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The significance of Bacon's Rebellion is that it demonstrates the hardships and discontent of Virginia frontier settlers. They did not live well and resented their inability to settle further west on Indian lands. They also resented local government officials who were living well and offering no assistance with the "Indian problem."

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Bacon's Rebellion: The Declaration (1676)

by Nathaniel Bacon

Economic and social power became concentrated in late seventeenth-century Virginia, leaving laborers and servants with restricted economic independence. Governor William Berkeley feared rebellion: "six parts of Seven at least are Poore, Indebted, Discontented and Armed." Planter Nathaniel Bacon focused inland colonists' anger at local Indians, who they felt were holding back settlement, and at a distant government unwilling to aid them. In the summer and fall of 1676, Bacon and his supporters rose up and plundered the elite's estates and slaughtered nearby Indians. Bacon's Declaration challenged the economic and political privileges of the governor's circle of favorites, while announcing the principle of the consent of the people. Bacon's death and the arrival of a British fleet quelled this rebellion, but Virginia's planters long remembered the spectacle of white and black acting together to challenge authority.

1. For having, upon specious pretenses of public works, raised great unjust taxes upon the commonalty for the advancement of private favorites and other sinister ends, but no visible effects in any measure adequate; for not having, during this long time of his government, in any measure advanced this hopeful colony either by fortifications, towns, or trade.

2. For having abused and rendered contemptible the magistrates of justice by advancing to places of judicature scandalous and ignorant favorites.

3. For having wronged his Majesty's prerogative and interest by assuming monopoly of the beaver trade and for having in it unjust gain betrayed and sold his Majesty's country and the lives of his loyal subjects to the barbarous heathen.

4. For having protected, favored, and emboldened the Indians against his Majesty's loyal subjects, never contriving, requiring, or appointing any due or proper means of satisfaction for their many invasions, robberies, and murders committed upon us.

5. For having, when the army of English was just upon the track of those Indians, who now in all places burn, spoil, murder and when we might with ease have destroyed them who then were in open hostility, for then having expressly countermanded and sent back our army by passing his word for the peaceable demeanor of the said Indians, who immediately prosecuted their evil intentions, committing horrid murders and robberies in all places, being protected by the said engagement and word past of him the said Sir William Berkeley, having ruined and laid desolate a great part of his Majesty's country, and have now drawn themselves into such obscure and remote places and are by their success so emboldened and confirmed by their confederacy so strengthened that the cries of blood are in all places, and the terror and consternation of the people so great, are now become not only difficult but a very formidable enemy who might at first with ease have been destroyed.

6. And lately, when, upon the loud outcries of blood, the assembly had, with all care, raised and framed an army for the preventing of further mischief and safeguard of this his Majesty's colony.

7. For having, with only the privacy of some few favorites without acquainting the people, only by the alteration of a figure, forged a commission, by we know not what hand, not only without but even against the consent of the people, for the raising and effecting civil war and destruction, which being happily and without bloodshed prevented; for having the second time attempted the same, thereby calling down our forces from the defense of the frontiers and most weakly exposed places.

8. For the prevention of civil mischief and ruin amongst ourselves while the barbarous enemy in all places did invade, murder, and spoil us, his Majesty's most faithful subjects.

Of this and the aforesaid articles we accuse Sir William Berkeley as guilty of each and every one of the same, and as one who has traitorously attempted, violated, and injured his Majesty's interest here by a loss of a great part of this his colony and many of his faithful loyal subjects by him betrayed and in a barbarous and shameful manner exposed to the incursions and murder of the heathen. And we do further declare these the ensuing persons in this list to have been his wicked and pernicious councilors, confederates, aiders, and assisters against the commonalty in these our civil commotions.

Sir Henry Chichley William Claiburne Junior

Lieut. Coll. Christopher Wormeley Thomas Hawkins

William Sherwood Phillip Ludwell

John Page Clerke Robert Beverley

John Cluffe Clerke Richard Lee

John West Thomas Ballard

Hubert Farrell William Cole

Thomas Reade Richard Whitacre

Matthew Kempe Nicholas Spencer

Joseph Bridger

John West, Hubert Farrell, Thomas Reade, Math. Kempe

And we do further demand that the said Sir William Berkeley with all the persons in this list be forthwith delivered up or surrender themselves within four days after the notice hereof, or otherwise we declare as follows.

That in whatsoever place, house, or ship, any of the said persons shall reside, be hid, or protected, we declare the owners, masters, or inhabitants of the said places to be confederates and traitors to the people and the estates of them is also of all the aforesaid persons to be confiscated. And this we, the commons of Virginia, do declare, desiring a firm union amongst ourselves that we may jointly and with one accord defend ourselves against the common enemy. And let not the faults of the guilty be the reproach of the innocent, or the faults or crimes of the oppressors divide and separate us who have suffered by their oppressions.

These are, therefore, in his Majesty's name, to command you forthwith to seize the persons above mentioned as traitors to the King and country and them to bring to Middle Plantation and there to secure them until further order, and, in case of opposition, if you want any further assistance you are forthwith to demand it in the name of the people in all the counties of Virginia.

Nathaniel Bacon

General by Consent of the people.

William Sherwood

Source: "Declaration of Nathaniel Bacon in the Name of the People of Virginia, July 30, 1676," Massachusetts Historical Society Collections, 4th ser., 1871, vol. 9: 184-87.

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Bacon's Rebellion: The Declaration (1676)

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Economic and social power became concentrated in late seventeenth-century Virginia, leaving laborers and servants with restricted economic independence. Governor William Berkeley feared rebellion: "six parts of Seven at least are Poore, Indebted, Discontented and Armed." Planter Nathaniel Bacon focused inland colonists' anger at local Indians, who they felt were holding back settlement, and at a distant government unwilling to aid them.

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Analyze how the search for economic resources affected social and political developments from the colonial period through Reconstruction.

Consider the different economic activities of the colonizers and how they relate to the environmental resources in their areas. For example, the French engaged in the fur trade because they initially explored the river systems where beaver fur was abundant.

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Explain how and why people moved within the Americas before contact and to and within the Americas after contact and colonization.

This objective asks us to trace migrations between 1607-1754 and explain why and how they happened.

Consider the Great Migration of Puritans from England.

Consider the regional explorations of Spain, France, and England.

Consider the migration of Scots-Irish immigrants into western Virginia and North Carolina.

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KC 2.3.II Increasing Anglicization in the Early 18th-Century

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KC 2.3.II Increasing Anglicization in the Early 18th-Century

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The Great Migration led to an increasing Protestant-Anglo society in the Thirteen Colonies. Even so, the British government had difficulty integrating the Thirteen Colonies into a truly mercantilist economic system (i.e., the Navigation Acts) due to colonial smuggling (New England dominated trade) and continued conflicts with American Indians. For these reasons, the period from 1650-1754 is known as one of salutary neglect.

In addition, English colonists were beginning to form a new identity based on their experiences with local government, evolving ideas of local liberty, political thought of the Enlightenment, greater religious independence and diversity, and perceived corruption in the imperial system.

Consider how the Great Awakening, the Enlightenment and republican ideals helped create a colonial mindset that was different than that of Englishmen.

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Key changes in the Atlantic World include:

1. the evolution of the slave trade

2. the Anglicization of the colonies

3. the development of new social hierarchies in the Americas based on race.

Refer back to Period 1 for the evolution of the slave trade and its effects on the Atlantic World.

Factors that promoted Anglicization in the colonies include: 1) political institutions like the House of Burgesses; 2) commercial ties with Great Britain (triangular trade); 3) use of British common law; 4) the development of print media; 5) Protestant evangelism (the Great Awakening); 6) religious toleration (i.e., Maryland Toleration Act; 7) spread of Enlightenment ideas (John Locke in particular).

New social hierarchies developed in the different regions of North America. Both the French and the Spanish intermixed with Indian and African populations resulting in metís and mestizo populations respectively. The Spanish developed a casta system that designated status based on bloodlines, but accepted racial gradiations. In the British colonies, because slave status was designated by race/skin color without accepted gradiations, there was very little intermixing among British colonists and Indian and African peoples.

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The attached chart provides some information on cultural values for the Atlantic World players.

Consider how the commercial interests of the Europeans affected Indian tribes. (Beaver Wars, King Philip's War)

Consider how native peoples reacted to attempts at religious conversion by Europeans (praying towns, Pueblo Revolt).

Consider how Indian peoples were affected by exposure to European trade goods (alcohol, weapons)

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The main sources of resource competition include land, river access, and the fur trade.

1. Land - the desire for land would led to conflict between the Powhatan Confederacy and the Jamestown settlers in 1622. It led to conflict between the Puritans and the Wampanoag in King Philip's War.

2. River access - control of communication lines on the Mississippi between the French and English led to the Chickasaw Wars of 1739. The Chickasaw were allied with the British and the Choctaw with the English.

3. Fur Trade - competition over the fur trade led to the Beaver Wars of the 1640's and the Pequot War in 1637.

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KC 2.1.III Comparing the Regions of the British Colonies

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KC 2.1.III Comparing the Regions of the British Colonies

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Consider the environmental and geographical variations that led to regional differences.

This chart does not differentiate between the Lower South and Chesapeake colonies. Compare these two regions.

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KC 2.1.II Development of British-American Slavery

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KC 2.1.II Development of British-American Slavery

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This online reading provides a good overview on the development of slavery in the British colonies and the effects of Bacon's Rebellion on the demand for indentured servants.

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Consider the motives, locations, and colonization models of each European nation.

Motives: Profit and Power (religious conversion applies to power)

Locations: See map below

Models of Colonization:

Spain - tight administrative control using the encomienda system and mission system/integration with native peoples

France - focus on exploration and trade alliances with native peoples/integration with native peoples

England - permanent settlements based on agriculture/removal of native peoples

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The Beaver Wars refer to a series of battles between the French and their Indian allies (the Huron) and the Dutch and their Indian allies (the Iroquois) over who would control the fur trade. Ultimately, the Huron were dispersed (many dying of European diseases) and the Iroquois became the dominant Indian liaison for the British in the fur trade. The Iroquois would be the strongest British Indian ally in the French and Indian War (1754-1763). The Beaver Wars are significant because they provide another illustrative example of European-Indian relations and the effects of European contact on native peoples.

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This event is important because it set a precedent for religious toleration in the English colonies. The Puritans in New England were intolerant of religious deviants (see Roger Williams and Anne Hutchison) and Maryland was a Catholic colony being overrun by Protestants. The law was intended to afford some protection to Catholics.

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This event is significant because it is an illustrative example of English-Indian relations (conflict). It can be compared to the 1621 alliance with the Wampanoag to illustrate a change and to the Powhatan Confederacy attack in 1622 to illustrate how encroachment onto Indian lands was the primary source of conflict. Metacomet, chief of the Wampanoag (known by the Puritans as King Philip) waged war on the Puritans with his allies and the result was devastating to the Indians. In proportion to population, King Philip's war marks one of the bloodiest wars in American history.

The website below is a great NPS site with good information on Roger Williams and King Philip's War.

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Roger Williams had won the respect of his Colonial English neighbors for his diplomatic skill in keeping the economically and militarily powerful Narragansett on friendly terms with local English settlers. But relations between Plymouth Colony and the Wampanoag deteriorated over the same period. By the 1670s the appropriation of Indian land by the English and a series of hostile incidents between the Wampanoag sachem King Philip (Metacom) and the Plymouth Colony resulted in the devastating conflict known as King Philip's War. When the war broke out in June of 1675, King Phillip sent the old men, women, and children of the tribe across Narragansett Bay to live safely with the Narragansett. These refugees would play a roll in the expansion of this war.

The Narragansett had maintained their neutrality during the early months of King Phillip's War at the urging of Roger Williams. In October of 1675 with Roger's help, the Narragansett signed a treaty of neutrality with the Massachusetts Bay Colony promising they would not join with Phillip. After the signing, the authorities in Boston demanded that the Narragansett turn over Wampanoag refugees as hostages. The Narragansett considered this demand but could not betray the safety of those who had sough refuge with them. The Narragansett answer to the English in Boston was "Not a Wampanoag nor the paring of a Wampanoag's nail." The Narragansett would not turn over these refugees.

Fearing an alliance between the Narragansett and the Wampanoag, the English assembled a force of approximately 1000 soldiers and mercenaries from Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, and Hartford and invaded Rhode Island. In doing so, they violated Rhode Island's Charter:
And it is hereby declared, that it shall not bee lawfull to or for the rest of the Collonies to invade or molest the native Indians, or any other inhabittants, inhabiting within the bounds and lymitts hereafter mentioned (they having subjected themselves unto us. and being by us taken into our speciall protection), without the knowledge and consent of the Governour and Company of our Collony of Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations.
Known as the United Colonies, this group attacked the Narragansett's principal winter settlement in the Great Swamp (South Kingstown) in December, 1675. The Great Swamp Fight, or Massacre as it is sometimes called, cost the lives of three hundred Native American men and almost four hundred women and children. This attack pushed the Narragansett into joining forces with the Phillip and the Wampanoag.

Recovering, the Narragansett launched an offensive in the spring of 1676. Canonchet, the war leader of the Narragansett, organized a large army of almost 2000 warriors in southern Rhode Island. He then went into central Massachusetts and organized another large army of almost 1500 warriors from several tribes, uniting them all against the English. This army in Massachusetts marched east and forced the abandonment of most of the English settlements in central Massachusetts. The southern army began marching north along the coast, where most of the English had settled. The towns of Wickford, Warwick, and Pawtuxet were burned along with almost all of the mainland settlements and farms on the western side of Narragansett Bay. On March 26 a large war party led by chief sachem Canonchet destroyed a company of approximately sixty-five Englishmen soldiers and twenty Indian allies led by Captain Michael Pierce along the Blackstone River in present-day Central Falls. Days later the Narragansett converged upon Providence.

Roger went out to meet with the leaders of this army. Their discussions began with Roger scolding the Narragansett for becoming involved in the war. When this led nowhere, he attempted to bluff the Narragansett by saying they were not good fighters, and that 100 English could hold them off. His bluff was called when the Narragansett accepted a face off between 100 English and 100 Narragansett. He reacted by doing what he was known to do best, negotiate. He asked for the Narragansett to give him their demands. He proposed to write them down and send them to Boston by runner so that the death and destruction could end. The Narragansett rejected his proposal and burned Providence.

Even with the neutrality treaty, the English had attacked the Narragansett. With the loss of life that followed, the Narragansett felt they could no longer afford to trust the word of any of the English. With most of his town aflame, Roger turned to walk away. He was warned by the Narragansett that there were some young braves on his side of the river that might 'do him some mischief,' and he could safely return to the blockhouse by walking along the waters edge.

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Roger Williams: King Philip's War - Roger Williams National Memorial (U.S. National Park Service)

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Roger Williams had won the respect of his Colonial English neighbors for his diplomatic skill in keeping the economically and militarily powerful Narragansett on friendly terms with local English settlers. But relations between Plymouth Colony and the Wampanoag deteriorated over the same period.

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The significance of this event is that it is one of the first limitations placed on colonists that will lead to rebellion. A period of salutary neglect between 1651 and 1764 will delay colonial reaction to these restrictions.

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1660's The first Colonial Slave Codes Enacted

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1660's The first Colonial Slave Codes Enacted

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The significance of the slave codes is that African-American slavery changed to a perpetual form of slavery based on race and on the condition of the mother. This created a system of chattel slavery where African Americans lost any rights as human beings and were considered property under law.

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1649 Commonwealth of England established

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1649 Commonwealth of England established

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This event is significant because the English monarchy was overthrown by the Parliament, setting a precedent for overthrowing tyrannical kings. It united England, Ireland, and Scotland as the British Isles and was ruled by Oliver Cromwell (1653-1659) and then his son, Richard Cromwell (1659-1660). The monarchy was re-established with Charles I in 1660.

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This event is significant because it is an illustrative example of European-Indian relations. The Pequot War evolved due to competition between the Dutch and English for control of the regional fur trade. The Pequot had worked with the Dutch in a tribute-paying system until the English arrived. Once the English arrived in Connecticut and decided they wanted a piece of the fur trade, they allied with the Narragansett against the Pequot and annihilated them. This brutality set an example to other tribes and established English dominance in the region.

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1622 Powhatan Confederacy attacks Jamestown settlers

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1622 Powhatan Confederacy attacks Jamestown settlers

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This is significant as an illustrative example of English-Indian relations (conflict). The Powhatan Confederacy killed 347 Virginia settlers after the settlers continued to expand on their land. This can be contrasted to the alliance between Puritans and Wampanoags in 1621 (cooperation). When comparing these events, consider the factors that foster cooperation and create conflict.

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1621 Puritans sign a treaty with the Wampanoag

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1621 Puritans sign a treaty with the Wampanoag

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This event is significant as an illustrative example of European-Indian relations. With the help of Squanto, the Puritans and Wampanoag agreed to help each other and form an alliance against other tribes. This is the basis of the U.S. Thanksgiving holiday.

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1619 The first House of Burgesses is established in Jamestown

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1619 The first House of Burgesses is established in Jamestown

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This event is significant because it was the first representative government in the English colonies and establishes an expectation for representative government among English colonists in America. This form of representation is guaranteed to Englishmen under the Magna Carta.

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1620 The Mayflower lands at Plymouth Colony

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1620 The Mayflower lands at Plymouth Colony

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This event is significant because the Puritan separatists who founded Plymouth set the political, economic, and social foundations of New England society. They also signed the first document of self-government in the colonies (the Mayflower Compact).

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1619 The first slaves are brought to the English colonies.

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1619 The first slaves are brought to the English colonies.

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This event is significant because it marks the beginning of a long-lasting trend in U.S. labor. The slave system will last from 1619-1877. Slavery will also be a controversial issue that is much-debated until its end.

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As early as 1618, King James I had granted a patent to a company that wanted to trade for gold and precious woods in Africa. Other groups also received rights to trade in Africa, but never dealt with slaves in any major way. English involvement in the slave trade would intensify after 1663, when a new patent was issued to the Company of Royal Adventurers. England had realized the money to be made trading slaves to the West Indies and Virginia. By 1668, over a quarter of the new company's profits was derived from the slave trade.

Volunteer-in-Park Jerome Bridges portrays Anthony Johnson, an African who arrived at Jamestown in the first quarter of the seventeenth century.
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Africans in Virginia's Early Years
The first documented arrival of Africans to Virginia was in 1619, when an English warship, White Lion, arrived at Point Comfort in present-day Hampton. The African captives had been forcibly removed from a Portuguese slave ship subsequent to being attacked by the White Lion and another English warship, Treasurer, while sailing in the Bay of Campeche. The White Lion's English captain, John Jope, carried letters of marque from the Dutch Prince Maurice making it legal for his ship to sail as a privateer and attack any Spanish or Portuguese ships it encountered. The "20 and odd" Africans on the White Lion were traded to colony officials for food. These Africans were much-needed workers to cultivate tobacco, the new cash crop of Virginia. The institution of slavery slowly crept into Virginia legislation. By 1660, slavery as we think of it today was established in Virginia. Tobacco was extremely labor-intensive, and more and more workers were needed. The sale of Africans to Virginia planters promised to be a profitable endeavor.

In a detail from NPS artist Keith Rocco's painting of a Jamestown waterside scene in the 1660s, enslaved African load hogshead barrels of tobacco aboard a ship bound for England.
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The Company's Beginnings
At first, trading directly with other European countries was common in Virginia. But the Navigation Act of 1660 brought such relations to a close. Only English-owned ships could enter colonial ports. The Crown had realized the wealth that could be achieved through trade and wanted that wealth for England. Once the Navigation Act was passed, Virginia planters were forced to rely on the Mother Country to supply them with their labor force. To address this dearth, the Royal African Company was formed in 1672.

In a detail from NPS artist Keith Rocco's painting of a Jamestown waterside scene in the 1660s, newly-arrrived Africans are inspected by an English settler.
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Agents in Jamestown
Merchants in London associated with residents of Jamestown were also heavily involved in the slave trade. John Jeffreys, one of these merchants, owned part of a rowhouse in New Towne, and historians speculate that slaves were sold in front of the building on a wharf. The Royal African Company also had agents in Virginia to whom slaves were delivered. These agents received a seven-percent commission on sales. John Page, Colonel Nathaniel Bacon and William Sherwood were all prominent Virginians who served as factors, agents or representatives for the Company.

The Company's Decline
Many factors contributed to the loss of the Royal African Company's monopoly in 1689. First and foremost, the Company was not achieving a profit; as a matter of fact, it resorted to borrowing money to pay dividends. Then there were the complaints from the planters. The demand for slaves was always too high for the Company alone to supply, and the planters urged that the monopoly be abolished so that more slaves could be imported. Finally, the Company, which was always heavily patronized by the Stuart monarchs, fell out of favor when James II was deposed and William and Mary came to the throne.

Sources Consulted:

Donnan, Elizabeth. Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade to America: Volume I (1441 - 1700). Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1930.

Kingsbury, Susan Myra. The Records of the Virginia Company of London (in four volumes). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office: 1906.

McCartney, Martha W. ( A Study of the Africans and African Americans on Jamestown Island and at Green Spring, 1619 - 1803. Williamsburg, Virginia: National Park Service and Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 2003. This reference is available on-line through this link. Please note this is a PDF document and requires Adobe Reader to open. It is a 4.5 MB file consisting of 262 pages)

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The Royal African Company - Supplying Slaves to Jamestown - Historic Jamestowne Part of Colonial National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)

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As early as 1618, King James I had granted a patent to a company that wanted to trade for gold and precious woods in Africa. Other groups also received rights to trade in Africa, but never dealt with slaves in any major way.

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The founding of Jamestown is significant because it was the first successful English settlement in North America. It established England's presence in the New World and marks a beginning point of English domination on the continent. It also represents the motivations of the first English settlers - profit for their joint-stock company.

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Chronology is an important part of studying history, but understanding the significance of the event and its connections to other events, people, and concepts are equally important. You do not need to remember exact dates for most events, but you should be able to place events within the period and within a decade or two.

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When referring to historical figures, always include the last name. The last name without a first name is perfectly acceptable unless the person will be confused with another person of the same last name.

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The main objective of this period is to trace the events that led to English dominance in North America.

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Organizing thematically is a great way to recognize patterns over time. While we can organize chronologically within a period to understand what happened, we must also analyze historical information by comparing events and time periods; recognizing cause-and-effect relationships, identifying and comparing different periodizations, and identifying continuities and changes over time.

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Analyze the factors behind competition, cooperation, and conflict among different societies and social groups in North America during the colonial period.

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Analyze how innovations in markets, transportation, and technology affected the economy and the different regions of North America from the colonial period to the end of the Civil War.

This objective asks us to identify innovations and how they affected colonial regional economies.

Consider how the introduction of firearms affected the fur trade.

Consider how new markets in North America led to mercantilist trade policies.

Consider how the demand for slaves in colonial America led to the growth of the slave trade.

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Explain how conceptions of group identity and autonomy emerged out of cultural interactions between colonizing groups, Africans, and American Indians in the colonial era.

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Explain how free and forced migration to and within different parts of North America caused regional development, cultural diversity and blending, and political and social conflicts through the 19th century.

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Analyze the effects that migration, disease and warfare had on the American Indian population after contact with Europeans.

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Compare the cultural values and attitudes of different Europeans, African Americans, and native peoples in the colonial period and explain how contact affected intergroup relationships and conflicts.

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Explain the development of labor systems such as slavery, indentured servitude and free labor from the colonial period through the end of the 18th century.

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Explain how patterns of exchanging commodities, peoples, diseases, and ideas around the Atlantic World developed after European contact and shaped North American colonial-era societies.

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Explain how the exchange of ideas among different parts of the Atlantic World shaped belief systems and independence movements into the early 19th century.

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Explain how imperial competition and exchange of commodities across both sides of the Atlantic Ocean influenced the origins and patterns of development of North American societies in the colonial period.

This objective asks us to understand triangular trade patterns in the colonies.

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Analyze how competing conceptions of national identity were expressed in the development political institutions and cultural values from the late colonial period through the antebellum period.

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Analyze how changing religious beliefs, Enlightenment beliefs, and republican thought shaped the politics, culture, and society of the colonial era through the early Republic.