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Personalities are the unique attitudes, behaviors, and emotions that characterize a person.

Psychoanalytic Theory: (Freudian)
-Phallic Stage: boys and girls notice their physical differences. Girls develop penis envy; boys get castration anxiety (fear of castration by fathers or for misbehavior)
Identification, when people emulate and attach themselves to an individual they believe threatens them. Prevents boys from fearing their fathers. Encourages boys to break away from attachment to mom and act like men.
-Latency: sexual feelings are repressed out of conscious awareness. Turn attention to other issues.
-Fixation: results from being under gratified or over gratified. Oral fixation (overeat, chew gum, smoke)
anal fixation due to dramatic toilet training (anal expulsive personality >messy and disorganized), (anal retentive >meticulously neat and organized)
Phallic Fixation, excessive sexual assurance and aggression or consumed by their perceived sexual inadequacies.

Unconscious vs. Conscious
-Unconscious mind: we don't have access to the thoughts in it, we use lots of psychic energy to keep threatening thoughts in it.
-Conscious mind: contains everything we are thinking about at any one moment.
-Preconscious mind: contains everything that we could potentially summon to conscious awareness with ease.

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Measuring Personality: Crash Course Psychology #22

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Motivation is the force that moves people to behave, think, and feel the way they do. (Feelings or ideas that cause us to act toward a goal)

Theories of Motivation:
-Drive Reduction Theory: our behavior is motivated by biological needs. Needs: requirements for survival (food, water, shelter) Drives: our impulses to act in ways that satisfy our needs, example hunger. Homeostasis: a balanced internal state; our body seeks it; when we are out of it, we have a need that creates a drive. Primary drives: biological needs, example thirst. Secondary drives: learned drives, example we learn that money can get us food and water to satisfy our primary drives.
-Arousal Theory: we seek an optimum level of excitement or arousal. We are motivated by activities that help us achieve our needed level.
Yerkes-Dodson Law: we might perform well at an easy task with a very high arousal level. The same high level would worsen our performance on a difficult task.
-Opponent-Process Theory: people are usually at a baseline (normal) state. We might perform an act that moves us away from this state. May be pleasurable at first, but eventually we feel an opponent process. With physically addictive substances, we get withdrawal.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:
-Physiological Needs: to satisfy drives for hunger, thirst, and sex.
-Safety Needs: to feel safe, secure, and out of danger.
-Belonging and love needs: to be accepted and belong.
-Esteem needs: to achieve and to gain approval and recognition.
- Self-actualization needs: to achieve your unique potential.

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The Power of Motivation: Crash Course Psychology #17

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Thinking, Intelligence, and Language
Problem Solving:

Finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not present.

Steps in problem solving:

1. Find and frame problems

2. Develop good problem solving strategies

3. Evaluate solutions

4. Rethink and redefine problems and our solutions our time

Becoming fixated serves as an obstacle to problem solving. Functional fixedness occurs when individuals fail to solve a problem because they are fixated on a things usual function.

Reasoning and decision making:
These activities require rich connections among persons and the ability to apply judgement. End result is a decision or conclusion.

Reasoning: mental activity of transforming info to reach conclusions. Reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations.

Decision making: evaluating alternatives and choosing among them.

Two systems of reasoning:

Automatic- involves processing that is rapid, heuristic, and intuitive; hunches and gut feelings.

Controlled- slower, effortful, and analytical. It is conscious reflection about an issue.

Bias and Heuristics:

Confirmation Bias: tendency to search for and use info that supports our ideas rather that refuses them.

Hindsight Bias: tendency to report falsely often due to the fact that we accurately predicted an outcome.

Availability Heuristic: prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events.

Base rate Fallacy: tendency to ignore info about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid info.

Representative Heuristic: tendency to make judgments about group membership based on physical appearances or the match between a person and ones stereotype of a group.

Intelligence: Performance in a variety of areas.
IQ Tests: Intelligence quotient; Individuals mental age divided by chronological age implied by 100----Alfred Binet

Mental Age (MA)- individuals level of mental development are relative to others.

Robert J Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence:

1. Analytical intelligence

2. Creativity

3. Applying ideas into practice

Howard Gardener's "Frames of Mind":

1. Verbal

2. Mathematical

3. Spatial

4. Bodily Kinesthetic

5. Musical

6. Interpersonal

7. Naturalist

8. Existentialist

9. "Psychic"

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Cognition - How Your Mind Can Amaze and Betray You: Crash Course Psychology #15

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Gender, sex, and Sexuality
Sex and It's Biological Components

Sex: The properties of a person that determine his or her classification as male or female.

sex chromosomes: In humans, the pair of genes that differs between the sexes and determines a person's sex as male or female.

gonads: Glands that produce sex hormones and generate ova (eggs) in females and sperm in males; collectively called gametes, the ova and sperm are the cells that will eventually be used in reproduction.

secondary sex characteristics: Traits that differ between the two sexes but are not part of  the reproductive system; they include breasts in females and facial hair in males.

Gender

gender: The social and psychological aspects of being female or male; gender goes beyond biological sex to include a person's understanding of the meaning to his or her own life of being male or female.

gender identity: An individual's multifaceted sense of belonging to the male or female sex.

androgynous: Having attributes that we typically associate with both genders.

*disorders of sexual development: congenital conditions in which the development of chromosomal , gonadal,or anatomical sex is atypical; formerly called intersex conditions or hermaphroditism.

Gender conflict

transgender: Experiencing one"s psychological gender as different from one's physical sex, as in the cases of biological males who identify as female, and biological females who identify as males.

gender identity disorder: strong, persistent cross-sex identification and a continuing discomfort with, or sense of inappropriateness of, one's assigned sex.

Social role theory

gender roles: expectations for how females and males should think, act and feel.

gender stereotypes: overly general beliefs and expectations about what women and men are like.

* gender similarities hypothesis: hyde's proposition that men and women (and boys and girls) are much more similar than they are different.

Gender Differences in Aggression

aggression: behaviors that are intended t harm another person.

overt aggression: physically or verbally harming another person directly.

conduct disorder: a pattern of offensive behavior that violates the basic rights of others.

relational aggression: behavior that is meant to harm the social standing of

another person.

*Sexual orientation: the direction of an individual's erotic interests.

heterosexual: referring to a sexual orientation in which the individual is generally sexually attracted to members of the opposite sex.

homosexual: referring to a sexual orientation in which the individual is generally sexually attracted to members of the same sex.

bisexual: referring to a sexual orientation in which the individual is sexually attracted to people of both sexes.

Thinking critically about sexual orientation

unlikelihood of a single cause: whatever the psychological characteristic of intrest, it is unlikely that a single cause can be identified , and sexual orientation is no exception.

within-group variation: there is a great deal of variation within any group of people who share the same sexual orientation.

research challenge: comparing individuals from different sexual orientations presents research design challenges.

the meaning of cross-sex similarities: in presenting research on the origin of sexual orientation, the popular media often emphasize similarities between gay men and heterosexual women and between lesbian women and heterosexual men.

explaining sexual orientation does not mean explaining only homosexuality.

*human sexual response pattern: masters and Johnson's model of human sexual response, consisting of four phases- excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

Fetish: an object or activity that arouses sexual interest and desire.

Paraphilias: sexual disorders that feature recurrent sexually arousing fantasies, urges, or behaviors involving nonhuman objects. (suffering/humiliation of ones partner).

Pedophilia: an adult or older adolescent fantasizes about or engages in sexual behavior with individuals who have not reached puberty.

STIs:

Sexually transmitted infection (STI): infection that is contracted primarily through sexual activity- vaginal intercourse as well as oral and anal sex.

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS): a sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) that destroys the body;s immune system.

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Learning
Types of learning:
*Behaviorism: theory of learning that focuses
solely on predicable
behaviors discounting
the importance of such
mental activity as
thinking, wishing, and
hoping.

1. Classical conditioning: learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that produces a response without prior learning.

Unconditioned response (UCR): an unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus (CS): previously learned stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired w the unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned response: learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after conditioned stimulus- unconditioned stimulus pairing.

2. Operant Conditioning:
Instrumental conditioning;          A form of associative
learning in which the
consequences of a
behavior change the
probability of the
behaviors occurrence.
*Thorndike's law of effect states that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors by negative outcomes are weakened.

Positive reinforcement:   an increase in the frequency of a behavior in response to the subsequent presentation of something that is good.

Negative reinforcement:an increase in the frequency of a behavior in response to the subsequent removal of something that is unpleasant.

Primary reinforcer: A reinforcer that is innately satisfying; one does not take any learning on the organism's part to make it pleasurable.

Secondary reinforcer: reinforcer that acquires it's positive value through an organism's experience; a secondary reinforcer is a learned or conditioned reinforcer.

Positive punishment: presentation of an unpleasant stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior.

Negative punishment: removal of a positive stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior.

Observational learning: learning that occurs when a person observed and imitates another's behavior.

Albert Bandura

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Sensation and Perception
Brain gives meaning to sensation through perception

Sensation: The process of receiving stimulus energies from the external environment and transforming those energies into neural energy.

Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information so that it has meaning.

Bottom-up processing: sensory receptors register information about the external environment and send it up to the brain for interpretation.
Top-down processing: launched by cognitive processing at the brain's higher levels, that allows the organism to sense what is happening and to apply that framework to information from the world.

Sensory receptors: specialized cells that detect stimulus information and transmit it to sensory (afferent) nerves and the brain.

Photoreception: detection of light, perceived as sight.

Mechanoreception: detection of pressure, vibration, and movement, perceived as touch, hearing, and equilibrium.

Chemoreception: detection of chemical stimuli, perceived as smell and taste.

-Confused senses:

synaesthesia: one sense induces an experience in another sense (taste a color).

phantom limb pain: sensation of a limb still being present after amputation.

Thresholds:

Absolute threshold: the minimum amount of stimulus energy that a person can detect.

Difference threshold: the degree of difference that must exist between two stimuli before the difference is detected.

-Weber's Law:  the
principle that two stimuli
must differ by a
constant minimum
percentage (rather than              a constant amount) to be
perceived as different

Attention: the process of focusing awareness on a narrowed aspect of the environment.

selective attention: the process of focusing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others.

Sight:
Light

Retina: multilayered light-sensitive surface in the eye that records electromagnetic energy and converts it to neural impulses for processing in the brain.

Rods: The receptor cells in the retina that allow for color perception.

Cones: The receptor cells in the retina that allow for color perception.

Optic nerve: structure at the back of the eye, made up of axons of the ganglion cells, that carries visual information to the brain for further processing.

Trichromatic theory: theory  stating that color perception is produced by three types of cone receptors in the retina that are particularly sensitive to different, but overlapping, ranges of wavelengths.

Opponent-process theory: theory stating that cells in the visual system respond to complementary pairs of red-green and blue-yellow colors.

Shape
-Figure-ground relationship: the principle by which we organize the perceptual field into stimuli that stand out and those that are left over.
Depth
-Convergence: binocular cue to depth and distance in which the muscle movement in our two eyes provide information on how deep or far away something is.
-Monocular cues: powerful depth cues available from the image in one eye, either the right or the left.
-Apparent movement: perception that a statuary object is moving
-Perceptual Constancy: recognition that objects are constant and unchanging even though sensory input about them is changing.
Sound
-Outer Ear: outermost part of ear, consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal.
-Middle ear: channels sound through the eardrum, hammer, anvil, and stirrup to the inner ear.
-Inner ear: includes the oval window, cochlea, and basilar membrane and whose function is to convert sound waves into neural impulses and send them to the brain.
Touch
-Thermoreceptors: sensory nerve endings under the skin that respond to changes in temperature at or near the skin and provide input to keep the body at 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit.
Taste
-Papillae: rounded bumps above the tongues surface that contain the taste buds, the receptors for taste.
Smell
-Olfactory epithelium: lining of the roof of the nasal cavity containing a sheet of receptor cells for smell.

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Development refers to the pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout the course of life.

-How people change physically and psychologically as they age.
-3 Levels: PHYSICAL PROCESSES (changes in an individuals biological nature), COGNITIVE PROCESS (changes in an individuals thought, intelligence, and language), SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL PROCESS (changes in an individuals relationships with other people, in emotions, and in personality)

Research Methods:
- Cross-sectional research: uses participants of different ages to compare how certain variables may change over the life span. Produces quick results. May be affected by historical events or cultural trends.
-Longitude Research: Examines one group of participants over time. Time consuming. Precisely measures the effects of development on a specific group.

Stage Theories:
-Continuity vs. Discontinuity: Continuity (develop at a steady rate from birth to death) Discontinuity (development happens in fits and the rate is variable. stage theories, discontinuous theories of development)
-Sigmund Freud: A. We develop through four psychosexual stages. B. Oral stage: Infants seek pleasure through their mouth. C. Anal Stage: develops during toilet training. D. Phallic Stage: babies reflex their gender; Oedipus complex and Electra complex. E. Latency Stage: period of calm; low psychosexual energy; most psychologists don't regard it as a separate stage; age 6-puberty. F. Genital Stage: focus of sexual pleasure is genitals; remain for the rest of life; fixation.

Cognitive Development:
-Jean Piaget: worked for Albert Binet, creator of the first intelligence test. Noticed that children of the same age gave similar answers. Hypothesis: they think in similar ways which differ from the ways of adults; let to theory of cognitive development. Theory: children view the world through schemata; cognitive rules we use to interpret the world. Assimilation: we incorporate our experiences into this existing schemata. When info violates our schemata, we accommodate and change our schemata.

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Adolescence: Crash Course Psychology #20

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Biological Foundations of Behavior
The Nervous System
- The body's electrochemical communication circuitry

Complexity: The orchestration of the billions of nerve cells in the brain allow you to talk, write, sing, and think. Your brain carries a multitude of functions as you are reading this- including seeing, reading, learning, and breathing.

Integration: Brain activity is integrated across the nervous system's various levels an parts through countless interconnections of brain cells and extensive pathways that link different parts of the brain and body.

Adaptability: In order to function in a constantly changing world, the brain must adapt to it.

- Plasticity: refers to the                       brains's special capacity                   for change.

Electrochemical Transmission:   The brain and the nervous system  function as an information-processing system powered by electrical impulses and chemical messengers. An impulse travels down a neuron and communicates with the next neuron using chemicals.

-Afferent nerves: (sensory
nerves) nerves that carry
information about the
external environment to the              brain and spinal cord via                    sensory receptors.
-Efferent nerves: (motor
nerves) nerves that carry
information out of the brain
and spinal cord to other
areas of the body.

The nervous system is divided into two parts: the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system

- Central nervous system
(CNS): The brain and spinal
cord
-Peripheral nervous System
(PNS): The network of
nerves that connects the
brain and spinal cord to other
parts of the body.
-Somatic nervous system:
The body system consisting
of the sensory nerves, whose
function is to convey
information from the skin
and muscles to the CNS
about sensations like pain
and temperature, and the
motor nerves, whose
function is to tell muscles
what to do.
-Autonomic nervous system:
The body system that takes              messages to and from the                body's internal organs,
monitoring such processes
as breathing, heart rate, and
digestion.
-Sympathetic nervous
system: The part of the
autonomic nervous system
that arouses the body.
-Parasympathetic nervous
system: The part of the
autonomic nervous system
that calms the body.

2 kinds of cells in the nervous system:

1.  Neurons: Handle the information-processing function.

2. Glial Cells: provide support and nutritional benefits to keep neurons running smoothly.

Cell structure:

Cell body: contains nucleus which directs the manufacture of substances that the neuron needs for growth and maintenance.

Dendrites: Tree-like fibers projecting from a neuron (receive information and orient it to the neuron's cell body).

Axon: Carries away information from the cell body toward other cells.

Myelin sheath: Layer of fat cells that encases and insulates most axons.

To transmit information to other neurons, a neuron sends brief electrical impulses through it's axon- which is encased in a membrane (also semipermeable because fluids and ions can sometimes flow into and out of it). Negative charges are present in the cell membrane and on the outside, the charge is positive. This polarization creates a voltage between the inside and outside of the axon wall- and is called the resting potential (bewteen -60 and -75 millivolts).

Action potential: brief wave of positive electrical charge that sweeps down the axon.

All-or-nothing principle: once the electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity (threshold), it fires and moves all the way down the axon without losing ant intensity.

Synapses: Tiny spaces between neurons; the gaps between neurons are referred to as synaptic gaps.

Neurotransmitters: Chemical substances that are stored in very tiny sacs within the terminal buttons and involved in transmitting information across a synaptic gap to the next neuron.

Neurochemical Messengers:

Acetylcholine (ACh): usually stimulates the firing of neurons and is involved in muscle action, learning, and memory. A deficiency in ACh =Alzheimer's.

GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid): believed to be the neurotransmitter present in 1/3 of the brains synapses. Plays a key function in the brain by inhibiting many neurons from firing; the brain's brake pedal (regulates neuron firing and control the precision of the signal being carried from one neuron to the next) Low levels of GABA are linked with anxiety.

Glutamate: key role in exciting many neurons to fire and is especially involved in learning and memory. Too much glutamate can overstimulate the brain and trigger migraines headaches or even seizures.

Norepinephrine: Stimulated by stress. Inhibits  the firing of neurons in the central nervous system, but excites the heart muscle, intestines, and urogential tract. Also helps control alertness. Low levels of norepinephine causes depressions, whereas high levels cause agitated states.

Dopamine: Controls voluntary movement and affects sleep, mood, attention, learning, and the ability to recognize opportunities for rewarding experiences. Low levels of dopamine are associated with Parkinson's disease, whereas high levels are associated with schizophrenia.

Serotonin: Regulation of sleep, mood, attention, and learning. Lowered levels are associated with depression.

Endorphins: Natural opiates- substances that depress nervous system activity and eliminate pain- that mainly stimulate the firing of neurons.

Oxytocin: Hormone and neurotransmitter that plays and important role in the experience of love and social bonding- powerful surge is prominent especially in women who have just given birth  ("love at first sight" with the child). Influx of oxytocin suggests that the women may seek bonds when under stress.

Drugs can mimic or increase the effects of a neurotransmitter, or they can block those effects.

Studying the nervous system:

1. Brain Lesioning: Abnormal disruption in the tissue of the brain resulting from injury or disease.  In the lab, scientists produce lesions in laboratory animals to study it's effects on the animal's behavior.

2. Electrical Recording: (EEG) records the brain electrical activity. Can asses brain damage, epilepsy, etc. Electrodes placed on the scalp record brain waves on a chart known as electroencephalogram.

3. Brain Imaging:

Computerized axial tomography: location and extent of damage involving stroke, language disorder, and memory loss.

Positron-emission tomography:  (PET scan) measures glucose in various areas of the brain and sends this to a computer for analysis.

Magnetic resonance imaging: (MRI) Magnetic fields around the body construct images of tissues and biochemical activities. Magnetic fields in an MRI is 50,000 times more powerful than the earth's magnetic field.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging: (fMRI) allows scientists to literally see whats happening in the brain while it is working.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation: (TMS) combined with brain imaging techniques to establish casual links between brain activity and behavior, to examine neuronal functioning following brain-injuring events such as accidents and strokes, and even treat some neurological and psychological disorders.

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Psychological Disorders

Anxiety

phobias

generalized anxiety disorders

panic disorder

Mood

depression

manic

bipolar

Dissociative

idenity disorder (DID)

amnesia

Personality

antisocial

paranoid

narcissism

Eating

anorexia

bulimia

-Others-

OCD

consistent unwanted thougths that cause someone to compulse or engage repeatedly in an action

PTSD

flashbacks or nightmares of a troubling event

ADHD

difficulty paying attention or sitting still

Schizophrenic

positive symptoms: excesses in behavior, mood, and thoughts; hallucinations

negative Symptoms: "flat affect,"catatonia

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Psychological Disorders: Crash Course Psychology #28

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-stream of consciousness: term used by William James to describe the mind as a continuous flow of changing sensations, images, thoughts, and feelings
~Defining Consciousness
-awareness: includes awareness of the self and thoughts about one's experiences
*metacognition: refers to thinking about thinking
-arousal: the physiological state of being engaged with the environment

~Stanilas Dehaene
-describes awareness as occurring in a global workspace that involves a variety of brain areas working in parallel
*areas: front-most part of the brain; anterior angulate (an area associated with acts of will); association areas)
-arousal is a physiological state determined by the reticular activating system, a network of structures including the brain stem, medulla, and thalamus
*refers to the ways that awareness is regulated

*higher level consciousness: involves controlled procession, in which individuals actively focus their efforts on attaining a goal; the most alert state of consciousness
*lower level consciousness: includes automatic processing that requires little attention, as well as daydreaming
*altered states of consciousness: can be produced by drugs, trauma, fatigue, possibly hypnosis, and sensor deprivation
*subconscious awareness: can occur when people are aware, as well when they are sleeping and dreaming
*no awareness: Freud's belief that some unconscious thoughts are too laden with anxiety and other negative emotions for consciousness to admit them

*circardian rhythms: daily behavioral or psychological cycles; involves the sleep/wake cycle, body temperature, blood pressure, and blood sugar level
*supreachiasmeitic nucleus (SCN): a small brain structure that uses input from the retina to synchronize to own rhythm with the daily cycle of light and dark; sends information to the hypothalamus and pineal gland to regulate daily rhythms such as temperature, hunger and the release of hormones; communicates with the reticular formation to regulate daily rhythms of sleep and wakefulness

~Sleep Stages:
-Stage 1: drowsy sleep. theta waves
-Stage 2: muscle activity decreases. sleep spindles
-Stage 3/4: delta waves. stage 3 is less than 50%; stage 4 is more than 50%
-Stage 5: REM

*insomnia: the inability to sleep
*somnabulism: the formal term for sleepwalking, which occurs during the deepest stages of sleep
*nightmares: peach at 3-6 yrs of age and then decline
*night terrors: peak at 5-& years of age, less common than nightmares, and occur during slow-wave 4 sleep
*narcolepsy: appears to involve problems with the hypothalamus and amygdala
*sleep apena: a sleep disorder in which individuals stop breathing because the windpipe fails to open or because brain processes involved in respiration fail to work

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Consciousness: Crash Course Psychology #8

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Psychology's Scientific Method

1. Observing some phenomenon
2. Formulating hypotheses and predictions
3.Testing through empirical research
4.Drawing conclusions
5. Evaluating theories

Types of psychological research
1.Descriptive Research

Observation

Surveys and Interviews

Case Studies

2. Correlation Research

Examine Variables

Correlation is not causation

3.Experimental Research

Determine relationship

Independent/dependent variables

Experimental and control groups

4. Longitudinal Design

Obtaining measures of the variables of interest in multiple waves over time

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Ethics in research - Intro to Psychology

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This video is part of an online course, Intro to Psychology. Check out the course here: https://www.udacity.com/course/ps001.

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The Nature of Memory
•memory: the retention of information or experience over time as the result of three key processes- encoding, storage, and retrieval.
°encoding: the first step in memory; the process by which information gets into memory storage.
°storage: the retention of information over time and how this information is represented in memory
°retrieval: the memory process that occurs when information that was retained in memory comes out of storage

Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart: first suggested that encoding can be influenced by levels of processing
•levels of processing: a continuum of memory processing from shallow to intermediate to deep, with deeper processing producing better memory.

•elaboration: the formation of different connections around a stimulus at a given level of memory encoding
•Atkinson-Shiffrin theory: theory stating that memory storage involves three separate systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory
° sensory memory: memory system that involves holding information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant, not much longer than the brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory, and other senses; time frames of a fraction of a second to several seconds
°short-term memory: time frames up to 30 seconds
°long-term memory: times frames up to a lifetime

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How We Make Memories: Crash Course Psychology #13

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•Social Cognition:
°the area of social psychology that explores how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information
°Alexander Todorov
°Judith Langlois
°Constantine Sedikides
°Shelley Taylor
°Barbara Fredrickson and Tomi-Ann Roberto
°Leon Festinger: Theory of Social Comparison
°Cognitive Dissonance Theory: we feel uneasy when we notice an inconsistency between what we believe and what we do
-Festinger and J. Merrill Carlsmith
-effort justification: means rationalizing the amount of effort we put into something
°Daryl Bem
°Carl Hovland
°Robert Cialdini
•Social Behavior
°John Dollard
°Frustration Aggression hypothesis: frustration always leads to aggression
°Leonard Berkowitz
°Dov Cohen
•Social Influence
°Solomon Asch: conducted this classic experiment on conformity in 1951
°Stanley Milgram
-experiment provides insight into such obedience
-Jerry Burger recreated it in 2006

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Social Thinking: Crash Course Psychology #37

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The Evolution of Psychology

Psychology: the scientific study of the human mind and its function.

behavioral

cognitive

humanistic

evolutionary

psychoanalysis

structuralism/functionalism

gestalt

Wilhelm Wundt: German Professor who made Psychology an independent study.

Stanley Hall: Established first American Psychology research lab and journal.

John B. Watson: founded the study of behaviorism

Sigmund Freud: created psychoanalysis procedure; "discovered" the unconscious

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Intro to Psychology: Crash Course Psychology #1