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Klezmer music is a genre of music derived from eastern European music in a Jewish fashion. It had its origins among the Ashkenazi Jews and derived its name from the words instrument (kley) and song (zemer) Traditionally, a klezmer was a professional musician who played in a band hired for special occasions, such as weddings or holidays. A young boy generally studied under his father, though they could be apprenticed to others as well. Klezmorim played two types of pieces to accompany ritualized events, such as the doina for listening and reflection and the freylekhs for dancing. Khosidl, another type of dance, was a slower freylekhs associated with Hasidic culture.

Source: M, N

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In Sighet, the main industries during the late 19th century were lumber and salt due to its proximity to sawmills and salt mines, as well as crafts and trade. It also had a railroad connection between Sighetul Poland and Bukovina in 1872, which made it a bustling center of trade. Sighet's economy also supported vast urban development.

During the late 19th century, Jewish people could be found as tradesmen, factory workers, farmers, lawyers, doctors, or teachers, among many other professions. Jewish people were also prevalent in the arts, being artists and musicians. A vast variety of economic statuses was also prevalent, with a range of wealthy to poor saturating the community.

Source: G, R, J, K

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Leaders of the Jewish Community in Sighet 

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Leaders of the Jewish Community in Sighet 

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Pictured above are the leaders of the Jewish community, including Mr. Hershkovich, Mr. Klein, Mr. Yakobovich, and Mr. Jahan, who were all influential men at that time. These men probably weren't religious leaders, and instead were business and financial leaders of their communities. Leaders of Hasidic communities, like in Sighet, were often religious leaders like rabbis.

Source: T

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Note: Not all people pictured are Hasidic

Traditional Eastern European Jewish garb consisted of more modest attire, with the men wearing hats or caps, and the women covering their hair with wigs or kerchiefs. However, as time passed, the younger generations of Jewish people in larger towns adopted modern ways and dress.

Western European Jews tended to adopt the culture of their non-Jewish neighbors, dressing like their countrymen and having less religious devotion.

A few religiously significant items of clothing include the kippah, worn by Orthodox Jewish men and boys, the tallit, a shawl worn for morning prayer, and the kittels, worn by some men for occasions of great significance.

Source: A

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A Jewish Father and his Children, Photo Credit: macaulay.cuny.edu

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Traditionally, Jewish men are placed by God as the head of their household and tasked with ensuring themselves and their families lead devout lives. They were supposed to spend most of their time studying the Torah, as well as other religious texts, as a scholar. Furthermore, a Jewish wife is supposed to work to support her husband in his life of scholarship, though this was generally only possible in the upper classes.

In families, Jewish fathers made the decisions and controlled the family, while Jewish mothers were responsible for a variety of tasks. These tasks included chores, emotional support, and obtaining money and food. Jewish boys were regarded as scholars and taught the sacred texts of Judaism by their fathers, a tutor, or a communal school. Girls were taught how to be good wives and mothers and generally did not attend school.

Source: H, U

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Today, Hasidic Jews still follow many of the same customs as during the pre-war period. They are extremely devout and try to follow all 613 commandments (except the ones related to sacrifice which can't be performed because the temple was destroyed). They pray 3 times a day and study at Yeshiva during their high school years. When praying, men and women are separate, with the men on the main floor with women looking down from the balcony. They wear a kippah, a jewish hat, and a black hat on top due to their traditions of dressing formally and modestly. Not all Hasidic groups wear black hats, some wear other types of hats like fur hats. One commandment is to cover the "corners" of your face, so Hasidic men typically do not cut their beards/ other facial hair.

Source: P

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Photo Credit: Holocaust Encyclopedia, Sighet before World War II 

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Sighet is located in Hungary and surrounded by the Carpathian Mountains, creating a form of isolation and allowing them to progress into the modern age more slowly. Its name is also translated to "island" in Hungarian due to its location between the Tis and Iza Rivers.

Starting in the 18th century, there was a significant Jewish population in the shtetl of Sighet. It had reached a population of approximately 10,500 Jewish people at the beginning of World War 2, around 37% of its total population. Most of its community was of Chassidic descent, though in the 1930s, Jews in Sighet practiced religious Orthodoxy, Hasidim, and Zionism. In the book Night, Elie Wiesel practiced Hasidim, which was also the main sect in Sighet at that time.

Source: G, S

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Pictured above is the damaged Malbish Arimim synagogue on Teglash Street in Sighet, taken in May 1944. This, along with other Synagogues in Sighet, were main places of Jewish worship but were damaged and desecrated during the Holocaust.

Source: T

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The Old Synagogue in Essen was formerly a Byzantine style Synagogue and was consecrated as the Neue Synagogue in 1913. The rising number of Jewish families moving to Essen in the 19th century prompted the refurbishment of the synagogue. Rabbi Salomon Samuel focused especially on the symbols contained in the mosaics and stained glass so that they would reflect Jewish traditions. This synagogue remained a prevalent point of the Jewish community in Essen, and in 1933 possessed around 4,500 members. During Kristallnacht, in November of 1938, the Old Synagogue was set on fire, destroying the majority of the interior.

Source: O

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Synagogues and the Observance of Judaism

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Synagogues and the Observance of Judaism

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A synagogue is a Jewish place of worship and study, as well as a "town hall" for the members of the Jewish community. They possess several important ritual items, including the Torah and the Ark, or the holy cabinet. While names differ across different branches of Judaism, the term "synagogue" is used by conservative Jews  while the Yiddish name "shul" is used by Orthodox and Chasidic Jews. They are traditionally funded and run by the community which it serves.

Source: Q

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Jewish educational traditions, including mandatory school attendance and generational teaching, have been recorded dating back to 64 B.C.E. Up until the late 18th century, Jewish people educated their children in their own institutions in Yiddish, when the Edict of Tolerance was issued by Emperor Joseph II of Austria in 1782. The Edict of Tolerance permitted Jewish children to enroll in governmental schools, as well as the establishment of secular schools.

Yeshivas, which many Hasidic Jews still attend today, are schools devoted to teaching about Judaism. A typical schedule consisted of almost continuous study of the Talmud, ethics, and other aspects of Jewish law from 7:00 a.m. to 10:00 p.m. Dispersed among this time were also meals and prayers in the morning and night.

Source: E, I, L

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Photo Credit: the Holocaust Museum of Los Angeles

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Note: This Menorah is not a Hanukkiah so it is not used during Hanukkah.

Items of cultural significance in Judaism remained fairly constant across Europe. These items included goblets, from which wine was shared at Shabbat and other festivities, Shabbat candlesticks, Menorahs, and Mezuzahs.

Menorahs (pictured above) are traditionally used at the festival of Chanukah, while the Mezuzah is placed on the right-hand doorposts of homes and contains handwritten texts from the Torah.

Source: D, B

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Photo Credit: Holocaust Museum of Montreal, Memory's Cookbook

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Throughout their journeys around the world, Jewish people brought and incorporated new cultures into their rich, historical traditions. These elements of other cultures are especially present in the Ashkenazic and Sephardic practices, though they are also present in other branches. Changes in cuisine are often reflections of economic and social status and are influenced by Kashrut, kosher practices. Many recipes were passed down through word of mouth from mother to daughter, especially during the horrors of the Holocaust, which allowed the recipes themselves to survive.

Pictured above is a cookbook of traditional recipes which Edith Gluck gathered and preserved from during her time in the Lippstadt concentration camp.

Source: F

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Bibliography Link for Sources: https://docs.google.com/document/d/1Ej4GfOvpmprMDUKDuouExboCa2wo9oy95XZ8o27VjL0/edit

For connections between source letters and links, see above.

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Jewish Life in Europe before the Holocaust In 1933 the largest Jewish populations were concentrated in eastern Europe, including Poland, the Soviet Union, Hungary, and Romania. Many of the Jews of eastern Europe lived in predominantly Jewish towns or villages, called shtetls. Eastern European Jews lived a separate life as a minority within the culture of the majority. They spoke their own language, Yiddish, which combines elements of German and Hebrew. They read Yiddish books, and attended Yiddish theater and movies. Although many younger Jews in larger towns were beginning to adopt modern ways and dress, older people often dressed traditionally, the men wearing hats or caps, and the women modestly covering their hair with wigs or kerchiefs.

In comparison, the Jews in western Europe-Germany, France, Italy, the Netherlands, and Belgium-made up much less of the population and tended to adopt the culture of their non-Jewish neighbors. They dressed and talked like their countrymen, and traditional religious practices and Yiddish culture played a less important part in their lives. They tended to have had more formal education than eastern European Jews and to live in towns or cities.

Jews could be found in all walks of life, as farmers, tailors, seamstresses, factory hands, accountants, doctors, teachers, and small-business owners. Some families were wealthy; many more were poor. Many children ended their schooling early to work in a craft or trade; others looked forward to continuing their education at the university level. Still, whatever their differences, they were the same in one respect: by the 1930s, with the rise of the Nazis to power in Germany, they all became potential victims, and their lives were forever changed.

Key Dates

September 1791
Jews emancipated in France
The term "emancipation of Jews" means the removal of all legal discrimination against Jews and the granting of rights equal to those of other citizens in a country. In September 1791, the National Assembly of France granted rights of citizenship to Jews who took a loyalty oath. France was in the vanguard of the emancipation movement. For example, Jews were only later emancipated in Greece (1830), Great Britain (1858), Italy (1870), Germany (1871), and Norway (1891). Although civil equality for Jews was thus guaranteed by law, European Jewry remained beset by antisemitism and social discrimination.

June 24, 1922
Jewish politician assassinated in Germany
Walter Rathenau, one of the most prominent Jewish political figures of the Weimar Republic, is assassinated by right-wing radicals. Rathenau, the president of the General Electric Corporation of Germany (AEG) since 1915, became foreign minister of the Weimar Republic in 1922. As a Jew, he was hated by right-wing groups particularly for his policy of fulfilling the terms of the Treaty of Versailles and his normalization of relations with the Soviet Union. His murder is indicative of the right-wing antisemitic campaign blaming Jews for Germany's defeat in World War I.

March 9, 1936
Pogrom in Przytyk, Poland
Violence erupts in Poland. Three Jews are killed and more than sixty wounded in the town of Przytyk, Poland. In the days following the attack, the pogrom spreads to neighboring towns. Before the pogrom is ended, almost 80 Jews are killed and over 200 wounded. Violence against Jews is widespread throughout central Poland between 1935 and 1937. Anti-Jewish pogroms take place, for example, in Czestochowa, Lublin, Bialystok, and Grodno.

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Jewish Life in Europe Before the Holocaust

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Jews have lived across Europe for centuries. Learn more about European Jewish life and culture before the Holocaust.

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Photo Credit: Eishishok Shtetl Collection at Holocaust Museum

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Cultural practices varied between Central, Eastern, and Southern Europe, and drew from hundreds of years of history. The history of individual Jewish communities consisted of cultural fusions and integration from occupations, religious practices, and political standings.

Eastern European Jews, including the people living in Hungary, spoke Yiddish. Yiddish is a culturally Jewish language with combined elements of German and Hebrew. They lived in shtetls, predominantly Jewish towns or villages, and practiced separate lifestyles than the majority.

In 1933, 9.5 million Jewish people lived in Europe, which was 1.7% of the total European population and 60% of the world's estimated Jewish population. Hungary, the home country of Elie Wiesel in the book Night, had 5.1% of the Jewish population of the world, with an estimated number of 445,000 people throughout its lands.

Source: A, B, C

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Here is a picture of young Elie Wiesel. Like other Hasidic Jewish boys of the time, he attended Yeshiva and learned about religious subjects such as Torah and Talmud. He wished to learn about Kabbalah, Jewish Mysticism, much to the dismay of his father. These aspects of Jewish culture relate to Elie Wiesel because he grew up in a town similar to the typical European Hasidic town.