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Imhotep as an historical figure widely known in Ancient Egypt. 

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The Ehpytian perspective of the brain connected with religious doctrine and medicinal procedures in ancient Egypt. Respected in the annals of ancient Egypt, Imhotep is frequently acknowledged as one of the first doctors and builders of the first pyramid. His medical expertise, which is preserved in the 1600 BCE Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, provides information on the Egyptian comprehension of the brain's operations. Comprehensive notes on head trauma and surgical methods found in the Edwin Smith Papyrus indicate an early recognition of the brain's role in regulating how the body functions. Furthermore, the Ebers Papyrus, a notable medical record from ancient Egypt, which dates to approximately 1550 BCE, talks about a variety of illnesses and their remedies, including mentions of headaches and neurological conditions.

Blomstedt, Patric. “Imhotep and the Discovery of Cerebrospinal Fluid.” Anatomy Research International, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2014, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3972951/.

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The ancient Chinese Huang Die Nei Jing text

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The Ancient Chinese Perspective (0 AD - 1800)

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The Ancient Chinese Perspective (0 AD - 1800)

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Traditional Chinese medicine, which saw the brain as essential to all body processes, shaped how people in ancient China understood the brain's function. The brain was recognized as an essential organ for general health, interconnected with other organs like as the heart and kidneys. In addition, traditional Chinese medicine acknowledged the need of auxiliary organs for preserving equilibrium, such as the cerebrospinal fluid and protective membranes. An important source of traditional Chinese medicine knowledge, the Huang Di Nei Jing, also known as the Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon, was written in the second century BCE and covers a wide range of topics including anatomy, physiology, and therapeutic approaches. It also provides insights into the health of the brain. Even in the absence of contemporary anatomy knowledge, traditional Chinese medicine placed a strong emphasis on overall well-being and highlighted the role of the brain in the body's complex system.

ItsHacky, Boaz. “(Pdf) Huang Di Nei Jing Ling Shu; the Ancient Classic on Needle ...” Research Gate, Acupuncture Institute, University of Bridgeport, 16 Feb. 2017, www.researchgate.net/publication/318656633_Huang_Di_Nei_Jing_Ling_Shu_The_Ancient_Classic_on_Needle_Therapy_The_Complete_Chinese_Text_with_an_Annotated_English_Translation.

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Important philosophers like Socrates, Hippocrates, and Aristotle had a significant impact on our understanding of the brain throughout the Greek Golden Age. Famous for his philosophical questions, Socrates sparked debate on the mind-body connection and disproved traditional wisdom. Reffered to as the "Father of Medicine," Hippocrates promoted empirical observation and established the fundamentals of neurology. His research transformed the identification and treatment of disorders relating to the brain, despite his knowledge being basic in comparison to contemporary neuroscience. The polymath Aristotle provided fundamental discoveries that shaped later research on the brain and mind. His thorough method of studying the mind enriched discussions in philosophy and science. Collectively, these individuals embodied a period of intellectual progress, opening the door for further developments in our understanding of the workings of the brain.

Crivelatto, Enrico, and Domenico Ribatti. “Soul, Mind, Brain: Greek Philosophy and the Birth of Neuroscience.” Brain Research Bulletin, Elsevier, 23 Oct. 2006, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S036192300600298X.

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Early medical practices of ancient civilizations like Egypt, China, and Greece included trepanation, a surgical technique in which a part of the skull is removed. Trepanation was employed in ancient Egypt for a variety of medical conditions, such as treating neurological illnesses or reducing intracranial pressure brought on by head trauma. Trepanation procedures are documented in Egyptian medical books such as the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus. Trepanation is also mentioned in ancient Chinese medical books as a cure for head and brain diseases, indicating the belief in the balance of the body's vital energy. Trepanation was studied in Greece by healers such as Hippocrates as a potential treatment for head damage and mental disorder. Trepanation illustrates early civilizations' attempts to comprehend and cure neurological problems, despite differences in methods and beliefs; this emphasizes the ongoing importance of brain health in ancient medical procedures.

Irving, Jenni. “Trephination.” World History Encyclopedia, https://www.worldhistory.org#organization, 13AD, www.worldhistory.org/Trephination/#google_vignette.

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Galen shown vivisecting a pig. This illustration comes from the 1609 edition of Galen's works.

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Galen and the Birth of Experimentation (0 AD -1800)

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Galen and the Birth of Experimentation (0 AD -1800)

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Galen was an ancient Greek physician and philosopher who made significant contributions to neuroscience. He was born in the city of Pergamon and was interested in medicine based on anatomy and physiology. Galen traveled to multiple Greek centers of learning, such as Smyrna and Corinth, to enhance his knowledge in medicine and sciences. During his time in Rome, Galen worked his own literature of science, medicine, and philosophy. Galen revolutionized medicine by raising attention and importance of dissection, observation, and experimentation. He went on to conduct a variety of dissections and vivisections on animals to study the brain, which led him to believe that the brain is the true organ of the mind. One of Galen's significant contributions was his work on cranial nerves. He was able to identify and describe the functions of several different cranial nerves, which are responsible for sensory and motor functioning within the head and neck. Galen also associated specific internal diseases with particular organs, which contributes to our understanding of the relationship between organ dysfunction and diseases. Overall, Galen's contributions to neuroscience include his studies on the animal brain, cranial nerves, and internal diseases. His work laid the foundation for future neuroscientists to observe the human brain and further develop medicine.

Finger, Stanley. “Galen: The Birth of Experimentation.” OUP Academic, Oxford University Press, 3 Mar. 2005, academic.oup.com/book/6739/chapter/150827713?login=true.

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Rene Descartes' illustration reflecting that light enters the retina, which triggers the nerves from the retina to project ventricles, which leads to the pineal gland responding by releasing animal spirits to produce motion

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The mind and body problem refers to the challenge of understanding the relationships between the mind (consciousness, thoughts, and mental states) and the body (physical processes, brain activity, and behavior). It has been a fundamental question in the field of philosophy, psychology, and neuroscience for many centuries as far back as the 1600s. The nature of the problem stems from the difficulty explaining how mental activity can arise from physical processes. It raises many questions such as: "Are the mind and body separate entities or are they interlinked?" or "How do subjective experiences relate to objective physical processes?". This led to philosophers such as Rene Descartes, proposing the idea of dualism. Dualism is the belief that the mind and the body are separate entities, which led people to believe that the presence of a spirit/soul did exist. Descartes' ideas challenged the Aristotelian and scholastic views that had dominated the understanding of the mind and body for centuries. Understanding this relationship between the mind and the body is crucial for developing effective treatments for mental and physical disorders. Overall, the discoveries of Descartes laid the foundation for the future philosophical and scientific investigations into the mind and body problem. However, the questions still went on to persist for a period of time because it raises a profound question about the nature of consciousness and the physical self.

Nathan, Marco Jacob. “The Mind-Body Problem 3.0 .” Research Gate, University of Denver, Jan. 2021, www.researchgate.net/publication/347452203_The_Mind-Body_Problem_30.

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Theodore Schwann, discoverer of the cell theory in 1839

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The cell theory, composed by Theodore Schwann, German physician and physiologist in 1837, implied that there was a relationship between germs and adult organisms. Schwann proposed that cells were the basic units of life and that all living organisms were composed of cells. Schwann went on to publish his findings in 1839, which established the cell theory as a fundamental concept in biology. By 1853 Schwann was getting critiqued for his theory by other scientists. For example, Thomas Henry Huxley, English biologist and anthropologist, suggested that cells were products, not agents of organic change. However, other scientists like Charles Darwin, English geologist and biologist, confirmed Schwann's findings. Darwin published "The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication", in which he observed cell variations and transmissions, connecting them to Schwann's cell theory. Overall, the cell theory went on to be impactful for the understanding of cells as independent organisms, and how it has an influence on the study of the nervous system and how its connected with the rest of the body.

Müller-Wille, Staffan. “Cell Theory, Specificity, and Reproduction, 1837-1870.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, U.S. National Library of Medicine, Sept. 2010, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4353839/.