the maguey and agave plants. Maguey-also known as the Century Plant-is used to make pulque, an inexpensive drink. The plant was cultivated by many small farmers because it could thrive on infertile, rocky soil. Agave, in particular the blue agave, is used to make tequila, Mexico's national liquor. The drink takes its name from Tequila, Jalisco, where it originated. Another alcoholic drink made from agave is mescal, which is produced primarily in Oaxaca.

Culture: Arts & Music - Theater & Film - Literature

Arts & Music
In every major city in Mexico, universities and museums provide institutional support for art and cultural events. Among Mexico's internationally acclaimed museums are the Museum of Folk Art, the sprawling National Museum of Anthropology and its offshoot, the National Museum of History.

Art
Post-revolutionary artists Frida Kahlo, Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco, Rufino Tamayo and David Alfaro Siqueiros made significant contributions to Mexico' s artistic and cultural heritage. Though diverse in their styles and subject matter, each drew upon personal and social experiences to create their work, which informed the sensibilities of worldwide audiences and inspired generations of young artists.

Murals, an ancient art form, grace the walls of public and private buildings throughout Mexico. Generations of muralists-influenced by artistic legacies traceable to the Aztecs, Mayans and other pre-Hispanic civilizations-have added their stories to those of their ancestors, captivating passersby with evocative figures and landscapes captured in rich colors and bold strokes.

Diego Rivera, whose mural Man at the Crossroads graces the lobby of New York's 30 Rockefeller Plaza, is the most renowned of Mexico's muralists. His works are also displayed at the Mexican National Palace and the Palace of Fine Arts.

Music
Music, like food, is a mainstay of Mexican social life. The styles are diverse and include both traditional and modern genres. Perhaps the best-known Mexican genre is the ranchero. Popularized after the revolution, the ranchera came to symbolize the new national consciousness and focuses largely on love, patriotism and nature. Because of its familiar themes and rhythms, this song style has become popular among mariachi musicians. Highly recognizable in their customary silver-studded charro (cowboy) outfits and wide-brimmed hats, mariachi groups have enjoyed notable commercial success and are often featured at festivals, banquets and wedding.

Another popular genre is norteño (northern), which relies on the accordion and 12-string bass guitar for its characteristic stylizations. More recent musical innovations include banda, which is similar to norteño music, and cumbia, which is heavily influenced by music from the Caribbean islands. Becoming increasingly popular among Mexican youths are modern genres such as pop, hip-hop and rock-musical forms that gained popularity during the last century in the United States.

Theater & Film
Mexico has a strong theatrical tradition kept alive by many professional, academic and indigenous groups. Although the theater' s popularity diminished with the rise of television and film, groups still perform all over the country in large and small venues. In Mexico City, theater lovers can visit El Palacio de las Bellas Artes, Mexico City's famous opera house, to see the Ballet Folklorico, a famous dance performance that blends various types of native music and dance.

Some regions feature plays that recount events from local history. In other cases, plays drawn from universal themes or celebrate such common concerns of daily life as love, marriage, joy, betrayal and hope.

During Semana Santa (the holy week from Easter until Palm Sunday), many communities enact a full passion play that depicts the events surrounding the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Many of these performances are impressively staged and draw large crowds.

Several Mexican actors and filmmakers have been internationally recognized, including directors Alejandro González Iñárritu (Amores Perros, 2000; Babel, 2006), Alfonso Cuarón (Y Tu Mamá También, 2001) and Guillermo del Toro (El Laberinto Del Fauno/Pan's Labyrinth, 2006). Spanish director Luis Buñuel and French Surrealist André Breton both spent many years in Mexico, and their influences are seen in the works of current Mexican directors. Based on her 2002 theatrical portrayal of the internationally recognized Mexican painter Frida Kahlo, Salma Hayek became the first Mexican actress to be nominated for an Academy Award.

Literature
Mexican writers have gained reputations by dealing with questions of universal significance. One of the best known is Samuel Ramos, whose philosophical speculations on humanity and culture in Mexico influenced post-1945 writers in several genres. Many consider Mexico's Octavio Paz to be the foremost poet of Latin America. The novels of Carlos Fuentes are honored throughout the world, and Juan José Arreola's fantasies are widely admired.

Culture: Sports

Fùtbol (Soccer)
Soccer is the favorite sport of the vast majority of the population. Unlike other Mexican sports, soccer can emotionally divide the country, especially when Mexican rivals meet each other. People from all over the country attend matches, which are usually held on Sundays. Winning the coveted Copa Libertadores, the Latin American equivalent of the European Cup, is an honor that motivates both players and fans alike.

In 1970, Mexico's Azteca Stadium was host to the FIFA World Cup finals. This event was one of the most memorable in sports history as Pele and his Brazilian team won for the third time, making them the first country ever to win the tournament more than twice. Mexico hosted the event again in 1986.

Well-known soccer players from Mexico include Hugo Sanchez, Cuahtemoc Blanco, Rafael Marques, Alberto Medina, Omar Bravo, Enrique Borja, Antonio Carvajal, Manolo Negrete, Jorge Gutierrez, Luis Flores, Salvador Reyes, Horacio Casarin, Alberto García Aspe, Jorge Campos and Luís Garcia.

Bullfighting
Also known as fiesta brava, bullfighting has been popular in Mexico for the last 400 years. Like Spanish bullfighters, Mexican matadores perform specific moves, occasionally using a piece of red cloth to attract a bull in a graceful manner. Bullfights are often preceded by festivities such as rodeos, pig chases and dances.

Lucha Libre
Mexican style professional wrestling, called Lucha Libre (free fight) embraces all styles of wrestling: submission, high flying comedy and brawling. The sport achieves an extraordinary level of artistic expression through costuming and bravado performance. El Santo, possibly the most famous Lucha Libre wrestler, often starred in films, wore his silver mask throughout his life and was eventually buried in it. Other famous Luchadores include The Blue Demon, Mil Máscaras, and Rey Mysterio, who eventually moved on to American wrestling where he became even better known.

The States

Mexico is made up of 31 states and one federal district.

PHOTO GALLERIES

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Early History The Olmecs, Mexico's first known society, settled on the Gulf Coast near what is now Veracruz. Remembered for the giant head sculptures they carved from native stone, the Olmecs had two main population centers: San Lorenzo, which flourished from about 1200 to 900 B.C., and La Venta in Tabasco, which lasted until about 600 B.C.

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Geography, People, Environment, Energy, Economy, Military, Terrorism, Transportation, etc.

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Introduction

The evolution of what is today the European Union (EU) from a regional economic agreement among six neighboring states in 1951 to today's hybrid intergovernmental and supranational organization of 27 countries across the European continent stands as an unprecedented phenomenon in the annals of history. Dynastic unions for territorial consolidation were long the norm in Europe; on a few occasions even country-level unions were arranged - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Austro-Hungarian Empire were examples. But for such a large number of nation-states to cede some of their sovereignty to an overarching entity is unique.

Although the EU is not a federation in the strict sense, it is far more than a free-trade association such as ASEAN or Mercosur, and it has certain attributes associated with independent nations: its own flag, currency (for some members), and law-making abilities, as well as diplomatic representation and a common foreign and security policy in its dealings with external partners.

Thus, inclusion of basic intelligence on the EU has been deemed appropriate as a separate entity in The World Factbook.

Following the two devastating World Wars in the first half of the 20th century, a number of far-sighted European leaders in the late 1940s sought a response to the overwhelming desire for peace and reconciliation on the continent. In 1950, the French Foreign Minister Robert SCHUMAN proposed pooling the production of coal and steel in Western Europe and setting up an organization for that purpose that would bring France and the Federal Republic of Germany together and would be open to other countries as well. The following year, the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was set up when six members - Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands - signed the Treaty of Paris.

The ECSC was so successful that within a few years the decision was made to integrate other elements of the member states' economies. In 1957, envisioning an "ever closer union," the Treaties of Rome were signed creating the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), and the six member states strove to eliminate trade barriers among themselves by forming a common market. In 1967, the institutions of all three communities were formally merged into the European Community (EC), creating a single Commission, a single Council of Ministers, and the body known today as the European Parliament. Members of the European Parliament were initially selected by national parliaments, but in 1979 the first direct elections were undertaken and have been held every five years since.

In 1973, the first enlargement of the EC took place with the addition of Denmark, Ireland, and the UK. The 1980s saw further membership expansion with Greece joining in 1981 and Spain and Portugal in 1986. The 1992 Treaty of Maastricht laid the basis for further forms of cooperation in foreign and defense policy, in judicial and internal affairs, and in the creation of an economic and monetary union - including a common currency. This further integration created the European Union (EU), at the time standing alongside the EC. In 1995, Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU/EC, raising the total number of member states to 15.

A new currency, the euro, was launched in world money markets on 1 January 1999; it became the unit of exchange for all EU member states except Denmark, Sweden, and the UK. In 2002, citizens of those 12 countries began using euro banknotes and coins. Ten new countries joined the EU in 2004 - Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Bulgaria and Romania joined in 2007 and Croatia in 2013, but the UK withdrew in 2020. Current membership stands at 27. (Seven of the new countries - Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Slovakia, and Slovenia - have now adopted the euro, bringing total euro-zone membership to 19.)

In an effort to ensure that the EU could function efficiently with an expanded membership, the Treaty of Nice (concluded in 2000; entered into force in 2003) set forth rules to streamline the size and procedures of EU institutions. An effort to establish a "Constitution for Europe," growing out of a Convention held in 2002-2003, foundered when it was rejected in referenda in France and the Netherlands in 2005. A subsequent effort in 2007 incorporated many of the features of the rejected draft Constitutional Treaty while also making a number of substantive and symbolic changes. The new treaty, referred to as the Treaty of Lisbon, sought to amend existing treaties rather than replace them. The treaty was approved at the EU intergovernmental conference of member states held in Lisbon in December 2007, after which the process of national ratifications began. In October 2009, an Irish referendum approved the Lisbon Treaty (overturning a previous rejection) and cleared the way for an ultimate unanimous endorsement. Poland and the Czech Republic ratified soon after. The Lisbon Treaty came into force on 1 December 2009 and the EU officially replaced and succeeded the EC. The Lisbon Treaty's provisions are part of the basic consolidated versions of the Treaty on European Union (TEU) and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) now governing what remains a very specific integration project.

UK citizens on 23 June 2016 narrowly voted to leave the EU; the formal exit took place on 31 January 2020. The EU and UK negotiated and ratified a Withdrawal Agreement that included a status quo transition period through December 2020, when the follow-on EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement was concluded.

Visit the Definitions and Notes page to view a description of each topic.

Geography

total: 4,236,351 sq km

rank by area (sq km):
1. France (includes five overseas regions) 643,801
2. Spain 505,370
3. Sweden 450,295
4. Germany 357,022
5. Finland 338,145
6. Poland 312,685
7. Italy 301,340
8. Romania 238,391
9. Greece 131,957
10. Bulgaria 110,879
11. Hungary 93,028
12. Portugal 92,090
13. Austria 83,871
14. Czechia 78,867
15. Ireland 70,273
16. Lithuania 65,300
17. Latvia 64,589
18. Croatia 56,594
19. Slovakia 49,035
20. Estonia 45,228
21. Denmark 43,094
22. Netherlands 41,543
23. Belgium 30,528
24. Slovenia 20,273
25. Cyprus 9,251
26. Luxembourg 2,586
27. Malta 316

total: 13,770 km

border countries (20): Albania 212 km; Andorra 118 km; Belarus 1,176 km; Bosnia and Herzegovina 956 km; Holy See 3 km; Liechtenstein 34 km; North Macedonia 396 km; Moldova 683 km; Monaco 6 km; Montenegro 19 km; Norway 2,375 km; Russia 2,435 km; San Marino 37 km; Serbia 1,353 km; Switzerland 1,729 km; Turkey 415 km; United Kingdom 499 km; Ukraine 1,324 km; note - the Brexit Withdrawal Agreement (2020) commits the United Kingdom (UK) to maintain an open border in Ireland, so the border between Northern Ireland (UK) and the Republic of Ireland is only de jure and is not a hard border; the de facto border is the Irish Sea between the islands of Ireland and Great Britain

note: data for European continent only

People and Society

1. Germany - 79,903,481;

2. France - 68,084,217;

3. Italy - 62,390,364;

4. Spain - 47,260,584;

5. Poland - 38,185,913;

6. Romania - 21,230,362;

7. Netherlands - 17,337,403;

8. Belgium - 11,778,842;

9. Czechia - 10,702,596;

10. Greece - 10,569,703;

11. Portugal - 10,263,850;

12. Sweden - 10,261,767;

13. Hungary - 9,728,337;

14. Austria - 8,884,864;

15. Bulgaria - 6,919,180;

16. Denmark - 5,894,687;

17. Finland - 5,587,442;

18. Slovakia - 5,436,066;

19. Ireland - 5,224,884;

20. Croatia - 4,208,973;

21. Lithuania - 2,711,566;

22. Slovenia - 2,102,106;

23. Latvia - 1,862,687;

24. Cyprus - 1,281,506;

25. Estonia - 1,220,042;

26. Luxembourg - 639,589;

27. Malta - 460,891 (July 2021 est.)

Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Irish, Italian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovene, Spanish, Swedish

note: only the 24 official languages are listed; German, the major language of Germany and Austria, is the most widely spoken mother tongue - about 16% of the EU population; English is the most widely spoken foreign language - about 29% of the EU population is conversant with it; English is an official language in Ireland and Malta and thus remained an official EU language after the UK left the bloc (2020)

Environment

Government

27 countries: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden; note - candidate countries: Albania, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia, Turkey

there are 13 overseas countries and territories (OCTs) (1 with Denmark [Greenland], 6 with France [French Polynesia; French Southern and Antarctic Lands; New Caledonia; Saint Barthelemy; Saint Pierre and Miquelon; Wallis and Futuna], and 6 with the Netherlands [Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Sint Maarten]), all are part of the Overseas Countries and Territories Association (OCTA)

note: there are non-European OCTs having special relations with Denmark, France, and the Netherlands (list is annexed to the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union), that are associated with the EU to promote their economic and social development; member states apply to their trade with OCTs the same treatment as they accord each other pursuant to the treaties; OCT nationals are in principle EU citizens, but these countries are neither part of the EU, nor subject to the EU

7 February 1992 (Maastricht Treaty signed establishing the European Union); 1 November 1993 (Maastricht Treaty entered into force)

note: the Treaties of Rome, signed on 25 March 1957 and subsequently entered into force on 1 January 1958, created the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community; a series of subsequent treaties have been adopted to increase efficiency and transparency, to prepare for new member states, and to introduce new areas of cooperation - such as a single currency; the Treaty of Lisbon, signed on 13 December 2007 and entered into force on 1 December 2009 is the most recent of these treaties and is intended to make the EU more democratic, more efficient, and better able to address global problems with one voice

under the EU treaties there are three distinct institutions, each of which conducts functions that may be regarded as executive in nature:
European Council - brings together heads of state and government, along with the president of the European Commission, and meets at least four times a year; its aim is to provide the impetus for the development of the Union and to issue general policy guidelines; the Treaty of Lisbon established the position of "permanent" (full-time) president of the European Council; leaders of the EU member states appoint the president for a 2 1/2 year term, renewable once; the president's responsibilities include chairing the EU summits and providing policy and organizational continuity; the current president is Charles MICHEL (Belgium), since 1 December 2019, succeeding Donald TUSK (Poland; 2014 - 2019)
Council of the European Union - consists of ministers of each EU member state and meets regularly in 10 different configurations depending on the subject matter; it conducts policymaking and coordinating functions as well as legislative functions; ministers of EU member states chair meetings of the Council of the EU based on a 6-month rotating presidency except for the meetings of EU Foreign Ministers in the Foreign Affairs Council that are chaired by the High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy
European Commission - headed by a College of Commissioners comprised of 28 members (one from each member country) including the president; each commissioner is responsible for one or more policy areas; the Commission's main responsibilities include the sole right to initiate EU legislation (except for foreign and security/defense policy), promoting the general interest of the EU, acting as "guardian of the Treaties" by monitoring the application of EU law, implementing/executing the EU budget, managing programs, negotiating on the EU's behalf in core policy areas such as trade, and ensuring the Union's external representation in some policy areas; its current president is Ursula VON DER LEYEN (Germany) elected on 16 July 2019 (took office on 1 December 2019); the president of the European Commission is nominated by the European Council and formally "elected" by the European Parliament; the Commission president allocates specific responsibilities among the members of the College (appointed by common accord of the member state governments in consultation with the president-elect); the European Parliament confirms the entire Commission for a 5-year term.

note: for external representation and foreign policy making, leaders of the EU member states appointed Joseph BORRELL (Spain) as the High Representative of the European Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy; BORRELL took office on 1 December 2019, succeeding Federica MOGHERINI (Italy (2014 - 2019); the High Representative's concurrent appointment as Vice President of the European Commission was meant to bring more coherence to the EU's foreign policy (horizontally, between policies managed by the Commission that are particularly relevant for EU external relations, such as trade, humanitarian aid and crisis management, neighborhood policy and enlargement; and vertically, between member-state capitals and the EU); the High Representative helps develop and implement the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy and Common Security and Defense Policy components, chairs the Foreign Affairs Council, represents and acts for the Union in many international contexts, and oversees the European External Action Service, the diplomatic corps of the EU, established on 1 December 2010

European United Left-Nordic Green Left or GUE/NGL [Manon AUBRY and Martin SCHIRDEWAN]
European Conservatives and Reformists or ECR [Raffaele FITTO and Ryszard LEGUTKO]
European Greens/European Free Alliance or Greens/EFA [Ska KELLER, Philippe LAMBERTS]
European People's Party or EPP [Manfred WEBER]
Identity and Democracy Party or ID [Marco ZANNI]
Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats or S&D [Iratxe PEREZ]
Renew Europe - RE (successor to Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe or ALDE) [Stephane SEJOURNE]

chief of mission: Ambassador Stavros LAMBRINIDIS (since 1 March 2019)

chancery: 2175 K Street, NW, Suite 800, Washington, DC 20037

telephone: [1] (202) 862-9500

FAX: [1] (202) 429-1766

Economy

The 27 member states that make up the EU have adopted an internal single market with free movement of goods, services, capital, and labor. The EU, which is also a customs union, aims to bolster Europe's trade position and its political and economic weight in international affairs.

Despite great differences in per capita income among member states (from $28,000 to $109,000) and in national attitudes toward issues like inflation, debt, and foreign trade, the EU has achieved a high degree of coordination of monetary and fiscal policies. A common currency - the euro - circulates among 19 of the member states that make up the European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). Eleven member states introduced the euro as their common currency on 1 January 1999 (Greece did so two years later). Since 2004, 13 states acceded to the EU. Of the 13, Slovenia (2007), Cyprus and Malta (2008), Slovakia (2009), Estonia (2011), Latvia (2014), and Lithuania (2015) have adopted the euro; seven other member states - excluding Denmark, which has a formal opt-out - are required by EU treaties to adopt the common currency upon meeting fiscal and monetary convergence criteria.

The EU economy posted moderate GDP growth for 2014 through 2017, capping five years of sustained growth since the 2008-09 global economic crisis and the ensuing sovereign debt crisis in the euro zone in 2011. However, the bloc's recovery was uneven. Some EU member states (Czechia, Ireland, Malta, Romania, Sweden, and Spain) recorded strong growth, others (Italy) experienced modest expansion, and Greece finally ended its EU rescue program in August 2018. Overall, the EU's recovery was buoyed by lower commodities prices and accommodative monetary policy, which lowered interest rates and stimulated demand. The euro zone, which makes up about 70% of the total EU economy, performed well, achieving a growth rate not seen in a decade. In October 2017 the European Central Bank (ECB) announced it would extend its bond-buying program through September 2018, and possibly beyond that date, to keep the euro zone recovery on track. The ECB's efforts to spur more lending and investment through its asset-buying program, negative interest rates, and long-term loan refinancing programs have not yet raised inflation in line with the ECB's statutory target of just under 2%.

Despite its performance, high unemployment in some member states, high levels of public and private debt, muted productivity, an incomplete single market in services, and an aging population remain sources of potential drag on the EU's future growth. Moreover, the EU economy remains vulnerable to a slowdown of global trade and bouts of political and financial turmoil. In June 2016, the UK voted to withdraw from the EU, the first member country ever to attempt to secede. Continued uncertainty about the implications of the UK's exit from the EU (concluded January 2020) could hurt consumer and investor confidence and dampen EU growth, particularly if trade and cross-border investment significantly declines. Political disagreements between EU member states on reforms to fiscal and economic policy also may impair the EU's ability to bolster its crisis-prevention and resolution mechanisms. International investors' fears of a broad dissolution of the single currency area have largely dissipated, but these concerns could resurface if elected leaders implement policies that contravene euro-zone budget or banking rules. State interventions in ailing banks, including rescue of banks in Italy and resolution of banks in Spain, have eased financial vulnerabilities in the European banking sector even though some banks are struggling with low profitability and a large stock of bad loans, fragilities that could precipitate localized crises. Externally, the EU has continued to pursue comprehensive free trade agreements to expand EU external market share, particularly with Asian countries; EU and Japanese leaders reached a political-level agreement on a free trade agreement in July 2017, and agreement with Mexico in April 2018 on updates to an existing free trade agreement.

9.8% (2013 est.)

note: see individual country entries of member states

$740.9 billion (31 December 2014 est.)

$746.9 billion (31 December 2013)

note: data are for the European Central Bank

Communications

Transportation

Military and Security

the EU's Common Security and Defense Policy (CSDP) provides the civilian, military, and political structures for EU crisis management and security issues; the highest bodies are:

the Political and Security Committee (PSC), which meets at the ambassadorial level as a preparatory body for the Council of the EU; it assists with defining policies and preparing a crisis response

the European Union Military Committee (EUMC) is the EU's highest military body; it is composed of the chiefs of defense (CHODs) of the Member States, who are regularly represented by their permanent Military Representatives; the EUMC provides the PSC with advice and recommendations on all military matters within the EU

the Committee for Civilian Aspects of Crisis Management (CIVCOM) provides advice and recommendations to the PSC in parallel with the EUMC on civilian aspects of crisis management

the Politico-Military Group (PMG) provides advice and recommendations to the PSC on political aspects of EU military and civil-military issues, including concepts, capabilities and operations and missions, and monitors implementation

other bodies set up under the CSDP include; the Security and Defense Policy Directorate (SECDEFPOL), the Integrated approach for Security and Peace Directorate (ISP), the EU Military Staff (EUMS), the Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability (CPCC), the Military Planning and Conduct Capability (MPCC), the European Defense Agency, the European Security and Defense College (ESDC), the EU Institute for Security Studies, and the EU Satellite Center (2021)

EU Battlegroups are rapid reaction multinational military units that form a key part of the EU's capacity to respond to emerging crises and conflicts; their deployment is subject to a unanimous decision by the EU Council; the core of a battlegroup typically consists of one infantry battalion (about 1,500 troops) reinforced with combat and combat service support units; the composition of the supporting units may differ depending on the mission; the troops and equipment are drawn from EU member states and under the direction of a lead nation; 2 battlegroups are always on standby for a period of 6 months; the battlegroups were declared operational in 2007, but have never been used operationally due to political and financial obstacles

the EU partners with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO); NATO is an alliance of 30 countries from North America and Europe; its role is to safeguard the security of its member countries by political and military means; NATO conducts crisis management and peacekeeping missions; member countries that participate in the military aspect of the Alliance contribute forces and equipment, which remain under national command and control until a time when they are required by NATO for a specific purpose (i.e. conflict or crisis, peacekeeping); NATO, however, does possess some common capabilities owned and operated by the Alliance, such as some early warning radar aircraft; relations between NATO and the EU were institutionalized in the early 2000s, building on steps taken during the 1990s to promote greater European responsibility in defense matters; cooperation and coordination covers a broad array of issues, including crisis management, defense and political consultations, civil preparedness, capacity building, military capabilities, maritime security, planning, cyber defense, countering hybrid threats, information sharing, logistics, defense industry, counterterrorism, etc.; NATO and the EU have 21 member countries in common

Eurocorps, which supports both the EU and NATO, was formally established in 1992 and activated the following year; it originated in 1987 with the French-German Brigade; Belgium (1993), Spain (1994), and Luxembourg (1996) joined over the next few years; five additional countries participate in Eurocorps as associated nations: Greece, Poland, and Turkey (since 2002), Italy and Romania (since 2009 and 2016 respectively); Eurocorps is headquartered in Strasbourg, France

(2021)

Transnational Issues

as a political union, the EU has no border disputes with neighboring countries, but Estonia has no land boundary agreements with Russia, Slovenia disputes its land and maritime boundaries with Croatia, and Spain has territorial and maritime disputes with Morocco and with the UK over Gibraltar; the EU has set up a Schengen area - consisting of 22 EU member states that have signed the convention implementing the Schengen agreements or "acquis" (1985 and 1990) on the free movement of persons and the harmonization of border controls in Europe; these agreements became incorporated into EU law with the implementation of the 1997 Treaty of Amsterdam on 1 May 1999; in addition, non-EU states Iceland and Norway (as part of the Nordic Union) have been included in the Schengen area since 1996 (full members in 2001), Switzerland since 2008, and Liechtenstein since 2011 bringing the total current membership to 26; the UK (since 2000) and Ireland (since 2002) take part in only some aspects of the Schengen area, especially with respect to police and criminal matters; nine of the 13 new member states that joined the EU since 2004 joined Schengen on 21 December 2007; of the four remaining EU states, Romania, Bulgaria, and Croatia are obligated to eventually join, while Cyprus' entry is held up by the ongoing Cyprus dispute

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The evolution of what is today the European Union (EU) from a regional economic agreement among six neighboring states in 1951 to today's hybrid intergovernmental and supranational organization of 27 countries across the European continent stands as an unprecedented phenomenon in the annals of history.

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Geography, People, Environment, Energy, Economy, Military, Terrorism, Transportation, etc.

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Introduction

The evolution of what is today the European Union (EU) from a regional economic agreement among six neighboring states in 1951 to today's hybrid intergovernmental and supranational organization of 27 countries across the European continent stands as an unprecedented phenomenon in the annals of history. Dynastic unions for territorial consolidation were long the norm in Europe; on a few occasions even country-level unions were arranged - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Austro-Hungarian Empire were examples. But for such a large number of nation-states to cede some of their sovereignty to an overarching entity is unique.

Although the EU is not a federation in the strict sense, it is far more than a free-trade association such as ASEAN or Mercosur, and it has certain attributes associated with independent nations: its own flag, currency (for some members), and law-making abilities, as well as diplomatic representation and a common foreign and security policy in its dealings with external partners.

Thus, inclusion of basic intelligence on the EU has been deemed appropriate as a separate entity in The World Factbook.

Following the two devastating World Wars in the first half of the 20th century, a number of far-sighted European leaders in the late 1940s sought a response to the overwhelming desire for peace and reconciliation on the continent. In 1950, the French Foreign Minister Robert SCHUMAN proposed pooling the production of coal and steel in Western Europe and setting up an organization for that purpose that would bring France and the Federal Republic of Germany together and would be open to other countries as well. The following year, the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was set up when six members - Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands - signed the Treaty of Paris.

The ECSC was so successful that within a few years the decision was made to integrate other elements of the member states' economies. In 1957, envisioning an "ever closer union," the Treaties of Rome were signed creating the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), and the six member states strove to eliminate trade barriers among themselves by forming a common market. In 1967, the institutions of all three communities were formally merged into the European Community (EC), creating a single Commission, a single Council of Ministers, and the body known today as the European Parliament. Members of the European Parliament were initially selected by national parliaments, but in 1979 the first direct elections were undertaken and have been held every five years since.

In 1973, the first enlargement of the EC took place with the addition of Denmark, Ireland, and the UK. The 1980s saw further membership expansion with Greece joining in 1981 and Spain and Portugal in 1986. The 1992 Treaty of Maastricht laid the basis for further forms of cooperation in foreign and defense policy, in judicial and internal affairs, and in the creation of an economic and monetary union - including a common currency. This further integration created the European Union (EU), at the time standing alongside the EC. In 1995, Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU/EC, raising the total number of member states to 15.

A new currency, the euro, was launched in world money markets on 1 January 1999; it became the unit of exchange for all EU member states except Denmark, Sweden, and the UK. In 2002, citizens of those 12 countries began using euro banknotes and coins. Ten new countries joined the EU in 2004 - Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Bulgaria and Romania joined in 2007 and Croatia in 2013, but the UK withdrew in 2020. Current membership stands at 27. (Seven of the new countries - Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Slovakia, and Slovenia - have now adopted the euro, bringing total euro-zone membership to 19.)

In an effort to ensure that the EU could function efficiently with an expanded membership, the Treaty of Nice (concluded in 2000; entered into force in 2003) set forth rules to streamline the size and procedures of EU institutions. An effort to establish a "Constitution for Europe," growing out of a Convention held in 2002-2003, foundered when it was rejected in referenda in France and the Netherlands in 2005. A subsequent effort in 2007 incorporated many of the features of the rejected draft Constitutional Treaty while also making a number of substantive and symbolic changes. The new treaty, referred to as the Treaty of Lisbon, sought to amend existing treaties rather than replace them. The treaty was approved at the EU intergovernmental conference of member states held in Lisbon in December 2007, after which the process of national ratifications began. In October 2009, an Irish referendum approved the Lisbon Treaty (overturning a previous rejection) and cleared the way for an ultimate unanimous endorsement. Poland and the Czech Republic ratified soon after. The Lisbon Treaty came into force on 1 December 2009 and the EU officially replaced and succeeded the EC. The Lisbon Treaty's provisions are part of the basic consolidated versions of the Treaty on European Union (TEU) and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) now governing what remains a very specific integration project.

UK citizens on 23 June 2016 narrowly voted to leave the EU; the formal exit took place on 31 January 2020. The EU and UK negotiated and ratified a Withdrawal Agreement that included a status quo transition period through December 2020, when the follow-on EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement was concluded.

Visit the Definitions and Notes page to view a description of each topic.

Geography

total: 4,236,351 sq km

rank by area (sq km):
1. France (includes five overseas regions) 643,801
2. Spain 505,370
3. Sweden 450,295
4. Germany 357,022
5. Finland 338,145
6. Poland 312,685
7. Italy 301,340
8. Romania 238,391
9. Greece 131,957
10. Bulgaria 110,879
11. Hungary 93,028
12. Portugal 92,090
13. Austria 83,871
14. Czechia 78,867
15. Ireland 70,273
16. Lithuania 65,300
17. Latvia 64,589
18. Croatia 56,594
19. Slovakia 49,035
20. Estonia 45,228
21. Denmark 43,094
22. Netherlands 41,543
23. Belgium 30,528
24. Slovenia 20,273
25. Cyprus 9,251
26. Luxembourg 2,586
27. Malta 316

total: 13,770 km

border countries (20): Albania 212 km; Andorra 118 km; Belarus 1,176 km; Bosnia and Herzegovina 956 km; Holy See 3 km; Liechtenstein 34 km; North Macedonia 396 km; Moldova 683 km; Monaco 6 km; Montenegro 19 km; Norway 2,375 km; Russia 2,435 km; San Marino 37 km; Serbia 1,353 km; Switzerland 1,729 km; Turkey 415 km; United Kingdom 499 km; Ukraine 1,324 km; note - the Brexit Withdrawal Agreement (2020) commits the United Kingdom (UK) to maintain an open border in Ireland, so the border between Northern Ireland (UK) and the Republic of Ireland is only de jure and is not a hard border; the de facto border is the Irish Sea between the islands of Ireland and Great Britain

note: data for European continent only

People and Society

1. Germany - 79,903,481;

2. France - 68,084,217;

3. Italy - 62,390,364;

4. Spain - 47,260,584;

5. Poland - 38,185,913;

6. Romania - 21,230,362;

7. Netherlands - 17,337,403;

8. Belgium - 11,778,842;

9. Czechia - 10,702,596;

10. Greece - 10,569,703;

11. Portugal - 10,263,850;

12. Sweden - 10,261,767;

13. Hungary - 9,728,337;

14. Austria - 8,884,864;

15. Bulgaria - 6,919,180;

16. Denmark - 5,894,687;

17. Finland - 5,587,442;

18. Slovakia - 5,436,066;

19. Ireland - 5,224,884;

20. Croatia - 4,208,973;

21. Lithuania - 2,711,566;

22. Slovenia - 2,102,106;

23. Latvia - 1,862,687;

24. Cyprus - 1,281,506;

25. Estonia - 1,220,042;

26. Luxembourg - 639,589;

27. Malta - 460,891 (July 2021 est.)

Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Irish, Italian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovene, Spanish, Swedish

note: only the 24 official languages are listed; German, the major language of Germany and Austria, is the most widely spoken mother tongue - about 16% of the EU population; English is the most widely spoken foreign language - about 29% of the EU population is conversant with it; English is an official language in Ireland and Malta and thus remained an official EU language after the UK left the bloc (2020)

Environment

Government

27 countries: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden; note - candidate countries: Albania, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia, Turkey

there are 13 overseas countries and territories (OCTs) (1 with Denmark [Greenland], 6 with France [French Polynesia; French Southern and Antarctic Lands; New Caledonia; Saint Barthelemy; Saint Pierre and Miquelon; Wallis and Futuna], and 6 with the Netherlands [Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Sint Maarten]), all are part of the Overseas Countries and Territories Association (OCTA)

note: there are non-European OCTs having special relations with Denmark, France, and the Netherlands (list is annexed to the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union), that are associated with the EU to promote their economic and social development; member states apply to their trade with OCTs the same treatment as they accord each other pursuant to the treaties; OCT nationals are in principle EU citizens, but these countries are neither part of the EU, nor subject to the EU

7 February 1992 (Maastricht Treaty signed establishing the European Union); 1 November 1993 (Maastricht Treaty entered into force)

note: the Treaties of Rome, signed on 25 March 1957 and subsequently entered into force on 1 January 1958, created the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community; a series of subsequent treaties have been adopted to increase efficiency and transparency, to prepare for new member states, and to introduce new areas of cooperation - such as a single currency; the Treaty of Lisbon, signed on 13 December 2007 and entered into force on 1 December 2009 is the most recent of these treaties and is intended to make the EU more democratic, more efficient, and better able to address global problems with one voice

under the EU treaties there are three distinct institutions, each of which conducts functions that may be regarded as executive in nature:
European Council - brings together heads of state and government, along with the president of the European Commission, and meets at least four times a year; its aim is to provide the impetus for the development of the Union and to issue general policy guidelines; the Treaty of Lisbon established the position of "permanent" (full-time) president of the European Council; leaders of the EU member states appoint the president for a 2 1/2 year term, renewable once; the president's responsibilities include chairing the EU summits and providing policy and organizational continuity; the current president is Charles MICHEL (Belgium), since 1 December 2019, succeeding Donald TUSK (Poland; 2014 - 2019)
Council of the European Union - consists of ministers of each EU member state and meets regularly in 10 different configurations depending on the subject matter; it conducts policymaking and coordinating functions as well as legislative functions; ministers of EU member states chair meetings of the Council of the EU based on a 6-month rotating presidency except for the meetings of EU Foreign Ministers in the Foreign Affairs Council that are chaired by the High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy
European Commission - headed by a College of Commissioners comprised of 28 members (one from each member country) including the president; each commissioner is responsible for one or more policy areas; the Commission's main responsibilities include the sole right to initiate EU legislation (except for foreign and security/defense policy), promoting the general interest of the EU, acting as "guardian of the Treaties" by monitoring the application of EU law, implementing/executing the EU budget, managing programs, negotiating on the EU's behalf in core policy areas such as trade, and ensuring the Union's external representation in some policy areas; its current president is Ursula VON DER LEYEN (Germany) elected on 16 July 2019 (took office on 1 December 2019); the president of the European Commission is nominated by the European Council and formally "elected" by the European Parliament; the Commission president allocates specific responsibilities among the members of the College (appointed by common accord of the member state governments in consultation with the president-elect); the European Parliament confirms the entire Commission for a 5-year term.

note: for external representation and foreign policy making, leaders of the EU member states appointed Joseph BORRELL (Spain) as the High Representative of the European Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy; BORRELL took office on 1 December 2019, succeeding Federica MOGHERINI (Italy (2014 - 2019); the High Representative's concurrent appointment as Vice President of the European Commission was meant to bring more coherence to the EU's foreign policy (horizontally, between policies managed by the Commission that are particularly relevant for EU external relations, such as trade, humanitarian aid and crisis management, neighborhood policy and enlargement; and vertically, between member-state capitals and the EU); the High Representative helps develop and implement the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy and Common Security and Defense Policy components, chairs the Foreign Affairs Council, represents and acts for the Union in many international contexts, and oversees the European External Action Service, the diplomatic corps of the EU, established on 1 December 2010

European United Left-Nordic Green Left or GUE/NGL [Manon AUBRY and Martin SCHIRDEWAN]
European Conservatives and Reformists or ECR [Raffaele FITTO and Ryszard LEGUTKO]
European Greens/European Free Alliance or Greens/EFA [Ska KELLER, Philippe LAMBERTS]
European People's Party or EPP [Manfred WEBER]
Identity and Democracy Party or ID [Marco ZANNI]
Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats or S&D [Iratxe PEREZ]
Renew Europe - RE (successor to Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe or ALDE) [Stephane SEJOURNE]

chief of mission: Ambassador Stavros LAMBRINIDIS (since 1 March 2019)

chancery: 2175 K Street, NW, Suite 800, Washington, DC 20037

telephone: [1] (202) 862-9500

FAX: [1] (202) 429-1766

Economy

The 27 member states that make up the EU have adopted an internal single market with free movement of goods, services, capital, and labor. The EU, which is also a customs union, aims to bolster Europe's trade position and its political and economic weight in international affairs.

Despite great differences in per capita income among member states (from $28,000 to $109,000) and in national attitudes toward issues like inflation, debt, and foreign trade, the EU has achieved a high degree of coordination of monetary and fiscal policies. A common currency - the euro - circulates among 19 of the member states that make up the European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). Eleven member states introduced the euro as their common currency on 1 January 1999 (Greece did so two years later). Since 2004, 13 states acceded to the EU. Of the 13, Slovenia (2007), Cyprus and Malta (2008), Slovakia (2009), Estonia (2011), Latvia (2014), and Lithuania (2015) have adopted the euro; seven other member states - excluding Denmark, which has a formal opt-out - are required by EU treaties to adopt the common currency upon meeting fiscal and monetary convergence criteria.

The EU economy posted moderate GDP growth for 2014 through 2017, capping five years of sustained growth since the 2008-09 global economic crisis and the ensuing sovereign debt crisis in the euro zone in 2011. However, the bloc's recovery was uneven. Some EU member states (Czechia, Ireland, Malta, Romania, Sweden, and Spain) recorded strong growth, others (Italy) experienced modest expansion, and Greece finally ended its EU rescue program in August 2018. Overall, the EU's recovery was buoyed by lower commodities prices and accommodative monetary policy, which lowered interest rates and stimulated demand. The euro zone, which makes up about 70% of the total EU economy, performed well, achieving a growth rate not seen in a decade. In October 2017 the European Central Bank (ECB) announced it would extend its bond-buying program through September 2018, and possibly beyond that date, to keep the euro zone recovery on track. The ECB's efforts to spur more lending and investment through its asset-buying program, negative interest rates, and long-term loan refinancing programs have not yet raised inflation in line with the ECB's statutory target of just under 2%.

Despite its performance, high unemployment in some member states, high levels of public and private debt, muted productivity, an incomplete single market in services, and an aging population remain sources of potential drag on the EU's future growth. Moreover, the EU economy remains vulnerable to a slowdown of global trade and bouts of political and financial turmoil. In June 2016, the UK voted to withdraw from the EU, the first member country ever to attempt to secede. Continued uncertainty about the implications of the UK's exit from the EU (concluded January 2020) could hurt consumer and investor confidence and dampen EU growth, particularly if trade and cross-border investment significantly declines. Political disagreements between EU member states on reforms to fiscal and economic policy also may impair the EU's ability to bolster its crisis-prevention and resolution mechanisms. International investors' fears of a broad dissolution of the single currency area have largely dissipated, but these concerns could resurface if elected leaders implement policies that contravene euro-zone budget or banking rules. State interventions in ailing banks, including rescue of banks in Italy and resolution of banks in Spain, have eased financial vulnerabilities in the European banking sector even though some banks are struggling with low profitability and a large stock of bad loans, fragilities that could precipitate localized crises. Externally, the EU has continued to pursue comprehensive free trade agreements to expand EU external market share, particularly with Asian countries; EU and Japanese leaders reached a political-level agreement on a free trade agreement in July 2017, and agreement with Mexico in April 2018 on updates to an existing free trade agreement.

9.8% (2013 est.)

note: see individual country entries of member states

$740.9 billion (31 December 2014 est.)

$746.9 billion (31 December 2013)

note: data are for the European Central Bank

Communications

Transportation

Military and Security

the EU's Common Security and Defense Policy (CSDP) provides the civilian, military, and political structures for EU crisis management and security issues; the highest bodies are:

the Political and Security Committee (PSC), which meets at the ambassadorial level as a preparatory body for the Council of the EU; it assists with defining policies and preparing a crisis response

the European Union Military Committee (EUMC) is the EU's highest military body; it is composed of the chiefs of defense (CHODs) of the Member States, who are regularly represented by their permanent Military Representatives; the EUMC provides the PSC with advice and recommendations on all military matters within the EU

the Committee for Civilian Aspects of Crisis Management (CIVCOM) provides advice and recommendations to the PSC in parallel with the EUMC on civilian aspects of crisis management

the Politico-Military Group (PMG) provides advice and recommendations to the PSC on political aspects of EU military and civil-military issues, including concepts, capabilities and operations and missions, and monitors implementation

other bodies set up under the CSDP include; the Security and Defense Policy Directorate (SECDEFPOL), the Integrated approach for Security and Peace Directorate (ISP), the EU Military Staff (EUMS), the Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability (CPCC), the Military Planning and Conduct Capability (MPCC), the European Defense Agency, the European Security and Defense College (ESDC), the EU Institute for Security Studies, and the EU Satellite Center (2021)

EU Battlegroups are rapid reaction multinational military units that form a key part of the EU's capacity to respond to emerging crises and conflicts; their deployment is subject to a unanimous decision by the EU Council; the core of a battlegroup typically consists of one infantry battalion (about 1,500 troops) reinforced with combat and combat service support units; the composition of the supporting units may differ depending on the mission; the troops and equipment are drawn from EU member states and under the direction of a lead nation; 2 battlegroups are always on standby for a period of 6 months; the battlegroups were declared operational in 2007, but have never been used operationally due to political and financial obstacles

the EU partners with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO); NATO is an alliance of 30 countries from North America and Europe; its role is to safeguard the security of its member countries by political and military means; NATO conducts crisis management and peacekeeping missions; member countries that participate in the military aspect of the Alliance contribute forces and equipment, which remain under national command and control until a time when they are required by NATO for a specific purpose (i.e. conflict or crisis, peacekeeping); NATO, however, does possess some common capabilities owned and operated by the Alliance, such as some early warning radar aircraft; relations between NATO and the EU were institutionalized in the early 2000s, building on steps taken during the 1990s to promote greater European responsibility in defense matters; cooperation and coordination covers a broad array of issues, including crisis management, defense and political consultations, civil preparedness, capacity building, military capabilities, maritime security, planning, cyber defense, countering hybrid threats, information sharing, logistics, defense industry, counterterrorism, etc.; NATO and the EU have 21 member countries in common

Eurocorps, which supports both the EU and NATO, was formally established in 1992 and activated the following year; it originated in 1987 with the French-German Brigade; Belgium (1993), Spain (1994), and Luxembourg (1996) joined over the next few years; five additional countries participate in Eurocorps as associated nations: Greece, Poland, and Turkey (since 2002), Italy and Romania (since 2009 and 2016 respectively); Eurocorps is headquartered in Strasbourg, France

(2021)

Transnational Issues

as a political union, the EU has no border disputes with neighboring countries, but Estonia has no land boundary agreements with Russia, Slovenia disputes its land and maritime boundaries with Croatia, and Spain has territorial and maritime disputes with Morocco and with the UK over Gibraltar; the EU has set up a Schengen area - consisting of 22 EU member states that have signed the convention implementing the Schengen agreements or "acquis" (1985 and 1990) on the free movement of persons and the harmonization of border controls in Europe; these agreements became incorporated into EU law with the implementation of the 1997 Treaty of Amsterdam on 1 May 1999; in addition, non-EU states Iceland and Norway (as part of the Nordic Union) have been included in the Schengen area since 1996 (full members in 2001), Switzerland since 2008, and Liechtenstein since 2011 bringing the total current membership to 26; the UK (since 2000) and Ireland (since 2002) take part in only some aspects of the Schengen area, especially with respect to police and criminal matters; nine of the 13 new member states that joined the EU since 2004 joined Schengen on 21 December 2007; of the four remaining EU states, Romania, Bulgaria, and Croatia are obligated to eventually join, while Cyprus' entry is held up by the ongoing Cyprus dispute

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The evolution of what is today the European Union (EU) from a regional economic agreement among six neighboring states in 1951 to today's hybrid intergovernmental and supranational organization of 27 countries across the European continent stands as an unprecedented phenomenon in the annals of history.

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Historia de Espana

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Contents
The Early Settlers
Based on the findings at Atapuerca (Burgos province), estimated to be around 800,000 years old, the presence of hominids on the Iberian Peninsula dates back to the Lower Palaeolithic period. Experts are still debating the origin of these early settlers, who may have entered the peninsula directly from Africa via the Straits of Gibraltar, but more likely arrived by crossing over the Pyrenees. In any case, the remains of utensils and works of art found on the peninsula are certainly from this period, corresponding to the same hunter-gatherer cultures that existed in other parts of Europe.

From approximately 1100 B.C. until the middle of the 3rd century B.C., commercial and cultural contact with the Mediterranean civilisations was articulated by the Phoenicians (whose territories extended from the Algarve on the peninsula's South Atlantic coast to Iberia's Mediterranean shores in the east) and the Greeks (whose influence stretched from the estuary of the Ebro River to the Gulf of Roses on the north-eastern coast of Spain). At the end of this period, both civilisations were displaced by the Romans and Carthaginians respectively.

Hence, between the 12th and 4th centuries B.C., substantial differences emerged between the Iberia that extended from the Mediterranean in the northeast to the Atlantic in the south, and the Iberia of the peninsular inland region. The latter territory was inhabited by various tribes, some of them Celts. With a relatively primitive social organisation, these peoples engaged in migratory herding, which consisted of alternating the grazing pastures in the northern uplands that they used in the summer with those of the southern part of the central plateau, or Meseta, used in the winter. Shepherds and sheep, the conquerors of grazing lands, played a key role in the geo-history of the Iberian Peninsula.

By contrast, in the 4th century B.C. the peoples of the coastal region generically known as Iberians had already formed a homogenous group of city- states (Tartessus, the biblical Tarshish or perhaps the legendary submerged Atlantis) influenced by the more developed urban, trading, farming and mining centres of the Eastern Mediterranean. The earliest written records about the peninsula date from this period. Hispania, the name the Romans gave to the peninsula, is allegedly a Semitic word derived from Hispalis (Seville).
The Persistent Traces of the Roman Presence
The Roman presence on the peninsula basically followed the same pattern as the Greek commercial bases, but unlike the Greeks, Rome's introduction to Iberia was the result of a power struggle with Carthage to gain control of the Western Mediterranean during the 2nd century B.C. In any case, it was at this point that the Iberian Peninsula as a geographic unit entered the arena of international politics and, by virtue of its privileged location between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean and its rich agricultural and mineral resources in the south, became a much coveted strategic objective.

The Roman invasion and eventual conquest of the peninsula took place over the long period between 218 and 19 B.C. The Romans were alarmed by the Carthaginian expansion to the northeast; like Napoleon centuries later, they believed that the Ebro River delineated a natural boundary with Gaul, which was then a Roman province.

This conflict of interests led to the Second Punic War. While Hannibal was making his legendary journey across the Alps, the Roman legions were attacking his Spanish base at Carthago Nova (present-day Cartagena), with its seaport and mines. Hannibal's defeat by Publius Cornelius Scipio (209 B.C.) not only marked the beginning of the end for his army in Italy; it was also the beginning of the Roman conquest of Spain.

Of the numerous confrontations that took place throughout the Roman conquest of the inland region of Hispania, the most famous was the so- called Celtiberian-Lusitanian War, which lasted for twenty years (154-134 B.C.). The war tactics of the Lusitanian chief Viriathus and the legendary, although unsubstantiated, collective suicide of the people of Numantia under siege by the Romans were much celebrated by Latin historians.

The Roman presence in Hispania lasted seven hundred years, during which time the basic boundaries of the peninsula in relation to other European countries were established. The interior divisions drawn up by the Romans seem curiously prophetic: Lusitania, Tarraconensis and Baetica. But the Romans bequeathed more than just a territorial structure; they also left institutions such as the family unit, language, religion, law and the concept of the municipality, and their assimilation situated the peninsula firmly in the Greco-Latin and later the Judaeo-Christian world.

The Romans mainly settled along the coasts and rivers, bequeathing the enduring importance of cities such as Tarragona, Cartagena, Lisbon and particularly Mérida. Meanwhile, the vast array of public works such as roads, bridges, aqueducts, temples arches, theatres, amphitheatres and circuses clearly reflects the geographical distribution of Roman settlements on the peninsula. However, at the beginning of the 5th century A.D. the map of Roman colonisation began to change dramatically when a variety of Germanic peoples marched into the peninsula and settled in the interior, in the case of the Visigoths, and in the west, in the case of the Suebi. At the same time, certain phenomena had been gaining momentum since the 3rd century A.D. such as the reduction of the urban population, the construction of fortifications around cities, the extension of latifundismo (the division of the land into large estates), the lack of safety in rural areas and the weakening of the state as an institution. On the other hand, local oligarchies were becoming more powerful as they offered safety in return for loyalty. A major event of this period was the beginning of the Christian conquest of Hispania, although its exact origins are still unknown. St. Paul was probably present in Hispania between 62 and 63 A.D., and Prudentius' narrative of the 3rd century persecution of Christianity mentions dioceses and martyrs. Following Constantine's Edict of Milan, which granted religious freedom, the first Council of the Spanish Church was held in 314 A.D.
The Visigoth Kingdom: First Attempt at Peninsular Unity
By the 5th century the Visigoths were already a Romanised people who saw themselves as the perpetuators of the extinct imperial power. Around the mid 500s, the pressure exerted by the Suebi in the west (Galicia), the Cantabrian- Pyrenean shepherds in the north, and the Byzantines in the south (Baetica) on three different fronts led them to establish their capital in Toledo at the centre of the peninsula.

Integration between Visigoths and Hispano-Romans was both rapid and successful. It was also greatly facilitated by King Reccared's conversion to the Catholic faith at the 3rd Council of Toledo (589), which enabled the Church to acquire a predominant and fiscal role in politics through the celebration of a series of Councils of Toledo and the adoption of relatively similar social structures, contained in the Liber Judiciorum promulgated by Recceswinth that basically unifi ed Visigothic and Hispano-Roman law. Both cultures boasted a landed aristocracy and an ecclesiastical aristocracy, and both institutions favoured the autonomy of the nobility at the expense of royal power.
Muslim Spain: Cradle of a Flourishing Culture
It was precisely one of the ostracised noble clans, the Witiza family, which brought about the collapse of the Visigothic state at the beginning of the 8th century by appealing for help to the Arabic and Berber troops on the other side of the Straits of Gibraltar. In fact, the degree of disintegration within the Visigothic state apparatus enabled the Muslims to secure isolated pacts with the semi-independent aristocracy hostile to the Crown.

The proclamation of the caliphate had a dual purpose. In the interior, the Umayyads were keen to reinforce the peninsular state. In the outlying territories, their quest was to consolidate the commercial routes in the Mediterranean that would guarantee economic relations with the eastern basin (Byzantium) as well as the supply of gold. Melilla was occupied in 927 and by the middle of the same century the Umayyad Caliphate controlled the triangle between Algeria, Sijilmasa and the Atlantic. The small Christian enclaves in the north of the peninsula became modest fiefdoms of the caliph, whose superiority and arbitration they recognised.

The foundations of Muslim Spain's hegemony rested on considerable economic power derived from substantial trade, a highly developed crafts industry and farming methods that were much more efficient than those employed in the rest of Europe.

The Caliphate of Cordoba was the first urban and commercial economy to flourish in Europe since the fall of the Roman Empire. Moreover, its capital and main city, Cordoba, had a population of approximately 100,000, which made it the largest urban centre in Europe at the time.

Muslim Spain produced a flourishing culture, especially following the accession of the caliph Al-Hakam II (961 976), who is attributed with creating a library of several hundred thousand volumes - an inconceivable feat in Europe at the time. The most characteristic trait of this culture was its swift re-adoption of classical philosophy, most notably by Ibn Masarra, Abentofain, Averroes and the Jewish philosopher Maimonides. But above all, Hispano-Muslim scholars were noted for their contributions to the fields of medicine, mathematics and astronomy.

The fragmentation of the Caliphate of Cordoba occurred at the end of the first decade of the 11th century and was brought about by the intense military aggressions perpetrated by its last leaders, combined with asphyxiating fiscal pressure. The successors of the unitary caliphate were known as taifas or petty kingdoms, and the word has passed into the Spanish language as a synonym of the ruin that generated the fragmentation and disunity of the peninsula. As a result of this gradual weakening of the state, by the mid-13th century Muslim Spain had been reduced to the Nasrid kingdom of Granada.
From the Early Christian Resistance to the Reconquest of Spain
The first Christian uprising occurred in the first third of the 8th century in Covadonga, located in the mountains of Asturias.

However, this early Christian resistance was more a question of survival than a deliberate offensive campaign or "reconquest." In the 10th century, Alfonso III advanced from Oviedo to Leon, en route to the Duero River Valley. On the Meseta, this expansion led to the creation of the county and then the kingdom of Castile, which later united with the kingdom of Leon under the reign of Ferdinand III in 1230. Meanwhile, in 1143 the Atlantic flank of the peninsula became the kingdom of Portugal.

During the 12th and 13th centuries, the four main Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula were formed: Portugal, Castile-Leon, Navarre and Aragon- Catalonia.

By the final third of the 13th century the Muslim presence had been reduced to the Muslim presence had been reduced to the Nasrid kingdom of Granada until 2 January 1492. The end of the Reconquest - or, in Roman- Visigothic terminology, the recovery of Hispania - had a profound impact on Christian Europe, being regarded as compensation for the fall of Constantinople to the Turks.

Given that the Reconquest lasted so long, there were several periods of co-existence and even, at certain times in the 12th century, a type of frontier society. In any case, the Christian monarchs conquered through colonisation, offering land to anyone who promised to occupy, cultivate and defend it. This gave rise to transfers and migrations from the north of the Iberian Peninsula and Europe, a rare phenomenon in other latitudes at the time. Those colonisers gradually formed a peasant society that was comparatively freer than its contemporaries in other parts of Europe, where subjugation to the feudal lords was much greater.

Between the 9th and 11th centuries, these semi-free peasants were grouped into towns governed by elected councils to which the monarchs granted special charters (fueros) based on certain exemptions and privileges. Subsequently, in the 12th century, these burghers sat down with the other two branches of society - the nobility and the clergy - in assemblies known as Cortes, where they discussed and voted on matters pertaining to taxes.
The Catholic Monarchs: Peninsular Unity and the Imperial Enterprise of the Spanish Renaissance
The quest for unity did not end with the last military victory of 1492 and the conquest of Granada, but continued - in its ambition for religious, ethnic and cultural uniformity - with the expulsion that same year of the Jews who refused to convert to Catholicism and then of the Moriscos, or Moorish converts. The difficult situation in which the Jews found themselves was not confined exclusively to Spain. Since the Council of Letran in 1215, they had unfortunately suffered a similar if not harsher fate in the rest of Europe. Until 1492, Christian territory in Spain had been a melting pot of Jewish, Muslim and Christian cultures, most famously giving rise to the so-called disputas or debates between scholars of the three cultures united in a movement sponsored by King Alfonso X and known as the Toledo Translation School. The work produced by this school enriched European culture with the science of the Greeks and the achievements of the Arabs.

Expansion of the calibre described above undoubtedly created a frontier economy with the acquisition of vast spaces. Since the 13th century the Hispanic kingdoms were based on rapidly growing societies, the dynamics of which were clearly reflected in the economic and political boom experienced by the kingdom of Aragon with the conquest of Sardinia, Sicily and Naples in the Mediterranean.

Although the incorporation of Navarre in 1512 improved peninsular unity, the cycle of unification was really completed with the capture of Granada in 1492. That same year, Nebrija published the first grammar of a popular language - Castilian - and a Spanish fleet reached the coasts of America.

The legendary aura surrounding Ferdinand and Isabella, the Catholic Monarchs, has hindered the task of providing an adequate assessment of their context and a sober evaluation of their work.

Internally, they invested all their efforts in reinforcing the state apparatus and the authority of the Crown, seeking support in the existing legal and administrative institutions and creating new ones, often inspired by those of other European countries. Such was the case, for example, of the Tribunal of the Inquisition. Introduced at a later date in Spain than elsewhere, this court not only served religious purposes but was also an instrument used by monarchs to reinforce the authority of the state.

In 1492 the Spanish monarchy represented one of the earliest modern states in Renaissance Europe. Its outward expansion across the Atlantic (the Americas and Flanders) and the Mediterranean (Italy) was based precisely on this. Indeed, Spain's foreign policy at the time was orchestrated by the creation of a permanent state staffed by civil servants and diplomats, with a unitary but flexible and confederate concept of the monarchy.

Although Castile had lost its African routes to Portugal, its possession of the Canary Islands provided it with an excellent springboard for alternative routes. This is precisely what Christopher Columbus offered the state, which was clearly in need of such an offer, although it had prepared for and become accustomed to enterprises of this nature. By 1492 the united Spain boasted powerful war machinery, a solid economy, an international presence, experience at sea and in exploring new commercial routes, and considerable scientific and technical expertise: mathematicians, geographers, astronomers and shipbuilders, forged in the melting pot of the three cultures.
The Conquest of America: The New Frontier of the Largest Western Empire
By the mid-16th century, the main viceroyalties had been established and settled: Mexico on the Atlantic flank and Peru in the South American Pacific.

On 6 September 1522, Juan Sebastián Elcano returned to the peninsula as a survivor of the first circumnavigation of the world initiated by Magellan, thereby providing Spain with a route to the East. Thereafter, Havana- Veracruz (the Tierra Firme fleet) in the Atlantic and Acapulco-El Callao-Philippines (the China ship) in the Pacific, together with control of the Western Mediterranean - under eternal threat from the Turks - became the vital arteries of the Spanish Empire's overseas territories. The convoys of Spanish galleons maintained these routes open despite attacks from marauding English and Dutch ships until the decisive Battle of Trafalgar in 1805.

In Italy the Spanish monarchy adopted the tradition of engaging in confrontations with France and alliances with England. The Battle of Pavia in 1521, which resulted in the capture of King Francis I of France by the Spanish infantry regiments, consolidated Spain's superiority until the mid-17th century.

Eventually, in their quest to further Spain's diplomatic and commercial relations with the Netherlands, Ferdinand and Isabella joined the Spanish Crown to the Duchy of Burgundy. The fabulous legacy embodied in the Flemish Prince Charles, grandson of the Emperor Maximilian and the Catholic Monarchs, was to condition Spanish and European politics until the 18th century. The solution adopted by the Spanish Hapsburgs to manage this enormous legacy was to establish an all-encompassing, flexible monarchy, consisting of a constellation of kingdoms and domains united in a vast confederation around a single Crown. There would have been no unity without the figure of the king, since each kingdom maintained its own institutions, language, laws, and even its own borders.

The Carolingian Empire was therefore a conglomerate of territories randomly united under a common sovereign. The first consequence to arise from this was the complete absence of any attempt to create an institutional organisation common to the whole empire. Similarly, the second consequence was that no attempt was made to secure any type of political or economic cooperation between the various territories, which would have helped consolidate the idea of an empire - that is, the participation of all parties in a shared enterprise. The most notable achievement of Spain under the Hapsburgs was its ability to retain control over its vast territories spread around the world. No other state in the 16th and 17th centuries was faced with such an enormous administration problem. Spain had to explore, colonise and govern a new world.
The Spanish Empire and its "Black Legend"
This acceptance of differences by the Spanish Hapsburgs encompassed all domains except for one: religion. They strove to create a universal empire founded on the Madrid-Brussels-Vienna triangle, which did not sit well with the emerging nationalist states and was even less palatable to the individualist mindset of the Reformation. These two ingredients - nationalism and Protestantism - met head on in the Dutch uprising against Philip II, who had succeeded the Emperor Charles in the Duchy of Burgundy and on the throne of the Spanish kingdoms in 1556.

The conquest of America was an attempt to annex the territory and subjugate the population. Just as the Roman Empire had done, language, religion, laws, administration and crossbreeding provided the vehicles for the Hispanicisation of America, all of which guided the continent firmly into the western fold. Several Spaniards, including Bartolomé de las Casas, spoke out against the abuses of the conquerors, which gave rise to the so-called "Black Legend" of Spanish cruelty in the Americas.
Fiscal Crisis, Centralism and the Decline of the Spanish Empire
The state that had gradually been forged, first by the Catholic Monarchs and later by Philip II, was the prototype of the modern absolutist state. The Spanish Empire invented an administrative apparatus that was highly complex for the time, based on a system that put security before all else and attained enormous prestige. The state grew considerably, assuming responsibilities and duties that were too much for the increasingly impoverished agrarian society of the ancien régime to bear. But rather than reducing the size of the state and eradicating duties, the imperialists chose to asphyxiate society. The breakdown of the system became evident in 1640 with the rebellion of Catalonia and the separation of Portugal.

The decline of the Spanish Empire, brought about by fiscal exhaustion, coincided with a gradual disintegration of the confederated system, which was subjected to centralist practices. In addition to these two factors, Spain was also the victim of its own success: The incorporation of the Americas and the expansion of transoceanic navigation shifted the European geo-economic axis from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, and more precisely to the basins of the Thames, Rhine, Seine and Scheldt, relegating Spain to a peripheral position.

However, peripheral is not to be confused with marginal, and Spain maintained its status as a great power and a key player in Europe with the Americas and Naples still under its control. Following the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, it had ceded its hegemonic role to the French kingdom of Louis XIV, which made the "Sun King" into the arbiter of European politics and France into the model for what was soon to become the reformed government of 17th century enlightened despotism.

Charles II, the last of the Spanish Hapsburgs, was childless and bequeathed his inheritance to a grandson of his sister Maria Theresa and Louis XIV of France, Philip of Anjou. Crowned King of Spain and the Indies in 1701, Philip V inaugurated the dynasty of the Spanish Bourbons. His reign prolonged the Enlightenment in Spain, a period of foreign policy equilibrium, reform and internal progress.
Spain under the House of Bourbon and the Enlightenment
The rest of Europe viewed the will of Charles II with suspicion. This led to the Spanish War of Succession (1705-1713), with the Treaty of Utrecht signifying victory for Philip V.

However, at Utrecht Philip V and his successors were obliged to renounce their Flemish inheritance. The official renunciation of Flanders constituted the end of the old universalising conception of the Spanish-Austrian monarchy and the beginning of the nationalisation of Spanish politics.

Balance and peace in Europe became the two goals pursued by Spain throughout the 18th century. However, this ambition was thwarted by England's commercial and colonial expansion on the one hand, and by the rivalry between England and France on the other. Spain's desire for neutrality and peace was best embodied by Ferdinand VI (1746-1759).

During the reign of Charles III (1759-1788), the politics articulated by Prime Minister Floridablanca managed to keep Spain out of military conflicts, despite a tentative intervention in the American War of Independence. Charles III's legacy was a country at peace and well on the road to progress, and it took a long time for the French Revolution of 1789 to derail this peaceful, non- interventionist policy.

The germination of a Spanish nationality in foreign policy was accompanied by a parallel phenomenon in the country's domestic politics; indeed, the two developments were closely related. During the War of Succession, the Kingdom of Aragon had backed the Austrian candidate, a choice that presented the victorious Philip V with a perfect excuse for embarking on what was to become a chain of profound reforms in the structure of the state and the Spanish government.

The Decree of Nueva Planta (or new approach, which aimed to reorganise the country) was to internal politics what the Treaty of Utrecht was to foreign policy, as it implied the extension of the Castilian administrative structure to the Kingdom of Aragon and the abolition of Aragon's fueros or special charters, thus bringing the confederate monarchy of the Hapsburgs to an end. This marked the first step on the road to centralisation, which was completed a century and a half later by liberal governments.

The disproportionate and chronic deficit of the 17th century was reduced and a tendency towards budgetary balance recovered, which was only broken at the end of the 18th century. The country's improved fi nancial management was brought about by another two factors: less was spent on foreign ventures and more taxes were collected, not only as a result of a more efficient fiscal system but also because Spanish society was more prosperous.

A major step forward was made with the removal of all obstacles to trade and industry. The elimination of "dry ports," which economically isolated certain areas from others, and the opening of all the ports in the kingdom provided a major boost to the trade conducted not only between these national ports but also with foreign ports, so that by the end of the century 75% of the trade with the Americas had been recovered. Similarly, the Catalonian cotton industry began to take off; this growth was so pronounced that, prior to the French invasion of 1808, it represented two-thirds of the British cotton industry. The progressive liberalisation of farm prices and the limitation of the privileges of the Mesta (a powerful association of sheep ranchers in the medieval Kingdom of Castile) contributed to provide a greater quantity of land for cultivation and an increase in agricultural production.

However, in Spain as in the rest of Europe still governed by the social order of the ancient régime, the land problem consisted of vast expanses purloined from the market and placed in the hands of either the Church - which owned 15% of the cultivable area - the municipal councils or the nobility. The confiscation policy initiated - albeit timidly - by the enlightened governments formed part of a general policy aimed at reducing tax and other exemptions, special privileges, judicial and territorial domains, and even the ecclesiastic and noble populations (the former still represented 3% of the total population, while in the latter case the number of gentry fell from 700,000 in 1763 to 400,000 in 1787).

The Bourbons also did away with a large proportion of the motley administrative apparatus inherited from the Hapsburgs and reduced the Councils. They promoted the creation of Secretarías (Ministries) and direct dealings with the king as part of a plan intended to marginalise the upper nobility from, as Louis XIV of France put it, "anything that could give them part of the government". The Bourbons recruited their senior civil servants from among the local and enlightened lower nobility, giving rise to a new social category - an ambitious middle-class nobility eager for advancement at the service of the state.

These civil servants were people of their time, enlightened in their thinking and convinced of their reforming mission, alert to the ideas of the period, often with foreign friends and a command of other languages. For example, Floridablanca was a friend of Benjamin Franklin and kept up a correspondence with Voltaire. In his Informe sobre la Ley Agraria (Report on the Agrarian Law), Jovellanos demonstrated his knowledge of the recent reforms introduced by Adam Smith, and he also wrote frequently to Lord Holland. The paradox lay in the fact that neither of these two figures enjoyed a reputation among their fellow countrymen, although at least they did not suffer the sad fate of Esquilache, whose reforms met with such widespread opposition that he had to go into exile.
The Napoleonic Invasion and the War of Independence
The Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807) permitted the French army of Marshal Junot to cross the Pyrenees and advance towards Portugal, and although the French entered Lisbon they did not leave Spain.

The crisis of the ancien régime that paved the way for the Napoleonic invasion was also a dynastic crisis that severely undermined the enormous prestige and authority of an ancient Crown. When Charles IV abdicated in favour of his son, the monarchy was irreparably damaged.

The political regime that the Bonapartes attempted to unify was laid out in the Statute of Bayonne, signed on 8 July 1808. Although this document is tremendously important from a historical standpoint, it never had any legal or practical significance because it was never enacted. It was, however, the first constitutional text to appear in Spain.

The result was a general uprising on 2 May, which was immortalised in Goya's paintings.

The War of Spain, as the French called it, lasted six years. The Spanish christened it the War of Independence, and it was an all-out war that raged throughout the entire country. A minority of Spaniards, albeit fairly numerous, actually supported the intruder king. The luckier ones became some of contemporary Spain's first political emigrants. The disasters that Goya reflected in his paintings clearly evoke the cruelty of a long struggle in which the guerrilla parties used the strategy of preventing normal life in the country as way of perpetually harassing the invaders.

Senior Provincial Juntas emerged spontaneously in most of the Spanish provinces, but in the face of military defeats and the lack of financial resources they eventually saw the need for a higher structure to coordinate all their efforts, giving rise to the creation of the Central Junta.

The Central Junta appointed a Regency, founded in the city of Cadiz, which summoned the Cortes (Parliament).
The Constitution of 1812
The inaugural session of the new Cortes was held on 24 September 1810 and was attended by approximately 100 representatives, around half of whom were stand-ins. This gathering ratified the following basic principles: that sovereignty lay with the nation, that Ferdinand VII was the legitimate king of Spain, and that the representatives were entitled to parliamentary immunity.

The Constitution of 1812 proclaimed the figure of the king to be sacrosanct and immune, not subject to liability and with the right to sanction and enact laws. It also established the number of ministers, who were accountable for the king's actions and in the Cortes for compliance with the law of the land.

In relation to the judiciary, the courts were responsible for applying the law, and the revolutionary concept of procedural law was introduced. Only two special fueros or charters were granted: to the clergy and to the militia. The constitution also proclaimed the equality of all Spaniards in the eyes of the law and the irremovability of judges and civil servants.

Primary schools were contemplated for every town in the land, plus a single education system for the entire kingdom. Freedom of expression and of the press was also established.
A Century of Liberal Revolutions and Moderate Governments
When the Spanish diplomats attended the Congress of Vienna in 1814, they represented a victorious state but a devastated and divided nation. The profound crisis in the mother country had severely damaged the Latin American Empire, from which continental America separated in 1824 following the Battle of Ayacucho. In the words of the Count of Aranda, the Spanish Empire had coped better with the small defeats of the 17th century than with the violent victories of the 19th century.

The patriots of Cadiz had responded to the dynastic crisis and the power vacuum with three main stances on national sovereignty. For some, this lay with the Crown and the traditional institutions (the Cortes); consequently, they initially defended a return to an absolutist regime (1815-1819), then a more moderate one (1824-1834), and eventually adopted the name of Carlists to signify their support of the king's reactionary brother, Don Carlos. Others defended a nation based on the Cortes and the King. These subsequently became known as moderate or doctrinarian liberals (between 1834 and 1875), and then as conservatives (1876-1923). Finally, a small but highly active group supported the idea of national sovereignty based exclusively on the Spanish people. A more moderate version of the French Jacobeans, these went down in history first as exaltados or extreme radicals (1820-1823), then as progressives (1823-1869), and finally as constitutionalists (1870-1880) and fusionist liberals (1881-1923).

The Carlists had a strong following in the countryside - especially in the north (Basque Country and Navarre) and in the hinterlands of Catalonia - and to a certain extent they represented the rebellion of rural society against urban society. They were also supported by the lower clergy and autocratic powers such as Russia.

Politically, Carlism advocated the return of the ancien régime. By contrast, the liberals - who defended the succession of Isabella II, daughter of Ferdinand VII - desired a radical change to create a society made up of individuals who were equal in the eyes of a law that would guarantee human rights. Their victory must be viewed within the context of British support for liberal causes, especially in the Latin world, as opposed to Russian expansionism, and the victory of the liberal monarchy in France in 1830.

The liberals legislated in accordance with individual-egalitarian principles. They abolished privileges and legal exemptions, did away with judicial domains, and dissociated entailed estates from the Church and local authorities, thereby making millions of hectares available for the market and vastly increasing the quantity of cultivable land and agrarian production. At the beginning of the century, Spain imported wheat and ate rye bread, while by the end of the century it exported cereals and the bread was made from wheat. The liberals also believed in the free market, and through the confiscation of land they attempted to create a much wider, national market to achieve a victory over absolutism. However, they did not pursue an agrarian reform like that advocated by other powers years later, in the 20th century.
The Impossibility of Rotation and the Coup d'état Tradition
The liberals, who believed they had solved a problem of state, were in fact creating one of government by drawing up constitutional and electoral legislation that was markedly biased and designed to ensure the permanence in power of their party. This turned rotation in office into the Spanish political problem par excellence, although in reality it was also a conflict deeply rooted in social issues, for the small parties of the time sought supporters among the employed, unemployed and job seekers, all from the urban middle classes and dependent on power for their survival.

For decades, monopolist practices alternated with mutinies and military coups, and until 1870 in Spain the military uprising was the basic and daring - but no less effective - instrument used by the parties in opposition to impose the rotation denied to them by governments entrenched in office.

An oversized, ambitious and undisciplined officers corps, eternally exposed to the threat of being discharged, with no job and only half pay, were easy prey for political groups keen to take by force what the exclusivist policy of the party in power denied them.

However, it would be mistaken to view these coups as armed conflicts: they simply provided a method for precipitating political solutions with a minimum of military confrontations. In 1868, what started out as a classic coup staged by the progressives degenerated into a revolution that deposed Isabella II and ushered in a six-year period of strong political mobilisation with the establishment of a provisional government and the enactment of a new constitution (1869) that paved the way for the ephemeral reign of Amadeus of Savoy (1869-1873).
The First Republic: The Carlist Uprising
Following the abdication of Amadeus I, who lacked popular support, on 11 February 1873 the National Assembly (Congress and Senate) proclaimed the First Republic by 258 votes to 32 against. Although extremely short-lived - it only lasted until 29 December 1874 - this republic advocated new theories that shaped the immediate future: federalism, socialism and cantonalism. Following four successive presidencies - Estanislao Figueras, Francisco Pi y Margall, Nicolás Salmerón and Emilio Castelar - the coup d'état led by General Pavía dissolved the National Assembly (3 January 1874) and on 29 December of the same year, following the uprising led by General Martínez Campos, the monarchy was restored in the person of Alfonso XII, Isabella's eldest son. The Republic met with a major uprising of the Carlists. The general political sentiment had begun to swing from the extreme right to the extreme left, in keeping with events in Europe at the time, such as the Paris Commune in 1871 and the conservative reaction it provoked.
The Restoration: The Loss of the Last Colonies
The beginning of Alfonso XII's reign was marked by two successes: the end of the Third Carlist War and the approval of a new constitution (1876), and a certain stability based on the existence of two political formations that represented the majority of the electorate: the Conservative Party led by Cánovas, supported by the court and latifundista aristocracy, landowners and people of independent means, and Sagasta's Liberal Party, whose members included people from the professional and middle classes, as well as merchants and industrialists. Their rotation in power, especially after the death of the king and the regency of his wife Maria Christina (1885-1902), gave rise to a period of stability interrupted only in its last phase by the incidents and confrontations in Morocco and the loss in 1898 of the last two remaining colonies: Cuba and the Philippines.
The Early 20th Century
The dawn of the 20th century in Spain was marked by a series of profound unsolved problems. Some of these problems were structural; the population had almost doubled since the beginning of the previous century, rising from 11 to 18.5 million in a land of limited resources. There were also agrarian problems: latifundismo, low yields and a high percentage of land left uncultivated. In addition to these problems, capital funds and the existing infrastructure were insufficient to launch heavy industry, and consumer capacity was very low, all of which gave rise to a protectionism that was both costly and for the most part non-competitive.

At the same time, the political problems that had arisen in the previous century became more acute. In addition to the political and intellectual frustration resulting from Spain's loss of influence on the world stage, plus the disappearance of its colonial empire, the country now had to face the regionalist problem, either in the form of federalism or claims for a return to the old regime of fuerismo, the system of special privileges that had characterised the Carlists. Similarly, the cantonalism expressed during the ephemeral First Republic raised its head again. However, the main problem undoubtedly emerged from the social and trade union movements of the working class, which was destined to play a historic and decisive role throughout the 20th century.

Working class associations first emerged in Spain in 1830 and gave rise to moments of great social agitation, even including a general strike (1855). In 1868, Fanelli, a follower of Bakunin, established sections of the International Workers' Association in Spain, rapidly recruiting 100,000 members in Catalonia and Andalusia. After several periods of action and successive repressions, in 1911 the movement evolved into the CNT (Confederación Nacional del Trabajo - National Confederation of Labour), which retained the support of the Spanish working class until the end of the Civil War. The arrival in Spain of Lafargue, sent by Marx, failed to halt the development of Bakunism, as described by F. Engels in his famous collection of articles.

On 2 May 1879 the PSOE (Partido Socialista Obrero Español - Spanish Socialist Workers' Party) was formed, followed in 1888, after several conferences, by the formation of the socialist union UGT (Unión General de Trabajadores - General Workers' Union). The socialist claims found a wide support base in industrial areas: among miners in Asturias, metal workers in the Basque Country and printers in Madrid.

In Catalonia powerful regional parties emerged, such as the Regionalist League that won the elections in Barcelona in 1901. The Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) was founded in 1895. One more splinter action also took place during this period - the separation of political Spain from intellectual Spain. The confrontation between traditional ideas and progressive ideas also spread to the literary and scientific fields, where the most important intellectual movement, Krausism (based on the ideas of German philosopher Karl Christian Friedrich Krause), had a particularly strong influence on education - the freethinking Institución Libre de Enseñanza run by Giner de los Ríos - and on research - the so-called Junta para la Ampliación de Estudios (Board of Further Study) promoted and run by Cajal, Castillejo and Bolívar. Spanish intellectuals, creators of extraordinary philosophical, literary, historical and scientific schools of thought - Unamuno, Ortega, Azaña, Altamira, Sánchez Albornoz, Menéndez Pidal, Marañón, Negrín, Moles and many others - took sides and, in some cases, served as political leaders in the dilemma of 1931.
Spain and the First World War: The Authoritarianism of Primo de Rivera
In 1902, Alfonso XIII took the throne and the emergence of new political forms threw the Canovite and liberal-conservative two-party system into crisis. There were also several important expressions of social unrest, such as the Tragic Week of 1909 in Barcelona and popular resistance to the drafting of troops for the war in Morocco.

Spain's neutral position during the First World War was only a parenthesis. Price increases and the contraction of the European market generated enormous instability, leading in 1917 to the summons of the Parliamentary Assembly in Barcelona, which recommended the reform of the constitution, and a general strike in August of the same year.

Following the failure of constitutional reform, the regional problem re-emerged, this time more acutely, and there were outbreaks of social and peasant unrest in both Andalusia and Catalonia. Coinciding with all of this (1921), the PCE (Partido Comunista de España-Communist Party of Spain) was formed when the PSOE failed to join the Comintern, created as a consequence of the victory of the October Revolution in Russia.

But above all, the crisis was rooted in the Moroccan War. When Spanish troops were massacred at Annual (1921), unleashing a wave of criticism against the government and the military administration, General Primo de Rivera staged a coup d'état (13 October 1921) and installed a military government.

Described as "mild despotism", Primo de Rivera's dictatorship attempted to solve several problems by ending the Moroccan War, developing infrastructure for the country and promoting public works. Although ideologically aligned with the authoritarian regimes in Europe, it adopted a more traditional, monarchic and Catholic philosophy than the one adopted in Mussolini's new state. Its failure was mainly political, despite attempts to create a single party and involve certain sectors of the workers' movement in political life. Neither was it able to re-organise industrial relations on the basis of corporations, nor solve the agrarian and regional problems.

An attempt to reform the constitution through the creation of a consultative National Assembly in 1926 also failed to materialise, and when the financial crash of 1930 occurred, the dictator was forced to resign. He was replaced by General Berenguer.
The Collapse of the Monarchy and the Second Republic
The last monarchic government was formed in February 1931 and immediately called municipal elections for 12 April, resulting in victory for the left and the Republicans in the main cities. On 14 April the Second Republic was proclaimed. Alfonso XIII left Spain and went into voluntary exile.

The Republicans called general elections on 28 June, announced religious freedom and drew up a new constitution, approved on 9 December. Its preamble stated, "Spain is a democratic republic of workers of all classes, organised in freedom and justice. The powers of its bodies rest with the people. The republic is a fully-integrated state, compatible with the autonomy of the municipalities and the regions." The organisation of the state was expressed as democratic, secular, decentralised, and equipped with a single representational house and a Constitutional Court.

A preoccupation with reform marked the first two years of the republic (1931-1933) under the leadership of Alcalá Zamora and Azaña, who adopted a three-pronged approach: the Basic Law of Agrarian Reform, the solution to the regional problem with statutes of autonomy for Catalonia and the Basque Country, and a particular emphasis on educational and cultural policy. However, two issues created considerable tension: religion and military policy, which the Azaña Law failed to solve and only aggravated even further. Evidence of this was provided by General Sanjurjo's abortive coup on 10 August 1932. The following year began with the repression of the uprising at Casas Viejas and municipal elections that showed a clear swing to the right. This trend was represented by the CEDA (Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas - Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Right-Wing Parties) (Gil Robles); Renovación Española (Spanish Revival) (Calvo Sotelo) and Comunión Tradicionalista (Traditional Communion). On 29 October, José Antonio Primo de Rivera founded the Falange Española, or Spanish Falangist Movement.

New general elections on 19 November gave a clear victory to the right and the administration led by Lerroux and CEDA was formed. The new government revoked several laws, including the Agrarian Reform, and issued an amnesty for the rebel troops involved in the abortive coup of 1932. Following Lerroux's resignation, the Cortes were dissolved and the elections of 16 February 1936 were won by the Popular Front, a coalition group uniting Azaña's Republican Left, Esquerra Catalana led by Companys (Catalonian Left), Largo Cabellero's Socialist Party, Martínez Barrio's Republican Union and the Communist Party. The initial government led by Azaña announced a general amnesty and reinstated the agrarian reform and the statutes of autonomy for Catalonia and the Basque Country, and later Galicia. In May, Azaña was elected President of the Republic and Casares Quiroga set up a new administration. On 17 July, the military forces at the Melilla garrison staged an uprising, marking the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War.
The Military Uprising and the Outbreak of the Civil War
On 18 July the military coup spread and the following day Francisco Franco took command of the army in Morocco. By the end of 1936, the Nationalist troops had seized most of Andalusia, Extremadura, Toledo, Ávila, Segovia, Valladolid, Burgos, Leon, Galicia, part of Asturias, Vitoria, San Sebastian, Navarre and Aragon, as well as the Canary and Balearic Islands, except for the island of Minorca. Madrid, New Castile, Catalonia, Valencia, Murcia and Almeria, Gijón and Bilbao became Republican bastions.

The Republican government formed a coalition cabinet led by Giralt, succeeded in his post by Largo Caballero, who brought in representatives of the CNT and moved the cabinet to Valencia. On 29 September the National Defence Committee appointed General Franco head of the government and commander-in chief of the army. The Republican government reacted to this by creating the Popular Army and reorganising the militias into professional armies. Help from abroad also arrived for both bands - the International Brigades to support the Republicans, and Italian and German troops to provide assistance to the Francoist troops.

The year 1937 was characterised by an intensification of the war in the north. The Republicans reacted by establishing fronts in Guadalajara (March), Brunete (July) and Belchite (August). The year closed with the beginning of the Battle of Teruel. At that time, the Francoist troops concentrated their efforts in Aragon, winning back Teruel and, after their triumphal entry in Castellón in June 1938, dividing the Republican zone in two. The government response was the so-called Battle of the Ebro (July-November 1938), which ended with a Republican defeat and 70,000 lives lost.

Having lost their final stronghold, the Republicans began to seek exile in France and on 10 February 1939 the Francoist troops claimed control of Catalonia. Only Madrid still held out, and when the peace proposals of its Defence Committee (Casado, Besteiro) failed, the Francoist troops occupied the capital on 28 March 1939. A fi nal war dispatch by General Franco on 1 April announced the end of the conflict.
Franco's Dictatorship
The new regime was characterised by three factors: repression of the defeated band, economic hardship, and a modification of the internal balance of power as the result of changes on the international stage brought about by World War II. Despite an initial declaration of its neutrality and then its "non-belligerence", the new government became isolated from the outside world. Franco met with Hitler and Mussolini, thereafter entrusting foreign policy to the Germanophile Serrano Suñer.

Although diplomacy under France played the anti-communist card, it could not avoid condemnation from the United Nations, the withdrawal of ambassadors and the closure of the French border.

In economic terms, international isolation and, to a lesser degree, ideological differences generated an autocratic and corporatist approach, which more or less accompanied the regime throughout its history. In agricultural terms, the country experienced a dramatic regression in relation to previous periods, giving rise to a shortage of basic supplies and the introduction of rationing.
The Cold War and Economic Development
The beginning of the Cold War provided a boost for Franco's regime, although Spain was excluded from the reconstruction of Europe. In 1953, the Holy See signed a concordat with Spain and the United States signed a treaty of reciprocal aid in military matters.

Meanwhile, in the political arena, the UN accepted the renewal of diplomatic relations in 1950, and in 1955 Spain occupied its seat in the international forum. A year later the Spanish protectorate was abolished in Morocco, which declared independence.

Social unrest had emerged, albeit timidly, in the 1951 labour strike in Barcelona and later with the first student riots in 1956. Extraordinarily high inflation led to the introduction of a Stabilisation Plan (1959) to offset the lack of currency. Although the effect of this was economic stagnation and new outbreaks of social unrest in Asturias, it did pave the way for the First Development Plan (1963), which was merely orientational for the private sector but binding for the public sector. In order to promote regional and local development, the socalled "development poles" - areas zoned for economic activities - were created.

Drawn up according to guidelines issued by the International Monetary Fund and the European Organisation for Economic Cooperation, the Stabilisation Plan boosted the economy and laid the foundations for an autocratic model of development. In accordance with these guidelines, in 1967 the Spanish peseta was devalued and in 1968 the Second Development Plan, similar in scope to the first one, was launched. By this time the population of Spain had reached 33 million, of which 12 million (38.3%) represented the working population, virtually distributed into three equal parts as follows: agriculture (28%), industry (38%) and services (34%). Thousands of people emigrated from the impoverished rural areas to the industrial cities (Madrid, Bilbao, Barcelona), while thousands of others departed for Europe in search of better opportunities. The funds these workers sent back to their families in Spain constituted a crucial contribution to the country's balance of payments.

Politically, the regime attempted to organise a so-called "organic democracy" with a referendum to approve the Organic Law of the State (1966). Two years later Guinea gained independence, followed in the same year by the declaration of a state of emergency in the northern province of Guipúzcoa.
The Twilight of the Dictatorship
The economic changes that concluded a long process of development also produced social changes. The politicians who had emerged in the Civil War - military groups, Falangists, traditionalists, Catholic- Nationalists - were replaced by technocrats, mainly senior civil servants, who advocated the need for economic progress and forward-looking policies.

This led to a period of goodwill and renewed relations with countries of the East and the signature in 1970 of a preferential trade agreement between Spain and the European Common Market. A year earlier, on 22 July 1969, Parliament had appointed Don Juan Carlos de Borbón as Franco's successor as head of state, with the title of king.

Since the early 1960s, opposition to Franco's regime had become stronger as a result of the profound social changes produced by economic alterations in the country. In addition to the participation of exiled politicians and institutions in international forums, internal opposition movements had also gradually taken shape. Students, teachers and intellectuals represented a democratic left-wing front, while the working class focused their struggles through the trade unions and a civil front. These movements were the origin of the political forces that later played a leading role in Spain's transition to democracy.

In the political sphere, the monarchy - embodied in the person of the Count of Barcelona, Juan de Borbón - proposed the need for a return to democracy. An extremely active PCE (Spanish Communist Party) had launched its policy of national reconciliation and proposed overcoming the regime by peaceful means. The socialists and Christian democrats also called for a return to democracy as the only viable means of integration with Europe.

The Church's isolation was increasingly apparent. Rank-and-file priests, especially in Catalonia, the Basque Country and Madrid, were openly critical of the regime, and were joined in their condemnations by several prelates. Meanwhile, these stances coincided with the radicalisation of nationalist positions and the emergence of ETA's terrorist activity.

A series of political trials were held. In 1969, a group of Basque priests were tried by court-martial, and in 1970 the "Burgos Trial" was held and nine death sentences were passed down, although the condemned men were later pardoned.

At the end of 1969 a new cabinet with a technocrat majority was formed, which was subsequently replaced in 1973 by a cabinet with similar leanings. The latter proved to be short-lived; in December, the cabinet president Carrero Blanco was killed in a terrorist attack by ETA. Arias Navarro was then appointed president and formed what was to be the last cabinet under Franco's regime.

In July 1974 Franco was afflicted with thrombophlebitis. Prince Juan Carlos took over as provisional head of state on 30 October 1975, and on 20 November Franco died. On 22 November, Juan Carlos I was crowned King of Spain. Another chapter in Spain's history closed and the doors of freedom and hope opened for all Spaniards.
The Transition from Dictatorship to Democracy
From the outset, the new monarch adopted a determined but prudent attitude to ensure the rapid democratisation of Spain, turning the institution he embodied into a "monarchy of all Spaniards". However, this was no easy task. He was obligated to "respect" the legal structure inherited from Franco's regime, as well as most of the existing political frameworks.

Support from the press for the transition to democracy was crucial. So too was the prudence exercised by all the political and trade union groups, who at the end of October of the same year signed the Moncloa Pacts to consolidate democracy and provide a boost to the economy, which was already threatened by the first signs of recession.

The transition, in which Adolfo Suárez played a central role, transformed Spain into a modern country in all respects: freedoms of all types were guaranteed and a multiparty parliamentary system was established; the social function of political parties and trade unions was recognised; and the state adopted a decentralised form of government, paving the way for the formation of autonomous regions throughout the country. These changes were backed by a widespread consensus, demonstrating the degree to which the Spanish had overcome the wounds of the Civil War and were capable of looking towards the future rather than remaining mired in the past. Without a doubt, this is the most important legacy of the transition initiated in 1977. Spain had already had a number of constitutions, a long history of parliamentary life and even the experience of a former democracy, but this was the first time that changes were introduced of common accord. Dialogue and negotiations formed the basis for establishing the widest possible social consensus. This climate of consensus and the peaceful nature of the transition to democracy attracted the interest of politicians and analysts in numerous countries, especially the citizens of Latin America and the former Soviet bloc nations of Eastern Europe searching for the best way to achieve their own transitions from dictatorship to freedom.

The reign of Don Juan Carlos, who has been on the throne for more than thirty years now, received widespread popular support from the outset, and this has increased over the years thanks to the king's discretion in the exercise of his constitutional duties.

The transition brought about a genuine national reconciliation, demanding sacrifices in every quarter. Conceived as a legal evolution from the existing institutions, it was incompatible with the demand for punishing those who had supported the dictatorship. On the contrary, its premises were to offer a generous amnesty and to strive for total democracy. The process of consensus that had been undertaken, in which all the political parties had to make sacrifices (for example, the Socialists and Communists abandoned their dream of a republic), permitted the introduction of a provisional package of self-government measures in Catalonia and the Basque Country and the drafting of the constitution, which was approved by a vast majority (87.87%) on 6 December 1978.
S pain after the Constitution of 1978
New general elections held on 1 March 1979 maitained the national balance of power (UCD, 34.3%; PSOE, 30%; PCE, 10.6%). However, the first municipal elections (19 April) gave left-wing coalitions 77% of local councils in the main cities, marking the beginning of the end for the UCD.

On the stage of international politics, Spain's incorporation into the group of democratic countries was complete. The country applied for membership in the EEC on 28 July 1977 and on 1 January 1986, Spain became a member state. Leopoldo Calvo

Sotelo, Suárez's successor as president, proposed and gained approval from Congress for membership in NATO (29 October 1981), which was later ratified in a popular referendum held in 1986.

On 28 October 1982, new general elections were held in which the PSOE obtained an absolute majority (202 seats) and 106 seats were given to a new right-wing alliance of the AP-PDP (Alianza Popular-Partido Demócrata Popular - Popular Alliance-Popular Democratic Party). The elections had two major losers: the UCD, which scraped by with only 7.2% of the votes, and the PCE with 3.8%.

On 3 December, Felipe González constituted his first administration. The PSOE managed to retain its majority in the following two elections, held on 22 June 1985 and 29 October 1989.

By then, the party had become a moderate and reformist party of social democrats, abandoning its traditional Marxist ideology. Backed by successive electoral victories, it governed until 1996 and carried out a sweeping modernisation of the country.

Thanks to this period of remarkable political stability, it was possible to make up for lost time in fields such as education, health and taxation, while the army was made professional, industry was streamlined, public infrastructures were built, social services were extended, etc. Moreover, in 1992 this modern, dynamic Spain, capable of joining the European Union (1986) and exercising its periodic presidencies of the Union (1989, 1995 and 2002) with efficiency and creativity, presented a new image to the world with the organisation of the World Fair in Seville, the European Cultural Capital in Madrid and the Olympic Games in Barcelona. With the former isolation of the dictatorship relegated to the past, Spain returned to the international arena as an agent of peace and harmony, promoting Latin American Summits (since 1991), participating in the United Nations' peace-keeping forces in Africa, the Balkans, Middle East and Central America, hosting conversations between Israel and the Arabic nations (Madrid Conference, 1991), dramatically increasing its aid to developing countries (through the Spanish Cooperation Agency), exporting the activities of its technicians and business leaders to distant markets (with strong investment in Latin America), reinforcing the presence of the Spanish language and culture around the world (through the Cervantes Institute, created in 1991).

Although in the elections of 6 June 1993 the PSOE still managed to obtain the most votes (159 seats), enabling Felipe González to form a non-coalition government (inaugurated on 8-9 July 1993), the loss of the absolute majority forced the party to turn to other parliamentary groups in order to gain sufficient support in the Congress and Senate to ensure the stability of the government. In the end this was made possible by agreements reached with the CiU (Convergencia i Unió - Convergence and Union).

Meanwhile the Partido Popular had been restructured and renamed in 1989 around the new leadership of José María Aznar and an ethos based on liberal ideals and Christian democracy, oriented towards the reformist centre. Its favourable results at the municipal, regional and European elections in 1995 culminated in victory at the general elections in 1996, which with support from the moderate nationalist groups of Catalonia (Convergencia i Uniò), the Basque Country (PNV) and the Canary Islands (Coalición Canaria - Canary Coalition) placed the presidency in Aznar's hands.

The Partido Popular was again victorious in the general elections of 2000, obtaining a comfortable absolute majority. The economic policy pursued by this administration focused on controlling inflation and the public deficit as a means of reactivating economic growth. The successes achieved in the economic arena were crowned by Spain's admission to the first group of countries to adopt the single European currency - the euro - in 2002, after the Spanish economy had successfully met all the necessary requirements.

Spain's presidency of the European Union in the first half of 2002 coincided with the introduction of the euro, thereby completing a significant cycle in the recent history of the country; coincidentally, the euro was adopted as the name of the single currency at the Council of Europe held in the second half of 1995, when Spain also happened to be holding the presidency of the Union.

On Thursday, 11 March 2004, Spain was dealt a dramatic blow by a kind of terrorism that bore little resemblance to that of the terrorist organization ETA. A group of radical Islamist extremists killed 192 people and wounded almost 2,000 more in Madrid, in the worst terrorist attack perpetrated in Europe to date. Three days later, the people of Spain turned out to cast their votes in the general elections as planned.

On 9 March 2008, the Partido Socialista Obrero Español again won the general elections with 169 seats.

This signalled the second term of office for José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, which was marked by the international and domestic economic crisis. During this period, a new regional funding agreement was concluded, which was approved by the Fiscal and Financial Policy Council that represents all of the autonomous communities. It was also agreed to remove advertising from Radio Televisión Española (RTVE) to strengthen its role as a public service. The Common Law on Sustainable Economy was also adopted during this period, which sought to establish the bases for boosting Spain's production model in what has been the toughest international economic crisis of in recent years.
Prehistory

1,500,000 B. C. First human findings on the Iberian Peninsula

40,000-15,000 B. C. Altamira cave paintings

Spain before the Romans

1,200-800 B. C. Indo-Europeans, Phoenicians and Greeks invade the Iberian Peninsula

Roman Hispania (218 B. C.-409 A.D.) The Visigothic Kingdom (472-710) Moorish Spain (710-1492) Christian Spain (710-1492) House of Habsburg (1516-1700) House of Bourbon (1700-1808) Dissolution of the Old Regime and the Peninsular War (1808- 1814)

1808 Abdication of Charles IV and Ferdinand VII in Bayonne. Entry of Joseph Bonaparte I in Madrid.

1810-1812 The Cortes and Constitution of Cádiz

Liberal reaction and Revolution (1814-1833)

1814 Arrival of Ferdinand VII in Madrid

1814-1820 First Absolutist Restoration

1820-1823 The Uprising and Liberal Triennium

1823-1833 Second Absolutist Restoration

Regency periods (1833-1843)

1833-1841 Death of Ferdinand VIl and Regency of Maria Christina Carlist War

1837 Liberal Constitution

1841-1843 Regency of Espartero

Reign of Isabella II (1843-1868) Revolutionary Six Years (1868- 1874)

1869 Constitution of 1869

1869-1871 Regency of General Serrano

1871-1873 Reign of Amadeus of Savoy

1873-1874 First Spanish Republic

1874 Coup staged by Martínez Campos on behalf of Alfonso XII.

Restoration (1875-1923) Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera and the fall of the Monarchy (1923-1931)

1931 Municipal elections (14 April) and Proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic

Second Republic and Spanish Civil War (1931-1939)

1931 Republican Constitution

1933 Electoral victory of CEDA

1936 Electoral victory of the Popular Front (February) and military coup (July)

General Franco's regime (1939-1975)

1959 Stabilization Plan

1969 Appointment of Prince Juan Carlos as successor

Democratic transition

1975 Death of Franco Proclamation of King Juan Carlos I

1976 Common Law on Political Reform (November) and Referendum (December)

1977 General elections (15 June) Relative majority for the UCD President Adolfo Suárez (4 July) Spain requests membership in the EEC (28 July)

1978 Constitutional referendum (6 December) Constitution sanctioned by H.M. the King on 27 December in Parliament Enters into force on 28 December

Constitutional Monarchy
For the purpose of building certainty in the political forces and institutions in this difficult economic context, the next general elections were called four months ahead of the deadline marking the end of the legislature, on 20 November 2011. This time, the Partido Popular obtained the most votes, with an absolute majority (186 seats). The new government, led by Mariano Rajoy, marked out an ambitious programme to address the economic crisis and achieve recovery. It includes the adoption of various initiatives and measures with two complementary aims: budgetary stability by reducing the deficit and practising austerity in public spending, and boosting economic growth and job creation through structural reform.

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web oficial de la presidencia del gobierno de españa; gobierno de españa; moncloa; la moncloa; presidente del gobierno; consejo de ministros y ministras; constitución; instituciones; españa; referencia del consejo de minsitros; prensa; actualidad; agenda del gobierno; agenda del presidente; pedro sánchez; intervenciones; destacados; organización del estado; símbolos del estado; moncloa abierta; visitas; complejo de la moncloa;agenda de la comunicación; vídeo en directo; vídeos; galerías fotográficas; newsletter; oficinas de comunicación; acreditaciones; presidentes; biografía; ministros; ministras; vicepresidente; vicepresidenta; vicepresidentes; vicepresidentas; gabinete; gobierno; multimedia; españa;

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La Moncloa. History of Spain [Spain/History and Culture/History]

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The Early Settlers Based on the findings at Atapuerca (Burgos province), estimated to be around 800,000 years old, the presence of hominids on the Iberian Peninsula dates back to the Lower Palaeolithic period. Experts are still debating the origin of these early settlers, who may have entered the peninsula directly from Africa via the Straits of Gibraltar, but more likely arrived by crossing over the Pyrenees.

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Spain | History, Map, Flag, Population, Currency, Climate, & Facts

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Spain, country located in extreme southwestern Europe. It occupies about 85 percent of the Iberian Peninsula, which it shares with its smaller neighbor Portugal. Spain is a storied country of stone castles, snowcapped mountains, vast monuments, and sophisticated cities.

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Don't know what government is? Here you go!

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Gully cricket is popular amongst young boys in India. They just troop into a street with little traffic outside their homes and start hitting the ball with the bat. Now, there are a number of ways in which this can be organized.

When only one boy brings a bat, he rules. He keeps batting even when he gets out and he lets his close friends also bat or as long as they want. If he wants to end the game, he simply walks away with the bat. Let's call this the Bossy Bully system.

Sometimes all the cricket equipment - bat, ball, stump, gloves, etc is contributed by all. So each boy gets a good batting chance, a chance to wear the pads and gloves. Let's call this the Just Friends system.

Sometimes there is a coach. In that case, the coach monitors and improves the game of each and every boy in his tutelage. But you don't get to say whether you like the way he coaches. This can be the Big Brother system.

If we think of these teams as forms of government and of course you have to imagine that there are extremely many boys playing in the street, then the 'bossy bully' is a dictatorship; 'just friends' is a socialist government and or could even be a democracy depending on how you look at it; a 'big brother' is totalitarian and if one of the players owns the street where the boys are playing, it would be a monarchy.

There are 7 Types of Government

DEMOCRACY

Modern governments are complex and are shaped by historical and political events like wars and colonialism. A democracy is governed of the people, by the people and for the people. Here citizens of the country can run for public office. This means the boys in the street get to decide who is in charge of what equipment is in the pile. Of course, each boy will nominate the person who best represents his interests.

Democratic elections could be city-wide for municipal governance, state-wide for state governance or nation-wide for central governance. When the population goes to vote, they vote for a candidate in their area. When the candidate wins, the political party he belongs to also wins. The party with maximum votes forms the government.
What happens here? People enjoy freedom.

DICTATORSHIP

In contrast, a dictatorship where a single individual has gained power through force and everyone has to follow his policies. He's the big bully. The boys have little to no voice in such a system. Oftentimes the advisors who control the equipment kit are his close friends. Examples of dictators are Adolf Hitler in Germany and Fidel Castro of Cuba.

Sometimes you have what is known as a 'benevolent dictatorship.' This is when the dictator maintains his position as the head of the country for the sake of the country instead of self interest. Most dictatorships like to portray themselves in the international community as benevolent but it is not always so.
What happens here? Many people are unhappy in this system.

MONARCHY

A monarchy is another form of government where there is one head of state. In this system a king or queen rules the country for as long as they are alive. The crown is inherited, usually by the first born of the family.

In earlier days, monarchs used to have absolute powers and owned all the public land. Pharaohs for example, claimed to be representatives of the Gods on earth. But nowadays, even democracies like Great Britain, Sweden, and Spain have kings who are nominal heads of state. Still it is their signature that turns a bill into a law.
What happens here? Things work well if the king is a good sportsman and cares about street cricket by choosing the right boys to be prefect of the equipment kit.

THEOCRACY

In countries where any religious institution holds power over the king, the form of government is called a theocracy. Several Islamic nations fall into this category.
What happens here? It's like saying everyone must eat cucumber sandwiches for lunch every day.

TOTALITARIAN

There are totalitarian governments where a single group of friends have had control of the pile of equipment for decades. It is like dictatorship by a party instead of an individual. The regime maintains complete control of the country by not allowing any other people to form a political party.

They control all aspects of a citizen's public and private life through art, science, and educational propaganda. The former Soviet Union and Vietnam are examples of totalitarian governments.
What happens here? It's like having the same class prefect term after term.

REPUBLIC

Some nations are republics, such as the USA. It is a democratic model - people are elected to government office by voters. It is however, headed by a single individual whose office is also elected by the people - the President.

What happens here? This is nicer - everyone gets to be prefect for a while.

ANARCHY

And finally, a country that is usually in the throes of a war or civil unrest and no functioning government is said to be in a state of anarchy.

What happens here? This is somewhat like the snack at someone's place after a particularly gruelling game of street cricket- mum has a tough time cleaning up afterwards.

Project
Ask your teacher to divide you into teams. The size of each team will depend on how many people are in the class, of course. Each team must pick a form of government and get to rule for the day. Discuss what happens in the classroom during the rule of each government. Is the room cleaner? Is the blackboard / whiteboard kept ready for the teacher's use? Is there less bullying? Which rule is more fun for ALL?

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Types of Government - Civics for kids | Mocomi

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There are 7 types of government: Democracy, Dictatorship, Monarchy, Theocracy, Totalitarian, Republics and Anarchy. Read more about them here.

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Storyboard Text

Welcome To Mexico!

cómo estás?

estoy bien gracias.

Population

Let's take a picture!

Beautiful City!

Mexican Flag

Let's go team!

The language people speak in Mexico is Spanish. The cost of an airline ticket is 296 dollars and is round trip.

Capital City

The population of Mexico is 128.6 Million people.

Historical Event/Person

The Mexican Flag has green, white, and red colors but in the center of the flag there is an eagle with snake.

Major Export

The capital city of Mexico is Mexico City.

Wow!

A Historical Person in Mexico is Pancho Villa. He was a Mexican revolutionary leader in the 1900's.

I love music!

Mexico's major exports are cars, automobile parts, computers, and crude oil.

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Field Trip Friday Mexico Storyboard by ashley595

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Storyboard Text Welcome To Mexico! cómo estás? estoy bien gracias. Population Let's take a picture! Beautiful City! Mexican Flag Let's go team! The language people speak in Mexico is Spanish. The cost of an airline ticket is 296 dollars and is round trip. Capital City The population of Mexico is 128.6 Million people.

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The Rise of Modern Japan Storyboard by 3ef653d7

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EmperorMutsuhito Isn’t Japan beautiful today Shogun? It is Emperor. Especially because we keep the outsiders out, and Japan in. Regrettably, I accept.