# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A Level Media Theory Knowledge Organiser

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A-Level Media Studies Course overview and guidance

# data[].attributes.headline
Media and Power: Curran, Seaton, Hesmondhalgh

# data[].attributes.subject
Media and Power: Curran, Seaton, Hesmondhalgh

# data[].attributes.headline
A Level Media Studies Fundamental Skills

# data[].attributes.subject
A Level Media Studies Fundamental Skills

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A-level Media Studies Fundamental skills autumn 2020 - Presentation slides

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A-level Media Studies NEA Planning - Presentation

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A-level Media Studies NEA Planning - Resource booklet

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Sign Theory

When we use words and signs to communicate with one another, we take their definitions for granted. We know "roses" are prickly bushes with beautiful flowers while "nettles" are plants which should be avoided. Or the word "cat" refers to a soft-furred and short-snouted animal, but the word "dog" is an animal with a longer snout and unable to retract its claws. The difference between a "car" and a "bus" is obvious.

However, these words and their meanings are arbitrary and without any real criteria for their determination. Rose thorns are just as dangerous as nettles, yet one became a symbol of love while the other was classified as a weed. Why are dogs considered loyal and "man's best friend" but cats are often portrayed in modern texts as devious?

Roland Barthes was interested in signs and their meanings, especially the many assumptions we make about concepts and objects that we simply accept as the truth. Read our guide to his signification process and how certain signs become culturally important.

Introduction to "Mythologies"

In his first major publication, "Mythologies", Roland Barthes explored the hidden assumptions behind a few of France's most important symbols, especially those aspects of society and politics which caused him incredible frustration with the cultural landscape of the 1950s. His description of the many functions and meanings of wine is perhaps the best example of his anger.

Barthes joked if a man did not drink wine, he would find it very difficult to integrate into French society. Depending on the context, wine could signify strength, hard work and even purity. However, by accepting these assumptions, we ignore the dangers of alcohol and its destructive impact on many French citizens. The economics of wine is also problematic because harvesting the crop could lead to the exploitation of the workers.

Building on the concepts of semiotics devised by Saussure, Roland Barthes created his own model of communication to help explain the mechanics of language and unmask some of the definitions we take for granted.

Form and Concept

The Signification Process

In this example from the magazine cover, Barthes believed there was another level of meaning being communicated to the reader - that "France is a great Empire" and everyone will "faithfully serve under her flag". ² The purpose of the image and such a positive representation of the boy dressed in French uniform, Barthes suggested, was to silence the vocal critics of French colonialism in Africa.

He called this process signification and he tried to summarise the model in a table:

In this way, the producers of the "Paris-Match" cover crafted this image of a confident boy, dressed in a French military uniform and, presumably, saluting the tricolour, to signify the wonder of the French colonialism. This sign then becomes part of a larger cultural and political narrative which wanted to see France reinforce its military power in Africa and around the world.

In the diagram above, you might have noticed Barthes called these meanings and worldviews myths, a concept that refers to the shared values and ideologies of a particular culture or community.

Myths

The representation of French wine remains an excellent example of how society confers meaning to signs to reinforce a cultural or political point of view. Wine might signify good health and friendship, but that sign is then used by producers and writers to signify the brilliant sophistication of French society. It is a great marketing strategy.

Barthes argued myths are often regarded as facts - wine is good for us and we should continue to enjoy its taste. Of course, this belief reinforced the ideology of French culture as wonderfully sophisticated and intellectual. It also positioned other societies as inferior. You can see why Barthes wanted to expose these false and destructive narratives.

Examples of Myth

Perhaps a couple more straightforward examples will help explain this signification process. Think back to the signifier "rose". The word signifies the plant and its wonderful flowers in real life. This is the first stage. However, we then use this sign to then signify romantic love - that is why they are offered as a gift to a loved one.

Taking us into the third stage, this gesture is also part of the wider myth regarding the importance of love and relationships in society. The ideology of romance is certainly very pervasive in mainstream media, such as television dramas, rom-coms, and popular magazines.

Consider the signifier "car". The three letters signify an actual car. In turn, this sign signifies the idea of travel and mobility so we have reached the second stage of this signification process.

The ideology of freedom is promoted as a key part of our culture and cars are often encoded with this sense of independence and adventure. In this way, the signification of cars helps naturalise the values associated with freedom.

The following advertisement demonstrates the link between images of cars and the myth of freedom:

Myth Example

You can clearly see how the producers try to position the audience to connect this car to our desire for individuality and adventure. The rugged mountains and beautify sky are visually appealing, but they also encode the myth of freedom. This preferred reading is supported by the words "your epic tale starts today". Buy the car and live the dream.

Denotation and Connotation

Barthes also explained the signification process in terms of order. The first order consists of the signifier's denotation. This could be a word's definition found in a dictionary - it's literal meaning. For example, the word "red" refers to a particular colour. The denotation could also be the physical form of the colour.

The second order is the connotation. These are meanings and concepts beyond the literal definition of the signifier. For example, "red" could signify danger, such as the colour used on traffic lights which tells drivers to stop.

We have already seen how red is associated with danger, but the colour has also been used to connote love, courage and even sacrifice because it is the colour of blood. These values are found in the ideologies of many countries and communities.

This is the third order of meaning: myth.

Have you ever noticed how many sports teams wear red jerseys or the number of flags around the world have red in their design? Think about the American "stars and stripes", the Union Jack or the French tricolour.

Since monarchs and politicians want to promote these values of bravery and sacrifice in society, it makes sense to uses the colour red in their flags. In this way, red is now accepted as a colour of strength and national identity. Barthes defined this third and final signification of red as myth.

Worked Example

The following advertisement was produced by an Australian government agency as part of their campaign to reduce greenhouse gases and promote a more sustainable society. The message is straightforward: reduce your carbon footprint by cycling to work or to see your friends and help save the planet. Barthes' model of communication is a useful approach to help explain how this important message is constructed and received by the audience.

The headline is probably the first signifier we should consider. The idiom "take the pressure off" means to reduce your feelings of stress. The colour code green is usually associated with health and nature. In this way, the advertisement is introducing the concept of healthy living to the audience.

The wonderful image of the hand pump inflating the planet, which is formed by the leaves of the tree, is the most eye-catching of the signifiers because it is so unique and interesting. This combination carries connotations of a "green" and unpolluted world where we aspire to live.

The phrase "our environment" helps anchor our interpretation of the dominant signifier above. The icon of the cyclist should also confirm our understanding of the hand pump. If you are in any doubt about the advertisement's message, there is a strapline "pump up your bike tyres, not your carbon footprint".

With global warming being such a huge and immediate problem, there are many advertisements and media products raising the issue and its profile in the public consciousness. We now accept as fact that humans are having a negative impact on the environment and we need to take responsibility for our actions. In terms of the third order of signification, this connotation is now a myth - a cultural truth we now take for granted.

Task One

However, Barthes wants us to investigate these myths and to scrutinise them in more detail. Why was one of the biggest petroleum companies in the world, BP, raising awareness of our carbon footprint back in 2005?

This campaign was created by KJ Bowmen and used the phrase "carbon footprint" before it became a buzzword. Their ideas were integrated into print and outdoor advertisements, YouTube videos and interactive content on the BP website. It was a very deliberate attempt to get people talking about our individual impact on the environment. And it worked.

You task is to work out why a major contributor of global warming would want to create this myth of public responsibility towards the environment?

Task Two

Analyse the following examples in terms of Barthes' denotation, connotation and myth. Briefly describe the physical form of each sign. For example, if you are referring to the facial expressions of some of the individuals, you should specify that it is their smiles which connote happiness and satisfaction. This should strengthen your comments on the second and third order of signification.

Punctum

In his short book, "Camera Lucidia", Barthes applied the terms denotation and connotation to photography. He also argued that images contained a punctum. This was the dominant signifier which pierced the audience's attention, creating a connection between us and the object. Images could also contain a studium, which is the political and culture myth being communicated to the view.

These two terms are quite useful when you are analysing a media text.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Roland Barthes - Signification Process and Myths

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
When we use words and signs to communicate with one another, we take their definitions for granted. We know "roses" are prickly bushes with beautiful flowers while "nettles" are plants which should be avoided. Or the word "cat" refers to a soft-furred and short-snouted animal, but the word "dog" is an animal with a longer snout and unable to retract its claws.

# data[].attributes.headline
Overview of the A Level (Student Friendly SOW)

# data[].attributes.subject
Overview of the A Level (Student Friendly SOW)

# data[].attributes.headline
Exam structure and how to plan responses

# data[].attributes.subject
Exam structure and how to plan responses

# data[].attributes.headline
BBTL Blank Knowledge Organiser to complete

# data[].attributes.subject
BBTL Blank Knowledge Organiser to complete

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Eiffel Tower - Disneyland Paris - adstasher

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Blinded by the light lesson 3 Distribution and Marketing

# data[].attributes.headline
Year 12 CSPs and Associate Theory - Miss Down

# data[].attributes.subject
Year 12 CSPs and Associate Theory - Miss Down

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A Level Media - Old Town Road by Lil Nas X

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A Level Media - GQ Magazine - Media Language

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A Level Media - GQ Magazine - Representation

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A Level Media - The Gentlewoman - Representation

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Daily Mail CSP selected pages - 31 Jan 2020

# data[].attributes.headline
Summary of the Daily Mail Brexit Newspaper CSP 

# data[].attributes.subject
Summary of the Daily Mail Brexit Newspaper CSP 

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Introduction

Before you complete your coursework, you might have to submit a Statement of Intent which explains your production in terms of your target audience while applying your knowledge and understanding of the theoretical framework of media studies. Put simply, it is your chance to outline your aims and objectives. You can also use the Statement of Intent as an opportunity to justify some of your choices regarding representation and media form.

This document is a compulsory element of the non-exam assessment (NEA) must be submitted to your teacher no later than 1 April and will be sent to the exam board for marking with your product.

The Statement

A Statement of Intent is a broad outline of what you hope to achieve in your cross-media product. However, these details should be supported by the language of Media Studies.

For example, you could define your target audience in terms of their demographics and psychographics. There are a number of theories that define audience and their relationship with the media: Uses and Gratifications, Hypodermic Needle Model, Two-Step Flow Theory, Cultivation Theory, interactive, narrowcast, and niche. If you have any of these theories in mind when you make your choices about your product, you should integrate them into your Statement of Intent.

It is also important to establish some of the codes and conventions that will influence your texts. Think about media form and define the type of product you are creating in terms of genre.

What marketing techniques will you apply to target your audience? Are you going to use shock tactics, humour, glamour or celebrity endorsement. Perhaps your narrative will focus on enigma codes to intrigue your audience.

Since representation is one of the key concepts, you could explain how you will ask your actors to pose and what visual codes you are hoping to employ to deliver you message effectively to the audience. Again, make sure you justify your choices.

You need to pick some dominant signifiers and what they might signify to your target audience. These might be clothing and costume, make-up, lighting, body language, facial expression, general appearance, and iconic images. Is stereotyping an aspect of your cross-media product?

Finally, you need to conceptualise and develop the institutions behind the products. Consider your use of slogans and how other lexical codes meet the brand values. Logos are always important.

Generic Example

Even though there might be a 500-word limit at A2 Level, the following example tries to squeeze in lots of media language and theory.

The demographic for my media product are females in the late teens and twenties.

In terms of psychographics, this audience likes fast-fixes of celebrity gossip but also want to delve beneath the superficial filters and representation of the Instagram generation. They want something more considered. When it comes to trends, they poke fun at the ridiculous crazes. My target audience would be the fun seekers and armchair rebels of the Youth Facts IAOs: work hard, play hard and have attitude. VALS (Value Life Styles) classification would place audience on the outer-direct category: they are belongers and achievers.

There is also the secondary audience of males and a similar age range to the sceptical main audience.

Since my target audience have a natural and healthy suspicion of the world, they are not victims of "fake news". Therefore, humour and irony will be a key element of my branding and representation. Maslow's hierarchy of needs suggests that "lack of prejudice" is part of the self-actualisation classification of consumption. This freedom of thought will be an important motif in my narrative.

I would like several of my images to shock the audience and take advantage of the hypodermic needle model of conveying the message. This should "attract" their attention in line with the AIDA principle.

There will certainly be disequilibrium throughout the narrative. I will use enigma codes and sustain the audience's "interest" (AIDA) until the final reveal and the equilibrium is restored.

I think it is important to use celebrity endorsement. This one of Gillian Dyer's Lines of Appeal. This idea also utilises the Two-Step Flow Theory so my message mediated through my fake celebrity.

Representation is incredibly important. I will use well-known signifiers that will immediate connote excitement and glamour. My actor will pose appropriately, directly gazing at the audience to grab their attention. The mise-en-scene will reinforce the sense of fun. Even some angles will be tilted to create that playful tone.

This Statement of Intent is intentionally vague so it can apply to many different briefs. However, you would need to be more specific and focus your ideas on your chosen brief. There are so many other theories and theorists that can be used, so please do not limit your own Statement to the ones in this example.

Student Example One

The brief for this particular response required the student to promote a music magazine and a band.

The demographic for my media product are both male and females in early twenties to late thirties who have an interest in the vibrant music scene, particularly in the city of Bristol.

The psychographics of my audience could be categorised as free spirits. This group are very laid back but identify heavily with their musical influences, expressing themselves and their views openly. They are a new-age group of young adults with strong political views and a passion for what they believe in and their interests. They also may be open to explore and discover new interests like different music genres and styles.

Another psychographic label would be the armchair rebels. Sometimes, reckless and careless, this group do not always follow the norm in society, dressing and acting as individuals. They can be reckless and careless, with no worries for anything like the future or their general wellbeing.

Therefore, with such a dynamic target audience, the genre of my magazine is music, but will have an edgy centre in Bristol, focusing on different interests of different social groups in the city such as indie-pop, reggae and rave culture. However, it will be distributed for free at gigs and concerts so I will rely on advertising to pay for the production. I will also rely on the different print advertisements to promote the magazine.

The Two-Step Flow Theory would help to promote my magazine because consumers of the product will already have an interest in the local music scene and the connection with the bands they have just seen can spread the magazine's content with their social circle and people who have similar tastes and views as them. Also, people will have seen the poster advertisements promoting the content of the magazine and will want to read up on it. The Uses and Gratifications Model will also be useful in selling my media product as people will use it to feed their 'Personal Identity' which Blumer and Katz define as the need to understand our own identity. Music helps people have a sense of self-identity and purpose, along with the style they develop from their preferred music genre. 'Diversion' is also encouragement for an audience to buy my product as it provides entertainment and time to relax, or just to satisfy their interests.

Style is an obvious a marketing tactic because it is hand-in-hand with music genre and the culture that comes along with the music people choose to listen to. Different music preferences influence people to adopt a specific fashion sense, attitude and set of views. I will also include information on local venues and events that readers can get involved in or attend themselves and meet other people who share the same musical identity.

Representation is important in my media product and the composition of my shots will be equally as important due to the nature of the environment the photos will be taken in. They will include a variety of angles including long shots of live performances in venues and low angle shots of people influenced by music and the style that comes with it. Each of my print medias will appear coherent and will have recurring themes that means an audience will be able to recognise each one as from the same campaign.
Example One

This Statement of Intent defines the target audience in tremendous detail, but this could be at the expense of important aspects of representation and industry. Perhaps a more balanced approach would take this response into Level 5.

Student Example Two

This cross-media brief required the candidates to create a lifestyle magazine and advertisements that would appeal to its audience.

I intend to create an art magazine that will showcase a variety of different urban art around Leeds known as "Graffito". I will also create a series of three print advertisements alongside my magazine to promote local artist's art shows and special events through billboards, magazines, and bus advertisements.

The target demographic is both males and females in their late teens and twenties. Since they are active and energetic, the psychographics would be the free spirits who are laid back and enjoy being outside. They care about the environment and appreciate the beauty of it, as well as being interested in social matters, which can be reflected in urban street art. Another psychographic would be the armchair rebel which consist of the active youth who enjoy exploring and discovering new things.

My target audience appreciate the colourful, urban style of street art and are, themselves, unique and alternative. There is also a secondary audience of an older generation of men and women who appreciate urban art around their local city of Leeds and like to look at and know the meaning behind some of the most iconic murals hidden around Leeds in hope to learn more about their local surroundings. I will also create a series of print advertisements to further promote local art in Leeds that is related to my magazine.

They have a natural suspicion of the world so branding and representation will evoke debate because, for example, the uses and gratification theories see audiences as active participators in media transactions and not as passive receivers. Maslow's hierarchy of needs suggests that "lack of prejudice" is part of the self-actualisation classification of consumption. This freedom of thought will be an important motif in my narrative because it is vital that people have their own unique and individual thoughts and interpretations when looking at any type of art.

Including the two-step flow theory, the magazine will be "curated" by experts because this theory suggests that information from the media moves from the opinion leaders who pass on their own interpretations of the message in addition to the original media content to the wider audience. This can anchor meaning for the reader.

Representation is very important in any product and shot composition is even more vital in an art magazine. Therefore, my variety of images will contain a range of angles including low angles, to make the art look bigger and more powerful; extreme long shots, in order to show the street art in relation to its surroundings to add the style of the photo as the art is located on sides of buildings. The mise-en-scene of these shots will hopefully pierce the viewer, and inject them with an immediate sense of style. My print advertisements will all be unique and individual to each other but will all have an aspect of the same theme and therefore will be able to be related back to each other so that the audience will know each of the advertisements is for the same event.
Example Two

Activity

Read through the Statement of Intent examples and evaluate their strengths and weaknesses.

Further Reading

Making media products can be tremendous fun, but there are a number of targets you need tor reach if you want to achieve the top grade. Our outline of the coursework assessment objectives might help clarify how your texts are being marked. If you are not sure about what to create, read our guide to media studies indicative content.

Unassessed Participants

Inevitably, you will have friends and family appearing in your products, or you might need help to operate the lighting and sound equipment. You must acknowledge their efforts, stating what they did and outlining what direction you have them to help complete your tasks. This can be done on the Candidate Record Form (CRF) or on a supplementary page.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How to write a statement of intent | A Level Media Studies (NEA)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Our guide to writing a great statement of intent will help you focus on important theories and approaches to delivering your own NEA products.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A-level Media NEA Example Response Student A v1.1

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A-level Media NEA Example Response Student B

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A-level Media NEA Example Response Student C

# data[].attributes.headline
Achieving Full Marks for your Statement of Intent

# data[].attributes.subject
Achieving Full Marks for your Statement of Intent

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Semiotics - An Introduction | PDF | Semiotics | White

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Semiology is an approach that analyzes how media texts create meaning through signs. Signs include words, images, sounds, and any other elements used to communicate. Signs have both a literal or denotative meaning and deeper connotative associations. Analyzing the connotative meanings and effects of signs provides a way to evaluate how media texts communicate with audiences beyond just describing denotative elements. Semiology vocabulary can help discuss media analysis without directly mentioning the approach.