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Martin Luther King Jr. was a key leader in the American civil rights movement, known for advocating nonviolent resistance and racial equality. He drew inspiration from Gandhi and Christian teachings. Key events he was involved in include the Montgomery Bus Boycott, which led to bus desegregation, the founding of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), the Birmingham Campaign, and the March on Washington, where he delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech. His efforts contributed to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Selma to Montgomery March, which aimed to secure voting rights. King’s allies included Rosa Parks, Andrew Young, Bayard Rustin, John Lewis, and his wife, Coretta Scott King. He faced rivals like Malcolm X, Stokely Carmichael, George Wallace, and J. Edgar Hoover, who represented different approaches to civil rights and institutional resistance.

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May 2-4, 1963
The Children’s Crusade was a crucial event in the American civil rights movement, held in Birmingham, Alabama, and organized by the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) under leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. It involved hundreds of African American children and teenagers peacefully protesting against segregation and racial injustice. The protests were met with severe police brutality, including the use of fire hoses and attack dogs, which drew national outrage and support for the civil rights movement.

The event highlights the ongoing struggle against systemic racism, as the participation of children emphasizes the deep-rooted discrimination that made their activism needed. The response to the Children’s Crusade also marked a shift in race relations, as the televised violence against the children gathered widespread sympathy and recognition of racial injustices among white Americans, ultimately contributing to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

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University of Alabama Standoff (June 11th, 1963)

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University of Alabama Standoff (June 11th, 1963)

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Summary of Event:
The "university of Alabama standoff" occurred when Governor George Wallace blocked the entrance to the University of Alabama to prevent the enrollment of two African American students, defying federal integration orders. President Kennedy intervened by federalizing the Alabama National Guard, ensuring the students could enroll.

Continuity of Relations Between Races:
The event reflects ongoing racial tensions and resistance to integration in the South, showing persistent support for segregation among some political leaders.

Change of Relations Between Races:
This standoff marked a change by demonstrating increased federal government intervention in civil rights, highlighting a shift towards enforcing legal and social equality for African Americans

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Little Rock Nine

September 1957.

Nine African American students enrolled in Central High School in Little Rock Arkansas, yet the school called the national guard to prevent the students entry. A federal judge decided they must be allowed in as segregation in schools was found unconstitutional earlier on.

This shows continuity during this time as many people were still hesitant about completely getting rid of segregation.

This shows change as regulations were finally in effect and being put to use stating that segregation was unconstitutional and is not allowed, specifically in schools.

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Date- September 9, 1957

Summary- Established a civil rights division in the justice department, empowered attorney general to seek court injunctions to protect voting rights.

Continuity- Over time African Americans rights gradually got better and better.

Change- Large step forward towards equal African American voting rights.

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Date of Event: Executive Order 9981 signed on July 26, 1948

Summary: Executive Order 9981, signed by President Harry S. Truman, mandated the desegregation of the U.S. Armed Forces. The order declared that “it is the policy of the President that there shall be equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed services without regard to race, color, religion, or national origin.”

Continuity of relations between races: The decision to integrate the military followed a long history of racial segregation and discrimination within the armed forces, reflecting deep-rooted racial tensions and inequalities in American society.

Change of relations between races: Reflecting a broader change in attitudes towards civil rights in post-World War II America. This event signified a commitment to promoting racial equality and set a precedent for further desegregation efforts in other sectors of society.

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Wallace standing in front of the doors, refusing to let the black students in

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Name: Also called “Stand in the Schoolhouse Door”

Date: June 11, 1963

Summary: Following the Brown v. Board of Education ruling, which declared segregation of public education unconstitutional, the University of Alabama legally had to desegregate, yet they didn’t. In fact, Alabama Governor George Wallace stood in front of the university doors, blocking access for black students Vivian Malone and James Hood. President JFK had to intervene and called the Alabama National Guard to enforce the court ruling.

Continuity: Many places & institutions were segregated, like buses, restaurants, drinking fountains, and schools until the court ruling. The Standoff is a continuation of a series of places refusing to desegregate.

Change: The Standoff brought the issue segregation to national light. It was a crucial point in Civil Rights, leading to more legislation in its favor. It garnered more support for the movement and was one of the first times the federal government had to get directly involved.

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Greensboro Four

The day of this event was February 1st, 1960

Four African American students from North Carolina whose names were Joseph McNeil, Franklin McCain, Ezell Blair Jr., and David Richmond. At their A&T State University they staged a sit-in at a Woolworth lunch counter in Greensboro which sparked a wave of nonviolent protest against segregation that had spread across the South.

It demonstrates the continuous separation because of their race or religion and how they demanded change.

This demonstrates change because they were able to protest without violence and were just trying to make their voice heard.

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Lynching of Emmett Till

1955

Emmett Louis Till was a 14-year-old African American youth, who was abducted and lynched in Mississippi 1955 after being accused of offending a white woman.

It shows continuity of relations between races as African Americans were often beat and lynched for no reason. The white would constantly threaten the African Americans as a way to suppress them and keep them from using their civil rights such as voting.

It shows change of relations between races as initially local newspapers and law enforcement officials decried the violence against Emmett Till and called for justice for Till and his family.

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Happened between May 2-10, 1963.

In Birmingham, AL thousands of black children marched to the Mayor as a show of opposition towards segregation. On the first day the police were arresting black kids but days following they hosed people down and sent dogs after attendees.

This was a continuity of blacks trying to achieve equality with white people through protests. This trend has been going on till slavery and was continuing to 1963.

The change happened within the president reacting with support to these black protesters. JFK called off the police first, then a year later passed the civil rights act.

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Freedom Rides

1961

Summary: The Freedom Rides were a series of bus trips through the South in 1961. These bus rides were organized by civil rights activists to challenge segregation in public transportation. The activists would deliberately sit in sections previously seen as “whites only” sections to test the 1960 Supreme Court ruling that enforced segregation in interstate transportation and bus terminals was unconstitutional.

Continuity of Relations Between Races: This testing of the Supreme Court’s ruling was faced with violent opposition. This is consistent with the South’s hostility towards African Americans.

Change of Relations Between Races: This event showcases the first steps to ending segregation. While the event was still met with opposing violence. Striders were still being made to end segregation, through law, at least.

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•Date of event: December 5, 1955 – December 20, 1956

• Summary of event: After Rosa Parks’ arrest for refusing to give up her seat, African Americans boycotted Montgomery’s bus system for over a year. Led by Martin Luther King Jr., the protest ended with a Supreme Court ruling that desegregated public buses.

• Continuity of relations: Segregation and racism persisted despite legal victories.

• Change of relations: The boycott showed the power of nonviolent protest and propelled the civil rights movement forward.

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On November 14, 1960, Ruby Bridges was the first black child to attend the white-only William Frantz Elementary School. Bridges was one of four other black girls to be escorted into the school by federal marshals. This displays continuity by the girls needing protection just to enter the school and facing discrimination that was faced upon entering. This event broke segregation barriers, which paved the way for full-scale integration of black children in white schools.

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July 26th, 1948. Prez Harry Truman desegregated the military, and established order of equality for literally everybody regardless of race, and origin. This represents continuity, because both races were able to serve in the military. This shows change because now they are equal in the military when they weren’t before.

Eliza Artell

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-Took place November 14th, 1960 in the William Frantz Elementary school in New Orleans

-She became the first African American to attend a white school during the civil rights movement. She had to pass a certain test in order to go to this school. It has highly opposed from many people and she was discriminated against. At only 6 years old, she had to be escorted in order to attend school while grown adults screamed and threw things at her.

-This demonstrates continuity of relations because segregation was no longer a thing in the department of education. Over time the test was no longer required and we are now able to attend school with people of all races.

-It demonstrates change because before people of color was segregated to separate schools. It was another step forward in society.

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Summary: Brown v. Board of Education was a landmark 1954 Supreme Court case that declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students unconstitutional. The ruling effectively overturned the "separate but equal" doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson. This decision was a victory for the Civil Rights Movement and paved the way for integration and equal educational opportunities.

The Court recognized that even if facilities were physically equal, segregation created a sense of inferiority among black students, impacting their ability to learn and succeed. The decision reinforced the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause, ensuring that all citizens receive equal treatment

under the law. This was a key legal argument used to challenge segregation. The ruling mandated the desegregation of public schools, leading to significant changes in the educational landscape of the United States.

Friends and rivals: Chief Justice Earl Warren led the Supreme Court during this period. His leadership was crucial in achieving a unanimous decision in Brown, demonstrating a united front against segregation. Many Southern politicians and community leaders staunchly opposed desegregation. Figures like Governor Orval Faubus of Arkansas resisted the ruling, leading to confrontations like the Little Rock Crisis.

While Brown focused on education, the Civil Rights Act expanded the scope of desegregation to other areas, such as employment and public accommodations. It further solidified the principles of equality and non-discrimination.

Brown inspired activists and organizers to continue fighting for equality in other areas, such as voting rights, housing, and employment. It set a precedent for using legal and political strategies to achieve social change.