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What really stood out to me from the resources for this unit was learning how "compassion fatigue" doesn't just affect your emotional well-being, but how it can really take a toll on your physical health too. A person can feel drained or emotionally exhausted and don't know why but our bodies carry the burden. Reading that "compassion fatigue" can lead to headaches, stomach problems, and even chronic pain really hit home for me. I didn't know the term, "compassion fatigue" but I was aware of how my body responded to stress from helping different individuals depending on the severity of their situation. I can remember feeling tired, being overwhelmed with headaches, and having trouble sleeping as well. Simply put, we were taught to care for the needs of those around us before caring for our own needs (Healthy Caregiving, LLC). This unit really reinforced my understanding of the importance of setting boundaries and prioritizing self-care not just for my mental health but for my physical health.

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Identification/ Description of Personal Self-Care Strategy #!

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Identification/ Description of Personal Self-Care Strategy #!

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As I prepare to become a mental health counselor. I’ve realized how important it is to schedule short breaks throughout the day to reset and refocus. I am learning that counseling can be emotionally intense, and taking even a few minutes to pause- whether it's stepping outside, grabbing a snack, or sipping slowly on a cup of coffee, can make a big difference. I’ve also learned to break tasks into manageable steps to avoid feeling overwhelmed. Burnout and compassion fatigue are very real challenges in this field, and I believe that prioritizing self-care, setting healthy boundaries, and seeking support from colleagues will be essential to maintaining both my well-being and the quality of care I provide. Simple self-care practices like taking short breaks can help reduce stress and prevent emotional exhaustion(Stamm, 2012).

REFERENCE:

Stamm, B. H. (2012). ProQOL 5: Professional quality of life scale (Version 5) – English – Self-score.

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Self-Disclosure – Concepts and Applications

October 16, 2009

Are you a very important person? Sure you are. The reason for this answer is the same for almost everyone: we like talking about ourselves, we enjoy being listened to, we praise our achievements, and we are very much into introspection. Although we are ultimately social beings, most humans are both consciously and subconsciously determined to improve themselves, and to derive meaning to their existence.

In this context, we are faced with the everyday challenge of balancing our own needs for fulfilment and recognition with the need to co-relate with others, to promote altruism and to help people in need. This paradox takes centre stage in counselling sessions in the form of self-disclosure – as a counsellor, how much of yourself should you reveal to your clients?

Human Behaviour and Effective Counselling

It is undeniable that many people are more interested in themselves than things happening with others. Generally, people like to talk about themselves (thus listening is such an important part in interpersonal communication), to listen to topics which have relevance to their lives, to participate in groups they can derive benefit from, and to be part of a system which values them. It is the basic need for belonging that drives people to behave in this way.

Most people also strongly defend their opinions and perspectives. We like to make sure that once we believe in something, we are able to reasonably explain that way of thinking, and possibly prove to the other person that we are correct in our opinions. Think about it: who likes to be incorrect? So when we talk about ourselves or about issues which are pertinent to our lives, we like to explain each aspect of that topic and by doing so, validate our opinion or experience. Self-denial occurs when we give up that right in order to focus the attention to someone else’s problem, issue or situation. The capacity for self-denial is one of the most important characteristics of a good counsellor.

Curiosity, comfort with conversation, empathy and understanding play a major role in creating a safe environment which allows a client’s emotional expression. Emotional insightfulness, introspection, tolerance of intimacy and comfort with power are characteristics which help the counsellor maintain a clear perspective of the situation and at the same time, not prejudice the relationship by being judgemental or condescending. Energy, flexibility and self-awareness facilitate the counsellor’s drive and focus in the relationship’s objectives and outcomes.

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Are you a very important person? Sure you are. The reason for this answer is the same for almost everyone: we like talking about ourselves, we enjoy being listened to, we praise our achievements, and we are very much into introspection. Although we are ultimately social beings, most humans are both consciously and subconsciously determined to improve themselves, and to derive meaning to their existence.

In this context, we are faced with the everyday challenge of balancing our own needs for fulfilment and recognition with the need to co-relate with others, to promote altruism and to help people in need. This paradox takes centre stage in counselling sessions in the form of self-disclosure - as a counsellor, how much of yourself should you reveal to your clients?
Human Behaviour and Effective Counselling
It is undeniable that many people are more interested in themselves than things happening with others. Generally, people like to talk about themselves (thus listening is such an important part in interpersonal communication), to listen to topics which have relevance to their lives, to participate in groups they can derive benefit from, and to be part of a system which values them. It is the basic need for belonging that drives people to behave in this way.

Most people also strongly defend their opinions and perspectives. We like to make sure that once we believe in something, we are able to reasonably explain that way of thinking, and possibly prove to the other person that we are correct in our opinions. Think about it: who likes to be incorrect? So when we talk about ourselves or about issues which are pertinent to our lives, we like to explain each aspect of that topic and by doing so, validate our opinion or experience. Self-denial occurs when we give up that right in order to focus the attention to someone else's problem, issue or situation. The capacity for self-denial is one of the most important characteristics of a good counsellor.

Curiosity, comfort with conversation, empathy and understanding play a major role in creating a safe environment which allows a client's emotional expression. Emotional insightfulness, introspection, tolerance of intimacy and comfort with power are characteristics which help the counsellor maintain a clear perspective of the situation and at the same time, not prejudice the relationship by being judgemental or condescending. Energy, flexibility and self-awareness facilitate the counsellor's drive and focus in the relationship's objectives and outcomes.
The Word: Self-Disclosure
We've briefly discussed some of the underpinnings of human behaviour and the characteristics which define an effective counsellor. The importance of understanding such concepts is that, on many occasions, self-disclosure requires counsellors to act in a paradoxical manner - that is, communicate a common message in a tailored way, with a different objective, and an external focus. Self-disclosure can be a challenging technique because it defies our natural 'self-centred' dialogue.

Self-disclosure is defined as "a conscious, intentional technique in which clinicians share information about their lives outside the counseling relationship" (Simone, McCarthy, & Skay, 1998, p.174). The role of this process is to "facilitate client disclosure through modeling and the establishment of trust" (the dyadic effect; Jourard, 1968). In other words, the counsellor discloses information about him/herself in order to establish a connection with the client, thus creating rapport, trust and improving interpersonal communication.

Self-disclosure is a useful strategy used by the majority of counsellors, regardless of theoretical orientation. In many instances this process is almost a requirement to obtain valuable information from a client in order to help them see through a situation. It is often perceived as an ethical and valuable technique.
A Two-Edged Sword
Self-disclosure can be as helpful as it can be damaging if not properly conducted. Why? Primarily because the act of self-disclosure exposes the counsellor and it could undermine the balance of power in the relationship with a client. If the client sees vulnerability in the counsellor, the trust could fall apart. At the same time, this vulnerability could improve the relationship between the counsellor and client by creating more intimacy as the client 'sees' the counsellor in the 'same level' of him or her.

Therefore, the outcomes of using self-disclosure as a strategy to build trust and rapport will depend on the counsellor's actions and how those actions will reflect from the client's perspective (based on the client's personality variables). It is important for counselling professionals to observe these issues and adjust their approach accordingly.

The benefits or advantages of self-disclosure include: helping the client to not feel alone, decreasing client anxiety, improving the client's awareness to different viewpoints, and increasing counsellor genuineness. Some disadvantages of applying self-disclosure include: moving focus from the client, taking too much counselling time (and thus reducing client disclosure), creating role confusion (who is helping who?), possibly trivialising the client's issue by implying everyone goes through it, and interfering with transference.
Guidelines for Use of Self-Disclosure
According to Gladding (2006) there are some guidelines which can help counsellors to effectively implement self-disclosure strategies. Such guidelines are basically communication skills which can be used to avoid common pitfalls of this process, such as losing rapport or focus in the situation.

Primarily, the counsellor should be direct, brief, focused and relevant. This will ensure the self-disclosure process does not lead to time wastage and loss of focus in the client's situation. Self-disclosure should also not be used frequently (more self-disclosure is not necessarily better) and should not add to the client's problems and negative outcomes in a situation.

In essence, the purpose of self-disclosure should be clear to both counsellor and client and the process should only be used after considering other options, envisaging that there is a risk of miscommunication and an effect on the balance of power. But as stated before: if used in an effective manner, self-disclosure can be a useful strategy and a common process in the counselling setting.
Case Study: A Briefing of the Technique
A young man wishes to move out of his family home and seeks a counsellor for help. The young man is very distressed by the possible change and the effect it could have on both his parent's and his own life. In the counselling setting, he briefly describes his motives for moving out; however, he attests that he does not want to cause emotional strife to his parents. In that context, he asks the counsellor to help him come up with a way to tell his parents without hurting them. A solution to that situation would relieve the young man from his personal anxiety.

The counsellor and the client explored all available options and at the end of the counselling session, the young man is still very emotionally affected by his decision and its possible outcomes. At that point, self-disclosure was used as a strategy to help the client move into a positive frame of reference. The counsellor disclosed that her son left the family home only last year, and even though it was a very emotional situation for the family, they understood his decision and moved forward.

Nowadays, they regularly meet and have a very positive relationship. At the end of the counselling relationship, the client felt comfortable with the knowledge that a similar situation had ended with a positive outcome, and was able to move forward with his decision without distress.

This example showed the effective use of self-disclosure and how this technique can be beneficial to clients. It was observable that in that scenario, the following benefits were achieved: helping the client to not feel alone, decreasing client anxiety and increasing counsellor genuineness.
References

Gladding, S.T. (2006). Counseling: A Comprehensive Profession. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Jourard, S.M. (1968). Disclosing Man to Himself. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand.

Simone, D. H., McCarthy, P., & Skay, C. (1998). An investigation of client and counselor variables that influence likelihood of counselor self-disclosure. Journal of Counseling and Development. 76: 174-182.

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Self-Disclosure - Concepts and Applications

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Are you a very important person? Sure you are. The reason for this answer is the same for almost everyone: we like talking about ourselves, we enjoy being listened to, we praise our achievements, and we are very much into introspection.

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Identification/ Description of Personal Self Care Strategy #2

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Identification/ Description of Personal Self Care Strategy #2

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As a mental health counselor, incorporating mindfulness or relaxation techniques into my daily routine can be a powerful way to manage stress and maintain emotional balance. One strategy that can be especially helpful is taking a few minutes between client sessions to reset using guided meditation or deep breathing exercises. These short moments of intentional relaxation will help me release any emotional tension I may have absorbed and prepare mentally for the next session with a clear and focused mind. This simple habit not only improves my own well-being but will also allow me to be more present and effective for my clients. Even brief relaxation techniques can significantly reduce stress levels in high-pressure helping roles, which reinforces the importance of making time for self-care throughout the workday(Stamm, 2012).

REGERENCE:

Stamm, B. H. (2012). ProQOL 5: Professional quality of life scale (Version 5) – English – Self-score

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While it is your professional duty to confront and offer support to a peer school counselor who may be suffering from burnout, it is equally essential to evaluate yourself for burnout. That self-assessment might include honest answers to these questions from Gerald Corey:

Is my personal life satisfying and rewarding?

Are my relationships what I want them to be?

To what degree am I taking care of myself, both physically and emotionally?

Would I be willing for other therapists I respect to know about my professional conduct and decisions?

Am I willing to express my vulnerabilities through consultation or peer supervision?

Am I generally consistent in my practice?

REFERENCE:

Williams, R. (2011). The importance of self-care. American School Counselor Association.

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Scenario: You've noticed several changes, both physical and mental, in one of your colleagues. You're concerned about her drastic weight loss and have also noticed her difficulty in maintaining a conversation. This colleague currently shows a lack of focus and a lack of empathy for the students under her care, which is a drastic change from her previous commitment to her students.

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QUICK-GUIDE SUGGESTIONS PREVENTION/INTERVENTION WITH THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF CAREGIVING

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QUICK-GUIDE SUGGESTIONS PREVENTION/INTERVENTION WITH THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF CAREGIVING

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REFERENCE:

Stamm, B. H. (1999–2002). Quick-guide suggestions: Prevention/intervention with the negative effects of caregiving [Handout]. https://www.isu.edu/~bhstamm

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REFERENCE:

Stamm, B. H. (2012). ProQOL 5: Professional quality of life scale (Version 5) – English – Self-score

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Learning about individual counseling will help me now and in the future by teaching me essential skills to better support unaccompanied refugee children (UAC's) and their families, especially where their emotional and psychological needs are attended to with urgency. Also, as a mom, I have experienced firsthand, how important it is to be emotionally present for my kids and how hard that is when I am feeling depleted of energy. Being a caregiver comes with constant demands, including sleep deprivation and your rest being interrupted, which makes it even more important to practice intentional self-care (Corey, Muratori, Austin, & Austin, 2023, p. 5). One way I’ve learned to care for myself is by scheduling naps when I can, even short ones, because they help me recharge and show up more fully for both my children and the (UAC's) I serve. These skills in individual counseling will help me recognize and respond to each person’s unique needs in an informed and compassionate way. I also hope to gain more experience in planning treatment so that I can be a more thoughtful and effective counselor. After all, “self-care is not a luxury or an indulgence; it is an ethical imperative for counselors” (Corey, Muratori, Austin, & Austin, 2023, p. 5).

REFERENCE: Corey, G., Muratori, M., Austin, J. T., II, & Austin, J. A. (2023). Counselor self-care (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.(Pages 5-7).

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Amazon.com: Counselor Self-Care: 9781556203794: Corey, Gerald, Muratori, Michelle, Austin, Jude T., II, Austin, Julius A.: Books

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Journaling is a really helpful habit that I plan to use when I become a mental health counselor. It gives me a chance to write down my thoughts and feelings, especially after a hard day or an emotional session with a client. Writing things down will help me to understand how I’m feeling and figure out what I might need to feel better. This will help me be a better counselor because I’ll be more calm, focused, and ready to really listen and be present with my future clients. Journaling also will help me keep a work and home life balance. As a mom, that’s super important. I want to minimize stress from work so that it does not spill over into my home, and writing in a journal can help me let go of that stress before I spend time with my kids. Writing in a journal can be a useful way to explore your personal reactions and monitor your level of stress I believe journaling will help me take care of myself so I can take better care of others (Corey, Muratori, Austin, and Austin, 2023)

REFERENCE: Corey, G., Muratori, M., Austin, J. T., II, & Austin, J. A. (2023). Counselor self-care (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons..

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​Using a journal app can significantly aid me as I prepare to become a mental health counselor. It offers a convenient platform to monitor my daily emotions and reflections. Rather than carrying a physical notebook, I can quickly access the app on my phone to document my thoughts, especially after engaging with clients facing challenging situations. This practice will enhance my self-awareness and serve as a reminder to prioritize my self-care. Some features include mood tracking and prompts for regular self-check-ins, which can be valuable assets during hectic periods. By consistently recording my feelings, I can identify patterns, triggers, and changes in my mood, facilitating self-reflection and personal growth (Moriah Behavioral Health, 2024). Prioritizing my well-being through such tools will enable me to be more present and effective for my clients and a more attentive mother at home ( and maybe future wife:)).

REFERENCE:

Moriah Behavioral Health. (2024). How mental health apps can aid in recovery.

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I compiled this list of the 10 best online journal apps with testing support from our team. Each app on the list offers a free trial and is budget-friendly for long-term

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This journal has 15 pages that allow counselors to check in with how they’re feeling and what they need to take care of themselves. Since it’s all on Google Slides, I can type in my answers on my computer or phone, which makes it very easy to use every day. The pages focus on different parts of self-care like your body, your feelings, your thoughts, and your relationships. As a counselor, using this journal can help me stay organized, manage stress, and make sure I’m taking care of myself

Counselor Chelsey. (2019). Self-care journal pages for Google Slides

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Counselor Chelsey | Simple School Counseling Ideas

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These 15 self-care journal pages are perfect for students, educators, or parents.

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Start your day with positivity and inspiration with this beautiful pink poster. Perfect for your bulletin journal or workspace. Get motivated and stay focused on your goals!

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REFERENCE:

Compassion Fatigue Awareness Project. (2022). Compassion Fatigue Awareness Project.

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​ ​High levels of compassion fatigue can be managed with a number of authentic, sustainable strategies. This site has numerous resources we have found for caregivers working in many professions. The Compassion Fatigue Awareness Project also offers original training materials, workbooks, and texts.
Compassion fatigue is a broadly defined concept that can include emotional, physical, and spiritual distress in those providing care to another. It is associated with caregiving where people or animals are experiencing significant emotional or physical pain and suffering.
Studies confirm that caregivers play host to high levels of compassion fatigue. Day in, day out, workers struggle to function in caregiving environments that constantly present heart-wrenching, emotional challenges. Affecting positive change in society, a mission so vital to those passionate about the value of caring for others, is perceived as elusive, if not impossible. This painful reality, coupled with first-hand knowledge of the flagrant disregard for the safety and wellbeing of the feeble and frail, takes its toll on everyone from full time employees to part time volunteers. Eventually, distrust and negative attitudes prevail.

Compassion fatigue symptoms are elevated displays of chronic stress resulting from the caregiving work we choose to do. Leading traumatologist J. Eric Gentry suggests that people who are attracted to caregiving often enter the field already displaying symptoms of compassion fatigue. A strong identification with helpless, suffering or traumatized people or animals is possibly the motive. It is common for us to hail from a tradition of what is labeled "other-directedness." Simply put, we were taught to care for the needs of those around us before caring for our own needs. Authentic, sustainable daily self-care practices have been absent from our lives.
​
If we sense we are suffering from elevated levels of compassion fatigue, chances are excellent that we are. Our path to wellness begins with one small step. Awareness. A heightened awareness can lead to insights regarding past traumas and painful situations that are being relived over and over within the confines of our symptoms and behaviors. With the appropriate information and support, we can embark on a journey of self-discovery, healing past traumas that currently serve as obstacles to a healthy, happier life.
​
Many resources are now available to help us recognize the symptoms and causes of compassion fatigue. Healing begins by employing such practices as regular exercise, healthy eating habits, highly functional relationships, enjoyable social activities, journaling and restful sleep. Hopefully, the information on this website will be of use to you and help you jump-start your healing journey.

Accepting the presence of compassion fatigue in our lives only serves to validate the fact that we are deeply caring individuals. Somewhere along our healing path, the truth will present itself: We don't have to make a choice. It is possible to practice healthy, ongoing self-care while successfully caring for others.

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​ ​High levels of compassion fatigue can be managed with a number of authentic, sustainable strategies. This site has numerous resources we have found for caregivers working in many professions. The Compassion Fatigue Awareness Project also offers original training materials, workbooks, and texts.

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School counselors work in K-12 schools, assisting students with academic, emotional, and social challenges. They help students manage peer relationships, family dynamics, and career planning while collaborating with teachers, parents, and administrators to create a supportive learning environment (Mental Health America, 2025).

Licensed professional counselors provide therapy for individuals, couples, and families facing mental health issues such as anxiety, depression, and trauma. They work in community mental health centers, hospitals, and private practices, offering crisis intervention, coping strategies, and emotional support to clients in distress (Mental Health America, 2025).

Substance abuse counselors specialize in helping individuals overcome drug and alcohol addiction. They conduct assessments, provide therapy, and develop relapse prevention plans. Often working in rehabilitation centers, correctional facilities, and community organizations, they play a crucial role in supporting long-term recovery (Mental Health America, 2025).

Marriage and family therapists (MFTs) focus on relationship dynamics, helping couples and families navigate conflicts, divorce, parenting challenges, and domestic issues. They use therapeutic techniques to foster communication and emotional resilience in family units, often working in private practices, social service agencies, and mental health clinics (Mental Health America, 2025).

Rehabilitation counselors assist individuals with disabilities, including physical, emotional, or cognitive impairments, in achieving personal and professional independence. Working in vocational rehabilitation centers, government agencies, and nonprofits, they help clients develop career plans, secure employment, and adapt to daily life challenges (Mental Health America, 2025).

Grief and bereavement counselors support individuals and families coping with loss, such as the death of a loved one or a terminal illness diagnosis. They work in hospices, hospitals, religious institutions, and community centers, helping clients process their emotions and develop healthy coping mechanisms during difficult times (Mental Health America, 2025)

Crisis counselors provide immediate psychological support to individuals experiencing trauma, such as natural disasters, violence, or personal crises. They work in crisis hotlines, emergency shelters, and disaster response teams, offering immediate stabilization and helping clients access long-term care.

Career counselors assist students and professionals in exploring career options, developing job search strategies, and overcoming workplace challenges. Found in schools, colleges, employment agencies, and corporate settings, they guide individuals in identifying strengths, acquiring new skills, and making informed career decisions (Mental Health America, 2025)

Pastoral counselors integrate spiritual beliefs with psychological principles, providing faith-based counseling to individuals facing personal, relational, and ethical dilemmas. They work in religious institutions, hospitals, and counseling centers, offering guidance that aligns with clients' values and faith traditions (Mental Health America, 2025)

Qualified Mental Health Professionals (QMHPs) are certified professionals who provide direct mental health services, including assessment, treatment planning, and therapeutic interventions. They often work in community mental health agencies, crisis intervention teams, and social service organizations, ensuring individuals receive the appropriate care and resources needed for mental well-being (Texas Health and Human Services Commission, 2018).

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Counseling Skills© by Loretta Bradley, PhD Personal qualities of effective counselors: • Self-awareness and understanding • Good psychological health • Open-mindedness • Objectivity • Ability to promote the welfare of the client • Sensitivity to and understanding of racial, ethnic, and cultural factors in oneself and others. • Genuineness • Unconditional Positive Regard • Ability to handle ambiguity Skills necessary to be an effective counselor: • Interpersonal skills: an array of characteristics that contribute to the counselor’s ability to put clients at ease, elicit trust, form a collaborative and respectful relationship, and help clients work through difficult moments, tasks, and problems. Included are: 1. Empathy, respect, genuineness 2. Client empowerment and self-responsibility 3. Ability to listen and accurately communicate • Conceptualization Skills: As the counseling relationship evolves, the counselor becomes more a part of the client’s world; this challenges the counselor to be in the relationship and yet remain apart and objective. 1. Ability to exhibit congruence, honesty, and professional responsibility 2. Ability to listen, comprehend, relate, think through, recognize connections and contradictions, and conceptualize within a theoretical framework 3. Ability to react, instigate, support, challenge, empathize, and have a spirit of inquiry 4. Ability of the counselor to be reflective about his/her work and about clients and their issues • Intervention Skills: Must be able to implement conceptualizations of what would facilitate client growth and success with presenting problems. 1. Interventions may address client’s feelings and attitudes, thought processes and assessment of life situations, behaviors, efforts to change, and interpersonal relationships 2. Some interventions are common sense; others are unique to therapeutic relationships and formed from theoretical concepts 3. These “tool” form the repertoire of skills counselors need in working with diverse clients and the flexibility to delivery various

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We first examine a videotaped passage where Ivey demonstrated confrontation in ways that highlight many of the dialogic features of talk: we have described. We urge readers not to dwell on the presumed meanings of specific words, but to look more at how words and other aspects of talk are used. In particular, we invite readers to consider how Ivey (T) and his so-called client (C) tried to dialogically complete a confrontation. The particular symbols used in the transcript that follows are found in the Appendix (see Kogan, 1998, p. 251).

Ivey Confrontation: Exemplar 1

Line 1 T:As part of that (.5) of what we were talking you did (.hhh)Line 2a couple times mention uh (1.0) that (.4)Line 3I'm a little confused about this relationship with Beau uh (.hhh)Line 4(1.1) I heard you say he wasn't a factorLine 5 C:mm-hnhLine 6 T:and then I heard that ye- as part of this is I actually heard you sayLine 7you thought of going and visiting the State UniversityLine 8but the things that he said sort o (.hhh) kept you from goingLine 9an' I kinda wonder if you could (.7) (.hhh)Line 10[share that a little bit more]Line 11 C:[he kinda discouraged me] because of the s-s-security of the job I'm inLine 12and not to sort of (.6) ruin that y'know or [(.hhh)]Line 13 T:[mm-hnh]Line 14 C:and uh (.5) y'know it was kind (.) not really supportiveLine 15or en[couraging]Line 16 T:[mmm]Line 17 C:actually he thought (.hhh) maybe should do something totally differentLine 18if you want to do something different go into businessLine 19you don't have to go to graduate [scho]olLine 20 T:[mmm]Line 21 C:do something different y'know go into business or suh-< I mean [(.hhh)]Line 22 T:[mmm]Line 23 C:I don't know where he was coming fromLine 24 T:mnm-huh (.hhh) and yet (2.6) uuuh (guttural noise) an'Line 25I kinda get some mixed feelings about itLine 26I getta feeling that you rely on Beau a lot for supportLine 27 C:uh-huhLine 28 T:an' then 1hear y'on the other hand saying (.9)Line 29it kind of it kind of feels scrambled sometimes talking to himLine 30is that a fair word?Line 31 C:[(.hhh)that's right]Line 32 T:[to use uh scrambled]Line 33 C:yeah I would say uh (.8) y'knowLine 34y'know it's nice to have a supportive person but [uh (1.4)]Line 35 T:[mm-hnh]Line 36 C:in this area (.) y'know it's not thereLine 37 T:mm-hnhLine 38 C:(inaudible 'anyway'?) it feels like something I have to do on my own. (transcript ofI vey et al., 1997)

Some might wonder why so much transcription detail is used in the dialogue exemplar. What, for example, is gained by showing tenths of a second, "mm-hnhs," or vocal inflections— the performative dimension of talk-in-interaction we are analyzing? Central to CA is a view that speakers carefully package their turns at talking mindful of how they might be received. Beyond words, gestures, tones of voice, eye contact, and other potentially relevant nonverbal features (i.e., to the speakers involved) are used in how any utterance is put to another speaker. Furthermore, speakers often complete what they say based on how earlier parts of their utterance are perceptibly received-modifying, "in transit," their message. Talk, in other words, is more than already completed thoughts simply delivered. The socially constructive aspects of talk are observable as people talk in how they incorporate their sense of how their message is being received and into what they say next. More important, however, is what happens to an utterance after it is spoken, in what the recipient does with it. This is where the proceedings of the talk—its content and process—can be seen to be negotiated between speakers in ways that often escape their attention. Such microdetails show how Ivey and his client talked through this confrontation.

Getting to specifics, readers should notice how Ivey packaged his initial confrontation in lines 1 to 4. Those who have seen, read, or watched Ivey know that his communications are typically clear and straightforward. So, what then can be made of the pauses, sentence fragments, ''uhs,'' and exhalations that went into initiating this confrontation (one marked by his words "I'm a little confused")? In our view, Ivey packaged what he was saying, as he was saying it to Mary, based on how she received him and how Ivey anticipated he might be received. Said differently, how one is received in the moment influences what a speaker says while saying it. To introduce a new topic or discourse typically involves a segue, or new ways of talking, to illustrate the talk being initiated is a departure from the talk that preceded it (T. Strong, Zeman, & Foskett, 2006). This means finding a way of proposing a shift without uttering a jarring non sequitur into the prior flow of dialogue. In our view, Ivey used what is observable in lines 1 to 4 to prepare Mary for his confrontation, to package it in a way that she will take up.

Note the line 5 "mm-hnh," an acknowledgment token for indicating that Mary did not take issue with what Ivey had said thus far. Such mundane acknowledgments can be quite important. In research by Bavelas, Coates, and Johnson (2000), storytellers were disrupted when such listener acknowledgments were absent in tel1inga story. In Ivey's case, they extend a further five lines into finishing his initial confrontation. Yet a dialogic interaction is not complete with one party uttering something. What also matters is what Mary did with Ivey's confrontation, as shown in her elaboration between lines 11 and 23, while Ivey used acknowledgment tokens that helped to extend Mary's response. Mary had "taken up" Ivey's confrontation, shown in how she spoke from its presuppositions ("he kinda discouraged me"). This interaction apparently was not dialogically complete for Ivey as he responded in line 24 with "and yet." He packaged this further confrontation in a measured way open for Mary to contest should she wish (e.g., "I kinda get some mixed feelings"). Further talk concluded with Mary's partial uptake of Ivey's confrontation (''that's right."). Later, she indicated weak agreement with where the confrontation seemed to be heading ("it feels like something I have to do on my own").

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Some might question how one knows if or when a dialogic sequence is completed, or when further efforts to complete such a sequence are futile, making it time to move on conversationally. Our answer relates to our analyses: Speakers turn to each other's communications for signs of uptake or disagreement. Such signs can come in words (e.g., "yeah"), gestures (facial or bodily movements) or intonations that suggest agreement, an absence of disagreement where formerly there had been some, and so on. Critical to understanding these signs, however, is their use in context, that is, the role such signs play in the unfolding dialogue for both speakers. In CA, the same evidence speakers turn to for such signs of agreement and rapport are observable to the trained eye. Counselors often attend to this dimension of their talk and adjust their talk accordingly to stay goal and relationship focused. The preceding exemplar and the one that follows show Ivey doing exactly tills-what, at first glance, might appear to be belabored or awkward talk is actually talk useful to both parties in going forward together. With tills in mind, we now examine another passage in which Ivey confronted Mary.

Ivey Confrontation: Exemplar 2

Line 1 T:OK let's come back to you.Line 2How do you feel about the idea that Beau wants the focus on him (.5)Line 3as we just do that little bit of uhahLine 4just sort of Gestalt-type [of exercise]Line 5C: [It feels ki]nd of selfish an' it feels like umh (.8)Line 6that's it's not really going to work (.7)Line 7 T:mm[-hnh]Line 8 C:[y'know] that relationship isn't going to work (.4)Line 9 T:mm-hnh [(.hhh)]Line 10 C:[and um] (.9) y'[know]Line 11 T:[nmn]Line 12 C:particularly if you're can't be supportive in this areaLine 13that I trunk is importantLine 14 T:So, I hear you saying that (.4) the two ((hands move apart))Line 15of you are seeing things different that the relationship might not workLine 16and yet ((lifting right hand upward, palm up)) relationship (.)(.hhh)Line 17>on the other hand< ((ands moving back and forth in front of body))Line 18relationships are pretty important to you soLine 19 C:well that relationship won't work for meLine 20but other relationships will work (.7) ((smiling))Line 21 T:[ah-hah] ((head nods))Line 22 C:[maybe there's] somebody [else]((smiling))Line 23 T:[so] you're a little farther along in that relationshipLine 24uh with Beau than II kinda thought you were uh as I was listening to youLine 25(.hhh) some points I heard you saying that you really needed his supportLine 26((client purses her lips after smiling, tilts her head slightly toLine 27right and closes her eyes as she looks down))Line 28(.)in relationship as you moved outLine 29((client opens her eyes and looks directly at Counselor))Line 30into something new (.) an' nowLine 31((client is nodding head slightly several times))Line 32I hear you coming from a different space like (.)(.hhh)Line 33 C:[(hhh)] ((smiling and exhales as a slight laugh))Line 34 T:y' I get a little bit confused about where you are (.9)Line 35 C:Well uh (hhh) (1.0) (.hhh) urn y'know you always feel a little uhLine 36((client shifted in chair to and now look directly at counselor))Line 37change is always difficult (.6)Line 38 T:mm-hmhLine 39 C:an' um (.) to leave something that's comfortable is gonna be pretty hardLine 40but yet (.) uhmLine 41 T:mm-[hmh]Line 42 C:[if] you feel like you want to grow yourself and do something differ[ent]Line 43 T:[mm-]hmhLine 44 C:you sometimes just have to take a riskLine 45 T:mm-[hmh]Line 46 C:[an'] taking [risk]Line 47 T:[yeah]Line 48 C:is difficultLine 49 T:(.hhh) I sense uh a lot of strength (.) in yourselfLine 50((C is nodding head slightly with a slight smile))Line 51as you say that uh-I hear determinationLine 52((C gives a broader smile with head nod))Line 53that you (.hhh) you like (.) like Beau but h' but it doesn't sound likeLine 54uh it sounds like you're going to make your own decision (1.0)Line 55 C:[mmmn—I think soLine 56 T:even though occasionally it appears now and thenLine 57 C:mmn I've thought about it an' and I feel like it's time y'knowLine 58I can't do it later it's gotta be time now an'an' now's the timeLine 59mm-hmhLine 60 C:not later. (transcript of Ivey et al., 1997; for transcript symbols, see Appendix and/or Kogan, 1998, p. 251)

The second exemplar shows [vey initiating another phase of confronting Mary with the discourse marker "OK," the phrase "let's come back to you," followed by a specific question about Mary's views. Rhetorically, questions can be seen as invitations to respond in a particular manner to the counselor (e.g., Tomm, 1988), an invitation Mary took up between lines 5 and 13. Worth noting is her emphasized "isn't" in line 8 when talking about whether her relationship would work; there is awkwardness or delicacy between Mary and Ivey in the halting, soft-spoken things Mary says, and Ivey's supportive acknowledgments as Mary elaborates her answer. Such delicate interactions were featured in Silverman's (2004) analyses of discussions between counselors and clients on the topic of clients' sexual activities. Silverman described such interactions as "constructing delicate objects" (p. 119), the objects being morally implicating utterances about the client that counselors and clients elaborated together. In Mary's case, such moral delicacies might be inferred from her line 5 comment about being "kind of selfish" and from the talk that followed. Such consideration of moral delicacies also fits Goffman's (1967) "face-work" (p. 12) interactions, where speakers talk so as to manage the moral stakes or impressions others might make of them as these arise in their dialogues.

Line 14 shows Ivey taking up what Mary has said, highlighting a dilemma she faces in choosing between what "Beau" wants and what she wants. Mary's response in lines 19 and 20 indicates "well that relation hip won't work for me but other relationships will work." Ivey reframed Mary's disclosure ("you're a little farther along ...") as a possible new narrative, confronting her conclusion and earlier talk that seemed at odds with this disclosure. A delicate exchange develops after Ivey's line 30 "an' now," which builds to his line 34 "I get a little bit confused" utterance. This can be especially noted in how Mary responded with what Silverman (2004) described as a "turbulent delivery" (p. 125), a tentative way of balancing one's communications for how they might be received. Yet, by line 58, Mary has taken up the implications of Ivey's proposed narrative as it emerged in the confrontation sequence ("now's the time").

Discussion

When there is no access to one's own personal "ultimate" word, then every thought, feeling, experience must be refracted through ... someone else's discourse, someone else's style, someone else's manner, with which it cannot immediately be merged without reservation, without distance, without refraction. (Bakhtin, 1984, p. 202)

We have suggested that counselors consider confrontation in terms of a completed dialogic interaction. For a counselor's helping intentions to be realized in the dialogues of counseling, what matters is not what they say, alone, but what clients do with what they say. The dialogic perspective we have shared and used in our analysis suggests that confrontation is a conversational activity involving both counselor and client. This is a point Ivey and his colleague also emphasized—that confrontation involves not only "the pointing out of (client) discrepancies between or among attitudes, thoughts or behaviors" (Ivey et al., 1997, p. 50 [from accompanying training manual)) but also a need to use other core listening skills.

Confronting in counseling is clearly different from people arguing, such as when one professional insists the client adopt his or her views. From a CA perspective, confronting involves practical interpretive activities—how people observably make sense of each other—and a rhetorical endeavor in which clients and counselors manage the stakes of their dialogues. Thus, Ivey's confrontations are packaged as invitations instead of directives, offering his views in ways that were observably contestable instead of authoritatively irrefutable. Other counselors might have approached the interaction more asymmetrically, as expert dialogues where counselors' ways of talking and meanings are focal, that is, where the counselor's discourse or meanings are primary to how the interview proceeds, such as at times of making interpretations or delivering directives. This concerns critical discourse analysts who see counseling as a context in which clients can be held to the professional discourses of the counselor (e.g., Parker, 1999).

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Confronting can bring with it breaches not only in the flow of conversation but also in the rapport established in the counseling relationship. With these breaches come needs to conversationally repair (Sacks, Schegloff, & Jefferson, 1974), but preferably not at the cost of the counselor's intentions in confronting the client. What comes after a confrontation is, for us, analytically, a very interesting and often artful rhetorical improvisation by client and counselor as they talk through where to go thereafter. It is where they can coordinate intentions in a shared language (see Anderson, 1997) or fail at this and, thus, the conversation pushes on. Yet, during a confrontation, client and counselor use words and other conversational aspects to do the kinds of "refracting" (Bakhtin, 1984, p. 202), described earlier, as they talk. Bakhtin is an interesting theorist to invoke here. For him, the word in any dialogue was not exclusively that of the utterer; the listener and prior users of the word all have claims to the word as well. As this relate to confronting, what the counselor says in her or his confrontation needs to be claimed, "refracted," and (from the counselor's standpoint) preferably taken up by the client. Clients need to "people" ("populate," in Russian; Bakhtin, 1981, p. 293) what counselors tell them with their own intentions and understandings. How this is done is observable matter and quite instructive as to the workings of actual conversation, when contrasted with the often idealized use of skills depicted in many counseling textbooks. We are curious about Garfinkel's (2002)" hop floor" when counselors confront clients.

Much counselor training focuses on discretely learnable skills such as those found in Ivey's microskills approach. Having learned such discrete skills, counseling students can presumably later integrate them into their own unique combination of skill required in the immediacies of actual counseling dialogues, for example, when a confrontation might require the use of follow-up skills such as paraphrases, open questions, and so on. Yet a microskills focus breaks up dialogue into parts in ways we believe idealizes how conversations occur in everyday life. Here, people talk with intention in mind and tend to work these out in how they complete or fail to complete them with each other.

It can be helpful to shift attention from counselors' use of discrete conversational microskill , such as confrontation. This obscures what clients do with such microskills and what counselors do with such client responses. We suggest, instead, focusing on dialogic sequences where confrontations are initiated and, over as many conversational turns as are needed, are brought to a sense of mutual completion between counselor and client. Discrete skills would continue to be used, but their deployment would relate to effort to realizing intentions in a process of collaborating on client goals. A our analyses point out, a mundane element of communication tends to be taken for granted when using these skills, which we believe is central to their use. What can at fir t seem like sloppy and less than straightforward communication could otherwise point to artful, in-the-moment way a counselor packages her or hi talk for the client for example, in ways that lead to client uptake of their communication as they talk. The key is in how a counselor complete an intended interaction with a client, which is something we believe is quite observable from the ways we have shown.

Ivey's microskills undeniably help in conducting professional dialogue. Counseling also require responsive, improvisational skill by counselors to avoid making monologues out of dialogues with clients. Counselors constantly and collaboratively negotiate with clients: goals, particular question and answer sequences, agreements on interventions, intended reformulations of client meaning, or client homework. Careful scrutiny (using CA transcripts or videotapes) of such negotiations can be useful in training or self-supervision (T. Strong, 2003), especially with how the client and counselor coordinate nonverbal aspects of their dialogues in completing such negotiations. We ha e shown how Ivey, a well-known counselor educator, initiated confrontations he talked through to dialogic completion, using his microskilLS and much more.

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Goal setting in counseling is the process of helping a client imagine desired outcomes and develop plans to reach those outcomes. Goals can guide and organize a person's efforts so they can reach objectives efficiently.

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The Word: Self-Disclosure

We’ve briefly discussed some of the underpinnings of human behaviour and the characteristics which define an effective counsellor. The importance of understanding such concepts is that, on many occasions, self-disclosure requires counsellors to act in a paradoxical manner – that is, communicate a common message in a tailored way, with a different objective, and an external focus. Self-disclosure can be a challenging technique because it defies our natural ‘self-centred’ dialogue.

Self-disclosure is defined as “a conscious, intentional technique in which clinicians share information about their lives outside the counseling relationship” (Simone, McCarthy, & Skay, 1998, p.174). The role of this process is to “facilitate client disclosure through modeling and the establishment of trust” (the dyadic effect; Jourard, 1968). In other words, the counsellor discloses information about him/herself in order to establish a connection with the client, thus creating rapport, trust and improving interpersonal communication.

Self-disclosure is a useful strategy used by the majority of counsellors, regardless of theoretical orientation. In many instances this process is almost a requirement to obtain valuable information from a client in order to help them see through a situation. It is often perceived as an ethical and valuable technique.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Are you a very important person? Sure you are. The reason for this answer is the same for almost everyone: we like talking about ourselves, we enjoy being listened to, we praise our achievements, and we are very much into introspection. Although we are ultimately social beings, most humans are both consciously and subconsciously determined to improve themselves, and to derive meaning to their existence.

In this context, we are faced with the everyday challenge of balancing our own needs for fulfilment and recognition with the need to co-relate with others, to promote altruism and to help people in need. This paradox takes centre stage in counselling sessions in the form of self-disclosure - as a counsellor, how much of yourself should you reveal to your clients?
Human Behaviour and Effective Counselling
It is undeniable that many people are more interested in themselves than things happening with others. Generally, people like to talk about themselves (thus listening is such an important part in interpersonal communication), to listen to topics which have relevance to their lives, to participate in groups they can derive benefit from, and to be part of a system which values them. It is the basic need for belonging that drives people to behave in this way.

Most people also strongly defend their opinions and perspectives. We like to make sure that once we believe in something, we are able to reasonably explain that way of thinking, and possibly prove to the other person that we are correct in our opinions. Think about it: who likes to be incorrect? So when we talk about ourselves or about issues which are pertinent to our lives, we like to explain each aspect of that topic and by doing so, validate our opinion or experience. Self-denial occurs when we give up that right in order to focus the attention to someone else's problem, issue or situation. The capacity for self-denial is one of the most important characteristics of a good counsellor.

Curiosity, comfort with conversation, empathy and understanding play a major role in creating a safe environment which allows a client's emotional expression. Emotional insightfulness, introspection, tolerance of intimacy and comfort with power are characteristics which help the counsellor maintain a clear perspective of the situation and at the same time, not prejudice the relationship by being judgemental or condescending. Energy, flexibility and self-awareness facilitate the counsellor's drive and focus in the relationship's objectives and outcomes.
The Word: Self-Disclosure
We've briefly discussed some of the underpinnings of human behaviour and the characteristics which define an effective counsellor. The importance of understanding such concepts is that, on many occasions, self-disclosure requires counsellors to act in a paradoxical manner - that is, communicate a common message in a tailored way, with a different objective, and an external focus. Self-disclosure can be a challenging technique because it defies our natural 'self-centred' dialogue.

Self-disclosure is defined as "a conscious, intentional technique in which clinicians share information about their lives outside the counseling relationship" (Simone, McCarthy, & Skay, 1998, p.174). The role of this process is to "facilitate client disclosure through modeling and the establishment of trust" (the dyadic effect; Jourard, 1968). In other words, the counsellor discloses information about him/herself in order to establish a connection with the client, thus creating rapport, trust and improving interpersonal communication.

Self-disclosure is a useful strategy used by the majority of counsellors, regardless of theoretical orientation. In many instances this process is almost a requirement to obtain valuable information from a client in order to help them see through a situation. It is often perceived as an ethical and valuable technique.
A Two-Edged Sword
Self-disclosure can be as helpful as it can be damaging if not properly conducted. Why? Primarily because the act of self-disclosure exposes the counsellor and it could undermine the balance of power in the relationship with a client. If the client sees vulnerability in the counsellor, the trust could fall apart. At the same time, this vulnerability could improve the relationship between the counsellor and client by creating more intimacy as the client 'sees' the counsellor in the 'same level' of him or her.

Therefore, the outcomes of using self-disclosure as a strategy to build trust and rapport will depend on the counsellor's actions and how those actions will reflect from the client's perspective (based on the client's personality variables). It is important for counselling professionals to observe these issues and adjust their approach accordingly.

The benefits or advantages of self-disclosure include: helping the client to not feel alone, decreasing client anxiety, improving the client's awareness to different viewpoints, and increasing counsellor genuineness. Some disadvantages of applying self-disclosure include: moving focus from the client, taking too much counselling time (and thus reducing client disclosure), creating role confusion (who is helping who?), possibly trivialising the client's issue by implying everyone goes through it, and interfering with transference.
Guidelines for Use of Self-Disclosure
According to Gladding (2006) there are some guidelines which can help counsellors to effectively implement self-disclosure strategies. Such guidelines are basically communication skills which can be used to avoid common pitfalls of this process, such as losing rapport or focus in the situation.

Primarily, the counsellor should be direct, brief, focused and relevant. This will ensure the self-disclosure process does not lead to time wastage and loss of focus in the client's situation. Self-disclosure should also not be used frequently (more self-disclosure is not necessarily better) and should not add to the client's problems and negative outcomes in a situation.

In essence, the purpose of self-disclosure should be clear to both counsellor and client and the process should only be used after considering other options, envisaging that there is a risk of miscommunication and an effect on the balance of power. But as stated before: if used in an effective manner, self-disclosure can be a useful strategy and a common process in the counselling setting.
Case Study: A Briefing of the Technique
A young man wishes to move out of his family home and seeks a counsellor for help. The young man is very distressed by the possible change and the effect it could have on both his parent's and his own life. In the counselling setting, he briefly describes his motives for moving out; however, he attests that he does not want to cause emotional strife to his parents. In that context, he asks the counsellor to help him come up with a way to tell his parents without hurting them. A solution to that situation would relieve the young man from his personal anxiety.

The counsellor and the client explored all available options and at the end of the counselling session, the young man is still very emotionally affected by his decision and its possible outcomes. At that point, self-disclosure was used as a strategy to help the client move into a positive frame of reference. The counsellor disclosed that her son left the family home only last year, and even though it was a very emotional situation for the family, they understood his decision and moved forward.

Nowadays, they regularly meet and have a very positive relationship. At the end of the counselling relationship, the client felt comfortable with the knowledge that a similar situation had ended with a positive outcome, and was able to move forward with his decision without distress.

This example showed the effective use of self-disclosure and how this technique can be beneficial to clients. It was observable that in that scenario, the following benefits were achieved: helping the client to not feel alone, decreasing client anxiety and increasing counsellor genuineness.
References

Gladding, S.T. (2006). Counseling: A Comprehensive Profession. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Jourard, S.M. (1968). Disclosing Man to Himself. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand.

Simone, D. H., McCarthy, P., & Skay, C. (1998). An investigation of client and counselor variables that influence likelihood of counselor self-disclosure. Journal of Counseling and Development. 76: 174-182.

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Self-Disclosure - Concepts and Applications

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Are you a very important person? Sure you are. The reason for this answer is the same for almost everyone: we like talking about ourselves, we enjoy being listened to, we praise our achievements, and we are very much into introspection.

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A Two-Edged Sword

Self-disclosure can be as helpful as it can be damaging if not properly conducted. Why? Primarily because the act of self-disclosure exposes the counsellor and it could undermine the balance of power in the relationship with a client. If the client sees vulnerability in the counsellor, the trust could fall apart. At the same time, this vulnerability could improve the relationship between the counsellor and client by creating more intimacy as the client ‘sees’ the counsellor in the ‘same level’ of him or her.

Therefore, the outcomes of using self-disclosure as a strategy to build trust and rapport will depend on the counsellor’s actions and how those actions will reflect from the client’s perspective (based on the client’s personality variables). It is important for counselling professionals to observe these issues and adjust their approach accordingly.

The benefits or advantages of self-disclosure include: helping the client to not feel alone, decreasing client anxiety, improving the client’s awareness to different viewpoints, and increasing counsellor genuineness. Some disadvantages of applying self-disclosure include: moving focus from the client, taking too much counselling time (and thus reducing client disclosure), creating role confusion (who is helping who?), possibly trivialising the client’s issue by implying everyone goes through it, and interfering with transference.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Are you a very important person? Sure you are. The reason for this answer is the same for almost everyone: we like talking about ourselves, we enjoy being listened to, we praise our achievements, and we are very much into introspection. Although we are ultimately social beings, most humans are both consciously and subconsciously determined to improve themselves, and to derive meaning to their existence.

In this context, we are faced with the everyday challenge of balancing our own needs for fulfilment and recognition with the need to co-relate with others, to promote altruism and to help people in need. This paradox takes centre stage in counselling sessions in the form of self-disclosure - as a counsellor, how much of yourself should you reveal to your clients?
Human Behaviour and Effective Counselling
It is undeniable that many people are more interested in themselves than things happening with others. Generally, people like to talk about themselves (thus listening is such an important part in interpersonal communication), to listen to topics which have relevance to their lives, to participate in groups they can derive benefit from, and to be part of a system which values them. It is the basic need for belonging that drives people to behave in this way.

Most people also strongly defend their opinions and perspectives. We like to make sure that once we believe in something, we are able to reasonably explain that way of thinking, and possibly prove to the other person that we are correct in our opinions. Think about it: who likes to be incorrect? So when we talk about ourselves or about issues which are pertinent to our lives, we like to explain each aspect of that topic and by doing so, validate our opinion or experience. Self-denial occurs when we give up that right in order to focus the attention to someone else's problem, issue or situation. The capacity for self-denial is one of the most important characteristics of a good counsellor.

Curiosity, comfort with conversation, empathy and understanding play a major role in creating a safe environment which allows a client's emotional expression. Emotional insightfulness, introspection, tolerance of intimacy and comfort with power are characteristics which help the counsellor maintain a clear perspective of the situation and at the same time, not prejudice the relationship by being judgemental or condescending. Energy, flexibility and self-awareness facilitate the counsellor's drive and focus in the relationship's objectives and outcomes.
The Word: Self-Disclosure
We've briefly discussed some of the underpinnings of human behaviour and the characteristics which define an effective counsellor. The importance of understanding such concepts is that, on many occasions, self-disclosure requires counsellors to act in a paradoxical manner - that is, communicate a common message in a tailored way, with a different objective, and an external focus. Self-disclosure can be a challenging technique because it defies our natural 'self-centred' dialogue.

Self-disclosure is defined as "a conscious, intentional technique in which clinicians share information about their lives outside the counseling relationship" (Simone, McCarthy, & Skay, 1998, p.174). The role of this process is to "facilitate client disclosure through modeling and the establishment of trust" (the dyadic effect; Jourard, 1968). In other words, the counsellor discloses information about him/herself in order to establish a connection with the client, thus creating rapport, trust and improving interpersonal communication.

Self-disclosure is a useful strategy used by the majority of counsellors, regardless of theoretical orientation. In many instances this process is almost a requirement to obtain valuable information from a client in order to help them see through a situation. It is often perceived as an ethical and valuable technique.
A Two-Edged Sword
Self-disclosure can be as helpful as it can be damaging if not properly conducted. Why? Primarily because the act of self-disclosure exposes the counsellor and it could undermine the balance of power in the relationship with a client. If the client sees vulnerability in the counsellor, the trust could fall apart. At the same time, this vulnerability could improve the relationship between the counsellor and client by creating more intimacy as the client 'sees' the counsellor in the 'same level' of him or her.

Therefore, the outcomes of using self-disclosure as a strategy to build trust and rapport will depend on the counsellor's actions and how those actions will reflect from the client's perspective (based on the client's personality variables). It is important for counselling professionals to observe these issues and adjust their approach accordingly.

The benefits or advantages of self-disclosure include: helping the client to not feel alone, decreasing client anxiety, improving the client's awareness to different viewpoints, and increasing counsellor genuineness. Some disadvantages of applying self-disclosure include: moving focus from the client, taking too much counselling time (and thus reducing client disclosure), creating role confusion (who is helping who?), possibly trivialising the client's issue by implying everyone goes through it, and interfering with transference.
Guidelines for Use of Self-Disclosure
According to Gladding (2006) there are some guidelines which can help counsellors to effectively implement self-disclosure strategies. Such guidelines are basically communication skills which can be used to avoid common pitfalls of this process, such as losing rapport or focus in the situation.

Primarily, the counsellor should be direct, brief, focused and relevant. This will ensure the self-disclosure process does not lead to time wastage and loss of focus in the client's situation. Self-disclosure should also not be used frequently (more self-disclosure is not necessarily better) and should not add to the client's problems and negative outcomes in a situation.

In essence, the purpose of self-disclosure should be clear to both counsellor and client and the process should only be used after considering other options, envisaging that there is a risk of miscommunication and an effect on the balance of power. But as stated before: if used in an effective manner, self-disclosure can be a useful strategy and a common process in the counselling setting.
Case Study: A Briefing of the Technique
A young man wishes to move out of his family home and seeks a counsellor for help. The young man is very distressed by the possible change and the effect it could have on both his parent's and his own life. In the counselling setting, he briefly describes his motives for moving out; however, he attests that he does not want to cause emotional strife to his parents. In that context, he asks the counsellor to help him come up with a way to tell his parents without hurting them. A solution to that situation would relieve the young man from his personal anxiety.

The counsellor and the client explored all available options and at the end of the counselling session, the young man is still very emotionally affected by his decision and its possible outcomes. At that point, self-disclosure was used as a strategy to help the client move into a positive frame of reference. The counsellor disclosed that her son left the family home only last year, and even though it was a very emotional situation for the family, they understood his decision and moved forward.

Nowadays, they regularly meet and have a very positive relationship. At the end of the counselling relationship, the client felt comfortable with the knowledge that a similar situation had ended with a positive outcome, and was able to move forward with his decision without distress.

This example showed the effective use of self-disclosure and how this technique can be beneficial to clients. It was observable that in that scenario, the following benefits were achieved: helping the client to not feel alone, decreasing client anxiety and increasing counsellor genuineness.
References

Gladding, S.T. (2006). Counseling: A Comprehensive Profession. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Jourard, S.M. (1968). Disclosing Man to Himself. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand.

Simone, D. H., McCarthy, P., & Skay, C. (1998). An investigation of client and counselor variables that influence likelihood of counselor self-disclosure. Journal of Counseling and Development. 76: 174-182.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Self-Disclosure - Concepts and Applications

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Are you a very important person? Sure you are. The reason for this answer is the same for almost everyone: we like talking about ourselves, we enjoy being listened to, we praise our achievements, and we are very much into introspection.

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Guidelines for Use of Self-Disclosure

According to Gladding (2006) there are some guidelines which can help counsellors to effectively implement self-disclosure strategies. Such guidelines are basically communication skills which can be used to avoid common pitfalls of this process, such as losing rapport or focus in the situation.

Primarily, the counsellor should be direct, brief, focused and relevant. This will ensure the self-disclosure process does not lead to time wastage and loss of focus in the client’s situation. Self-disclosure should also not be used frequently (more self-disclosure is not necessarily better) and should not add to the client’s problems and negative outcomes in a situation.

In essence, the purpose of self-disclosure should be clear to both counsellor and client and the process should only be used after considering other options, envisaging that there is a risk of miscommunication and an effect on the balance of power. But as stated before: if used in an effective manner, self-disclosure can be a useful strategy and a common process in the counselling setting.

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Case Study: A Briefing of the Technique

A young man wishes to move out of his family home and seeks a counsellor for help. The young man is very distressed by the possible change and the effect it could have on both his parent’s and his own life. In the counselling setting, he briefly describes his motives for moving out; however, he attests that he does not want to cause emotional strife to his parents. In that context, he asks the counsellor to help him come up with a way to tell his parents without hurting them. A solution to that situation would relieve the young man from his personal anxiety.

The counsellor and the client explored all available options and at the end of the counselling session, the young man is still very emotionally affected by his decision and its possible outcomes. At that point, self-disclosure was used as a strategy to help the client move into a positive frame of reference. The counsellor disclosed that her son left the family home only last year, and even though it was a very emotional situation for the family, they understood his decision and moved forward.

Nowadays, they regularly meet and have a very positive relationship. At the end of the counselling relationship, the client felt comfortable with the knowledge that a similar situation had ended with a positive outcome, and was able to move forward with his decision without distress.

This example showed the effective use of self-disclosure and how this technique can be beneficial to clients. It was observable that in that scenario, the following benefits were achieved: helping the client to not feel alone, decreasing client anxiety and increasing counsellor genuineness.

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Counselling & Self Development Resources

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Australian Institute of Professional Counsellors

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Australian Institute of Professional Counsellors

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How to Lead: 6 Leadership Styles and Frameworks

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Leadership styles are classifications of how a person behaves while directing, motivating, guiding, and managing groups of people. There are many leadership styles. Some of the most widely discussed include: authoritarian (autocratic), participative (democratic), delegative (laissez-faire), transformational, transactional, and situational.

Great leaders can inspire political movements and social change. They can also motivate others to perform, create, and innovate. As you start to consider some of the people who you think of as great leaders, you can immediately see that there are often vast differences in how each person leads.

Fortunately, researchers have developed different theories and frameworks that allow us to better identify and understand these different leadership styles.

Lewin's Leadership Styles

In 1939, a group of researchers led by psychologist Kurt Lewin set out to identify different styles of leadership.﻿﻿ While further research has identified more distinct types of leadership, this early study was very influential and established three major leadership styles that have provided a springboard for more defined leadership theories.

In Lewin's study, schoolchildren were assigned to one of three groups with an authoritarian, democratic, or laissez-faire leader. The children were then led in an arts and crafts project while researchers observed the behavior of children in response to the different styles of leadership. The researchers found that democratic leadership tended to be the most effective at inspiring followers to perform well.

Authoritarian Leadership (Autocratic)

Authoritarian leaders, also known as autocratic leaders, provide clear expectations for what needs to be done, when it should be done, and how it should be done. This style of leadership is strongly focused on both command by the leader and control of the followers. There is also a clear division between the leader and the members. Authoritarian leaders make decisions independently, with little or no input from the rest of the group.

Researchers found that decision-making was less creative under authoritarian leadership.﻿﻿ Lewin also concluded that it is harder to move from an authoritarian style to a democratic style than vice versa. Abuse of this method is usually viewed as controlling, bossy, and dictatorial.

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Authoritarian leadership is best applied to situations where there is little time for group decision-making or where the leader is the most knowledgeable member of the group. The autocratic approach can be a good one when the situation calls for rapid decisions and decisive actions. However, it tends to create dysfunctional and even hostile environments, often pitting followers against the domineering leader.

Participative Leadership (Democratic)

Lewin's study found that participative leadership, also known as democratic leadership, is typically the most effective leadership style. Democratic leaders offer guidance to group members, but they also participate in the group and allow input from other group members. In Lewin's study, children in this group were less productive than the members of the authoritarian group, but their contributions were of a higher quality.

Participative leaders encourage group members to participate, but retain the final say in the decision-making process. Group members feel engaged in the process and are more motivated and creative. Democratic leaders tend to make followers feel like they are an important part of the team, which helps foster commitment to the goals of the group.

Delegative Leadership (Laissez-Faire)

Lewin found that children under delegative leadership, also known as laissez-faire leadership, were the least productive of all three groups. The children in this group also made more demands on the leader, showed little cooperation, and were unable to work independently.

Delegative leaders offer little or no guidance to group members and leave the decision-making up to group members. While this style can be useful in situations involving highly qualified experts, it often leads to poorly defined roles and a lack of motivation.

Lewin noted that laissez-faire leadership tended to result in groups that lacked direction and members who blamed each other for mistakes, refused to accept personal responsibility, made less progress, and produced less work.

Observations About Lewin's Leadership Styles

In their book, The Bass Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research, and Managerial Applications, Bass and Bass note that authoritarian leadership is often presented solely in negative, often disapproving, terms. Authoritarian leaders are often described as controlling and close-minded, yet this overlooks the potential positives of stressing rules, expecting obedience, and taking responsibility.

While authoritarian leadership certainly is not the best choice for every situation, it can be effective and beneficial in cases where followers need a great deal of direction and where rules and standards must be followed to the letter. Another often overlooked benefit of the authoritarian style is the ability to maintain a sense of order.

Bass and Bass note that democratic leadership tends to be centered on the followers and is an effective approach when trying to maintain relationships with others. People who work under such leaders tend to get along well, support one another, and consult other members of the group when making decisions.

Additional Leadership Styles and Models

In addition to the three styles identified by Lewin and his colleagues, researchers have described numerous other characteristic patterns of leadership. A few of the best-known include:

Transformational Leadership

Transformational leadership is often identified as the single most effective style. This style was first described during the late 1970s and later expanded upon by researcher Bernard M. Bass. Transformational leaders are able to motivate and inspire followers and to direct positive changes in groups.

These leaders tend to be emotionally intelligent, energetic, and passionate. They are not only committed to helping the organization achieve its goals, but also to helping group members fulfill their potential.

Research shows that this style of leadership results in higher performance and more improved group satisfaction than other leadership styles. One study also found that transformational leadership led to improved well-being among group members.

Transactional Leadership

The transactional leadership style views the leader-follower relationship as a transaction. By accepting a position as a member of the group, the individual has agreed to obey the leader. In most situations, this involves the employer-employee relationship, and the transaction focuses on the follower completing required tasks in exchange for monetary compensation.

One of the main advantages of this leadership style is that it creates clearly defined roles. People know what they are required to do and what they will be receiving in exchange. This style allows leaders to offer a great deal of supervision and direction, if needed.

Group members may also be motivated to perform well to receive rewards. One of the biggest downsides is that the transactional style tends to stifle creativity and out-of-the-box thinking.

Situational Leadership

Situational theories of leadership stress the significant influence of the environment and the situation on leadership. Hersey and Blanchard's leadership stylesis one of the best-known situational theories. First published in 1969, this model describes four primary styles of leadership, including:

1. Telling: Telling people what to do

2. Selling: Convincing followers to buy into their ideas and messages

3. Participating: Allowing group members to take a more active role in the decision-making process

4. Delegating: Taking a hands-off approach to leadership and allowing group members to make the majority of decisions

Later, Blanchard expanded upon the original Hersey and Blanchard model to emphasize how the developmental and skill level of learners influences the style that should be used by leaders. Blanchard's SLII leadership styles model also described four different leading styles:

1. Directing: Giving orders and expecting obedience, but offering little guidance and assistance

2. Coaching: Giving lots of orders, but also lots of support

3. Supporting: Offering plenty of help, but very little direction

4. Delegating: Offering little direction or support

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It seems like there are as many different styles of leadership as there are leaders. Discover some of the most common leadership style frameworks.

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