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Brain develops from the bottom up. Children and early adolescence respond out of emotion first (amgydula) and by adulthood should be able to use logical thinking (pre-frontal cortex)

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What we have learned about the process of brain development helps us understand more about the roles both genetics and the environment play in our development. It appears that genetics predispose us to develop in certain ways, but our experiences, including our interactions with other people, have a significant impact on how our predispositions are expressed. Research now shows that many capacities thought to be fixed at birth are actually dependent on a sequence of experiences combined with heredity. Both factors are essential for optimum development of the human brain (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000).

Early brain development

The raw material of the brain is the nerve cell, called the neuron. During fetal development, neurons are created and migrate to form the various parts of the brain. As neurons migrate, they also differentiate, or specialise, to govern specific functions in the body in response to chemical signals (Perry, 2002). This process of development occurs sequentially from the 'bottom up,' that is, from areas of the brain controlling the most primitive functions of the body (e.g., heart rate, breathing) to the most sophisticated functions (e.g., complex thought) (Perry, 2000). The first areas of the brain to fully develop are the brainstem and midbrain; they govern the bodily functions necessary for life, called the autonomic functions. At birth, these lower portions of the nervous system are very well developed, whereas the higher regions (the limbic system and cerebral cortex) are still rather primitive. Higher function brain regions involved in regulating emotions, language, and abstract thought grow rapidly in the first three years of life (Zero to Three, 2012).

Brain development in childhood

Brain development or learning, is actually the process of creating, strengthening, and discarding connections among the neurons. These connections are called synapses. Synapses organise the brain by forming pathways that connect the parts of the brain governing everything we do-from breathing and sleeping to thinking and feeling. This is the essence of postnatal brain development, because at birth, very few synapses have been formed. The synapses present at birth are primarily those that govern our bodily functions such as heart rate, breathing, eating, and sleeping. The development of synapses occurs at an astounding rate during a child's early years in response to that child's experiences. At its peak, the cerebral cortex of a healthy toddler may create two million synapses per second (Zero to Three, 2012). By the time children are two years old, their brains have approximately 100 trillion synapses, many more than they will ever need. Based on the child's experiences, some synapses are strengthened and remain intact, but many are gradually discarded. This process of synapse elimination-or pruning-is a normal part of development (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). By the time children reach adolescence, about half of their synapses have been discarded, leaving the number they will have for most of the rest of their lives.

Another important process that takes place in the developing brain is myelination. Myelin is the white fatty tissue that forms a sheath to insulate mature brain cells, thus ensuring clear transmission of neurotransmitters across synapses. Young children process information slowly because their brain cells lack the myelin necessary for fast, clear nerve impulse transmission (Zero to Three, 2012). Like other neuronal growth processes, myelination begins in the primary motor and sensory areas (the brain-stem and cortex) and gradually progresses to the higher-order regions that control thought, memories, and feelings. Also, like other neuronal growth processes, a child's experiences affect the rate and growth of myelination, which continues into young adulthood (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). By three years of age, a baby's brain has reached almost 90% of its adult size. The growth in each region of the brain largely depends on receiving stimulation, which spurs activity in that region. This stimulation provides the foundation for learning.

Brain Development in Adolescence

Brain imaging technologies have provided evidence of the brain continuing to grow and develop into young adulthood - with current research pointing to the brain continuing grow and develop into the thirties (Lebel & Beaulieu, 2011). Right before puberty, adolescent brains experience a growth spurt that occurs mainly in the frontal lobe, which is the area that governs planning, impulse control, and reasoning. During the teenage years, the brain goes through a process of pruning synapses-somewhat like the infant and toddler brain- and also sees an increase in white matter and changes to neurotransmitter systems (Konrad, Firk, & Uhlhaas, 2013).

As the teenager grows into a young adult, the brain develops more myelin to insulate the nerve fibres and speed neural processing, and this myelination occurs last in the frontal lobe. Brain imaging comparisons between the brains of teenagers and the brains of young adults have shown that most of the brain areas were the same-that is, the teenage brain had reached maturity in the areas that govern such abilities as speech and sensory capabilities. The major difference was the immaturity of the teenage brain in the frontal lobe and in the myelination of that area (National Institute of Mental Health, 2001). Normal puberty and adolescence lead to the maturation of a physical body, but the brain lags behind in development, especially in the areas that allow teenagers to reason and think logically. Most teenagers act impulsively at times, using a lower area of their brains-their 'gut reaction'-because their frontal lobes are not yet mature. Impulsive behaviour, poor decisions, and increased risk-taking are all part of the normal teenage experience. Given the dynamic nature of brain development in the teenage years, decision making during this developmental stage appears to be heavily influenced by heightened emotions, with limitations in the capacity for cognitive processes linked to the prefrontal cortex (Chamberlain, 2009).

Plasticity-The Influence of Environment

Researchers have coined the term 'plasticity' to describe the changes in the brain in response to changes in the environment, and its related patterns of activation in the brain (Perry, 2006). The rate and types of changes in neuronal pathways has been found to be different in each stage of development (Perry, 2006). For example, the lower parts of the brain - controlling basic functions such as breathing and heart rate - have been found to be less flexible, or plastic, than the higher functioning cortex, that control higher level cognitions. While the plasticity of the areas of brain like prefrontal cortex decreases as a child gets older, some degree of plasticity remains in the brain (Perry, 2006). Research continues to inform our understanding of lifelong learning, coping and resilience in the face of adverse events. The developing brain's ongoing adaptations are the result of both genetics and experience. Our brains prepare us to expect certain experiences by forming the pathways needed to respond to those experiences. For example, our brains are 'wired' to respond to the sound of speech; when babies hear people speaking, the neural systems in their brains responsible for speech and language receive the necessary stimulation to organise and function (Perry, 2006).

The activation of appropriate pathways in development has been found to be important. For example, research has found that the more babies are exposed to language in the form of caregivers and adults speaking, the stronger their neural pathways related to speech and language. This principle of neurodevelopment has been referred to as 'use it or lose it' (Shore, 2015) where through processes of creating, strengthening, and discarding synapses that our brains adapt to the challenges and opportunities of their developmental environment. Regardless, all children need stimulation and nurturance for healthy development. When these are lacking in cases of maltreatment or deprivation, the child's brain development may be impacted. The brain's plasticity to its environment means that it changes in response to a negative environment just as readily as it will adapt to a positive one.

Regardless of the general environment, though, all children need stimulation and nurturance for healthy development. If these are lacking (e.g., if a child's caretakers are indifferent, hostile, depressed, or cognitively impaired), the child's brain development may be impaired. Because the brain adapts to its environment, it will adapt to a negative environment just as readily as it will adapt to a positive one.

Sensitive Periods

Current research on brain development suggests that there are sensitive periods for development of certain capabilities. These are referred to as 'windows of proximal development' - a time in the developmental process when certain parts of the brain may be most susceptible to particular experiences (Siegal, 2015). Animal studies have shed light on sensitive periods, showing, for example, that animals that are artificially blinded during the sensitive period for developing vision may never develop the capability to see, even if the blinding mechanism is later removed.

It is more difficult to study human sensitive periods, but we know that, if certain synapses and neuronal pathways are not repeatedly activated, they may be discarded, and their capabilities may diminish. For example, infants have a genetic predisposition to form strong attachments to their primary caregivers, but they may not be able to achieve strong attachments, or trusting, durable bonds if they are in a severely neglectful situation with little one-on-one caregiver contact. Children from Romanian institutions who had been severely neglected had a much better attachment response if they were placed in foster care-and thus received more stable parenting-before they were 24 months old (Smyke, Zeanah, Fox, Nelson, & Guthrie, 2010). This indicates that there is a sensitive period for attachment, but it is likely that there is a general sensitive period rather than a true cut-off point for recovery (Zeanah, Gunnar, McCall, Kreppner, & Fox, 2011).

While sensitive periods exist for development and learning, we also know that the plasticity of the brain often allows children to recover from missing certain experiences. Both children and adults may be able to make up for missed experiences later in life, but it is likely to be more difficult. This is especially true if a young child was deprived of certain stimulation, which resulted in the pruning of synapses (neuronal connections) relevant to that stimulation and the loss of neuronal pathways. As children progress through each developmental stage, they will learn and master each step more easily if their brains have built an efficient network of pathways to support optimal functioning.

Memories

The organising framework for children's development is based on the creation of memories. When repeated experiences strengthen a neuronal pathway, the pathway becomes encoded, and it eventually becomes a memory. Children learn to put one foot in front of the other to walk. They learn words to express themselves. And they learn that a smile usually brings a smile in return. At
some point, they no longer have to think much about these processes-their brains manage these experiences with little effort because the memories that have been created allow for a smooth, efficient flow of information.

The creation of memories is part of our adaptation to our environment. Our brains attempt to understand the world around us and fashion our interactions with that world in a way that promotes our survival and, hopefully, our growth, but if the early environment is abusive or neglectful, our brains may create memories of these experiences that adversely colour our view of the world throughout our life.

Babies are born with the capacity for implicit memory, which means that they can perceive their environment and recall it in certain unconscious ways (Applegate & Shapiro, 2005). For instance, they recognise their mother's voice from an unconscious memory. These early implicit memories may have a significant impact on a child's subsequent attachment relationships. In contrast, explicit memory, which develops around age two, refers to conscious memories and is tied to language development. Explicit memory allows children to talk about themselves in the past and future or in different places or circumstances through the process of conscious recollection (Applegate & Shapiro, 2005).

Sometimes, children who have been abused or suffered other trauma may not retain or be able to access explicit memories of their experiences. However, they may retain implicit memories of the physical or emotional sensations, and these implicit memories may produce flashbacks, nightmares, or other uncontrollable reactions (Applegate & Shapiro, 2005). This may be the case with young children or infants who suffer abuse or neglect.

Responding to Stress

We all experience different types of stress throughout our lives. The type of stress and the timing of that stress determine whether and how there is an impact on the brain. The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (2014) outlines three classifications of stress:

Positive stress is moderate, brief, and generally a normal part of life (e.g., entering a new child care setting). Learning to adjust to this type of stress is an essential component of healthy development.

Tolerable stress includes events that have the potential to alter the developing brain negatively, but which occur infrequently and give the brain time to recover (e.g., the death of a loved one).

Toxic stress includes strong, frequent, and prolonged activation of the body's stress response system (e.g., chronic neglect).

Healthy responses to typical life stressors (i.e., positive and tolerable stress events) are complex and may change depending on individual and environmental characteristics, such as genetics, the presence of a sensitive and responsive caregiver, and past experiences. A healthy stress response involves a variety of hormone and neurochemical systems throughout the body, including the sympathetic-adrenomedullary (SAM) system, which produces adrenaline, and the hypothalamic pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system, which produces cortisol (National Council on the Developing Child, 2014). Increases in adrenaline help the body engage energy stores and alter blood flow. Increases in cortisol also help the body engage energy stores and also can enhance certain types of memory and activate immune responses. In a healthy stress response, the hormonal levels will return to normal after the stressful experience has passed.

Please note that the above information on the three types of stress is reproduced with permission from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2014). Excessive stress disrupts the architecture of the developing brain (Working Paper 3). Retrieved from http://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/reports_and_working_papers/working_papers/w p3/. Additional reproduction of this information is not permitted without prior permission from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child.

Applegate, J. S., & Shapiro, J. R. (2005). Neurobiology for clinical social work theory and practice. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.

Chamberlain, L. B. (2009). The amazing teen brain: What every child advocate needs to know. Child Law Practice, 28(2), 1-2, 22-24.

Konrad, K., Firk, C., & Uhlhaas, P. J. (2013). Brain development during adolescence: Neuroscientific insights into this developmental period. Deutsches Arzteblatt International, 110(25), 425-431.

Lebel, C., & Beaulieu, C. (2011). Longitudinal development of human brain wiring continues from childhood into adulthood. Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 10937-10947.

National Institute of Mental Health. (2001). Teenage brain: A work in progress. Retrieved from
https://public.health.oregon.gov/HealthyPeopleFamilies/Youth/AdolescentGrowthDevelopment/Documents/teenbrain.pdf

National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2014). Excessive stress disrupts the architecture of the developing brain (Working Paper 3). Retrieved from http://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/reports_and_working_papers/working_papers/w
p3/

Perry, B. D. (2000). The neuroarcheology of childhood maltreatment: The neurodevelopmental costs of adverse childhood events. Child Trauma Academy. Retrieved from http://www.juconicomparte.org/recursos/Neuroarcheology%20of%20childhood%20maltreatm
ent_zmH8.pdf

Perry, B. D. (2002). Childhood experience and the expression of genetic potential: What childhood neglect tells us about nature and nurture. Brain and Mind, 3, 79-100.

Perry, B. D. (2006). Applying principles of neurodevelopment to clinical work with maltreated and traumatized children: The neurosequential model of therapeutics. In N. B. Webb (Ed.), Working with traumatized youth in child welfare (pp. 27-52). New York: The Guilford Press.

Siegel, D. (1999). The developing mind- How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are. New York: Guilford.

Shonkoff, J. P., & Phillips, D. A. (2000). From neurons to neighborhoods: The science of early childhood development. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Smyke, A. T., Zeanah, C. H., Fox, N. A., Nelson, C. A., & Guthrie, D. (2010). Placement in foster care enhances attachment among young children in institutions. Child Development, 81, 212-223.

Zeanah, C. H., Gunnar, M. R., McCall, R. B., Kreppner, J. A., & Fox, N. A. (2011). VI. Sensitive periods. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 76, 147-162.

Zero to three. (2012). FAQ's on the brain. Retrieved from http://www.zerotothree.org/childdevelopment/ brain-development/faqs-on-the-brain.html

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Trauma Informed Behaviour Support: A Practical Guide to Developing Resilient Learners

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What we have learned about the process of brain development helps us understand more about the roles both genetics and the environment play in our development. It appears that genetics predispose us to develop in certain ways, but our experiences, including our interactions with other people, have a significant impact on how our predispositions are expressed.

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The degree to that students' have their basic needs met will impact their ability in school.

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Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory of human motivation suggesting that behaviors are driven by increasingly complex needs. The hierarchy is usually depicted as a pyramid. The most basic needs make up the base, and complex needs are found at the peak.

The five levels of the hierarchy of needs are:

1. Physiological Needs

2. Safety Needs

3. Social Needs

4. Esteem Needs

5. Self-Actualization Needs

The purpose of Maslow's hierarchy of needs is to provide a framework for understanding human motivation and behavior.

Maslow believed that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy, with lower-level needs serving as a foundation for higher-level needs. He proposed that individuals are motivated to fulfill their basic needs first before moving on to higher-level needs and that the fulfillment of these needs contributes to overall well-being and self-actualization.

Let's take a closer look at the hierarchy and how it explains motivation.

5 Levels of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is most often depicted as a pyramid. This suggests that the base-level needs must be met before an individual can move upwards to higher-level needs.

1. Physiological Needs

At the base of Maslow's pyramid are physiological needs. Examples of physiological needs include the need for

Maslow placed these needs at the pyramid's base because they are essential for survival. These foundational needs must be fulfilled to provide something for the rest of the pyramid to be built upon.

For example, imagine how hard it is to focus on other things when you are hungry, thirsty, or cold. When faced with a physical need or some environmental discomfort, you usually focus on meeting those needs before you do anything else.

2. Safety Needs

Once the physiological needs have been mostly fulfilled, the safety needs begin to take precedence. Examples of safety needs include:

Work security

Protection from danger

Health

Well-being

Having life insurance

Living in a safe neighborhood or community

The needs at this level of a hierarchy can include needs that encompass physical safety and economic safety. Physical safety needs can include protection from war, conflict, violence, and natural disasters. It can also mean maintaining health insurance and getting regular checkups.

Economic safety needs might involve maintaining a job, paying bills, adding money to a savings account, and purchasing life insurance.

3. Social Needs

Once the needs at the first two levels of Maslow's hierarchy have been fulfilled, the social needs begin to take greater precedence. These needs are centered on belongingness or a need to form and maintain lasting social connections. Examples of social needs can include:

Relationships with family members

Romantic partners

Friends

Acquaintances

Relationships with co-workers or classmates

To fulfill these social needs, you might seek out groups or activities where you are likely to find like-minded individuals. Religious groups, social clubs, sporting activities, and workplace associations are just a few places where you might forge social connections.

Other researchers have also explored the importance of love and belonging on human development and well-being. Research has shown, for example, that having social support is critical to mental health.

Being lonely or lacking social connections can harm a person's physical and emotional health.

4. Esteem Needs

After addressing social needs, gaining esteem and recognition becomes more important. All people need to feel appreciated and respected. People like to be recognized for their work and accomplishments, whether related to work, school, hobbies, or some other area of life.

Examples of activities that can fulfill esteem needs include:

Academic accomplishments

Professional recognitions

Participating in a team sport

Serving a role in a community position

Filling a role in a club, organization, or religious group

By gaining recognition for these accomplishments, people gain a sense that they are making important contributions to society.

Maslow believed that there was lower and higher levels of esteem. Lower level esteem involves a need to receive applause, accolades, or awards from other people. Higher-level esteem is all about gaining inner self-respect.

Research suggests that self-esteem, or how you feel about yourself, is an important predictor of well-being. People who have stronger esteem related to themselves and their relationships with others tend to feel more satisfied with their lives, find greater meaning in life, and feel happier.

5. Self-Actualization

Maslow believed that self-actualization was at the peak of the hierarchy.

Self-actualization involves the need to fulfill your total potential and to become the best that you can possibly be.

"What a man can be, he must be," Maslow summarized. What this entails exactly depends upon what is important to the individual. Self-actualization might involve reaching the maximum physical and athletic ability of an athlete. For a musician, it might involve achieving a high level of accomplishment with their instrument.

It is important to realize that self-actualization is not a destination or end-point. You don't become self-actualized and suddenly stop growing and changing as a person. Instead, self-actualization is characterized by the actualizing tendency or the need to continue becoming better and more self-aware.

Types of Needs

Maslow's hierarchy of needs also distinguished between two key types of needs: deficiency and growth needs.

Deficiency Needs

The first four levels of the hierarchy are deficiency needs or d-needs. These needs arise due to deprivation. Not having food or water leads to a physiological urge to fulfill those unmet needs.

When these needs are not fulfilled, the individual may be left with feelings of tension or anxiety. As a result of this deficiency, people are motivated to take actions that will relieve these negative feelings.

Growth Needs

The highest level of the hierarchy is known as a growth need or b-needs because it is motivated by a desire to develop as a person and not because something is lacking.

Maslow initially felt that the lower-level deficiency needs had to be fulfilled before people could move on to high-level growth needs. He later suggested that people don't necessarily need to meet these base needs to be motivated by other needs.

In other words, you don't have to completely fill your physiological and safety needs in order to seek out love and acceptance. And you don't have to fully experience belongingness or self-esteem to seek out aspects of self-actualization.

Oftentimes, the most pressing need is whatever is most salient in the current moment. However, failure to meet lower-level needs can make engaging in creative pursuits and actions that foster self-growth and actualization more difficult.

It is also possible for life events to hamper a person's position in the hierarchy. Significant life events such as divorce, job loss, or the death of a loved one, for example, can make it so a person has to focus more on basic needs than other growth needs.

Examples of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

What are examples of Maslow's hierarchy of needs? Examples of different needs at each level of the hierarchy include:

Physiological Needs

Examples of physical needs in the hierarchy include the need for:

Fulfilling the physical needs is essential for basic survival.

Safety Needs

These needs relate to a person's sense of security and include things like:

Financial stability

Job security

Protection from physical harm

Stable environment

When you feel safe and secure, you are better able to devote your time and effort toward fulfilling needs that are higher up on the hierarchy.

Love and Belonging Needs

Examples of love and belonging needs include:

Forming intimate relationships

Being part of a community

Having close friends and family

People have a fundamental need for belonging, support, and connection. Having social support and love is vital for emotional and mental well-being.

Esteem Needs

Examples of esteem needs include:

Gaining recognition

Achieving personal goals

Feeling respected by others

The esteem needs allow you to feel a sense of pride and accomplishment in your life.
Self-Actualization Needs
Examples of self-actualization needs include:

Pursuing creative interests

Seeking knowledge

Engaging in activities that bring personal fulfillment

Pursuing self-actualization is what can help people feel a sense of meaning, purpose, and fulfillment in their lives.

The History of the Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow was a humanist psychologist often referred to as the father of the humanist movement within psychology. Humanism emerged in response to the two prominent schools of thought at the time: psychoanalysis and behaviorism.

The Humanistic Perspective

How did humanism differ from these other two schools of psychology? Humanist thinkers felt that psychoanalysis tended to be too pessimistic and focused solely on the negative aspects of human nature. On the other hand, behaviorism was too mechanistic and allowed little room to consider things such as free will.

Maslow's Theory

Maslow first introduced his theory in a 1943 paper titled "A Theory of Human Motivation," published in Psychological Review. In it, he outlined the basic five-stage model he believed people move through. He identified these five categories of needs as physiological, safety, belonging/love, esteem, and self-actualization.

Maslow continued to refine his theory by studying people he considered exemplary, including Albert Einstein, Frederick Douglass, and Eleanor Roosevelt. He further expanded upon and articulated his theory in his now-classic 1954 book Motivation and Personality.

Beyond Self-Actualization: Expanding on Maslow's Original Hierarchy of Needs

In his later years, Maslow increasingly came to believe that other levels existed beyond self-actualization, which he referred to as self-transcendence.

While Maslow's hierarchy of needs is typically presented as having five levels, he later expanded upon his original model to add three more important needs. The three needs he later added focused on cognitive needs, aesthetic needs, and transcendence needs.

Once a person becomes self-actualized, the actualizing tendency doesn't go away. Instead, people always strive to do more to improve and become more.

Self-transcendence involves looking outside of oneself and getting a greater awareness and connection with human beings on a much wider level.

More recent additions to the hierarchy have suggested an eight-stage model that is structured in the following way:

1. Physiological needs

2. Safety needs

3. Love and belongingness needs

4. Esteem needs

5. Cognitive needs (the need for knowledge and understanding about the world)

6. Aesthetic needs (the need for beauty and balance)

7. Self-actualization needs

8. Self-transcendence needs (spiritual, mystical, other experiences that transcend the self)

Cognitive Needs

Cognitive needs are focused on a need for exploration in order to fulfill a person's curiosity. Fulfilling these needs provides people with knowledge and a way to make sense of the world.

Aesthetic Needs

Aesthetic needs focus on the need for beauty. These needs are centered on having a beautiful, aesthetically pleasing environment and appreciating beauty, balance, and form in the world.

Transendence Needs

Transendence needs are focused on higher-level, spiritual needs and values that are beyond the self. This can involve the need for religious, spirituality, scientific knowledge, and a sense of connection with the world as a whole.

Problems With Maslow's Theory

While Maslow's hierarchy of needs has become incredibly popular in psychology and areas such as education and business, the theory is lacking in empirical research and scientific support.

Needs Are Not Necessarily Hierarchical

While research has supported the notion that these needs are important, most experts dispute that these needs follow the order that Maslow described or that a hierarchy exists. In other words, it isn't necessary for lower level needs to be completely satisfied before people pursue higher level needs.

Even Maslow himself believed that the needs he described did not necessarily follow a strict hierarchy and that these needs could exist and interact dynamically and continually changing.

Examples:

Even people that have not fulfilled lower-level needs still pursue upper-level needs for esteem and self-actualization.

People living in impoverished areas who struggle to fill their basic physiological and security needs still seek ways to grow and develop as people.

Research Method Problems

One problem with Maslow's hierarchy of needs is that the research he conducted while developing his theory centered on analyzing the biographies of famous individuals who he felt were exceptional and self-actualized.

Some problems with this approach:

The list of people he studied largely centered on white men living in the Western world, although he did include a few well-known women in his sample.

The findings are based largely on Maslow's own opinions and assessments. While he might have felt an individual met his definition of a self-actualized person, others might disagree.

His sample was also biased because it included only a small sample of people who largely grew up in a similar culture. It is difficult to say if his findings would generalize to similar individuals, women, minorities, or people who live in non-Western cultures.

Cultural Differences Exist

Even Maslow's definition of what it means to be self-actualized suffers from cultural bias. What may be perceived as being a fully-realized and self-actualized person in an individualistic culture such as the United States may not be the same as what one might find in collectivist cultures such as China and Japan.

Support for Maslow's Hierarchy

In research published by Tay and Diener (2011), the researchers analyzed participants from more than 120 different countries. They found over the course of their five-year study that there appear to be universal human needs across different cultures.

Their research also suggests that while these needs exist in cultures worldwide, they do not follow the order in Maslow's hierarchy. Instead, Tay and Diener suggest that the needs are dynamic and not independent.

Even if you are hungry and seeking shelter, you still need support from your family and friends. Even if you are working toward building friendships and gaining social support, you still have a desire to become the best person you can be.

How to Apply Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

People can apply Maslow's hierarchy of needs to their own lives by understanding the different levels of needs and striving to fulfill them in a balanced and holistic way. Here are some ways to apply the hierarchy of needs:

Identify Your Basic Physiological Needs

The first step is to ensure that your basic physiological needs are met. This includes getting enough sleep, eating a healthy and balanced diet, staying hydrated, and maintaining a comfortable living environment.

Create a Safe and Secure Environment

Once your physiological needs are met, it's important to create a safe and secure environment for yourself. This can include financial stability, job security, and a supportive social network.

Build Positive Relationships

Humans are social beings and need positive relationships to thrive. Focus on building healthy and positive relationships with family, friends, and community members.

Develop Positive Self-Esteem

Esteem needs involve developing a positive self-image and gaining the respect of others. Identify your strengths and accomplishments, set achievable goals, and take pride in your achievements.

Pursue Personal Growth

Finally, self-actualization involves pursuing personal growth and fulfilling your full potential. This can include pursuing creative interests, learning new skills, and engaging in activities that bring personal fulfillment.

It's important to note that the fulfillment of each level of needs is vital for overall well-being and that the fulfillment of one level does not necessarily mean that you have fully achieved the next level. Balancing the fulfillment of different levels of needs is key to achieving a sense of fulfillment and happiness in life.

The hierarchy of needs can also be applied in various fields, such as education, healthcare, and management, to understand human motivation and behavior.

For example:

Educators can use the hierarchy of needs to create an environment where students feel safe and supported, which can improve their learning outcomes.

Healthcare professionals can use the hierarchy of needs to understand and address the underlying reasons behind a patient's behavior or illness.

In the workplace, managers can use the hierarchy of needs to motivate employees by understanding their needs and providing opportunities for personal growth and development.

Frequently Asked Questions About the Hierarchy of Needs

Are there any factors that can affect the hierarchy of needs?

External factors can impact what needs are most important to a person at any given moment. Love and belongingness needs might take center stage if you are dealing with stress. Self-actualization needs may become a top priority if you seek a sense of purpose and meaning in your life. For people dealing with complex economic events, social conditions, and life events, physical and safety needs may become more pressing.

Why Is the hierarchy of needs important?

The hierarchy of needs presented a holistic approach to understanding human needs and motivations. It can be a useful framework for learning more about complex human behavior, including why people do the things they do.

While this approach suggests that people have universal needs, it also reflect the importance of individual differences. People often have similar needs, but their importance can also be affected by personal, environmental, social, and cultural factors.

Maslow's hierarchy has significantly impacted many fields, including education, management, and psychology.

What need is at the top of Maslow's hierarchy?

Maslow suggested that self-actualization was the need at the top of his hierarchy. This need is focused on fulfilling your potential, achieving peak experiences, and experiencing personal fulfillment.

Summary

Maslow's hierarchy of needs describes five different types of needs people experience. These needs help to motivate human behavior, and people usually strive to meet their more basic needs before fulfilling those that are more complex.

Maslow's hierarchy may not follow the order in which it is usually presented, but his theory does offer a valuable framework for understanding how different needs motivate human behavior.
Are you self-actualized? Take this quick self-actualization test to learn more. Sources:
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Maslow AH. A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review. 1943;50(4), 370-96.

Maslow AH. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper and Row; 1954.

Maslow AH. Towards a Psychology of Being. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Company; 1962.

Tay L, Diener E. Needs and subjective well-being around the world. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2011;101(2), 354.

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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Explained - Explore Psychology

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Maslow's hierarchy of needs outlines a five-stage model of motivation. The five levels are physiological, safety, social, esteem and self-actualization.

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Systemic Racism in the American School System

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Systemic Racism in the American School System

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Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

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Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

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School counselors and teachers must be aware of both a student's cognitive age and numerical age to know how to best engage the student in the educational system.

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Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

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The number of adverse childhood experiences that child experiences can impact the child's development in physical, emotional, and social health. The higher the number of ACES, the more likely that the child will have more difficulty adjusting socially in the school setting verses a child with a lower ACES score.

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Adverse Childhood Experiences and Trafficking — liberatED

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ACEs are highly relevant to human trafficking, as many of the risk factors for being trafficked overlap with ACEs. According to a study conducted by the European Commission on the groups of people at high risk for human trafficking, there are 4 main groups of risk and resilience factors for human tr

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Improving School Culture for a Better Learning Environment

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Not sure how to make your school culture more positive? Here’s what you need to know.

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The way students in the school setting interact with one another will vary based on the developmental level of appropriate friendship.

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The 5 stages of children's friendships

Children's friendship needs and skills change as they grow. Their ideas about what friendship actually is also changes as they develop.

There are 5 stages that children go through as they learn to make and keep friends.

Kids First's Child Psychologists often refer parents to this 5 step framework by Robert Selman that helps families understand developmental trends in children's friendships.

We think it's a useful way to look at what's normal and what's not within children's friendships and hope you do too ...

LEVEL 0 Friendship: Momentary Playmates

(Approximate ages: 3-7 years)

Children at this stage view friends as momentary playmates, and their friendships are all about having fun together. Their friends are kids who are conveniently nearby, and who do the same things they like to do.

Children at this stage have very limited ability to see other perspectives. They assume that other children think the same way they do, so they tend to get very upset when they find out that a playmate has a different opinion.

Kids this age typically make comments like "she doesn't want to be my friend anymore" when their friend wants to do something different to them.

LEVEL 1 Friendship: One-Way Assistance

(Approximate ages: 4-9 years)

At this level, children understand that friendship goes beyond whatever their current activity is, but they still think in very pragmatic terms. They define friends as children who do nice things for them-such as sharing a treat, saving them a seat on the bus, or giving them nice presents-but they don't really think about what they themselves contribute to the friendship.

Children at this level care a lot about friendship. They may even put up with a not-so-nice friend, just so they can have a friend.

They also may try to use friendship as a bargaining tool, saying things like "I'll be your friend if you do this!" or "I won't be your friend if you do that!"

LEVEL 2 Friendship: Two-Way, Fair Weather Cooperation

(Approximate ages: 6-12 years)

These children are able to consider a friend's perspective in addition to their own, but not at the same time. So what this means is that they understand turn taking, but they can't really step back and get an observer's perspective that would allow them to see patterns of interaction in their relationships.

At this stage, children are very concerned about fairness and reciprocity, but they think about these in a very rigid way. So, if they do something nice for a friend, they expect that friend to do something nice for them at the next opportunity. If this doesn't happen, the friendship may fall apart.

Children in this stage tend to be very judgmental of both themselves and others. They evaluate themselves harshly, the way they think other people do. So, they say things like, "No one will like me because of my stupid haircut!"

They tend to be jealous, and they're very concerned with fitting in by being exactly the same as everyone else.

Children at this stage often form small friendship groups based on similar interests. Sometimes these are known as "secret clubs" which involve elaborate rules and lots of discussion about who is or isn't included as a member.

Setting rules and learning to negotiate them is important for helping children to develop their understanding of social relationships. However, when children lack cooperative relationship skills it can lead to friendship groups being dominated by some children and excluding others.

LEVEL 3 Friendship: Intimate, Mutually Shared Relationships

(Approximate ages: 11-15 years)

At this stage, friends help each other solve problems and confide thoughts and feelings that they don't share with anyone else. They know how to compromise, and they do kind things for each other without "keeping score," because they genuinely care about each other's happiness.

For some children, this is also the "Joined at the Hip" stage.

Girls, more often than boys, may be best friends and expect each other to do everything together. They may feel deeply betrayed if a best friend chooses to be with another child.

LEVEL 4 Friendship: Mature Friendship

(Approximate ages: 12 years to adulthood)

At this stage, children place a high value on emotional closeness with friends. They can accept and even appreciate differences between themselves and their friends.

Young people who develop mature friendships are not as possessive as they might once have been, so they're less likely to feel threatened if their friends have other relationships.

Mature friendship emphasizes trust and support and remaining close over time, despite separations.

Friendships take time

What friendship stages are your children at right now?

For some children, it takes longer to connect with like-minded peers, but we hope that this information will give you an understanding of where your child is developmentally.

If you are concerned that your child's friendship and social skills are not developing in an age-appropriate way, seek information and support from your child's teachers or from a Child Psychologist.

These professionals have experience and can suggest practical strategies to help your child make those all important connections that are so vital for confidence and self-esteem.

© 2022 Kids First Children's Services

Does your child struggle to make and keep friends?

Kids First's Child Psychologists in Sydney's northern beaches are experts in children's behaviour and have helped hundreds of kids overcome their friendship problems.

Our Social Stars, Social Detective,s and Social SuperHeroes friendship and social skills groups are also popular with children aged 4-11. NDIS-funded children are welcome to these weekly groups that take place every term.

If we can help your child learn how to connect with other kids, use the form below to contact us or call Kids First on (02) 9938 5419

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The 5 stages of children's friendships | Kids First Children's Services

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Kids First's Child Psychologists often refer parents to this 5 step framework by Robert Selman that helps families understand developmental trends in children's friendships.

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Emotional Development: Roots of Empathy (ROE)

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Emotional Development: Roots of Empathy (ROE)

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School based intervention program designed to teach children empathy, understanding for others, and emotional boundaries.

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When school systems are funded on property tax dollars, those in the wealthy neighborhoods continue to get increased educational resources for their students, while those in poorer neighborhoods have a lack of educational resources for their students.

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How America's public schools keep kids in poverty | Kandice Sumner

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Appropriate Learning in the School Based on Developmental Age & Needs

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Appropriate Learning in the School Based on Developmental Age & Needs

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Students do not all learn the same at different developmental ages. Students have different educational needs during each developmental stage. Schools need to start teaching students based on their developmental age and not just teaching to test.

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A student's psychosocial developmental level can impact their ability to interact with peers in the school setting.

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Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson Stages of Psychosocial Development

By Christine Ferch

Have thought you were missing something or maybe should have taken a different path during certain stages of your life? Are you feeling your choices, or your social world left you feeling stuck and not sure which direction to go?

Erik Erikson created a theory around our social world and the role and impact it has on our psyche and the choices we make and the paths we travel. The stages of psychosocial development look at our personality unfolds based on conflicts we endure from our environments to the choices we make. These stages begin from infancy into old age.

For an individual to become fully functional we need to progress through these stages by successfully solving the conflict within the stage. There are times in adulthood, we may need to work through trust vs mistrust. When these needs are met, our trust builds which enhances the positive nature of the relationships we have, both with friends and loved ones.

When we succeed through the stages, Erikson believed we develop human virtues and a healthy personality, failure, leads to difficulty moving toward a future and negatively impacts our sense of self, and personality. We feel inadequate and this continues the "stuck" feeling.

The conflict which arises in each stage is dependent on what psychological needs are required during that stage. During infancy, these are the basic needs: food, love, safety, nurturance, it is through these needs we build trust, when these needs are not met, we gain mistrust of those around us and become emotionally detached. This creates the first stage trust vs. mistrust and occurs from birth to 18 months and is the most crucial stage as we are entirely reliant on our caregivers. Failure in this stage develops fear, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety and negative schemas about others and the world.

The second stage is autonomy vs shame and doubt, 18 months to 3 years old. At this age, we are gaining independence as we explore the world around us. We are acknowledging what we visually identify in our world and our developing physical skills. Through this personal growth, we gain personal control and autonomy or independence. Role models assist in this stage which can be parents, teachers, caregivers, who provide the child with choice and letting them perform actions on their own. Potty training is crucial during this stage, as this is when the child learns control of their body in a supportive space while being independent, hence the autonomy which increases personal power and a sense of being in the world. When parents are encouraging and expect their children to explore limits, scratch them and avoid criticizing, children grow up feeling secure, and confident to move through the next stages of development.

Shame and doubt arise when parents are overly critical or controlling and prevent the child from asserting their desire for exploration and autonomy. The child may feel unable to survive and will constantly need their parents around, they lack self-esteem and become excessively dependent on others. There is shame over toileting accidents such as bed wetting, or just missing the cue and wetting the pants. The lack of control and encouragement from parents creates shame and doubt they can act on their own without help.

Stage 3 is initiative vs Guilt. When we have autonomy, confidence, and self-esteem to explore our world, we initiate play and social interactions, which fits as this stage is targeted from the ages 3-5. We learn with our peers to assert ourselves through play with others our age and our interpersonal skills. If we are overly restricted from exploring our social world by parental control or criticism, we develop guilt. When we are criticized, guilt increases reducing our self-esteem and desire to take initiative for fear of failure.
Stage 4 is Industry vs Inferiority
Ages 5- 12 and we become immersed in the education system, school, peer interactions, and learning to juggle academics and friends. Teachers play a larege role in our growth through this stage as they are our role models for learning and achieving. Our peer groups are also important as they also help build our self-esteem and confidence. During this age we may be engaging in sport activities which assist in our thoughts on our ability to perform and complete tasks and obtaining approval. When we are industrious, we develop competence and flourishing self-esteem, confidence, and positive interpersonal skills and relationships. Failure during this stage can lead to inferiority feeling as if we are unable to perform specific skills reducing our self-esteem, competency, and confidence levels. Failure can have a substantial impact in our maturation through our teenage years.
Stage 5 Identity vs Role Confusion
The stage of the daunting teenage years for both parents and the teenager. There are many new opportunities presenting itself as the youth progresses socially, athletically, academically all or some of these at once. There are changes in the mind and how the youth thinks based on maturation of the frontal lobe which is responsible for all executive functioning and emotion regulation tasks. As well, the stages of puberty which affects hormones levels and impacts how our mind works. This stage is the final stage which sets us up for adulthood and old age. It is the valuable exploration of our beliefs, goals, values, morals and how these will create our personal identity and sense of self.

This crucial stage between childhood and adulthood because we are growing into greater independence and responsibilities. We need successful transitions from the earlier stages as the self-esteem, confidence, competency, and healthy relationships can assist with positive progression through the later stages.

Erikson believed " between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be developed by the adult". Stressing the importance for young adults to learn roles we may adopt once we mature, including sexually as our body image transforms during this stage.
Success in this stage leads to a strong belief of who we are, what we want in life and what our purpose is. Fidelity is expressed when staying true to who we are, and our identity begins to solidify. With continued encouragement, our autonomy grows, our sense of control is increased with our sense of self.
Failure during this stage looks like lack of identity and sense of self, confusion and not understanding our role in the world and purpose in life. We are unsure of ourselves, our future, and the people around us, our social group is poor or nonexistent as we do not know where we belong which may lead to identity crisis.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs Isolation
Creation of our personal and intimate relationships between 18 and 40 years old, the success in the stage is dependent on the success in stage 5. Major conflict may arise here as we attempt to gain larger long-term commitments such as work-related responsibilities along with family. The creation of health and happy relationships are secure and enduring for us to experience. Love is the ultimate success during this stage, we crave meaningful and lasting relationships.

Failure at this stage looks at going beyond, within or outside control to form appropriate bongs or avoidance of intimacy. This may lead to loneliness, isolation and depression and poor sense of self and becoming emotionally isolated and engage in few committed relationships.

If there is continued failure throughout the previous stages, one may engage in unhealthy relationships to achieve conflict resolution.
Stage 7: Generativity vs Stagnation
This stage occurs around 40 and into our mid-sixties. During our middle adulthood, we look for longevity in our life's continuation and the long-term impact we have had on others. When we feel we have made a mark on the world, we nurtured things outside of who we are, we are providing generativity. We are advancing the generations below us as we demonstrated what being a productive and valuable member of society and our interpersonal groups. Success in this stage is presented in our level of care and feeling useful in life, we are proud of who we have become and have a strong relationship with our partner.

Failure is very different as we feel stagnate. We feel we had little impact on the world, we failed to make a dent in the world as we could not identify our purpose. We feel unproductive, uninvolved, disillsusioned, and disconnected from the world.
Stage 8: Integrity vs Despair, the final stage.
From age 65 until our passing. This stage is one of reflection. We we slow down, and naturally become less productive, embrace what we have become and accomplished. Success shows in our beliefs we achieved our goals, found happiness and have feelings of integrity and wholeness. We can state, if we pass, we will be at peace.

Failure may look like a sense of despair and regret over things left unfinished or mistakes we had made. We become bitter about the past and present and frightened about coming to the end of the life.

Did you ever have a thought you may have unresolved conflict in one or more of these stages? Contact us now to see how to proceed and resolve this issue by contacting us at: admin@ovcs.ca.

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Erik Erikson Stages of Psychosocial Development By Christine Ferch Have thought you were missing something or maybe should have taken a different path during certain stages of your life? Are you feeling your choices, or your social world left you feeling stuck and not sure which direction to go?

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Schools can implement developmentally appropriate classroom activities that provide students with developmental learning: physically, socially, and cognitively.

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How to Implement Developmentally Appropriate Practice

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Not sure how to implement developmentally appropriate practice? No worries -- this guide can help you figure things out.

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Mainstream American classrooms tend to reflect "American" values and norms of academic achievement and independence. However, with the ever increasing diversity in the school setting, school systems need to learn how to teach all students in culturally appropriate ways to best help students in their overall development.

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One way to think of culture is as a context in which we learn and develop. We share, live, perform, and experience culture through our participation in daily activities, customs, and routines with social others. Culture helps us make sense of our social worlds and shapes our actions, thoughts, and feelings. For example, culture plays a role in the way we experience emotions, construct our self-concepts, and learn and problem-solve.

With increasing migration and the movement of people in the twenty-first century, many children in the US and worldwide are attending school in formal settings where cultural norms and practices at home may conflict with those children encounter at school. This experience places children in the position of having to navigate two different social worlds-home and school. One broad question we can explore is: "what role does culture play in shaping children's school experiences and academic success?" Let's visit three specific areas: parental beliefs and socialization practices, teacher perceptions, and school curricula and children's learning.

Parental beliefs and socialization practices

Parental expectations, beliefs, and attitudes about education shape children's academic experiences. Many parents in diverse cultural communities view education as a path to future success. For example, as a group many Asian and Asian American children attain academic success. What role does culture play in these outcomes? Chang notes that as a group, Chinese and Taiwanese parents place a high value on education. Kim and Park note the same is true for Korean parents. Parenting approaches in these communities highlight training and disciplining children, parent self-sacrifice, and devotion to children. Parents believe perseverance and hard work is the key to success and socialization practices reinforce these values and traits. These cultural practices help children internalize the values their parents place upon education and behaving according to social norms. Children acquire these values and are loyal, appreciative, and dedicated to their parents for their support and encouragement. In part, they attain academic success to honor their parents and the broader social groups to which they belong.

Teacher perceptions

Teachers play an important role in children's academic success too. What practices work best to motivate children to do well at school? The answer depends upon numerous factors. For example, many teachers will be entrusted with educating children who may not share their cultural heritage. How might this cultural mismatch shape children's school experiences and potential for academic success?

Most American school practices reflect dominant, mainstream American values, norms, and behavioral scripts. For most European American children who value independence and uniqueness, teacher praise and rewards can be highly motivating. However, for children who come from families that value humility and modesty, receiving praise in front of classmates might be an uncomfortable interaction.

Student engagement norms are another example. Many American teachers using a mainstream cultural lens, connect active student engagement with student attentiveness. Yamamoto and Li noted that for many Asian and Asian American students, knowing when to be quiet is a desirable skill which caregivers socialize their children to acquire. Teachers using mainstream, American cultural values and norms may perceive quiet students as disengaged and inattentive. These perceptions impact children's motivation to learn and academic success.

School curricula and children's learning

Dominant, mainstream American values tend to permeate curricular and teaching practices. Many American schools promote individual learning and problem-solving approaches rather than group or collaborative problem-solving strategies. The focus upon individualized learning connects to the cultural ideology of individualism and the independent self. These approaches promote the self as separate and unique from social others. Many European American children participate in cultural practices and routines that reinforce this worldview and values.

However, many Latinx and indigenous children participate in cultural practices and activities at home that value group and collaborative problem solving. These practices connect to the cultural ideology of collectivism and the interdependent self. At home children participate in practices and routines that emphasize the importance of the group, especially family. Thus, there is a disconnect between the approaches at home with the practices and routines the child encounters at school. Consequently, many of these children often have difficulty reaching their maximum potential in classrooms that promote individual problem-solving skills. Why does this happen and does this necessarily have be the outcome?

For many children from cultural heritages that promote collectivist values and an interdependent cultural model of the self, the cultural practices in which the child participates at home may conflict with those the child encounters at school. Often, teachers are unaware of these sources of conflict. However, this conflict between home and school does not need to impede students' success or invalidate the child's cultural heritage. One solution is for schools to meet students halfway and bridge the gap between the two contexts.

Two fine examples are The Bridging Cultures Project designed to assist immigrant and indigenous children in the US and the Kamehameha Early Education Program (KEEP) designed to assist native Hawaiian children. Both programs highlight how helping teachers become more aware, respectful, accepting, and inclusive of all their students' cultural values and goals shapes children's motivation and academic success at school.

Final thoughts

Numerous cultural forces connect to children's school experiences and academic achievement. These include parental beliefs, socialization practices, and cultural worldviews. Cultural values, practices, and ways of learning at home both shape and connect to children's formal school experiences. Educational initiatives such as The Bridging Cultures Project and KEEP highlight the importance of cultural compatibility and connectedness in fostering children's active engagement in school. Acknowledging and incorporating cultural knowledge, patterns, and ways of learning at home when they disconnect with those at school is one important way to ensure all children's academic success.
Featured image: School children in India, by Richard Veit

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What role does culture play in shaping children's school experiences?

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With increasing migration and the movement of people in the 21st century, many children are attending school in formal settings where cultural norms and practices at home may conflict with those children encounter at school. This experience places children in the position of having to navigate two different social worlds-home and school.

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Students develop as they learn more about themselves, interactions with others, and the world around them.

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The Whole Child: Ackermann’s 4 Natural Forces of Development

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A student's cultural differences and responses in the classroom setting that differ from the teachers' does not mean that it is a behavioral issue.

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How culture may impact behavior in the classroom

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Divided Identities in the Educational System

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Divided Identities in the Educational System

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Education System v. Cultural Competence | Gracia Bareti | TEDxDirigo