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European events determined what happened in North America and was crucial for its independent and development.

Causes:

Religious differences.

Lack of protection and little focus from Europe.

French influence expansion.

Spanish balance of power in the new continent.

Religious war in Europe.

English colonization drove by economy and accumulation of wealth.

Interest of material goods.

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Time before the seven year war, the British were looking to take Quebec as a colony while in a war against the French. Both empires had 30 years of peace due to the Peace of Utrecht. This time worked for both, since they were consolidating their economies and preparing to take control of their American colonies.

Later, the French gave Louisiana and the Spanish Florida. British outnumbered them. North America had a mainly British influence.

In order to gain the trust of native Indians, the British issued the Royal Proclamation (1763) reserving them land. The Quebec Act was also issued around that time (1774). A year later G. Washington authorized invasion of Quebec and Nova Scotia. To sum, New France (Canada) passed from one empire to another.

An important milestone was the Declaratory Act that concede taxation to the colonies, this allowed that revenues of the colonies were spent in the colonies.

Hence, the American Revolution changed the way inn which the British handled colonies.

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4th of July 1776

The American Revolution, also known as the U.S. War of Independence, was the insurrection fought between 1775 and 1783 through which 13 of Great Britain's North American colonies threw off British rule to establish the sovereign United States of America, founded with the Declaration of Independence in 1776.

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1846-1848

Known as the United States intervention in Mexico happened after the US took Texas as territory due to the treaty of Velasco signed by former president Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna while captured after the battle of el Alamo and battle of San Jacinto.

Some of the events that took place were the battle of Churubusco, and battle of Chapultepec, were the US forces took over the Chapultepec Castle at Mexico's capital city.

It was former president Polk's interest the expansion of the US territory to the Mexican and the Republic of Texas territory (Río Nueces and Rio Grande debate).

It all ended with Nicholas Trist's and Winfield Scott's work, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo which ended the war.

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Being the thirteen colonies independent, one of their most relevant disputes was wether to end slavery or not. With Abraham Lincoln as president, the Confederate States of America revolted. They confronted secessionists from the Confederate States. These were defending and promoting their "right" to maintain slavery.

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As consequence of the American Civil War and the Union win, freedom was given to millions of enslaved Americans. This transcendental event helped stablished a more solid government as one political entity.

This is an important foundation moment for the United States.

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Boats and boating--Equipment and supplies

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Due to American expansionism, they were able to buy Louisiana, a deal made with Napoleon Bonaparte, first consul of France. The agreement was made in 1803.

The extension of the treaty included the territories that today are Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, Minnesota, a large part of North Dakota, Louisiana, northern Texas and other states. Territory that today represents almost 23% of the entire United States.

This purchase was important for Thomas Jefferson's reputation as he was the president responsible for the purchase of the states.

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Life in the United States was challenging during their first years. Their economy was mainly characterized by labor shortages and demand on workers.

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Approved on May 22, 1933, the Platt Amendment was a treaty between the U.S. and Cuba that attempted to protect Cuba's independence from foreign intervention. It permitted extensive U.S. involvement in Cuban international and domestic affairs for the enforcement of Cuban independence.

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World War I in 1914, the U.S. declared

neutrality tried to negotiate peace between

the Allied and Central Powers

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YMCA: 1917: YMCAs begin canteen and war-relief work.
1944:YMCA youth secretaries adopt the 'four fronts' of youth work.

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Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom

The 19th amendment: Granted women the right to vote. The 19th amendment legally guarantees American women the right to vote.

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From its opening in 1914 until 1979, the Panama Canal was controlled solely by the United States, which built it. In 1979, however, control of the canal passed to the Panama Canal Commission, a joint agency of the United States and the Republic of Panama, and complete control passed to Panama at noon on December 31, 1999.

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From America First to The world must be made safe for democracy.

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From America First to The world must be made safe for democracy.

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President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed America’s neutrality, stating the nation “must be neutral in fact as well as in name during these days that are to try men’s souls.”

Sinking of the British ocean liner Lusitania by a German U-boat in 1915; almost 2,000 people perished, including 128 Americans

Telegram Zimmerman 1917:  proposed an alliance between Germany and Mexico—America’s southern neighbor—if America joined the war on the side of the Allies.

On April 4, the Senate voted 82 to 6 to declare war. Two days later, on April 6, the House of Representatives voted 373 to 50 in favor of adopting a war resolution against Germany.

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Liberty Loan Bonds:  These government bonds paid an interest rate lower than that of banks and utilized propaganda posters drawing on Americans’ sense of patriotism to encourage them to buy the bonds.

Secretary of the Treasury William Gibbs McAdoo enlisted famous artists such as Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks to participate in bond rallies around the country.

There were also bond campaigns spearheaded by the Girl and Boy Scouts, allowing children to participate in the war effort. During World War I.The United States paid an estimated $32 billion to finance the war.

For women: Howard Chandler Christy, create the “Christy Girl” image, to design patriotic posters Born in Progressive Era United States, the “Christy Girl” represented the ideal “New Woman” at the turn of the twentieth century.

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Treaty of Versailles

Based on the 14 Points, and Paris Peace Conference

The League of Nations (1920 – 1946) was the first intergovernmental organization established “to promote international cooperation and to achieve international peace and security”.

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The happy twenties were a name given to a time of great stability, happiness, and growth for the Americans, a period of great economic prosperity, which not only covered the American territory but also spread its good economy to many European countries and Latin America.

Never had there been such a great economic growth, ending nine years later, when the stock market crash occurred.

Due to this era, great skyscrapers were built, many novels, movies and really a stability of the people to feel good, and the country with the world system.

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As mentioned earlier, U.S. economy was mainly  characterized by labor shortages and demand on workers. In 1929, a world wide economic crisis arouse due to a fell of GDP in this in between wars period.

Prices, revenues, income, life quality, employment. All were affected by it.

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During the first 100 days of his term, most of his proposals were approved.

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1. Help workers, farmers and the unemployed.

2. Restore the liquidity of banks to increase working capital and for the recovery and expansion of companies.

The administration for the National Recovery (1935) allocated aid to companies, established a code of legal competition, in addition to giving guarantees to workers.
· 36- and 40-hour week
· Minimum salary

· Right to collective negotiations of contracts.
· Prohibition of the work of minors.
· For the indebted agricultural sector with low sales prices, mechanisms were created to restructure the expired portfolio and grant new loans and to face the fall in prices, subsidy programs were designed to stabilize prices.

3. Initiatives to prevent future economic collapses.

· Federal Deposit Insurance corporation and Securities and Exchange Commission. It would regulate trading activities. · Tennessee Valley Authority, dam construction and electrification of the Tennessee River for rural electrification.

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1933 Secretary of State Cordell Hull accepted the principle of NO INTERVENTION that was put to the test with the repeal of the Platt Amendment in Cuba.

1933. American troops withdrew from Haiti.

1934 Reduction of tariffs up to 50% in exchange for reciprocal concessions with other countries.

1940 The occupation of customs in the Dominican Republic is terminated.

1938 The US refrained from intervening in the oil expropriation in Mexico despite the demands of the affected companies.

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World War II was the most important war conflict of the 20th century. Between 1939 and 1945, Europe experienced the confrontation of two great alliances: the Axis powers, with Germany, Italy and Japan as the main protagonists, and the Allies, with the United States, the United Kingdom, France and Russia, among others.

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As totalitarianism became evident, it caused a feeling of isolation in the United States.
In 1938 after the Germans entered Austria, and Hitler's pretensions in Czechoslovakia, war in Europe was imminent.

The US announced that non country in the conflict could aspire to receive its aid.

Isolation was more evident when the Germans attacked Poland, FDR had to wait until public opinion around the US involvement changed.

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Congress authorized the CASH AND CARRY program to transfer arms and equipment to Great Britain, the USSR and China for defense.

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JAPAN & US NEGOTIATIONS
In a negotiation between the Japanese and the North Americans, Japan asked the US to release the Japanese possessions in the US and not to expand naval in the Pacific.
The US requested that the Japanese withdraw from China and Indochina.

In the middle of the negotiations, the attack on Pearl Harbor took place on December 7, 1941.
On December 8, the United States declared war on Japan.

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From the outset of the war, it was clear that enormous quantities of airplanes, tanks, warships, rifles and other armaments would be essential to beating America’s aggressors. American civilian workers played a vital role in the production of such war-related materiel.

Many of these workers were women. With tens of thousands of American men joining the armed forces and heading into training and battle, women began securing jobs as welders, electricians and riveters in defense plants. Until that time, such positions had been almost exclusively for men only

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Led the Allied Powers against the Axis Powers Lend-Lease program

Development of the world's first atomic bomb

Relocation and internment of Japanese Americans in concentration camps.

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The country raised significant amounts of money and created new industries

Boats
Armored vehicles Planes

Large population movements
The start of Cellphones and Internet

The US not only experienced a surprising industrial mobilization that expanded production to unprecedented levels but ended the unemployment problem, turned to female labor and imported labor from Mexico with the temporary agricultural worker program

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The United Nations is an international organization founded in 1945 after the Second World War by 51 countries committed to maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations and promoting social progress, better living standards and human rights.

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The conflict that opposes Egypt to an alliance formed by Great Britain, France and Israel occurs as a result of the nationalization of the Suez Canal by the Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser. This alliance between two European states and Israel responded to common interests: economic, commercial and political.

United States and the Soviet Union responded to events by demanding a cease-fire. In a resolution before the United Nations, the United States also called for the evacuation of Israeli, French, and British forces from Egypt under the supervision of a special United Nations force.

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The Cold War was a period marked by a political-ideological conflict between the United States and the former Soviet Union (USSR), between 1947 and 1991. This period of time polarized the world into two large blocks, one aligned with capitalism and the other aligned with with communism. With three key points:

• Polarization of the world and wars in countries allied to the two central powers

• Arms race in the development of new war technologies, mainly in nuclear weapons.

• Space race throughout the 1960´s

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NASA is the acronym, in English, that identifies the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (English: National Aeronautics and Space Administration) of the United States, which is the government agency responsible for space programs.

During the Cold War, the entire operation of NASA was marked by stiff competition between the US and the former USSR, which became known as "the space race."

The birth of NASA was the product of Soviet advances in space: the Russians launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, in 1957, something that the Americans interpreted as a threat that they needed to counter.

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The Bay of Pigs invasion was a CIA operation involving Cuban exiles seeking to overthrow Fidel Castro. However, the attempt was a failure and further strained relations between the island and the United States.

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Black Panthers 1961:
The Black Panthers, also known as the Black Panther Party, was a political organization founded in 1966 by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale to challenge police brutality against the African American community.

Dressed in black berets and black leather jackets, the Black Panthers organized armed citizen patrols of Oakland and other U.S. cities

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Between June and October 1962, the Soviet Union had secretly installed an entire military contingent on the island, which included 42 medium-range missiles with atomic warheads capable of reaching and destroying entire cities in the United States in minutes.

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On June 25, 1950, the North Koreans, with Soviet and Chinese support, invaded the South. A bitter war began that cost the lives of more than two and a half million Koreans (80% of them were civilians), 700,000 Chinese and 57,000 members of the UN forces and devastated the entire country.

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The wall was intended to prevent mass emigration from East Germany and the communist bloc to the West after World War II. A 45 kilometer wall divided the city of Berlin in two.

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The Vietnam War had its origin in the Indochina War between France and the Vietminh, the independence guerilla against French colonialism. That contest ended in 1954 with the defeat of France at Dien Bien Phu. From there began a civil war between the pro-Western state of South Vietnam, with the support of the United States, and the communist regime of North Vietnam, backed by the National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam, or Vietcong, the People's Republic of China. and the Soviet Union.

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Brezhnev and Nixon signed the SALT Agreements in Moscow in May 1972 to limit the construction of strategic weapons and set a number for intercontinental missiles (ICBM) and submarine-mounted missile launchers (SLBM) possessed by the USSR and the USSR. USA. It also virtually prohibited the establishment of missile defense systems.

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The moon landing is the arrival of a spacecraft on the surface of the Moon. The United States Apollo 11 was the first manned mission to land on the Moon, on July 20, 1969.

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Nixon visited the PRC to gain more leverage over relations with the Soviet Union. The normalization of ties culminated in 1979, when the U.S. established full diplomatic relations with the PRC.

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The ABM treaty regulated antiballistic missiles that could theoretically be used to destroy incoming intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) launched by the other superpower. The treaty limited each side to only one ABM deployment area (i.e., missile-launching site) and 100 interceptor missiles.

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Berznev and Carter signed new agreements in Vienna, known as SALT II. This agreement limited the number and type of intercontinental nuclear missiles for the two powers.

However, the context of this new agreement was the invasion in Afghanistan and the "Euromissile" crisis, which is why the American Senate refused to ratify the SALT II agreements, judged to be very favorable for the USSR.

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The Yom Kippur War was the fourth armed confrontation of the Arab-Israeli conflict (1948 and 1973) and was led by Syria and Egypt against the State of Israel. The Arab attack began on October 6, 1973, on Yom Kippur, the holiest day in Judaism.

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The Watergate scandal exposed how the Richard Nixon campaign team spied on the Democratic Party campaign as well as on their political rivals shortly before the 1972 presidential election.

On June 17, 1972, five people were arrested for attempting to rob the Democratic Party headquarters in the Watergate complex.

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August 1, 1975 at the end of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Helsinki Agreements seek the inviolability of European borders and reject any use of force and any interference in internal affairs.

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On april 30th 1975

The war was over. The defeat of the United States meant a strong blow to its global military power, which until then enjoyed total immunity. However, the most significant effect was the reconstruction of Vietnam, which had to accommodate the different social and political groups in a single nation.

The withdrawal of US troops facilitated the immediate collapse of the South. On July 2, 1976, the country was reunified under the name of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

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James E. Carter (1977-1981)
National energy policy. Camp David Accords, Panama Canal Treaties, and the 2° round of SALTII. Stagflation. Iran hostage and energy crisis. Nicaraguan Revolution and Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. End of detente, the grain embargo imposed to the Soviets. 1980 Summer Olympics boycott in Moscow.

Ronald Reagan (1981-1989)
"Reagonomics". War on drugs, invasion to Grenada and fight of public-sector labor unions. Increase in military spending. Bombings in Libya, the Iran-Iraq War, and the Iran-Contra affair. USSR speech "evil empire" opened Berlin wall. Arms race with the USSR.

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Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty 1987

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Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty 1987

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Treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union in Washington D.C. on December 8, 1987. Signed by the presidents of both nations, Ronald Reagan, and Mikhail Gorbachev. Agreement by which the states committed themselves to eliminate ballistic and cruise missiles with a range of 500 and 5,500 km2, called "Euromissiles".

These were installed in military bases located in Western and Eastern Europe.

It is important to mention that the deadline for eliminating the missiles was June 1, 1991. A total of 2,692 missiles were destroyed by both countries.

The treaty also mentioned that both countries were allowed to inspect each other's military installations to check that the clauses of the treaty were being complied with.

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George Bush (1989-1993)
Germany reunification. Panama´s invasion. Gulf War, ending the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait. NAFTA. Clean Air Act. Recession and raised taxes for what he lost the reelection.

Bill Clinton (1993-2001)
NAFTA. Failed reform to the National Health Care Plan. Ruth Bader Ginsburg´s appointment. Budget surplus. Expansion of NATO in Eastern Europe. Iraq Liberation Act against Saddam Hussein Oslo Accord (Rabin) and Camp David Summit (Ehud Barak) to advance the Israeli-Palestinian peace process. Military intervention Bosnian and Kosovo wars.

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Bill Clinton's impeachment process, initiated on December 19, 1998. Made by the House of Representatives and having a trial in the Senate on two charges, perjury, and obstruction of justice.

The charges arose out of the Paula Jones alleged sexual harassment and the Lewinsky scandal.

The charges were acquitted by the Senate on February 12, 1999.

The charges were made based on an investigation by Ken Starr, an independent White House counsel. With the approval of the Attorney General, he conducted investigations into alleged abuses and numerous firings of White House staff, as well as misuse of FBI files.

In addition, telephone conversations of Monica Lewinsky having relations with the president were leaked, the "Lewinsky affair".

Finally, the former president was acquitted of all charges.

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George W. Bush (2001-2009)
Major tax out program. Education reform bill, the No Child Left Behind Act. Terrorist attacks on September 11th. War on terror, Patriot Act. Invasion of Iraq, which began the Iraq War, falsely arguing that the Saddam Hussein regime possessed weapons of mass destruction. Invasion of  Afghanistan. Troubled Asset Relief Program. Great recession.

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Beginning of the war in Afghanistan 2001

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Beginning of the war in Afghanistan 2001

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War conflict initiated by an invasion of the United States and allies on October 7, 2001. The war was declared by former President George W. Bush, due to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001.

The main objective of this armed conflict was to put an end to the Al Qaeda terrorist network, together with the Taliban government. The U.S. was supported by NATO.

When the war began it was very easy for the United States to overthrow the Taliban government, offering the possibility of creating a democratic government. Despite the efforts, there was a lot of political instability and lack of control of the central power.

This made it difficult to defeat the terrorist groups in their entirety, which meant that the conflict did not end and a war with the remaining Taliban group and the battle against Osama Bin Laden followed.

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Operation Red Dawn was the strategy carried out by the U.S. Army on December 13, 2003, in Iraq. This move led to the capture of the then president Saddam Hussein.

Because Saddam Hussein had disappeared after the invasion of Iraq in 2003, the United States made him the most important target to capture so far.  Actionable intelligence was able to obtain two locations where Saddam Hussein might be.

With more than 600 soldiers sent to the locations, Hussein was found in a tunnel system. Hussein surrendered and was brought to trial ultimately ending in his capture.

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During 2007-2008 there was the financial crisis that was triggered by the collapse of the real estate sector in the United States in 2006, which generated approximately one year later the well-known subprime mortgage crisis, which had not reached such a high and hard crisis since the Great Depression.

The repercussions were gradual until they were completely abrupt, they began to manifest themselves in the financial system of the United States and then internationally, first with a liquidity crisis, a global food crisis, a major international crisis and a great recession. Institutions, organizations, companies and banks had major economic problems that affected the entire world system.

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On November 2008, Democratic Senator Barack Obama became the first black president of the United States.

On January 2009, there was a "Tea Party" rally held in protest at Obama administration's plans to bail out banks and introduce healthcare reform.

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Affordable Care Act "Obamacare". On March, Democrats in Congress succeed in passing a bill on health care reform, despite strong Republican opposition.

Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act.

Don´t Ask, Don´t Tell Repeat Act of 2010.

The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act and Tax Relief.

Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization , and Job Creation Act.

Russia New START treaty. US and Russia announced agreement on a new nuclear arms reduction treaty to replace the 1991 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty.

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Invasion of Libya (Gaddafi). US forces killed Al-Qaeda leader Osama Bin Laden in an operation in the Pakistani city of Abbottabad.

The final Space Shuttle mission was completed with the landing of Atlantis on July 21st, bringing about the end of the 30-year programme.

On September 2012, the US ambassador in Libya got killed when armed men attacked the consulate in Benghazi.

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On May, former National Security Agency (NSA) contractor Edward Snowden fled to Russia via Hong Kong after revealing leaking information on extensive internet and telephone surveillance by US intelligence.

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On November 2014, Republicans won a Senate majority in mid-term elections, gaining control of both houses of Congress and reducing Obama´s maneuvering.

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US decisions in other countries 2014-2015

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US decisions in other countries 2014-2015

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On December 2014, US and Cuba began steps to normalise diplomatic relations after more than 50 years of stand-off.

On March 2015, President Obama announced that 10,000 US troops would remain in Afghanistan as advisors and trainers until 2016.

Months later, the US accused Chinese hackers of massive breach of personal data of nearly four million government workers. China denied any role.

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On November, the Republican candidate won the presidential election, defeating Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton in one of the biggest political upsets in US history.

On January 2017, President Trump signed executive orders restricting visas for people seeking to enter the US from certain Muslim-majority countries, and barring funding for cities that sheltered illegal immigrants. Both policies were blocked by the courts.

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On April 2018, China imposed 25% tariffs on a range of US goods in response to similar US measures. US President Donald Trump had long accused China of unfair trading practices and intellectual property theft.

The US had imposed tariffs on more than US $360bn of Chinese goods, and China had retaliated with tariffs on more than $110bn of US products.

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On June 2018, after months of hostile relations, President Trump and North Korean leader Kim Jong-un met in Singapore and agreed to continue dialogue aimed at reducing tensions on the Korean peninsula.

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On October 2018, the US, Canada and Mexico reached a new trade deal to replace the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). It was a mutually beneficial win for North American workers, farmers, ranchers, and businesses. The Agreement aimed to a more balanced, reciprocal trade supporting high-paying jobs for Americans and grow the North American economy. It would enter into force until July 1st 2020.

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The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty

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The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty

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On October 2018, the US announced plans to withdraw from the 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) treaty, which restricted US and Russian short- and medium-range nuclear missiles. The USA accused Moscow of having violated its terms.

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On November 2018, Democrats took control of the House of Representatives in midterm elections, making it harder for President Trump's Republicans to pass legislation.

On March 2019, the Mueller Report found no evidence of collusion between Russian efforts to influence the 2016 election and the Trump campaign.

On December 2019, President Trump was impeached by the House of Representatives on charges of abuse of power and obstruction of Congress. His trial was set to begin in the Senate the following month.

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On March, National emergency declared over the Covid-19 pandemic.

On May, there were nationwide protests break out following the killing of African-American George Floyd by Minneapolis police.

On November, Democrat former Vice-President Joe Biden defeated Donald Trump in the presidential election.

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January 6, 2021 was a day that marked the history of the United States, as several supporters of former President Donald Trump, held an assault and protest to Congress on Capitol Hill. They abruptly passed the security and occupation of the facility for a long time.

Before carrying out the attacks on the capitol, Donald Trump had already tried several times to annul the voting results causing electoral fraud. Like his group of followers, the main objective was to enter the capitol facilities, and annul the results. The unfortunate thing about this event was that there were injuries and deaths, as it turned into a situation with a lot of violence, and there were risks of large bomb explosions.

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Joe Biden became the oldest president and first to have a female vice president (Kamala Harris). American Rescue Plan Act to help the United States recover from the COVID-19 pandemic and recession. American Jobs Plan. Restored the Paris Agreement.

Between February 2020 and August 2021, US troops withdrew from Afghanistan, and the Taliban seized control of the country.

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Tensions in U.S.-Russia Diplomatic Relations 2021-2022

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Tensions in U.S.-Russia Diplomatic Relations 2021-2022

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At the end of 2021, U.S.-Russia relations began to complicate and turn from one moment to the next with much more aggressive reactions that would later trigger the Russia-Ukraine war.

It all started on November 30, 2021, when President Putin at a conference, expressed that NATO expansion into Ukraine was an event he could not allow, and that the United States bore a lot of responsibility for interference in NATO decisions.

On December 30, 2021, the two presidents had a talk of about an hour, an event that they would later both describe a month later that each was increasing tension in relations and accusing the other that it could end in something negative for both nations.

Ultimately these tensions would end in direct attacks, punishments and sanctions against Russia, and Russia in turn causing a war against Ukraine.

Since February 2022, the US responded to Russia´s invasion of Ukraine by imposing sanctions on Russia and authorizing billions in aid and weapons shipments to Ukraine.

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U.S. "Remain in Mexico" Immigration Policy

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U.S. "Remain in Mexico" Immigration Policy

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On February 2023, Mexico opposed restart of U.S. "Remain in Mexico" immigration policy. President Joe Biden had sought to end the program, which had been introduced by the Trump administration and it was suspended at that time. However, some U.S. states such as Texas and Missouri filed a lawsuit to keep the program active and in December 2022 a U.S. judge paused Biden's attempt, saying the Department of Homeland Security had failed to adequately explain why the policy was ineffective and should be scrapped.

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https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Revolution
https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/us-home-front-during-world-war-ii
https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-i/u-s-entry-into-world-war-i-1
https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-yom-kippur-war-brings-united-states-and-ussr-to-brink-of-conflict
https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/us-home-front-during-world-war-ii#war-rationing-begins
https://www.nationalgeographicla.com/historia/2022/11/que-fue-la-guerra-fria
https://history.delaware.gov/world-war-i/us-involvement-world-war-i/
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Panama-Canal
https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/lw/97179.htm#:~:text=However%2C%20the%20United%20States%20and,a%20special%20United%20Nations%20force
https://online.norwich.edu/academic-programs/resources/isolationism-and-us-foreign-policy-after-world-war-i#:~:text=When%20World%20War%20I%20broke,ideologically%20involved%20in%20the%20conflict.
https://www.nps.gov/wwim/wwioverview.htm
https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv2t4d9d
https://www.nps.gov/wwim/wwioverview.htm
https://www.bbc.com/news/business-45899310
https://ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/united-states-mexico-canada-agreement
https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/mexico-rejects-possible-remain-mexico-revamp-plan-2023-02-07/

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Beginning with George Washington's presidency, the United States sought a policy of isolationism and neutrality with regards to the internal affairs of other nations. Early American political leaders argued that with the exception of free trade, self-defense and humanitarian emergencies, the U.S. would do best to avoid permanent alliances that do not serve American interests but instead deflect attention from domestic issues. When World War I broke out in July 1914, the United States actively maintained a stance of neutrality, and President Woodrow Wilson encouraged the U.S. as a whole to avoid becoming emotionally or ideologically involved in the conflict. Americans were more than happy to stay out of the war, and Wilson won a second Presidential term in 1916 by running on a platform of non-interference; the phrase, "he kept us out of war" became a popular slogan used by Wilson's supporters.

Upon re-election, Woodrow Wilson was resolute in staying out of a war, even as a significant movement within the American government advocated for preparedness in the face of events that signified growing German international aggression-such as the sinking of the British ocean liner Lusitania by a German submarine, which claimed the lives of many Americans. After several years observing these and similar acts of aggression by the Germans, Wilson-a political scientist by profession-began to change his viewpoint as he saw that the devastating war in Europe was threatening to spill across the Atlantic Ocean. With massive loss of life came a moral imperative that could no longer be ignored, requiring the United States to take a leadership role in maintaining and promoting freedom, sovereignty and self-determination for all nations. Wilson began making public statements that framed the war as a means to right the wrongs in the world rather than simple military posturing. Thus, the United States' intervention in the First World War or, the "Great War," helped shape the nation's status as a self-proclaimed defender of freedom and democracy worldwide and radically altered U.S. foreign policy.

Seeds of Isolationism

On April 2, 1917, President Wilson asked Congress for permission to enter the war and make the world "safe for democracy" by April 6th, the resolution was approved and the U.S. officially declared war on Germany. While the United States did not join the Allies in an official capacity, it fought alongside the British and French against Germany and the other Central Powers, such as Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. As the war continued and news of wanton devastation made headlines, U.S. public support for the war began to wane. While Europe suffered more casualties than the United States, (tens of millions of Europeans lost their lives, compared to over 400,000 Americans),

Americans reeled from the emotional and financial costs of war and began to feel as though joining the war effort was a mistake. In 1918, Wilson articulated fourteen points to help end the war and establish a basis for cooperation, which included freedom of the seas, open economic trade, the evacuation of occupied territories, the liberation of non-Turkish peoples in the Ottoman Empire, and a general collection of nation states to offer members territorial integrity and political independence-setting the stage for what would later become the League of Nations.

What ensued was a radical shift in U.S. foreign policy, which promoted a stance of isolationism that would last until World War II. Warren Harding won the 1920 presidential election on the promise of staying out of global affairs, and by arguing that the United States needed normalcy and a focus on internal problems. Thus, U.S. foreign policy during the 1920s was characterized by the enactment of isolationist policies; for instance, the U.S. opted not to join the burgeoning League of Nations, even though it had been the nation to first propose such international cooperation. Instead, the United States focused on building the domestic economy by supporting business growth, encouraging industrial expansion, imposing tariffs on imported products and limiting immigration.

The League of Nations

In 1916, Wilson first articulated his vision for the League of Nations as an international organization designed to facilitate cooperation, and it was backed by many Americans eager to see the end to the devastating war. The League of Nations was intended to help ensure a global "permanent peace" in which nations, small and large, would be protected and could take any actions necessary to safeguard said peace. The League of Nations would also provide mechanisms for promoting negotiation and mediating disputes. While the idea of the League of Nations was popular at the time, and the consequences of war showcased the necessity for such an organization, some members of Congress-such as Henry Cabot Lodge-opposed it and thought it would be an expensive distraction from the United States' own interests.

As more Americans lamented the consequences of war and voiced their desire to avoid future intervention in foreign affairs at all costs, public opposition to the League of Nations grew. It was perhaps isolationist Warren Harding's election to the office of President that offered the greatest repudiation of the League of Nations and Wilson's interventionism. While Wilson had participated in the creation of the League of Nations in Geneva, Switzerland, Harding never allowed the United States to become a member. Many historians and political theorists attribute the relative inability of the League of Nations to prevent World War II to U.S. isolationism and the country's lack of participation and leadership in the organization.

Tariffs

Following President Harding's victory in 1920, he and his vice president, Calvin Coolidge, decided to focus more on domestic problems facing the United States. In contrast to Wilson's progressive agenda-which allowed the government to regulate big business-the new administration sought to empower businesses, decrease regulation and cut taxes to enable them to grow and contribute more to domestic production. This was not surprising given Harding's campaign promise: "less government in business and more business in government." Business became a symbol of American prosperity, and the 1920s saw the United States come out of a post-war recession with high economic growth. During that time, industry flourished, the stock market rose, technology rapidly evolved, and the commercialization and expansion of aviation and the automobile radically altered the American lifestyle.

The economic boom was facilitated by tariffs that were enacted to restrict the influx of imported goods, thereby increasing domestic production. American farmers had experienced dramatic growth during World War I, following a significant increase in demand stemming from their European counterparts' inability to keep up with agricultural demands while fighting the war. As European farmers began to recover postwar, U.S. agriculture suffered from overproduction, and demand and prices plummeted. American farmers, who had gone heavily into debt to finance their expansion during the war, faced difficulty in honoring their repayments and asked the government for assistance, hoping tariffs would lead to an increase in prices; ultimately, this only helped prices for specific products, such as sugar and wool. Upon taking office, President Harding implemented the Emergency Tariff of 1921, which imposed duties on over two dozen food imports and agricultural products.

In 1922, President Harding signed the Fordney-McCumber Act into law, which raised tariffs by about 25 percent and made it easier to enact them without congressional approval. In 1930, Congress also passed the Smoot-Hawley Act, which raised duties and tariffs significantly on over 20,000 foreign products in all sectors of the economy. Many debate whether these tariffs were effective, but in the long term, they may have done more harm than good, as other countries retaliated by increasing their own tariffs. In turn, this created trade barriers that ultimately hurt American producers and jobs by decreasing the presence of U.S. products in foreign markets. It also impeded Europeans from generating enough revenue to pay back their wartime debts to the United States. Many economists argue that the combination of these tariffs and other factors led to the collapse of the U.S. economy in 1929.

Immigration Quotas

With 1.3 million immigrants passing through Ellis Island, New York in 1907 alone, Congress had grown concerned that continuing to accept immigrants at an unfettered rate would become costly to the U.S. economy. Efforts to restrict immigration began during World War I with the 1917 Immigration Act, which imposed literacy tests and taxes on immigrants and banned immigrants deemed "undesirables"-essentially any sick, disabled, or criminal members of society. The label of undesirable soon came to include specific races and ethnicities; all immigrants from a region termed the Asiatic Barred Zone (modern day India, Afghanistan, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Russia, Southeast Asia and the Asian-Pacific islands) were blocked, supposedly as an effort to protect national interests and security.

The U.S. government sought to enact greater limits on immigration after World War I because of strong anti-European sentiment, exacerbated by the "Red Scare" that convinced many Americans that communism, anarchism and a Bolshevik-style revolution would soon sweep the United States. Attempts were made to Americanize immigrants through new naturalization processes that included higher taxes on immigrant adults and new literacy initiatives. After the war the U.S. economy slowly declined into recession while anti-immigration sentiments continued to peak. The cost of living had become unmanageable for most Americans and unemployment rates had spiked, with many citizens holding a belief that their misfortune was due to a disproportionate number of recent immigrants claiming jobs that would normally be worked by native U.S. citizens.

In 1921, Congress passed the Emergency Quota Act, which set numerical quotas for the number of immigrants coming to the United States. Under the Emergency Quota Act, the U.S. would refer to the 1910 census in order to determine the number of foreign citizens living in America; subsequently, the U.S. would admit immigrants on a country by country basis, taking no more than the equivalent of three percent of a country's existing U.S.-based population. Immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe were disproportionately targeted by the new limits with a three percent quota of total immigrants already living in the United States; professionals, such as actors, scientists, ministers and other specialists from all countries were excluded from the quota.

In 1924, Congress enacted the Johnson-Reed Act to replace the Emergency Quota Act. The Johnson-Reed Act further reduced the percentage of immigrants eligible for admission to the U.S.; the act would allow for a number of immigrants equal to two percent of a country's population already present in the United States. Because this act used data from the 1890 census, rather than the 1910 census, the lower number of current residents being used to calculate the percentages practically ensured that far fewer immigrants would be accepted into the U.S. The act was notable for introducing the concepts of consular control and border protection to fight smuggling by establishing Border Patrol and requiring visas to be obtained abroad prior to being allowed to enter the U.S.

During Woodrow Wilson's presidency, the United States briefly shed its isolation-based foreign policy in order to defend democracy on a global scale. However, the effects of World War I led the United States to retreat from global affairs and engage in isolationist policies to help foster internal growth and development-with decidedly mixed results. By completing a Master of International Relations degree program, students can enhance their understanding of how isolationist policies have impacted other international governments and juxtapose that knowledge with what they have learned about U.S. foreign policy to develop a strong grasp of the ways in which diverse theories of international relations can impact the global community.

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As the nation's oldest private military college, Norwich University has been a leader in innovative education since 1819. Through its online programs, Norwich delivers relevant and applicable curricula that allow its students to make a positive impact on their places of work and their communities.

Our online Master of Arts in International Relations program offers a curriculum that evolves with current events to help you face the future of international affairs. Norwich University's master's degree in international relations covers many subjects to give you a look at the internal workings of international players, examine the role of state and non-state actors on the global stage, and explore different schools of thought. You can further strengthen your knowledge by choosing one of five concentrations in International Security, National Security, International Development, Cyber Diplomacy, or Regions of the World.
Recommended Readings: Sources:
Do Economic Sanctions Work?
Interstate Relations Versus International Relations Careers
American Business and Foreign Policy, Google Books

American Economic History: A Dictionary and Chronology, Google Books

Treaty of Versailles, Library of Congress

American Isolationism in the 1930's, Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs

Protectionism in the Interwar Period, Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs

The League of Nations, 1920, Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs

The Immigration Act of 1924 (The Johnson-Reed Act), Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs

1930's Isolationism, U.S. History

Words and Deeds in American History, American Memory

The Harding Administration, the League of Nations, and the Separate Peace Treaty, JSTOR

League of Nations, Library of Congress

Long Echoes of War and Speech, The New York Times

League of Nations Instituted, History Channel

Immigration Act of 1921, Immigration to United States

Did My Family Really Come "Legally"?, American Immigration Council

Literacy Tests and Asian Exclusion Were the Hallmarks of the 1917 Immigration Act, Smithsonian

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Isolationism and U.S. Foreign Policy After World War I

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Beginning with George Washington's presidency, the United States sought a policy of isolationism and neutrality with regards to the internal affairs of other nations. Early American political leaders argued that with the exception of free trade, self-defense and humanitarian emergencies, the U.S.