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Ilulissat Icefjord

Located on the west coast of Greenland, 250 km north of the Arctic Circle, Greenland's Ilulissat Icefjord is the sea mouth of Sermeq Kujalleq, one of the few glaciers through which the Greenland ice cap reaches the sea. Sermeq Kujalleq is one of the fastest and most active glaciers in the world. It annually calves over 35 km3 of ice, i.e. 10% of the production of all Greenland calf ice and more than any other glacier outside Antarctica. Studied for over 250 years, it has helped to develop our understanding of climate change and icecap glaciology. The combination of a huge ice-sheet and the dramatic sounds of a fast-moving glacial ice-stream calving into a fjord covered by icebergs makes for a dramatic and awe-inspiring natural phenomenon.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Fjord glacé d'Ilulissat

Situé sur la côte ouest du Groenland, à 250 km au nord du cercle arctique, le fjord glacé d'Ilulissat est l'embouchure maritime de Sermeq Kujalleq, un des rares glaciers à travers lesquels la glace de l'inlandsis groenlandais atteint la mer. Sermeq Kujalleq est l'un des glaciers les plus rapides et les plus actifs du monde. Son vêlage annuel de plus de 35 km3, soit 10 % de toute la glace de vêlage (les icebergs) du Groenland, dépasse celui de tous les autres glaciers du monde en dehors de l'Antarctique. Étudié depuis plus de 250 ans, le site a permis d'enrichir notre compréhension du changement climatique et de la glaciologie de la calotte glaciaire. L'immense couche de glace associée au fracas impressionnant d'une coulée de glace rapide vêlant dans un fjord couvert d'icebergs crée un phénomène naturel spectaculaire et grandiose.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

イルリサット・アイスフィヨルド

グリーンランドの西海岸に位置するイルリサットは、40万haにおよぶ地域であり、うち32万haが氷河、3万8600haがフィヨルドとなっている。セルメク・クジャレク氷河は、標高1200mから海まで連続した、世界でもたぐいまれな氷河である。この氷河から分離される氷の量は毎年40k㎡（グリーンランド全土から分離する氷の10％）にもおよび、南極大陸以外では最大量である。また、この氷河は世界でも最も速く（毎年7㎞）流れるものとして知られている。

source: NFUAJ

IJsfjord Ilulissat

IJsfjord Ilulissat omvat en ligt aan de westkust van Groenland, 250 kilometer ten noorden van de poolcirkel. De fjord vormt de zeemond van Semeq Kujalleq, een van de weinige gletsjers waardoor de Groenlandse ijskap de zee bereikt. Sermeq Kujalleq is een van de snelste en actiefste gletsjers ter wereld. Meer dan 250 jaar studie naar dit gebied heeft bijgedragen aan het begrijpen van klimaatverandering en de ijskapglaciologie. De combinatie van een enorme ijskap en de dramatische geluiden van een snelle gletsjerijsstroom in een fjord van ijsbergen, maakt van dit gebied een indrukwekkend natuurverschijnsel.

Source: unesco.nl

Outstanding Universal Value
Brief synthesis
Located on the west coast of Greenland, 250 km north of the Arctic Circle, Greenland's Ilulissat Icefjord is a tidal fjord covered with floating brash and massive ice, as it is situated where the Sermeq Kujalleq glacier calves ice into the sea. In winter, the area is frozen solid. One of the few places where ice from the Greenland ice cap enters the sea, Sermeq Kujalleq is also one of the fastest moving (40 m per day) and most active glaciers in the world. Its annual calving of over 46 cubic kilometres of ice, i.e. 10% of all Greenland calf ice, is more than any other glacier outside Antarctica, and it is still actively eroding the fjord bed. The combination of a huge ice-sheet and the dramatic sounds of a fast-moving glacial ice-stream calving into a fjord full of icebergs make for a dramatic and awe-inspiring natural phenomenon.

The Greenland ice cap is the only remnant in the Northern Hemisphere of the continental ice sheets from the Quaternary Ice Age. The oldest ice is estimated to be 250,000 years old, and provides detailed information on past climatic changes and atmospheric conditions from 250,000 to around 11,550 years ago, when climate became more stable. Studies made over the last 250 years demonstrate that during the last ice age, the climate fluctuated between extremely cold and warmer periods, while today the ice cap is being maintained by an annual accumulation of snow that matches the loss through calving and melting at the margins. This phenomenon has helped to develop our understanding of climate change and icecap glaciology.

Criterion (vii): The combination of a huge ice sheet and a fast moving glacial ice-stream calving into a fjord covered by icebergs is a phenomenon only seen in Greenland and Antarctica. Ilulissat offers both scientists and visitors easy access for a close view of the calving glacier front as it cascades down from the ice sheet and into the ice-choked fjord. The wild and highly scenic combination of rock, ice and sea, along with the dramatic sounds produced by the moving ice, combine to present a memorable natural spectacle.

Criterion (viii): The Ilulissat Icefjord is an outstanding example of a stage in the Earth's history: the last ice age of the Quaternary Period. The ice-stream is one of the fastest (40 m per day) and most active in the world. Its annual calving of over 46 km ³ of ice accounts for 10% of the production of all Greenland calf ice, more than any other glacier outside Antarctica. The glacier has been the object of scientific attention for 250 years and, along with its relative ease of accessibility, has significantly added to the understanding of ice-cap glaciology, climate change and related geomorphic processes.
Integrity
The property is of sufficient size to adequately represent the geological process of the ice fjord, i.e. the fast-moving ice-stream, the relevant portion of the inland icecap, the glacial front and the fjord. The boundaries of the property are clearly defined in relation to the logical topographic criteria of the natural watershed, and the settlements of the nearby villages of Ilimanaq and Ilulissat are excluded from the property. Along with climatic limitations and the fact that no roads exist at the site, the area's physical features retain a high degree of natural integrity.

The property has effective legal protection and a sound planning framework, including the prohibition of any mining in the protected area. However, increased management will be required as pressures from tourism and resource harvesting continue to grow.
Protection and management requirements
The property is protected and conserved by an established framework of government legislation and protective designations and by local planning policies. The main legislative measure is the Greenland Parliament Act No. 29 of 18 December 2003 on nature protection. This act is the foundation framework for the protection of species, ecosystems and protected areas. Ilulissat itself is protected under the Greenland Home Rule Government Order No. 10 of 15 June 2007 on protection of Ilulissat Icefjord. The area bordering the property is further controlled by national regulations on waste disposal, use of snowmobiles, building constructions and landscape protection. Extensive hunting and fishing occurs in a portion of the property, and a special hunting law is enforced and monitored to ensure that the exploitation of biological resources in the area is sustainable. The property itself is managed cooperatively by a Board consisting of representatives from the Ministry of Environment and Nature and the Municipality of Ilulissat.

A comprehensive management plan has been developed and the property will benefit from a monitoring programme. Particular attention was paid to the rapidly increasing tourism in the area, and in particular pressures emanating from cruise ships visiting the site and helicopter traffic. Regulations concerning visits to the property by boat, foot, helicopter and dog sledge; the management of waste and waste disposal; building constructions; exploitation of biological resources in the area, and protection of the cultural heritage sites within the property have been put into place. Signage and visitor infrastructure have been upgraded, and a visitor centre in the town of Ilulissat is planned.

All land in the reserve is state-owned and no permanent settlements are allowed. Nearby construction is also strictly controlled. Visitor access to the area is limited by the wilderness character of the landscape, with no roads or human-made structures. Management issues such as crowding (from cruise tourism) and erosion are limited to a small area close to the town of Ilulissat. The protection of the property will be further enhanced when a planned buffer zone is adopted.

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Ilulissat Icefjord Located on the west coast of Greenland, 250 km north of the Arctic Circle, Greenland's Ilulissat Icefjord is the sea mouth of Sermeq Kujalleq, one of the few glaciers through which the Greenland ice cap reaches the sea. Sermeq Kujalleq is one of the fastest and most active glaciers in the world.

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Outstanding Universal Value

Kujataa is a sub-arctic farming landscape located in the southern region of Greenland. The cultural landscape is comprised of dramatic natural features and processes that have shaped the farming and grazing traditions in two distinct periods and cultures: Norse Greenlandic people (10th to 15th century) and modern Inuit farmers (18th century to present). The property consists of five components, which together represent the demographic and administrative core of the two farming cultures.

Although these two cultures are distinct, each are pastoral farming cultures situated on the Arctic margins of viable agriculture, relying on a combination of farming, pastoralism and marine mammal hunting. The cultural landscape represents the earliest introduction of farming to the Arctic, and the Norse expansion of settlement beyond Europe. The Norse farming settlements laid the physical foundations for Inuit farming in Greenland many centuries later.

The attributes of the property include the structures and archaeological sites and artefacts associated with the Norse settlement of Kujataa; the home fields of the farms, pasturelands and meadows; vegetation patterns associated with farming and grazing; the landscape settings (including landforms and ecological characteristics) of the five components; Inuit farming houses and associated buildings (listed historic buildings); and a wealth of intangible attributes including language, historical place names, ecological knowledge, crafts and seasonal rituals and activities.

Criterion (v): Kujataa is an outstanding example of human settlement. Although marginal for farming, the relatively mild climate of southern Greenland has allowed the development of settlements based on farming and hunting during two major historical periods: the Norse Greenlandic farming settlement from the 10th to the 15th centuries, and Inuit-European farming from the 1780s to the present.

Norse Greenlandic and Inuit farming settlement have resulted in distinctive and vulnerable cultural landscape based on land use practices within a specific ecological niche that could support farming and pastoralism when complemented with the hunting of marine mammals. The specific climatic conditions that allowed two different cultural traditions to develop land use, settlement and subsistence within this extreme setting have allowed the Inuit farming landscape to reveal and visualize the earlier Norse settlements in an exceptional way.
Integrity
All the elements necessary to convey the Outstanding Universal Value occur within the five components of the property, including key attributes of the Norse and Inuit farming systems. They illustrate different facets of farm types, land use patterns, landforms and cultural histories. In some places, modern Inuit farms juxtapose relict Norse farms, while others are relatively undisturbed archaeological landscapes where sheep grazing maintains the pastoral character of the abandoned Norse farm sites.

The cultural landscape encompasses landscapes, farming and settlement patterns and archaeological attributes.

The condition of the attributes is satisfactory, and while there are potential threats, these are adequately managed. The integrity of the property is considered vulnerable due to the range and scale of proposed mining, energy and infrastructure development projects in this area of southern Greenland. The commitments made by the State Party to establish legal protection for the buffer zones will assist in improving the integrity of the property.
Authenticity
The authenticity of the cultural landscape is based on its pastoral character, introduced from the 10th century AD. The archaeological evidence of Norse Greenlandic settlement and farming are found at a substantial number of heritage sites within the components and the form, materials and design of farm buildings and monumental architecture are from both historical periods. The settlement patterns of the Norse landscape are legible in and between the selected components.

Conservation of architectural attributes has aimed to ensure their structural stability; and most archaeological sites have not been modified by human activity since their abandonment. Detailed historical documentation supports the authenticity of many attributes.

Further documentation of the Palaeo-Eskimo, Thule Inuit and post-18th century farming landscapes, including the mapping of hunting resources and sites, will assist in further understanding of the cultural landscape.
Protection and management requirements
A number of legal protection mechanisms apply to the property: The Heritage Protection Act (Act no. 11, 19 May 2010) on Cultural Heritage Protection and Conservation; Executive Order on Cultural Heritage Protection (approved in July 2016, and entered into force on 1 August 2016); the Museum Act (Inatsisartut Act no. 8, 3 June 2015); and the Planning Act (Act no. 17, 17 November 2010). In addition to protection of material cultural heritage, the Museum Act protects immaterial (intangible) culture heritage in accordance with the 2003 UNESCO Convention on the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (ratified by Denmark in 2009).

The Heritage Protection Act creates protection for ancient monuments, historic/listed buildings and historical areas.

Protection of the landscape and natural attributes is provided by a wide range of laws and planning regulations, including the Acts on Preservation of Natural Amenities, Environmental Protection and Catchment and Hunting as well as laws pertaining to the different land uses within and outside the property, and the Executive Order on Cultural Heritage Protection (July 2016). The Nature Protection Act (Act no. 29, 18 December 2003) provides for the management of landscape values and the sustainable use of natural resources, including agriculture. The Executive Order on Cultural Heritage Protection (July 2016) provides the essential overall protection for the cultural heritage and attributes of the World Heritage property.

Aside from ongoing environmental pressures (including those associated with climate change), the main threats to the property are mining and infrastructure development, and intensification of agriculture. Greater attention and detailed planning is also needed for the area's future tourism management.

As land is not privately owned in Greenland, activities and constructions require land use approvals from the Kujalleq Municipality or the Government of Greenland. The Greenland National Museum and Archives is one of the authorities responsible for reviewing land use applications as relating to protected heritage values; and the Greenland National Museum and Archives function as advisory consultant in land use project developments, as well as monitoring of heritage values. Any disturbance and demolition of heritage sites is prohibited and punishable by law.

Approvals for activities related to mineral resources are subject to strict legal requirements through the Mineral Resources Act (7 December 2009). Exploitation license applications are subject to for example Environmental Impact Assessment and Social Impact Assessment (each with public hearing and consultation requirements) and must have an impact mitigation plan. The Greenland National Museum and Archives can require archaeological investigations. Heritage Impact Assessment processes are needed for development proposals, mining exploration and changes to agricultural land uses.

The property is governed and managed by a steering group with representatives from the Government of Greenland, the Greenland National Museum and Archives, Kujalleq Municipality, village councils, farmers, the Danish Agency for Culture and Palaces and the tourism industry. Engagement of local people in the nomination and management processes has been well-established.

The management system provides a framework for decision-making, and will be implemented from public financial commitments. The management plan, in which priorities are defined, such as sustainable tourism, local and indigenous ownership, engagement and sustainable development, has been approved by the Government of Greenland and Kujalleq Municipality. The day-to-day management will be carried out by a local secretariat headed by a site manager and field staff consisting of one or more park rangers working in close collaboration with the authorities represented in the steering group.

Resources for implementation of the management system could be increased, and additional mechanisms are necessary for sustained and direct engagement with authorities responsible for mining approvals and monitoring, and coordination amongst relevant organisations should be further strengthened. A National Tourism Strategy (2016-2020) foreshadows enhancement of harbours and the airport, and the Tourism Strategy of the Kujalleq Municipality (2015- 2020) has a focus on improved coordination and branding initiatives focussing on the Arctic Vikings and agro-tourism.

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Kujataa Greenland: Norse and Inuit Farming at the Edge of the Ice Cap

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Outstanding Universal Value Kujataa is a sub-arctic farming landscape located in the southern region of Greenland. The cultural landscape is comprised of dramatic natural features and processes that have shaped the farming and grazing traditions in two distinct periods and cultures: Norse Greenlandic people (10th to 15th century) and modern Inuit farmers (18th century to present).

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Aasivissuit - Nipisat. Inuit Hunting Ground between Ice and Sea

Located inside the Arctic Circle in the central part of West Greenland, the property contains the remains of 4,200 years of human history. It is a cultural landscape which bears witness to its creators' hunting of land and sea animals, seasonal migrations and a rich and well-preserved tangible and intangible cultural heritage linked to climate, navigation and medicine. The features of the property include large winter houses and evidence of caribou hunting, as well as archaeological sites from Paleo-Inuit and Inuit cultures. The cultural landscape includes seven key localities, from Nipisat in the west to Aasivissuit, near the ice cap in the east. It bears testimony to the resilience of the human cultures of the region and their traditions of seasonal migration.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Aasivissuit-Nipisat. Terres de chasse inuites entre mer et glace

Se trouvant au nord du cercle arctique, dans la partie centrale de l'ouest du Groenland, le bien contient des vestiges de 4 200 ans d'histoire humaine. Les populations ont façonné un paysage culturel fondé sur la chasse aux animaux marins et terrestres, les modes saisonniers de migration et un patrimoine culturel matériel et immatériel riche et préservé, lié notamment au climat, à la navigation ou à la médecine. Parmi les caractéristiques du bien figurent de grandes maisons d'hiver et des traces de chasse au caribou ainsi que des gisements archéologiques des cultures paléo-inuite et inuite. Ce paysage culturel est présenté au travers de sept localités importantes, de Nipisat à l'ouest à Aasivissuit près de la calotte glacière, à l'est. Il démontre la résilience des cultures humaines de cette région et leurs traditions de migrations saisonnières.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

أراضي

يوجد هذا الموقع شمال القطب الشمالي وتحديداً في الجزء الأوسط غرب جرينلاند، ويحتوي على آثار تجسّد 4200 عاماً من تاريخ البشرية. إذ ساهم السكان الذين تعاقبوا على المكان في تشكيل منظر ثقافي قائم على صيد الحيوانات البحرية والبرية، وأنماط الهجرة الموسمية وتراثاً ثقافيّاً غير مادياً غنياً وبحالة جيدة، ويرتبط على نحو خاص بالمناخ والملاحة والطب. ويتميز الموقع بمجموعة من العناصر من بينها مثلاً المنازل الشتوية الكبيرة وآثار لصيد الأيّل، بالإضافة إلى الرواسب الأثرية تعود لثقافة الإنويت والثقافة السابقة للإنويت. ويمتد هذا المنظر الثقافي عبر سبعة مجتمعات محلية هامة من نيبيسات غرباً حتى أيسيفيسوت بالقرب من الغطاء الجليدي شرقاً. ويًبرز الموقع التعاقب المستمر للثقافات البشريّة في هذه المنطقة وتقاليد هجراتهم الموسمية.

source: UNESCO/ERI
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

冰与海之间的因纽特人狩猎场阿斯维斯尤特-尼皮萨特

此处遗产地位于西格陵兰中部的北极圈内，这里有着4200年的人类历史遗迹。该文化景观见证其创造者对陆地和海洋动物的捕猎、季节性的迁徙，以及保存完好的气候、航海和医学方面丰富的物质和非物质文化遗产。该遗产地的特征包括大型冬季营房、驯鹿狩猎遗迹，以及古代因纽特人和因纽特文化的考古遗址。其文化景观包括7个主要地点，从西部的Nipisat到东部冰盖附近的Aasivissuit。它反映了该地区人类文化的复原力及季节性迁移的传统。

source: UNESCO/ERI
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Aasivissuit-Nipisat. Инуитские охотничьи угодья между морем и льдами

Расположенный к северу от полярного круга в центральной части Западной Гренландии, этот объект сохраняет следы 4200 лет человеческой истории. Коренные народы этого региона сформировали культурный ландшафт, в основе которого - охота на морских и наземных животных, сезонная миграция и сохранившееся богатое нематериальное культурное наследие. Они связаны с особенностями климата, навигацией и медициной. Среди характерных черт объекта - большие зимние дома и следы охоты на северных оленей карибу, а также залежи археологических артефактов, свидетельствующих о культуре палео-инуитов и современных инуитов. Этот культурный ландшафт сформировался и существует в семи важных локализациях - от острова Ниписат на западе до охотничьих угодий Осивиссуит на востоке, вблизи ледяной шапки. Объект Aasivissuit-Nipisat демонстрирует жизнеспособность человеческих культур в этом регионе и их традиции сезонной миграции.

source: UNESCO/ERI
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Aasivissuit-Nipisat - Cotos de caza marítimos y glaciares de los inuits

Situado en la parte central del noroeste de Groenlandia, este sitio posee vestigios ilustrativos de 4.200 años de la historia de sus poblaciones indígenas que han configurado todo un paisaje cultural con sus hábitos de caza de animales marinos y terrestres, sus migraciones estacionales y su rico e intacto patrimonio cultural inmaterial vinculado al clima, la navegación y la medicina. Elementos característicos de este sitio son las grandes casas para pasar la temporada invernal, las huellas de las partidas de caza del caribú y los yacimientos arqueológicos de la cultura inuit, tanto la prehistórica como la histórica. Integrado por siete localidades importantes, desde la de Nipisat, situada al oeste, hasta la de Aasivissuit, situada al este en las proximidades del casquete polar, el paisaje cultural de este sitio es una muestra de la perdurabilidad de las culturas humanas de Groenlandia y de sus ancestrales migraciones estacionales.

source: UNESCO/ERI
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Outstanding Universal Value
Brief synthesis
Climate and topography in West Greenland along a vast west-to-east transect from the ocean and fjords to the ice sheet contains evidence of 4200 years of human history. Fisher-hunter-gatherer cultures have created an organically evolved and continuing cultural landscape based on hunting of land and sea animals, seasonal migrations and settlement patterns, and a rich and well-preserved material and intangible cultural heritage. Large communal winter houses and evidence of communal hunting of caribou via hides and drive systems are distinctive characteristics, along with archaeological sites from the Saqqaq (2500-700 BC), Dorset (800 BC-1 AD), Thule Inuit (from the 13th century) and colonial periods (from the 18th century). The cultural landscape is presented through the histories and landscapes of seven key localities from Nipisat in the west, to Aasivissuit, near the ice cap, in the east. The attributes of the property include buildings, structures, archaeological sites and artefacts associated with the history of the human occupation of the landscape; the landforms and ecosystems of the ice cap, fjords, lakes; natural resources, such as caribou, and other plant and animal species that support the hunting and fishing cultural practices; and the Inuit intangible cultural heritage and traditional knowledge of the environment, weather, navigation, shelter, foods and medicines.

Criterion (v): Aasivisuit-Nipisat and the transect of environments it contains demonstrates the resilience of the human cultures of this region and their traditions of seasonal migration. The abundant evidence of culture-nature interactions over several millennia, intact and dynamic natural landscape, intangible cultural heritage and continuing hunting and seasonal movements by Inuit people and other attributes combine in this distinctive cultural landscape. This is demonstrated through the continuing uses of the west/east routes, the rich archaeological record of Palaeo-Inuit and Inuit cultures, and the camps and hunting elements that enabled hunting-fishing-gathering peoples to live in the Arctic region.

The integrity of the cultural landscape is based on the inclusion of areas of ocean, fjords, islands, inland and ice cap that can demonstrate the historical and present-day migrations and seasonal patterns of hunting and fishing. The property contains a sufficient sequence of environments, archaeological sites and settlements to demonstrate the cultural histories and significant intangible cultural heritage of this part of Greenland, including the settlements and the seasonal hunting, fishing and gathering activities of the present-day communities. Seven key localities have been specifically described, although attributes of Outstanding Universal Value occur throughout the property, and are potentially vulnerable due to pressures from climate change.
Authenticity
The authenticity of the cultural landscape is based on the inclusion of a complete landscape and seascape, the interdependence of the fishing-hunting-gathering lifeways with the natural processes and resources, and the tangible evidence of the hunting and settlement practices and patterns for 4200 years. The transect of environments from the sea, fjords, interior and the ice cap has been used by each phase of human culture for fishing and hunting of marine animals and caribou, according to seasonal movements. Archaeological sites and artefacts demonstrating a good state of preservation, and the ruins of historical structures bear witness to the history and traditions of land and sea uses in the Arctic. The continuity of some of the seasonal hunting and migration practices, and the associated Inuit intangible cultural heritage and traditional knowledge contribute to the authenticity of the cultural landscape.
Protection and management requirements
The government of Greenland is responsible for decisions about land and sea use, and protection of the cultural landscape is subject to an Executive Order of the Government of Greenland (Naalakkersuisut) which came into force on 1 February 2018. This provides the basis of the legal protection for the property, including the formal establishment of the boundary, and provisions for access, protection, management, monitoring and uses. The regulations to the Executive Order and the Mineral Resources Act prevent the granting of licenses for mining prospecting or exploration. Further legal protection of the cultural landscape is provided by Greenland's Heritage Protection Act, Museum Act, and the Planning Act. The Greenland National Museum and Archives is responsible for decisions within the Heritage Protection Act. The Municipal Plan for the Qeqqata Municipality covers relevant planning regulations for the property, such as for local tourism, infrastructures, zoning for wilderness, summer houses, recreation and trophy hunting and matters concerning the settlement at Sarfannguit.

Protection of the landscape and natural attributes is provided by the Act on Environmental Protection and the Ramsar Executive Order (2016). There are regulations for catch quotas for fish, sea mammals and inland hunting species (such as caribou). There is a need to integrate the Ramsar criteria for the Eqalummiut Nunaat and Nassuttuup Nunaa area into the overall management plan for the property.

Because there is no buffer zone for this property, there are continuing needs to strengthen mechanisms for assessment and protection of the property from off-site activities, including the potential hydrological and geological impacts of future mining proposals, transportation infrastructure and wind turbine installations. Greater attention and detailed planning is needed for the area's future tourism management, including monitoring of the social and physical impacts of tourism.

The Management Plan (January 2017) provides a sound framework for decision-making, together with the operation of the 10-member World Heritage Steering Committee. The Management Plan outlines responsibilities of the Danish Agency for Culture and Palaces, the Government of Greenland, and the Qeqqata Municipality. The availability of the resources for implementation of the management system should be confirmed, including the timeline, expertise and financial resources to engage appropriately skilled site manager and rangers, and to develop the tourism and interpretation plans. Continuing documentation of cultural practices and intangible culture heritage, and regular and cyclical monitoring and maintenance are needed as a priority.

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Aasivissuit - Nipisat. Inuit Hunting Ground between Ice and Sea

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Aasivissuit - Nipisat. Inuit Hunting Ground between Ice and Sea Located inside the Arctic Circle in the central part of West Greenland, the property contains the remains of 4,200 years of human history.

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Mantova e Sabbioneta, via Accademia, Sabbioneta, MN

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Val d' Orcia, Toscana, Castel del piano, GR

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Val d' Orcia, Toscana, Castel del piano, GR

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Val d' Orcia, Toscana, Castel del piano, GR

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Cerveteri e Tarquinia, necropoli etrusche

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Cerveteri e Tarquinia, necropoli etrusche

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Lipari - Panarea - Stromboli, Lipari, ME

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Lipari - Panarea - Stromboli, Lipari, ME

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Lipari - Panarea - Stromboli, Lipari, ME

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Aquileia Basilica, Piazza Capitolo, Aquileia, UD

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Aquileia Basilica, Piazza Capitolo, Aquileia, UD

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Aquileia Basilica, Piazza Capitolo, Aquileia, UD

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Matera, i sassi e il parco delle chiese rupestri

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Matera, i sassi e il parco delle chiese rupestri

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Casa Amatller, Passeig de Gràcia, Barcelona, Espanya

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Casa Amatller, Passeig de Gràcia, Barcelona, Espanya

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Casa Amatller, Passeig de Gràcia, Barcelona, Espanya

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Casa Amatller ( Catalan pronunciation: [ˈkazə əməˈʎːe]) is a building in the Modernisme style in Barcelona, designed by Josep Puig i Cadafalch. Along with Casa Batlló and Casa Lleó-Morera, it makes up the three most important buildings in Barcelona's famous Illa de la Discòrdia ("Block of Discord"), noted for its unique modernist buildings.

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Casa Milà, Passeig de Gràcia, Barcelona, Espanya

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Casa Milà, Passeig de Gràcia, Barcelona, Espanya

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Casa Milà, Passeig de Gràcia, Barcelona, Espanya

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Casa Milà (Catalan: [ˈkazəmiˈla], Spanish: La Pedrera ([ˈkasamiˈla]), popularly known as Catalan: Spanish: [ləpəˈðɾeɾə], Modernista building in Barcelona, Catalonia, [lapeˈðɾeɾa]; "the stone quarry") in reference to its unconventional rough-hewn appearance, is a Spain. It was the last private residence designed by architect Antoni Gaudí and was built between 1906 and 1912.

The building was commissioned in 1906 by Pere Milà and his wife Roser Segimon. At the time, it was controversial because of its undulating stone facade, twisting wrought iron balconies, and design by Josep Maria Jujol. Several structural innovations include a self-supporting stone façade, and a free-plan floor, underground garage and the spectacular terrace on the roof.

In 1984, it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Since 2013 it has been the headquarters of the Fundació Catalunya La Pedrera, which manages visits to the building, exhibitions and other cultural and educational activities at Casa Milà.

Antoni Gaudí i Cornet was born on June 25, 1852, in Catalonia, Spain. As a child, Gaudí's health was poor, suffering from rheumatism. Because of this, he was afforded lengthy periods of time resting at his summer house in Riudoms. Here he spent a large portion of his time outdoors, allowing him to deeply study nature. This would become one of the major influences in his architecture to come.

Gaudí was a very practical man and a craftsman at his core. In his work he followed impulses and turned creative plans into reality. His openness to embrace new styles combined with a vivid imagination helped mold new styles of architecture and consequently helped push the limits of construction. Today he is regarded as a pioneer of the modern architecture style.

In 1870, Gaudí moved to Barcelona to study architecture. He was an inconsistent student who showed flashes of brilliance. It took him eight years to graduate due to a mix of health complications, military service as well as other activities.

After completion of his education he became a prolific architect as well as designing gardens, sculptures and all other decorative arts. Gaudí's most famous works consisted of several buildings: Parque Güell; Palacio Güell; Casa Mila; Casa Vicens. He also is contributed for his work on the Crypt of La Sagrada Familia and the Nativity facade. Gaudí's work at the time was both admired and criticized for his bold, innovative solutions.

Gaudí was injured on June 7, 1926, when he was run over by a tram. He later died in the hospital due to his injuries on June 10, 1926, at the age of 73. A few years after his death, his fame became renowned by critics and the general public alike.

Casa Milà was built for Roser Segimón and her husband Pere Milà. Roser Segimón was the wealthy widow of Josep Guardiola, an Indiano or Americano, or former colonist returned from South America, who had made his fortune with a coffee plantation in Guatemala. Her second husband, Pere Milà was a developer known for his flamboyant lifestyle.

The building was completed in December 1910 and the owner asked Gaudí to make a certificate to inhabit the main floor, which the City Council authorized in October 1911, and the couple moved in. On October 31, 1912, Gaudí issued the certificate stating that, in accordance with his plans and his direction, the work had been completed and the whole house was ready to be rented.

The building did not respect any rules of conventional style, for which Gaudí received much criticism. To begin with, the name "La Pedrera" is in fact a nickname assigned by the citizens who disapproved of its unusualness. The unique structure of the building and the relationship between the building's architect and Pere Milà became the object of ridicule for the people of Barcelona and many humorous publications of the time.

Gaudí, a Catholic and a devotee of the Virgin Mary, planned for the Casa Milà to be a spiritual symbol. Overt religious elements include an excerpt from the Rosary on the cornice and planned statues of Mary, specifically Our Lady of the Rosary, and two archangels, St. Michael and St. Gabriel.

However, the Casa Milà was not built entirely to Gaudí's specifications. The local government ordered the demolition of elements that exceeded the height standard for the city, and fined the Milàs for many infractions of building codes. After Semana Trágica, an outbreak of anticlericalism in the city, Milà prudently decided to forgo the religious statues. Gaudí contemplated abandoning the project but a priest persuaded him to continue.

In 1940, Milà died. Segimon sold the property in 1946 for 18 million pesetas to Josep Ballvé i Pellisé, known for his department stores on Ronda de Sant Antoni, in partnership with the family of Pío Rubert Laporta. The Compañía Inmobiliaria Provenza, SA (CIPSA) was founded to administer the building. Roser Segimon continued to live on the main floor until her death in 1964.

The new owners divided the first floor facing Carrer de Provença into five apartments instead of the original two. In 1953, they commissioned Francisco Juan Barba Corsini to convert 13 rubbish-filled attic laundry rooms to street-facing apartments, leaving a communal hallway on the side facing the courtyards. Some of these two or three room apartments had a loft and were designed and furnished in a typical early 1950s style using brick, ceramic and wood. Items of furniture, such as the Pedrera chair, were reminiscent of Eero Saarinen's work.

The insurance company Northern took over the main floor in 1966. By then, Casa Milà had housed a bingo hall, an academy and the offices of Cementos Molins and Inoxcrom among others. Maintenance costs were high and the owners had allowed the building to become dilapidated, causing stones to loosen in 1971. Josep Anton Comas made some emergency repairs, especially to the paintings in the courtyards, while respecting the original design.

In 1984, the building became part of a World Heritage Site encompassing some of Gaudí's works. The Barcelonan city council tried to rent the main floor as an office for the 1992 Olympic bid. Finally, the day before Christmas 1986, Caixa Catalunya bought La Pedrera for 900 million pesetas. On February 19, 1987, urgently needed work began on the restoration and cleaning of the façade. The work was done by the architects Joseph Emilio Hernández-Cros and Rafael Vila. The renovated main floor opened in 1990 as part of the Cultural Olympiad of Barcelona. The floor became an exhibition room with an example of modernism in the Eixample.

The building is 1,323 m ² per floor on a plot of 1,620 m ². Gaudí made the first sketches in his workshop in the Sagrada Família. He designed the house as a constant curve, both outside and inside, incorporating ruled geometry and naturalistic elements.

Casa Milà consists of two buildings, which are structured around two courtyards that provide light to the nine stories: basement, ground floor, mezzanine, main (or noble) floor, four upper floors, and an attic. The basement was intended to be the garage, the main floor the residence of the Milàs (a flat of all 1,323 m ²), and the rest distributed over 20 apartments. The resulting layout is shaped like an asymmetrical "8" because of the different shapes and sizes of the courtyards. The attic housed the laundry and drying areas, forming an insulating space for the building and simultaneously determining the levels of the roof.

One of the most notable elements of the building is the roof, crowned with skylights, staircase exits, fans, and chimneys. All of these elements, constructed out of brick covered with lime, broken marble, or glass have a specific architectural function but are also real sculptures integrated into the building.

The apartments feature plastered ceilings with dynamic reliefs, handcrafted wooden doors, windows, and furniture, as well as hydraulic tiles and various ornamental elements.

The stairways were intended as service entries, with the main access to the apartments by elevator except for the noble floor, where Gaudí added a prominent interior staircase. Gaudí wanted the people who lived in the flats to all know each other. Therefore, there were only elevators on every other floor, so people on different floors would meet one another.

Casa Milà is characterized by its self-supporting stone facade, meaning that it is free of load-bearing walls. The facade connects to the internal structure of each floor by means of curved iron beams surrounding the perimeter of each floor. This construction system allows, on one hand, large openings in the facade which give light to the homes, and on the other, free structuring of the different levels, so that internal walls can be added and demolished without affecting the stability of the building. This allows the owners to change their minds at will and to modify, without problems, the interior layout of the homes.

The facade is composed of large blocks of limestone from the Garraf Massif on the first floor and from the Villefranche quarry for the higher levels. The blocks were cut to follow the plot of the projection of the model, then raised to their location and adjusted to align in a continuous curve to the pieces around them.

The windows of La Pedrera are an integral part of the overall facade design. Gaudí made sure that the windows were of varying sizes, designed to optimize the amount of natural light that could enter the building.

Gaudí's original facade had some of its lower-level ironwork removed. In 1928, the tailor Mosella opened the first store in La Pedrera, and he eliminated the bars. This did not concern anyone, because in the middle of twentieth century, wrought ironwork had little importance. The ironwork was lost until a few years later, when Americans donated one of them to the MoMa, where it is on display.

With restoration initiatives launched in 1987, the facade was rejoined to some pieces of stone that had fallen. In order to respect the fidelity of the original, material was obtained from the Villefranche quarry, even though by then it was no longer operating.

The building uses a completely original solution to solve the issue of a lobby being too closed and dark. Its open and airy courtyards provide a place of transit and are directly visible to those accessing the building. There are two patios on the side of the Passeig de Gracia and of the street Provence.

Patios, structurally, are key as supporting loads of interior facades. The floor of the courtyard is supported by pillars of cast iron. In the courtyard, there are traditional elliptical beams and girders but Gaudí applied an ingenious solution of using two concentric cylindrical beams with stretched radial beams, like the spokes of a bicycle. They form a point outside of the beam to two points above and below, making the function of the central girder a keystone and working in tension and compression simultaneously. This supported structure is twelve feet in diameter and is considered "the soul of the building" with a clear resemblance to Gothic crypts. The centerpiece was built in a shipyard by Josep Maria Carandell who copied a steering wheel, interpreting Gaudí's intent as to represent the helm of the ship of life.

Access is protected by a massive iron gate with a design attributed to Jujol. It was originally used by both people and cars, as access to the garage is in the basement, now an auditorium.

The two halls are fully polychrome with oil paintings on the plaster surfaces, with eclectic references to mythology and flowers.

Like in Casa Batlló, Gaudí shows the application of the catenary arch as a support structure for the roof, a form which he had already used shortly after graduating in the wood frameworks of Mataró's cooperative known as "L'Obrera Mataronense." In this case, Gaudí used the Catalan technique of timbrel, imported from Italy in the fourteenth century.

The attic, where the laundry rooms were located, was a clear room under a Catalan vault roof supported by 270 parabolic vaults of different heights and spaced by about 80 cm. The roof resembles both the ribs of a huge animal and a palm, giving the roof-deck a very unconventional shape similar to a landscape of hills and valleys. The shape and location of the courtyards makes the arches higher when the space is narrowed and lower when the space expands.

The builder Bayó explained its construction: "First the face of a wide wall was filled with mortar and plastered. Then Canaleta indicated the opening of each arch and Bayó put a nail at each starting point of the arch at the top of the wall. From these nails was dangled a chain so that the lowest point coincided with the deflection of the arch. Then the profile displayed on the wall by the chain was drawn and on this profile the carpenter marked and placed the corresponding centering, and the timbrel vault was started with three rows of plane bricks. Gaudí wanted to add a longitudinal axis of bricks connecting all vaults at their keystones".

Casa Milà roof architecture, chimneys known as espanta bruixes (witch scarers)[26]

On the rooftop there are six skylights/staircase exits (four of which were covered with broken pottery and some that ended in a double cross typical of Gaudí), twenty-eight chimneys in several groupings, two half-hidden vents whose function is to renew the air in the building, and four domes that discharged to the facade. The staircases also house the water tanks; some of which are snail-shaped.

The stepped roof of La Pedrera, called "the garden of warriors" by the poet Pere Gimferrer because the chimneys appear to be protecting the skylights, has undergone a radical restoration, removing chimneys added in interventions after Gaudí, television antennas, and other elements that degraded the space. The restoration brought back the splendor to the chimneys and the skylights that were covered with fragments of marble and broken Valencia tiles. One of the chimneys was topped with glass pieces - it was said that Gaudí did that the day after the inauguration of the building, taking advantage of the empty bottles from the party. It was restored with the bases of champagne bottles from the early twentieth century. The repair work has enabled the restoration of the original impact of the overhangs made of stone from Ulldecona with fragments of tiles. This whole set is more colorful than the facade, although here the creamy tones are dominant.

Gaudí, as he had done in Casa Batlló, designed furniture specifically for the main floor. This was part of the concept artwork itself integral to modernism in which the architect assumed responsibility for global issues such as the structure and the facade, as well as every detail of the decor, designing furniture and accessories such as lamps, planters, floors or ceilings.

This was another point of friction with Segimon, who complained that there was no straight wall to place her Steinway piano. Gaudí's response was blunt: "So play the violin." The result of these disagreements has been the loss of the decorative legacy of Gaudí, as most of the furniture was removed due to climate change and the changes she made to the main floor when Gaudí died. Some remain in private collections, including a curtain made of oak 4 m. long by 1.96 m. high in the Museum of Catalan Modernism; and a chair and desktop of Milà.[citation needed ]

Gaudí carved oak doors similar to what he had done for the Casa y Bardes, but these were only included on two floors as when Segimon discovered the price, she decided there would be no more at that quality.

Scale model at the Catalunya en Miniatura park

Casa Milà is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site "Works of Antoni Gaudí". It was a predecessor of some buildings with a similar biomorphic appearance:

Free exhibitions often are held on the first floor, which also provides some opportunity to see the interior design. There is a charge for entrance to the apartment on the fourth floor and the roof. The other floors are not open to visitors.

Gaudí's La Pedrera was inspired by a mountain, but there is no agreement as to which mountain was the reference model. Joan Bergós thought it was the rocks of Fray Guerau in Prades mountains. Joan Matamala thought that the model could have been St. Miquel del Fai, while the sculptor Vicente Vilarubias believed it was inspired by the cliffs Torrent Pareis in Menorca. Other options include the mountains of Uçhisar in Cappadocia, suggested by Juan Goytisolo, or Mola Gallifa, suggested by Louis Permanyer, based on the fact that Gaudí visited the area in 1885 to escape an outbreak of cholera in Barcelona.

Some people say that the interior layout of La Pedrera comes from studies that Gaudí made of medieval fortresses. This image is reinforced by the seeming appearance of the rooftop chimneys as "sentinels" with great helmets. The structure of the iron door in the lobby does not follow any symmetry, straight or repetitive pattern. Rather, it evokes bubbles of soap that are formed between the hands or the structures of a plant cell.

The building's unconventional style made it the subject of much criticism. It was given the nickname "La Pedrera", meaning "the quarry". Casa Milà appeared in many satirical magazines. Joan Junceda presented it as a traditional "Easter cake" by means of cartoons in . Joaquim Garcia made a joke about the difficulty of setting the damask wrought iron balconies in his magazine. Homeowners in Passeig de Gracia became angry with Milà and ceased to greet him, arguing that the weird building by Gaudí would lower the price of land in the area.

Casa Milà also caused some administrative problems. In December 1907 the City Hall stopped work on the building because of a pillar which occupied part of the sidewalk, not respecting the alignment of facades. Again on August 17, 1908, more problems occurred when the building surpassed the predicted height and borders of its construction site by 4,000 square metres (43,000 sq ft). The Council called for a fine of 100,000 pesetas (approximately 25% of the cost of work) or for the demolition of the attic and roof. The dispute was resolved a year and a half later, December 28, 1909, when the Commission certified that it was a monumental building and thus not required to have a 'strict compliance' with the bylaws.

The owner entered La Pedrera in the annual Barcelona Artistic Buildings Competition sponsored by the Barcelona City Council (Ayuntament). Other entries in the competition included two works by Sagnier (Calle Mallorca 264, and one on Corsica and Av. Diagonal), the Casa Gustà by architect Jaume Gustà, and the Casa Pérez Samanillo, designed by Joan Josep Hervàs. Although the most dramatic and clear favorite was Casa Milà,[according to whom? ] the jury opined that even though the facades were complete, "there's still a lot left to do before it's fully completed, finalized and in a perfect state of appreciation."[verify translation ] The winner in 1910 was Samanillo Perez, for his building which now houses the headquarters of the [1] Circulo Ecuestre.

Gaudí's relations with Segimon deteriorated during the construction and decoration of the house. There were many disagreements between them, one example was the monumental bronze virgin del Rosario, which Gaudí wanted as the statue on the front of the building in homage to the name of the owner, that the artist Carles Mani i Roig was to sculpt. The statue was not made although the words " Ave gratia M plena Dominus tecum" were written at the top of the facade. Continuing disagreements led Gaudí to take Milà to court over his fees. The lawsuit was won by Gaudí in 1916, and he gave the 105,000 pesetas he won in the case to charity, stating that "the principles mattered more than money." Milà was having to pay the mortgage.

After Gaudí's death in 1926, Segimon got rid of most of the furniture that Gaudí had designed and covered over parts of Gaudí's designs with new decorations in the style of Louis XVI. La Pedrera was acquired in 1986 by Caixa Catalunya and when restoration was done four years later, some of the original decorations re-emerged.

When the Civil War broke out in July 1936, the Milàs were on vacation. Part of the building was collectivized by the Unified Socialist Party of Catalonia; the Milàs fled the area with some artwork.

1. ^ "Ruta del Modernisme" [Route of Modernism]. rutadelmodernisme.com. Institut Municipal del Paisatge Urbà i la Qualitat de Vida (IMPUiQV), Ajuntament de Barcelona. 2011-10-23. Archived from the original on 2006-10-31.

2. "Chronology of La Pedrera (A place of memory)".

3. ^ Huertas Claveria, Josep Maria (1999). La Pedrera. Architecture and History. Spain: Caixa Catalunya.

4. ^ Stephen Sennott (2004). Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture: A-F. Fitzroy Dearborn. p. 224. ISBN 978-1-57958-433-7.

5. La Pedrera (Casa Milà, 1906-1910) Gaudiclub.com

6. ^ Gaudí: A Biography; Gijs van Hensbergen; Harper Collins; page 214-216

7. Cronologia de l'edifici a La Pedrera Educació

8. ^ Barba Corsini, F.J. Apartamentos en el desván de la Pedrera. Cuadernos de Arquitectura Núm. 22. Any: 1955

9. Hernàndez-Cros, Josep Emili (ed.). Catàleg del Patrimoni Arquitectònic Històrico-Artístic de la Ciutat de Barcelòna, Barcelona, Ajuntament de Barcelona, 1987

10. Asarta Ferraz, Francisco Javier (1998). "Restoration of la Pedrera". La Pedrera : Gaudi and his work. Barcelona: Fundacio Caixa de Catalunya. pp. 112-134. ISBN 978-84-89860-06-3.

11. ^ Minder, Raphael (29 June 2019). "What's It Like to Live in Barcelona's Most Famous Gaudí Home? A Bit Inconvenient (Published 2019)". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2022-01-01.

12. ^ Descripció casa Milà Archived 2011-08-06 at the Wayback Machine a "any Gaudí" a l'Ajuntament de Barcelona

13. Ruta del Modernisme Archived 2020-02-27 at the Wayback Machine. Ajuntament de Barcelona

14. ^ Flores, Carlos (1999). La Pedrera: arquitectura i història. Caixa de Catalunya. pp. 187-224. ISBN 978-84-87135-35-4.

15. ^ Anuari de l'Asociación de arquitectos de Cataluña [Annual of the Catalan Architects Association] (PDF) (in Spanish). 1912. p. 28. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Esta decoración policroma, á la cual se dá extraordinaria importancia en el interior del edificio, se está ejectuando actualmente; y por la parte que se ha puesto de manifiesto al Jurado, es preciso reconocer que falta muchísimo para quedar completamente ultimada y en estado de perfecta apreciación, razon por la cual puede afirmarse, con toda seguridad, que no puede considerarse dicho edificio hoy completamente terminado, segûn lo taxativamente prevenido en la base 2.ª del Programa de Concurso, ni mucho menos podía estarlo en la fecha señalada de 1910.

Rainer Zervst. Gaudí, 1852-1926, Antoni Gaudí i Cornet - A Life Devoted to Architecture. Cologne: Benedikt Taschen Verlag GmbH & Co. KG., 1988. p176.

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Casa Milà (Catalan: [ˈkazəmiˈla], Spanish: La Pedrera ([ˈkasamiˈla]), popularly known as Catalan: Spanish: [ləpəˈðɾeɾə], Modernista building in Barcelona, Catalonia, [lapeˈðɾeɾa]; "the stone quarry") in reference to its unconventional rough-hewn appearance, is a Spain. It was the last private residence designed by architect Antoni Gaudí and was built between 1906 and 1912.

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Casa Vicens Gaudí, Carrer de les Carolines, Barcelona, Espanya

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Casa Vicens Gaudí, Carrer de les Carolines, Barcelona, Espanya

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Casa Vicens Gaudí, Carrer de les Carolines, Barcelona, Espanya

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Casa Vicens ( Catalan pronunciation: [ˈkazə βiˈsɛns]) is a house in Barcelona, designed by Antoni Gaudí, now a museum. It is located in the neighbourhood of Gràcia on Carrer de les Carolines, 20-26. It is considered one of the first buildings of Art Nouveau and was the first house designed by Gaudí.

The style of Casa Vicens is an example of Neo-Mudéjar architecture, one of the popular styles that can be seen throughout Gaudí's architecture, including oriental and neoclassical as well. However, what was unique about Gaudí was that he mixed different styles together and incorporated a variety of different materials, such as iron, glass, ceramic tiles and concrete, many of which can be seen in this building. Gaudí broke away from tradition and created his new language of architecture, and Casa Vicens represents a new chapter in the history of Catalan architecture as well as the beginning of a successful career for Gaudí.

In 1883, Gaudí received the commission from Manuel Vicens i Montaner for the completion of a summer residence. In February 1883, Manuel Vicens requested permission from the City Council of Vila de Gràcia to build a summer house on Calle Sant Gervasi 26 (currently Carolines 20-26). A month earlier he had requested permission to demolish the house he had inherited from his mother, Rosa Montaner given the poor state of conservation of the same.

Although Mr. Manuel Vicens remains a quite unknown character, his will mentions his profession: brokerage and exchange, which would mean that he alleged his connection with ceramics and that he would be reinforced by the inventory of 1885 of the ceramic factory Pujol i Bausis that is conserved in the Municipal Archive of Esplugues de Llobregat, there is documented Mr. Manuel Vicens i Montaner, of Gracia, as a debtor of 1,440 pesetas.

This early work exhibits several influences, most notably the Moorish (or Mudéjar) influence. Casa Vicens marks the first time Gaudí utilized an orientalist style, mixing together Hispano-Arabic inspiration. This was a style of architecture that completely breaks with the norm of the period. Not only does this house mark Gaudí's coming of age, being his first major work of architecture, but it also represents the flowering of Catalan modern architecture.

In 1899, Casa Vicens was acquired by Dr. Antonio Jover, a surgeon from Havana, Cuba who was the grandfather of the owners of the building prior to its sale to MoraBanc in 2014. In 1924, Jover moved into the house. Before that, it had only been used as a holiday home. During the time of his ownership the house was a private building and was not open to the public. However, the one day that visitors could enter was on 22 May for Saint Rita's day.

In 1925, architect Juan Sierra de Martínez added on a new bay to the rear of the building, following the same style as Gaudí, and also significantly extended the size of the garden. He also modified the main floor entrances. With the widening of Carrer de las Carolinas, the access to the house had to be changed. The former entrance was converted into windows that open directly on to the street and can still be seen today. These renovations were done with maximum respect for the original work, and Gaudí himself even approved these plans. During this time, he was busy constructing the Sagrada Família and was too busy to assist with the renovations for Casa Vicens. Martínez also built a cupola-topped chapel dedicated to Saint Rita at the angle furthest from the house. He continued this project until its completion date in 1926. Due to this work, Martínez won the prize for the best and most emblematic building of the city of Barcelona (Concurs anual d'edificis artístics) in 1927, awarded by the city council.

A final restoration took place between the years 2001 and 2004. The aim of this restoration was to consolidate the facades and furnishings. This work was done under architect Ignacio Herrero Jover.

The house is divided into four levels: a basement, two floors for living and a loft. The original building was small and measured only 12 x 16 meters with two individual bays. A brick waterfall fountain was built as well. The basement is 302 meters ², the ground floor is 332 meters ² plus 22 meters ² of terrace, the first floor is 225 meters ² plus 79 meters ² of terrace, and the second floor is 272 meters ². The total area of the house is roughly 1266 meters ².

On the ground floor, there is an extensive sitting-dining room, a small Turkish-style smoking room, and two additional rooms. This floor was slightly elevated to allow for better ventilation and improved lighting of the basement. The second floor was where the family's bedrooms were. A horseshoe-shaped stairway served as access to this floor. The third floor, or the attic, was where the servants lived. The horseshoe-shaped stairway also continued up to this floor. However, after the renovations in 1925 the location of the stairway that gave access to the bedrooms was changed. The basement, or bottom floor contained just enough space for a storage room, junk room and a kitchen. The basement received its light from an English-style courtyard.

Neo-Mudéjar architecture is a type of Moorish revival architecture that Gaudí incorporated into Casa Vicens. This revival movement began in Madrid in the late 19th century, later spreading to other parts of the country. It is considered Spain's special mixture of Muslim-Christian design. Some features of this ancient style such as horse-shoe arches, and abstract and vibrant facade ornamentation can be seen in Casa Vicens; the horse-shoe shaped staircase and the brick ornamentation on the front facade. El Capricho (1833-1835) and the Güell Estate of the later 1880s are two other examples of Neo-Mudéjar style in Gaudí's architecture.

The first two levels of the house, as seen from the front facade facing Carrer de les Carolines, are lined with horizontal roles of ceramic tiles decorated with French marigolds that can also be seen on the floors in the interior of the house. These marigolds grew on the grounds of the estate, are an example of how Gaudí derived much of inspiration from his love of nature. The cast iron railings with their plant motifs and iron palm leaves that form the gates to the house are other ways that Gaudí incorporated nature into his work. Plants that had to be destroyed for the construction of the building, such as the marigolds or the palm trees, were incorporated into the details of the building. Casa Milá, popularly known as La Pedrera, is another example of Gaudí modern architecture whose design based on the ocean with its curved edges and seaweed motifs is another example of nature serving as his inspiration.

From the second floor up, these tiles switch to vertical and the floral pattern on them is replaced with green and white tiles. Elegant cherub like figures sit on the edge of the small balcony that faces the street. He paid particular attention to each and every detail, such as creating ridged edges to the corners of the building to avoid the austere appearance of classical architecture.

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Casa Vicens ( Catalan pronunciation: [ˈkazə βiˈsɛns]) is a house in Barcelona, designed by Antoni Gaudí, now a museum. It is located in the neighbourhood of Gràcia on Carrer de les Carolines, 20-26. It is considered one of the first buildings of Art Nouveau and was the first house designed by Gaudí.

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Parque de El Retiro, Plaza de la Independencia, Madrid, Espanya

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Parque de El Retiro, Plaza de la Independencia, Madrid, Espanya

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Parque de El Retiro, Plaza de la Independencia, Madrid, Espanya

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Parque del Buen Retiro, Madrid - Wikipedia

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The Buen Retiro Park ( Spanish: Parque del Buen Retiro, literally "Park of the Pleasant Retreat", or simply El Retiro) is one of the largest parks of the city of Madrid, Spain. The park belonged to the Spanish Monarchy until the late 19th century, when it became a public park.

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The Paseo del Prado is one of the main boulevards in Madrid, Spain. It runs north-south between the Plaza de Cibeles and the Plaza del Emperador Carlos V (also known as Plaza de Atocha), with the Plaza de Cánovas del Castillo (the location of the Fuente de Neptuno, and of the Ritz and Palace five-star hotels) lying approximately in the middle. The Paseo del Prado forms the southern end of the city's central axis (which continues to the north of Cibeles as the Paseo de Recoletos, and further north as the Paseo de la Castellana). It enjoys the status of Bien de Interés Cultural (BIC), and as part of a combined UNESCO World Heritage Site with Buen Retiro Park.

This densely tree-lined, wide and central avenue is a landmark for the city residents and the location of important cultural and tourist spots in the city, including the so-called Golden Triangle of Art, which encompasses three museums: the Prado Museum (with highlights such as Diego Velázquez's Las Meninas and Francisco de Goya's La maja vestida and La maja desnuda), the Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum (housing a collection that spans eight centuries of European painting), and the Reina Sofia Museum (where Pablo Picasso's hangs, among a collection of 20th-century art). In the vicinity are located the Parque del Buen Retiro and the Casón del Buen Retiro (hosting the 19th-century collection of the Prado Museum), as well as the headquarters of the Real Academia Española (the Spanish language academy), the Bolsa de Madrid (the city's stock exchange), and the Congreso de los Diputados (the national congress).

The Paseo del Prado boulevard includes several monuments and enclosures that are of historical and artistic interest, erected in the eighteenth century for the Hall of Prado urban project. Numerous ornamental and landscaping grounds were constructed for this project. The highlights of this project include the Villanueva Building (the Prado Museum's main building), the Royal Botanical Gardens and three sculptural water fountains designed by Ventura Rodriguez, depicting Neptune, Cibeles and Apollo.[citation needed ]

A controversial project of thorough reform and revitalization of the Paseo del Prado and the Paseo de Recoletos, known as Plan Especial Recoletos-Prado and authored by an international team of architects led by Álvaro Siza, was approved by the city council on 23 June 2005, but as of December 2010 its environmental impact study is still underway and reconstruction has not been initiated.

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The Paseo del Prado is one of the main boulevards in Madrid, Spain. It runs north-south between the Plaza de Cibeles and the Plaza del Emperador Carlos V (also known as Plaza de Atocha), with the Plaza de Cánovas del Castillo (the location of the Fuente de Neptuno, and of the Ritz and Palace five-star hotels) lying approximately in the middle.

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Medina Azahara - Conjunto Arqueológico Madinat al-Zahra, Carretera Palma del Río, Còrdova, Espanya

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Medina Azahara - Conjunto Arqueológico Madinat al-Zahra, Carretera Palma del Río, Còrdova, Espanya

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Medina Azahara - Conjunto Arqueológico Madinat al-Zahra, Carretera Palma del Río, Còrdova, Espanya

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Madinat al-Zahra or Medina Azahara ( Arabic: مدينة الزهراء‎, Madīnat az-Zahrā, 'the radiant city') was a fortified palace-city on the western outskirts of Córdoba in present-day Spain. Its remains are a major archaeological site today. The city was built in the 10th century by Abd-ar-Rahman III (912-961), a member of the Umayyad dynasty and the first caliph of Al-Andalus. It served as the capital of the Caliphate of Córdoba and its center of government.

The main reason for its construction was politico-ideological: Abd ar-Rahman III had declared himself "caliph" in 929 and the dignity of this new title required the establishment of a new city, a symbol of his power, imitating other eastern Caliphates. It sought to demonstrate his superiority over his great rivals, the Fatimid Caliphs of Ifriqiya in North Africa and the Abbasid Caliphs in Baghdad. The city was built near Córdoba, the existing capital of al-Andalus under Umayyad rule. Construction began in 936-940 and continued in multiple phases throughout his reign and the reign of his son son, Al-Hakam II (r. 961-976). The new city included ceremonial reception halls, a congregational mosque, administrative and government offices, aristocratic residences, gardens, a mint, workshops, barracks, service quarters, and baths. Water was supplied through aqueducts. After al-Hakam II's death, however, the city ceased to act as the center of government under the rule of Ibn Abi Amir al-Mansur (Almanzor). Between 1010 and 1013 it was sacked during a civil war and thereafter abandoned, with many of its materials re-used elsewhere.

The ruins of the city were excavated starting in 1911. Only about 10 hectares of the 112 hectares (0.43 sq mi) of the city have been excavated and partially restored, but this area includes the main palaces. A dedicated archeological museum, located on the edge of the site, was opened in 2009. On July 1, 2018, the site was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site with the inscription name "Caliphate City of Medina Azahara".

Popular legend, recorded by historical writers such as al-Maqqari, holds that the city's name, az-Zahra' (or Azahara in Spanish), came from Abd ar-Rahman III's favorite concubine and that a statue of her stood over the entrance. (Although statuary was present in the city, scholar Marianne Barrucand argues that the existence of this particular statue was unlikely.) Scholar Felix Arnold argues that a simpler explanation is that the city's name, which also means the "Flowering City" or "Radiant City", emulated the style of other caliphal cities founded by the Abbasids (e.g. Madinat as-Salam, "City of Peace", now Baghdad) and the Fatimids (e.g. Madinat al-Qahira "Victorious City", now Cairo). Jonathan Bloom also notes that the name may have been chosen as a riposte to Abd ar-Rahman's main rivals, the Fatimids, because the Fatimids claimed descent from Muhammad's daughter Fatimah, who was also known as az-Zahra ("the Radiant").

Abd ar-Rahman III was a member of the Umayyad dynasty, which had formerly ruled the Islamic world as head of the Umayyad Caliphate. The title " caliph" signified the political and spiritual leader of the whole Muslim world. In 750 the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasids, who took on the title of caliphs and established a new capital at Baghdad. In 756 Abd ar Rahman III's ancestor, Abd ar-Rahman I, managed to re-establish the dynasty's power in the Iberian Peninsula in the far western part of the Muslim world, known as Al-Andalus. Although independent from the Abbasids, the new Umayyad rulers in Al-Andalus, based in Cordoba, did not reclaim the title of "caliph" at this time. Instead, they ruled as " emirs", a lower title designating local Muslim rulers, as heads of the Emirate of Cordoba. While Arabic and Islamic culture thrived in Al-Andalus during this period, it was still a relatively decentralized realm and the emir in Cordoba often struggled to keep different factions under control.

When Abd ar-Rahman III came to power as emir in 912, he began to systematically re-establish Umayyad authority over rebel regions within his realm and reinforce his own authority across Al-Andalus through military and diplomatic means. In 929, after years of constant campaigning, Abd ar-Rahman III felt confident enough to declare himself "caliph", a title equal to the Abbasid rulers in Baghdad (whose own power had significantly weakened by this time). This move may also have been in response to the rise of the Fatimid Caliphate in North Africa around the same time, which challenged the Sunni caliphs of Baghdad and also presented a threat to the interests of the Umayyad state in Al-Andalus.

Before the creation of Madinat al-Zahra, the residence and centre of government for the Umayyad emirs had been the Alcázar in the heart of Cordoba, across from which stood the Great Mosque of Cordoba. Many scholars argue that the motives for the construction of a new palace-city must have included a desire to create a capital and residence that would reflect the dignity and grandeur which Abd ar-Rahman III wanted to project around his new caliphate. The creation of such palace-cities also had precedents because both the Abbasids caliphs and the Fatimid caliphs had previously built such cities for themselves.

According to historical sources the new palace-city was founded in 936. It was located about 5 km east of Cordoba. Abd ar-Rahman III's son, al-Hakam, the crown prince and his future successor, was entrusted to oversee the construction. The 16th-century writer Al-Maqqari cites a man named Maslama ibn 'Abdallah as the architect of the city, but it is unclear how large his role was or how much of the city he actually designed. Major construction might not have actually started until 940, and evidence suggests that it occurred in stages, with the overall plan changing as further work was executed. The mosque on the site was consecrated in 941. By 945 the caliph was already living in the city. The road between the new city and Cordoba was paved in 946. Finally, in 947 the apparatus of state, including the mint ( dar al-sikka), was transferred here from Cordoba. Construction in the city nonetheless continued throughout the remaining years of Abd ar-Rahman III's reign (up to 961) and throughout Al-Hakam II's reign (961-976). High-ranking officials under both caliphs were often involved in the construction as well.

The whole city was surrounded by a fortified wall with towers. However, there is evidence that only the palaces were protected by a wall at first and that the outer city wall was added after residential areas had already begun to develop outside the palace. Abd ar-Rahman III also arranged for thousands of antique marble columns to be procured or imported from other sites, mostly from Ifriqiya (despite it being under Fatimid control at the time), to be reused for construction here. Al-Hakam II also reportedly procured many Roman statues and carved sarcophagi, which were used to decorate the grounds.

Several of the major structures that have been excavated and identified on the site were built over earlier structures and thus appear to belong to a different construction phase after the initial construction of the city. The structures known today as the House of Ja'far and the Court of the Pillars were both built over two or three smaller structures which occupied the same spaces. In addition to being larger than their predecessors, they also feature very different layouts, such as a semi- basilical plan (in the House of Ja'far) and a courtyard surrounded by a porticoed gallery (the Court of the Pillars). Antonio Vallejo Triano, who led archeological work at the site between 1985 and 2013, has argued that the Court of the Pillars likely dates from the 950s. Likewise, the large Upper Basilical Hall, also known as the Dar al-Jund ("House of the Army"), is believed to date from this time. The construction of the Salón Rico, or Reception Hall of Abd ar-Rahman III, has been dated to between 953 and 957 thanks to several inscriptions featured in its decoration. The supervisor of the hall's construction was Abdallah ibn Badr, the vizier and highest-ranking official under the caliph at that time. The decoration was executed under the supervision of the caliph's eunuch servant Shunaif, although it's unclear if he was also involved in the design of the hall.

Based on the evidence of these constructions, Vallejo Triano has argued that a fairly significant remodelling of the palace complex took place in the 950s. It followed a trend of larger and more monumental buildings which made use of porticos, arcades, and different basilical layouts. These new structures were often built over older, relatively more modest structures, and were thus designed to increase the impression of the caliph's magnificence through the architecture of his city. Vallejo Triano notes that this period would also coincide with a major reorganization of the state by Abd ar-Rahman III in 955, which is reported by historical sources such as Ibn Idhari. Additionally, Abd ar-Rahman III was likely becoming better-informed about the rich palaces and elaborate court ceremony in the new Fatimid capital, Mahdia, and in the Byzantine capital of Constantinople. For example, some of Abd ar-Rahman III's emissaries to the Byzantine emperor brought back with them gilded bronze sculptures, marble fountain basins decorated with animal figures, and other decorative architectural elements. This growing awareness of other imperial courts and Abd ar-Rahman's desire to match them may explain an increase in the complexity of the ceremonies and court protocols surrounding the caliph around this time, to which historical sources of the time attached great importance, along with an increase in the architectural scale of the new buildings.

Vallejo Triano has also argued that the construction of the House of Ja'far took place slightly later than the other structures of the 950s because its decoration appears to be more evolved. This tentatively supports an earlier hypothesis by Félix Hernández Giménez that this large residence was built for Ja'far, a hajib (chamberlain) of Al-Hakam II between 961 and 971, and for whom the structure is currently named. This also makes it the only major structure in Madinat al-Zahra that has been identified as belonging to the reign of Al-Hakam II.

The palaces housed the caliph's household, including a large number of concubines. The residents were served by a large body of slaves, including eunuchs, of mostly European origin. The city also contained a throne hall or audience chamber (the Salón Rico), government offices, workshops that produced luxury objects, the residences of high officials, and - on the lower levels of the city - markets and residential districts for the common workers. The city had a manager, a judge, and a police chief. Under the cultured caliph Al-Hakam II in particular, there was also a library which by some accounts contained hundreds of thousands of volumes in Arabic, Greek, and Latin. The main mosque (also known as the Aljama Mosque), and one or more small neighbourhood mosques, provided religious services.

The palaces were furnished with silks, tapestries, and various luxury objects. Many objects produced in the caliph's official workshops were given as gifts and have made their way into the collections of museums and Christian cathedrals. Among the wonders reported by historical chronicles about the palaces, Al-Maqqari described a domed hall in the palace which contained a pool of liquid mercury which reflected light and could be stirred to create dazzling ripples of light, although the location of this hall has not been found by modern archeologists.

Various members of the caliph's family, or other wealthy elites, also built their own villas and palaces in the countryside around Cordoba during this period of prosperity in the 10th century. This was a tradition which had existed since the early days of the Emirate and possibly derived from the Roman villa tradition. The caliph even kept some family members in such villas in order to distance them from the center of power in Madinat al-Zahra, providing them with a generous stipend so they wouldn't cause trouble.

Construction of Madinat az-Zahira by Almanzor

When Al-Hakam II died in 976 he was succeeded by his son Hisham II, who was 14 or 15 years old at the time and had little political experience. Consequently, de facto political power was assumed by Ibn Abi Amir, a strongman who appropriated for himself both the post of hajib (chamberlain) and wazir (vizier) and who adopted the regnal title "al-Mansur" (or Almanzor in European sources). In 978 or 979 (368 AH), after he had secured the monopoly of power, he ordered the construction of a new palace city for himself which rivaled Madinat al-Zahra in beauty. Al-Mansur called his palace with a very similar name: Madinat Az-Zahira ("the Shining City"). The location of the palace, which has never been excavated, is still debated: it may have been between Cordoba and Madinat az-Zahra to the west, but the most common hypothesis is that it was built a short distance east of Cordoba, near the banks of the Guadalquivir River, in order to draw the focus of power away from the earlier Umayyad palaces. The new palace took only two years to build. When it was ready Al-Mansur moved the center of government there, leaving the old Madinat al-Zahra in disuse and confining the young caliph Hisham to the old Alcázar in Cordoba instead.

On the death of Al-Mansur in 1002, his eldest son Abd al-Malik al-Muzaffar succeeded to power. When al-Muzaffar in turn died in 1008, his brother Abd ar-Rahman, also known as Sanchuelo ("Little Sancho", as his mother Abda was a daughter of Sancho, the king of Navarre) came to power. Less politically able than his father and brother, he tried to appropriate for himself the inheritance of the caliphate from Hisham, which aroused serious opposition. In an attempt to avoid these problems, he set out for a military campaign to the Christian north almost right away. When he crossed the border into Christian territory in February 1009, his opponents broke into the old Alcázar and forced Hisham II to abdicate to another member of the Umayyad family, Muhammad. At the same time, Madinat al-Zahira, the palace built by Al-Mansur and the center of government, was pillaged and destroyed.

The next few years were chaotic and resulted in multiple violent confrontations and regime changes between different factions, known as the Fitna (civil war). Between 1010 and 1013 Cordoba was besieged by Berber factions, and by the end of this period Madinat al-Zahra, the city of Abd ar-Rahman III, had been pillaged and left in ruins. For many years afterwards the city continued to be looted by people for its building materials, which nearly erased it from existence. Over time its remains were buried and its location was not identified again until the 19th century, with excavations beginning in 1911.

Located 4 miles (6.4 km) west of Córdoba in the foothills of the Sierra Morena, oriented north-to-south on the slopes of Jabal al-Arus (meaning Bride Hill), and facing the valley of the Guadalquivir river, is Madinat az-Zahra, billed as the Versailles of the Middle Ages. It was chosen for its outstanding landscape values, allowing a hierarchical construction program so the city and the plains beyond its feet were physically and visually dominated by the buildings of the (citadel).

There was also a quarry of limestone, used for the primary construction, though other stones from an area 50 km around were also used. The city's construction led to a road, water and supply infrastructure partly preserved until today in the form of remains of roads, quarries, aqueducts and bridges.

The topography played a decisive role in shaping the city. Taking full advantage of the uneven terrain, the palace city of Madinat az-Zahra was distributed in three terraces. Unlike the labyrinthine and chaotic character typical of Muslim urbanism, the site of the city adopted a rectangular shape comprising an area of 112 hectares. It extended 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) per side from east to west and about 750 metres (2,460 ft) from north to south, just warped on the north side by the need to adapt to the difficult topography of the terrain.

Its location in the foothills of Sierra Morena made it possible to design an urban program in which the location and physical relationships between the various constructions were expressive of the role of each in the setting. The palace was located at a higher level, and staggered its buildings along the side of the mountain in an expression of clear preeminence over the urban hamlets and the Aljama Mosque spread across the plains below. Following the terraces, the first corresponds to the residential area of the caliph, next comes the official area including the houses of the viziers, the guard-room, administrative offices and gardens. Next is the city proper, with housing, crafts, and the great mosque of the two lower terraces separated by another wall in order to isolate the upper palace complex. Archaeological research[citation needed ] has revealed an urban morphology characterized by the existence of large areas of undeveloped land, which serves to empty the entire southern front of the fortress, ensuring privacy and maintaining an open, idyllic country landscape. The only spaces built on the lowest level are two broad bands: the western, with an urban management orthogon, and the eastern, with less rigid planning.

There were two complexes outside but close by the city, one a large villa at the centre of a large agricultural estate, later given to the state treasurer. The other, Turruñuelos, was a huge rectangular building, perhaps a barracks.

The city covered an almost rectangular area measuring 1.5 km long (roughly from east to west) and 750 wide (roughly from north to south). Its perimeter was protected by a thick stone wall with square bastions. Today only about 10 of the 112 hectares (0.43 sq mi) of the city have been excavated and restored, although this area includes the main palaces. The highest point of the city was at the centre of its northern wall (near the palaces), which is 215 meters above sea level, while the lowest point, to the south and nearer to the river, is 70 meters lower. Most of the site slopes gradually down towards the river except in the central northern zone where there were three distinctive levels or terraces built into the hillside, with height differences of 10 meters or more between them. The two upper levels were known as the "Alcázar" ( al-Qasr in Arabic). Most of the modern excavations have focused on the Alcázar and its palaces, and these are the areas visitors can access today.

The city's main congregational mosque, also known today as the Aljama Mosque, was located on the lower level just east of the Upper Garden and Salón Rico complex. It could be reached from the palaces via a covered ramp passage in the eastern wall of the Upper Garden's terrace. Other roads led to the mosque from the rest of the city around it. Like the Great Mosque of Cordoba, a private passage allowed for the caliph to enter the mosque directly into the , the privileged area near the . The mosque had a rectangular floor plan aligned northwest to southeast, in accordance with the (direction of prayer). This orientation is notably different from the southern qibla orientation of the much older Great Mosque of Cordoba, which reflects that conceptions of the qibla changed over time in this part of the Islamic world. Outside the mosque, on its northwest side and near the entrance, is a set of facilities which provided for the ritual of ablutions.

The mosque building was divided between an open courtyard () to the northwest and an interior prayer hall to the southeast. The mosque was entered via three gates that led into the courtyard and were located on the courtyard's central axes: two lateral gates (to the northeast and southwest) and one on the main central axis of the mosque itself (to the northwest). The latter gate was flanked on one side by a minaret with a square base. This is the earliest evidence of such a minaret being used in the architecture of al-Andalus, as it is older even than the minaret Abd ar-Rahman III later built for the Great Mosque in Cordoba. The base of the minaret measures 5 meters per side, and according to historical sources (Al-Maqqari in particular) it originally stood approximately 20 meters high. The mosque's prayer hall was divided by rows of arches into five parallel " naves". Archeological evidence has shown that the arches were double-tiered, emulating the same design feature seen in the Great Mosque of Cordoba. The middle nave, in front of what would have been the mihrab (wall niche symbolizing the direction of prayer), was wider than the other four naves of the mosque.

The upper levels (palace areas)

The northern gate of the city, Bab al-Jibal ("Gate of the Mountains"), was located at the highest point of the city and granted access directly into the middle of the Alcázar or palace area of the city. It is also known as the North Gate ( Puerta Norte in Spanish). It had a bent entrance layout and was defended by a tower. Today it acts as the main entrance to the site for visitors and tourists. To the west of the gate was the caliph's private palace (the Dar al-Mulk) and to the east was the administrative district and the Upper Basilical Hall (the Dar al-Jund).

Bab al-Sudda (eastern portico)

The official and ceremonial entrance to the palace areas, however, was located further east and was known as Bab al-Sudda ("Forbidden Gate" or "Gate of the Threshold"). This gate formed one end of the long road which led between the palaces and the city of Cordoba to the east, and it is believed to be the entrance where ambassadors or guests were received. The gate consisted of a monumental portico: a long row of huge horseshoe arches running roughly north-to-south. It was fronted by a large open esplanade, known today as the Plaza de Armas (a later Spanish term) but referred to in sources as a ḫaṣṣa (open area), probably originally serving a similar function as a (a term later used in the Maghreb) or a maydan. It would have hosted public ceremonies, military parades, and executions. On top of the gate's portico structure was a viewing platform where the caliph could sit and observe events on the plaza below. Inside the gate, a ramped street then led up to the terrace of the Upper Basilical Hall.

Upper Basilical Hall (Dar al-Jund)

The structure known today as the "Upper Basilical Hall" has been identified, tentatively, as the Dar al-Jund ("House of the Army" in Arabic), a name mentioned in literary sources. It was probably built in the 950s during a new program of construction and state reform.

The exact function of this large structure is uncertain, but scholars and archeologists have traditionally assumed that it had an administrative or official (semi-public) function, such as a reception chamber for ceremonies and for ambassadors on their way to see the caliph. The Dar al-Jund is mentioned in historical sources as an assembly hall for the officers of the caliph's army. Felix Arnold, an archeologist and scholar on the topic of Islamic palace architecture in the region, suggests that the building's size means that it must have been the main audience hall of Madinat al-Zahra, which might identify it instead with either the Majlis ash-Sharqi ("Eastern Hall") or Majlis al-Gharbi ("Western Hall") mentioned in historical sources.

The building is located near the northeastern corner of the excavated area today, on a terrace west of the Bab al-Sudda entrance. It consists of a large basilica-type structure to the north adjoined to a large open courtyard to the south. Visitors to the city reached this area by walking up a ramped street that started on the central axis of the Bab al-Sudda gate and climbed its way to the terrace above, bending 180 degrees several times along the way. The ramp was wide enough and its slope gentle enough to allow visitors to remain on horseback, and was even lined with benches where they could sit and wait their turn to enter. It ended at a small porticoed court, where the visitors were possibly assigned to new guides, and from which they then entered into the courtyard of the Dar al-Jund along its middle axis. Felix Arnold suggests that this overall layout had a precedent in the older Alcázar of Cordoba, where visitors coming from the main public entrance to the west arrived into a courtyard or garden in front of the Majlis al-Kamil ("Perfect Hall"), the main audience chamber of the palace.

The courtyard of the Dar al-Jund measures 54.5 meters wide and 51 meters deep. Its northern side is occupied by the broad entrance façade of the main hall, its western and eastern sides were occupied by narrow porticos, and its southern side was closed by a simple wall. The main hall stood 1.2 meters above the level of the courtyard. Stairs and ramps leading to its platform were located at the northern corners of the courtyard - the stairs were for those on foot, the ramps for horses. The remains of the courtyard were converted into a garden in the 1960s.

The main hall itself is the largest interior space ever documented in the historic palace architecture of the western Islamic world, being large enough to accommodate up to 3000 people. The hall is composed of five parallel rectangular chambers, placed side-by-side and open to each other through various archways. Each chamber is about 20 meters long (from north to south) and 6.8 meters wide, with the exception of the central chamber which is about 7.5 meters wide. Each hall opens onto a sixth chamber to the south, perpendicular to the others, which is about 30 meters long (from east to west) and 6.9 meters wide, with a smaller square chamber located at either end. This south hall opens onto the courtyard to the south through five broad archways. Other auxiliary rooms are present nearby. The decoration of the building was plain in comparison with other royal edifices in the city. The walls were made of stone and plastered, with little ornamentation other than a red dado near the base, while the floors were paved in brick instead of stone. Only the capitals of the columns were ornately carved. However, the walls may have originally been covered with ornamental furnishings such as tapestries and curtains may have been draped across the arches.

The main structure consisted of three parallel rectangular halls oriented east-west. The halls were entered from the south: the southern walls of the first two halls each had three openings or doorways of equal size aligned in a row. The third hall, at the back, was much smaller and had only one door, which was aligned with the middle doors of the other two halls. Each hall was also flanked on both sides by small square (or nearly square) chambers. The first main hall may have served as an entrance hall, the second one may have been a reception room, and the third hall may have been a private sitting area whose side rooms served as bedrooms. The second and third halls have been partly reconstructed today, but the first (southernmost) hall has been lost. It stood at the very edge of the terrace, 15 meters above the ground of the next level below. In front of the eastern corner of this hall, however, are the remains of a staircase that led down to the terrace below. On the east side of the main structure is another apartment consisting of a courtyard, a portico of arches, and a hall, which was built over a former bathhouse

The building was richly decorated. The doorways, some rectangular and some arched, were framed with geometric and vegetal ( arabesque) decoration, and the floors were paved with geometric patterns. The exterior façade of the building, which faced south over the edge of the terrace wall, had three decorated doorways as well as a blind arcade of false windows above. Felix Arnold notes that because the doorways of the three halls were aligned with each other and faced outwards from the edge of the palace terrace, they would have offered views of the distant horizon across the valley, but not onto a private garden or courtyard as was typical in many Islamic palaces in the history of the region. He notes, however, that such elevated halls with distant views had precedents in the old Alcázar of Cordoba as well as at ar-Rusafa, an older Umayyad palatial estate in the countryside of Cordoba.

Located on a lower level southeast of the Dar al-Mulk, the Court of the Pillars is a structure centered around a large square courtyard which is ringed with a portico on all sides. On three sides of the courtyard, behind the portico, are wide rectangular halls. A staircase in the northwest corner led to a second story with a similar layout. Various Roman sculptures, including sarcophagi, were also discovered in this building. Among the notable finds are the fragments of a sarcophagus known as the Sarcophagus of Meleager, which has been reconstructed and kept at the site today. The building itself was built over what were initially two smaller houses. Its construction may date to the 950s, either at the same time as or after the construction of the Salón Rico. To the north of this building is another residential complex, and east of that (close to the north gate) are two other courtyard houses separated by a ramp between them.

The function of all these courtyard buildings, which were not typical of other structures in Madinat al-Zahra, is uncertain. They may have been the residences of state officials or they may have been used as guesthouses for important visitors. Art historian Susan Calvo Capilla has also suggested that the presence of Roman sculptures in the Court of the Pillars, which included representations of the Muses and philosophers, may indicate that the space was used for education and intellectual activities, with the sculptures placed here as a deliberate reference to ancient sciences. The Court of the Clocks, located to southeast near the Salón Rico, was similarly decorated with Roman sculptures.

The House of the Water Basin ( Vivienda de la Alberca in Spanish) is a structure located south of the Court of the Pillars. It was part of a complex of residences which stood between the Dar al-Mulk and the Salon Rico. The house is believed to date from the first years of construction at Madinat al-Zahra, although parts of the floor plan were likely modified afterwards. Antonio Vallejo Triano has proposed that this house was a residence of al-Hakam II before he became caliph in 961. The site was excavated by Félix Hernández Jiménez and Rafael Manzano Martos between 1975 and 1982 and, as of 2018, was still being examined by archeologists.

The building is laid out along an east-west axis and is centered around a square courtyard. Its original entrance was on the north side and led directly into the courtyard. On both the west and east sides were two rectangular chambers, one behind the other, whose entrances were aligned with the central axis of the courtyard. Smaller chambers were also located along the sides of the building. Behind the eastern chambers was a private bathhouse or hammam which consisted of three chambers of decreasing size, heated using the traditional Roman hypocaust system under its marble floors. Marble decoration was added to the bath by Ja'far in 961-62.

The courtyard of the house was occupied by two symmetrical sunken gardens and by a water basin at the middle of the courtyard's western side, after which the house is named. The gardens were surrounded by raised walkways that ran around the edge of the courtyard and were split by another walkway down the middle between them. Water channels also ran along the edges of the courtyard and brought water to the basin. The gardens were planted with low-growing plants like lavender, oleander, myrtle, basil, and celery. The main halls on either side were accessed through an arcade with three horseshoe arches resting on columns, partly reconstructed today. The arches are framed by an filled with carved vegetal ornamentation. D. Fairchild Ruggles, a scholar of historic Islamic gardens, indicates that the garden of this house is also known as the "Prince's Garden" and may have been enjoyed by elite residents of the palaces.

House of Ja'far

The large "House of Ja'far" was built over what were originally three smaller houses. It is located between the Court of the Pillars to the northwest and the Salón Rico to the southeast. Because of its more evolved decoration its construction has been dated to after 961, during the reign of al-Hakam II, which may support a hypothesis by Félix Hernández Giménez that this large residence was built for the eponymous Ja'far, a hajib (chamberlain) of Caliph al-Hakam II between 961 and 971. It was excavated in 1970 by Hernandez Giménez. The decorated portico of the main courtyard has been reconstructed since 1996 under the direction of Antonio Vallejo Triano.

The building consists of three areas which each had their own internal courtyard. The first, the larger southern portion, is believed to have been dedicated to official business and receptions. It was entered from the west and was centered around a square courtyard paved in violet limestone. A second story may have also existed here, as suggested by the presence of a staircase. On the east side of the courtyard is an elaborately decorated portico, reconstructed since 1996, which led to three rectangular receptions rooms on the other side. Behind these rooms were smaller square rooms. One of those rooms included a latrine, while another gave access to the other parts of the house. These other areas were accessed by passing through a smaller square courtyard in the northeast part of the house which had a circular water basin at its center. On the north side of this courtyard was a private apartment, occupying the northeast corner of the house. On the west side of the courtyard was a larger rectangular courtyard, surrounded by rooms, which served as a service area used by servants and staff. Antonio Vallejo Triano has argued that the plan of the house indicates that it was not a family dwelling but rather designed for a single high-ranking occupant.

To the north of the House of Ja'far is a complex of rooms and houses which have been classified as a service area, although little is known of how the palace servants were organized. There appear to be two main buildings that make up the complex. The presence of kitchens is indicated by the discovery of stone ovens in some of the rooms. Private latrines have also been discovered in the eastern building, which suggest that it belonged to a higher-status residence within the complex.

Salón Rico (Reception Hall of Abd ar-Rahman III)

The Reception Hall of Abd ar-Rahman III, known by its Spanish name as the Salón Rico ("Rich Hall"), is the most richly decorated structure discovered at Madinat al-Zahra. It was part of a larger palace complex which was built to the south of the Upper Basilical Hall. Its construction has been dated to between 953 and 957, thanks to several inscriptions found in its decoration. The supervisor of the hall's construction was Abdallah ibn Badr, the vizier and highest-ranking official under the caliph at that time. The decoration was executed under the supervision of the caliph's eunuch servant Shunaif, although it's unclear if he was also involved in the design of the hall. It was excavated by Rafael Castejón and Félix Hernandez Giménez in 1946 and has since been reconstructed. The hall was fronted by the Upper Garden and by a large water basin, with which it formed a unified design.

The Salón Rico faced south across the gardens and stood on a platform that was elevated above the adjoining walkways. It was accessed via ramps on either side. The building's front façade features an arcade of five arches which was aligned with the water basin in front. The building's interior has a basilical form with some general similarities to the Upper Basilical Hall. Behind the front arcade is a transversal entrance hall, which in turn leads to the central hall. The central hall is 17.5 meters long and 20.4 meters wide and is divided into three naves by two arcades of six horseshoe arches resting on slender columns. The two side naves are 5.9 meters wide while the central nave is slightly wider at 6.5 meters. Each nave can be accessed from the entrance hall at the front through arcades of two or three arches. The back wall is marked with three decorative blind arches. This central hall is flanked on either side by a square chamber and a rectangular chamber, which were separated from the central hall by solid walls pierced by a single door. Two other doors on either side were later blocked up and turned into decorative niches. The entrance hall to the south is also flanked by square chambers on either side. The building today is covered by sloped wooden roofs built by Félix Hernandez Giménez, but it is not known exactly what kind of roofing or ceiling it originally had.

During audiences the caliph sat at the middle of the back wall, in front of the central blind arch. He would have sat on a divan while his brothers and highest officials stood or sat on either side. Other court officials would have been lined up along the arcades on either side of the central hall. The dimensions of the central hall conform to that of an equilateral triangle whose summit is placed at the center of the back wall and whose base corresponds to the total width of the hall. Felix Arnold notes that these proportions are frequently used in Islamic architecture and are also found in the audience hall of one of the Fatimid palaces in Mahdia. These proportions had the practical benefit of allowing the caliph sitting at the back of the hall to be able to see the entire width of the hall within his field of vision without having to turn his head.

The central hall is notable for its outstanding ornamentation, which is carved onto stone panels or slabs attached to the surfaces of walls. As a result of this technique, the stone used for the decoration does not correspond to the stone used for the structure of the building itself, which Antonio Vallejo Triano notes is an innovation that treats the carved stone panels like a "skin" for the hall. The carved panels are mostly made of limestone, while the columns are marble and the floor is paved in marble. The ornamentation is generally divided into three zones: the lower parts of the walls are covered with large panels; the middle zone is occupied primarily by the arches of the arcades, which have voussoirs of alternating colours and motifs, framed by a decorated alfiz; and the upper areas of the walls are covered by horizontal friezes that run just below the ceiling. In general, the motifs are predominantly vegetal arabesques. The larger lower panels frequently feature elaborate representations of the tree of life, which may draw on models from Abbasid art in the east while adapting them to local Andalusi styles.

On either side of the Salón Rico was a long line of various buildings that ran along the northern edge of the Upper and Lower Gardens. Beneath the buildings on the west side was an underground passage, known today as the Camino de Ronda, which may have served as the substructure for the buildings above and which linked the Salón Rico with the Lower Garden. The structures to the east of the Salón Rico included a large bath complex.

The Upper Garden ( Jardín Alto in Spanish) stretches out in front of the Salón Rico and occupies an elevated terrace that is 10 meters higher than the surrounding areas on the east, south, and west. The terrace is artificial, though the builders probably used an existing spur of the hills to start. Its walls are reinforced with rectangular buttresses at regular intervals. On its east side was the Lower Garden and on its west side was the Aljama Mosque. The latter was reached via a covered path along the terrace wall, and to the south is another large unexcavated garden. The eastern wall of the terrace is aligned with the portico of Bab al-Sudda while its north and south borders are aligned with those of the older Lower Garden to the east. Although it may have been initially intended to have a perfectly square layout, which would have measured 133 by 133 meters, the western side of the garden was extended on top of the Lower Garden, giving it a final width of 153.5 meters instead. The final width corresponds to the base of an equilateral triangle whose summit could be placed at the center of the Salón Rico's façade, similar to the proportions found inside the caliph's reception hall. Felix Arnold suggests that these dimensions are therefore a deliberate part of the design.

The garden itself was for purely aesthetic purposes. Along with the Lower Garden, it is among the earliest examples of the traditional four-part Islamic garden, also known as chahar bagh in the Persian tradition. Around its edge ran a walkway 4 meters wide. Two other walkways split the garden into four quadrants of slightly unequal size (the northern ones being larger). This evidence suggests that the original garden was divided into perfectly equal quadrants but that the east-west path was moved south to its current position in order to accommodate the creation of the Central Pavilion. This change would also explain why the east-west path of the garden is not aligned with the east-west path of the Lower Garden to the east or with the location of a possible pavilion on that side of the garden. The gardens were sunken about 50 to 70 centimeters below the level of the walkways so that the low-growing plants did not impede views. The area has been replanted in modern times, which has impeded archaeobotanical studies, but there is evidence that herbs and shrubs were originally planted, including: myrtle, lavender, hackberry, oleander, basil, alexanders, jujube, and heather.

At the middle of the garden's northern side is a large water basin measuring 19 by 19 meters and 2 meters deep. The gardens slope gently from north to south so that this water basin could be used to irrigate them. Water channels ran along the walkways to distribute water. To the south of this basin, near the middle of the gardens, was the large "Central Pavilion" whose construction has been dated to 956 or 957. Very little of its remains have been preserved in comparison to other structures like the Salón Rico and as a result it is still being investigated (as of 2018). It consisted of a rectangular building divided into three naves or parallel halls, aligned roughly north-to-south, with its main entrance facing the Salón Rico. The building stood on a platform one meter higher than the surrounding walkways, and on all four sides was a small water basin which rose to the same height as the platform. The water basins may have been designed and placed so that any observer looking out from inside the pavilion would have seen the reflection of the sky in the water, while an observer from outside would have seen the pavilion reflected in the water. Likewise, the placement of the pavilion in relation to the Salón Rico meant that both buildings would have been reflected in the larger northern water basin. These pools of water would have also reflected light into both buildings through their front archways. They might also have given the impression to observers inside them, when looking out, that the buildings were "floating" on water, since every main entrance was fronted by water.

The Lower Garden ( Jardin Bajo in Spanish) stood on a lower level on the east side of the Upper Garden and south of the Dar al-Mulk. It has not been completely excavated but it is known to have had an equal four-part division much like the Upper Garden's initial design. It was one of the largest in the city and was probably created during the first phase of construction at Madinat al-Zahra, shortly after its foundation. The garden was originally 125 meters long from north to south and 180 meters wide from east to west, but when the Upper Garden was built to the east its width was reduced by 22 meters. It was surrounded by a walkway 4 meters wide, and two more walkways intersected in the middle of the gardens. The gardens in between the walkways were sunken, as with other examples in the city. It is not clear what they were planted with, but limited evidence suggests once again that they were planted with herbs and shrubs similar to those of the Upper Garden, as well as flax.

At the middle of the garden's eastern edge, along the wall of the Upper Garden, was a rectangular buttress that is much larger than the other buttresses along the Upper Garden wall. At the base of this buttress was a water basin into which water from the Upper Garden probably cascaded from above. A pavilion may have also existed on top of it, with views over the Lower Garden from above, but not enough remains have been preserved to prove this.

The palace was built where the 1st century Roman aqueduct running from the Sierra Morena to Cordoba ran, but this was several metres below the palace, so a new spur was constructed further back to bring permanent running water to the higher levels. In turn, the section of the old Roman aqueduct now diverted was used as a main sewer for a highly complex system of small channels carrying away rain and waste water. Many food and ceramic remains have been found here. In addition to the aqueducts, several new bridges were built (of which two survive today) in order to serve the new roads between the new palace-city and Cordoba.

Artistically, Medina Azahara played a great role in formulating a distinct Andalusian Islamic architecture (also referred to as "Moorish" architecture), as well as establishing a more particular "caliphal" style of the 10th century. The congregational mosque (or Aljama Mosque) of Madinat al-Zahra bears close resemblance to the Great Mosque of Córdoba (at least prior to the latter's expansion by Al-Hakam II), and replicated its rows of double-tiered arches. The horseshoe arch, which had also appeared in the Great Mosque of Cordoba already, became further ubiquitous in Madinat al-Zahra and consolidated its distinctive form: the arch consisted of about three quarters of a circle and was usually contained within a rectangular frame known as an . The extensive arabesque decoration, carved in relief across many wall surfaces, demonstrate historic influences from Sassanian and Abbasid Iraq, both also notable differences in its details. The basilical royal reception hall, as seen in the Salon Rico, is another distinctive creation here which became a distinctive feature of palace architecture in this region, as it contrasted with the domed and vaulted halls found in the eastern part of the Islamic world.

The Lower Garden and Upper Garden of Madinat al-Zahra are the earliest archeologically-attested examples of a symmetrically-divided garden in the western Islamic world, and among the earliest examples in the Islamic world more generally. They are also the earliest example in the region to combine such gardens with a system of terraces. This type of garden probably drew its origins from Persian gardens ( chahar bagh) that existed far to the east and was imported to the west by Umayyad patrons. Among other things, this eastern Umayyad origin is evidenced by the existence of similar gardens discovered at the palace-villa in Syria known as ar-Rusafa, which belonged to the reign of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (early 8th century). Another villa known as al-Qasr ar-Rusafa, built by Abd ar-Rahman I near Cordoba in 777, has not been fully studied but probably also featured gardens and pavilions with elevated views. This suggests that there were precedents for this tradition among the Umayyad emirs of Al-Andalus. Courtyards with symmetrically-divided gardens, later known as riyads (or riads), would go on to become a typical feature of later Andalusi palaces, including the Alhambra, as well as in Moroccan architecture and beyond.

Archeological excavations on the site began in 1911 under the direction of Spanish architect Ricardo Velázquez Bosco. Work continued under Félix Hernández Giménez between 1923 and 1936 and between 1943 and 1975, then under Rafael Manzano Martos between 1975 and 1982, under Antonio Vallejo Triano between 1985 and 2013, and under José Escudero Aranda since 2013. The Salon Rico, the most richly decorated building, was excavated by Rafael Castejón and Félix Hernandez Giménez in 1946. Thanks to the partially preserved walls and many preserved fragments of decoration, it was reconstructed under the supervision of Félix Hernandez Giménez. Restoration of the hall's ornamentation continues today.

Excavation and restoration continues, depending upon funding by the Spanish government. In 2020, archaeologists discovered a gateway, that marked the eastern entrance to the 10th-century palace, which was missing for more than a thousand years.

The unexcavated portions of the site are being threatened by the illegal construction of housing. According to the New York Times, "The local government in Córdoba, he said, has failed to enforce a law passed 10 years ago that expanded protections for the site against development... Construction companies are putting up houses on the site of the city, 90 percent of which remains unexcavated."

A new archeological museum dedicated to Medina Azahara was opened in 2009, located on the edge of the site. The museum building was built low, with much of the space underground, to minimize disruption to the views of the landscape from the ruins. The museum, which was designed by the firm Nieto Sobejano Arquitectos, won the Aga Khan Award for Architecture in 2010.

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Madinat al-Zahra or Medina Azahara ( Arabic: مدينة الزهراء‎, Madīnat az-Zahrā, 'the radiant city') was a fortified palace-city on the western outskirts of Córdoba in present-day Spain. Its remains are a major archaeological site today. The city was built in the 10th century by Abd-ar-Rahman III (912-961), a member of the Umayyad dynasty and the first caliph of Al-Andalus.

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The Serra de Tramuntana ( Catalan pronunciation: [ˈsɛrə ðə tɾəmunˈtanə], Spanish: Sierra de Tramontana) is a mountain range running southwest-northeast which forms the northern backbone of the Spanish island of Mallorca. It is also the name given to the comarca of the same area. On 27 June 2011, the Tramuntana Range was awarded World Heritage Status by UNESCO as an area of great physical and cultural significance.

The highest peak is the Puig Major, which at 1,445 metres, is the highest mountain in the Balearic Islands. It is closely followed by the Puig de Massanella, which stands at 1,364 metres.

The climate in the Tramuntana Range is significantly wetter than the rest of the island, recording as much as 1507 mm (59.3 inches) of precipitation per year, in comparison with some other parts of the island where annual rainfall is less than 400mm (15 inch). It is also cooler due to the altitude, and a few days of snow are not unusual during winter.

The Serra de Na Burguesa is the southernmost portion of the Tramuntana Range.

Coll de Cal Reis

Coll de Cal Reis is a mountain saddle in the Serra de Tramuntana range on the Ballearic Island of Mallorca. To the west of the saddle a ridge extends up to the highest point of the island, the Puig Major, whilst east of the saddle, there is only a minor side peak, the Moleta de Cals Reis.

The highway Ma-2141 leads over the saddle down to the beach town of Sa Calobra, one of the supposed most picturesque roads of Spain. The road is also a famous target for road cyclists.

Population as at 1 January 2008

In June 2011, the entire mountain range, which has been preserved as an important nature reserve, outstanding in their geology and forest cover and harboring a diversity of plant and animal species, away from rapid urbanization, was listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. The UNESCO introductory statement refers to:

The Cultural Landscape of the Serra de Tramuntana located on a sheer-sided mountain range parallel to the north-western coast of the island of Mallorca. Millennia of agriculture in an environment with scarce resources has transformed the terrain and displays an articulated network of devices for the management of water revolving around farming units of feudal origins. The landscape is marked by agricultural terraces and inter-connected water works - including water mills - as well as dry stone constructions and farms.

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The Serra de Tramuntana ( Catalan pronunciation: [ˈsɛrə ðə tɾəmunˈtanə], Spanish: Sierra de Tramontana) is a mountain range running southwest-northeast which forms the northern backbone of the Spanish island of Mallorca. It is also the name given to the comarca of the same area.

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Hercules Tower, Avenida Navarra, La Corunya, Espanya

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Hercules Tower, Avenida Navarra, La Corunya, Espanya

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Hercules Tower, Avenida Navarra, La Corunya, Espanya

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The Tower of Hercules ( Spanish: Torre de Hércules) is the oldest extant lighthouse known. It has an ancient Roman origin on a peninsula about 2.4 km (1.5 mi) from the centre of A Coruña, Galicia, in north-western Spain. Until the 20th century, it was known as the Farum Brigantium. The Latin word farum is derived from the Greek Φάρος, Pharos, for the Lighthouse of Alexandria. The structure stands 55 metres (180 ft) tall and overlooks the North Atlantic coast of Spain. It was built in the 1st century and competently renovated in 1791.

There is a sculpture garden featuring works by Pablo Serrano and Francisco Leiro. The Tower of Hercules is a National Monument of Spain, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 27 June 2009. It is the second-tallest lighthouse in Spain, after the Faro de Chipiona.

The tower is known to have existed by the 1st century, built or perhaps rebuilt under Trajan, possibly on foundations following a design that was Phoenician in origin. Built with the original plans of the Lighthouse of Alexandria. Its base preserves a cornerstone with the inscription MARTI AUG.SACR C.SEVIVS LVPVS ARCHTECTVS AEMINIENSIS LVSITANVS.EX.VO, permitting the original lighthouse tower to be ascribed to the architect Gaius Sevius Lupus, from Aeminium (present-day Coimbra, Portugal) in the former province of Lusitania, as an offering dedicated to the Roman god of war, Mars. The tower has been in constant use since the 2nd century and is considered to be the oldest existent lighthouse. The original tower was shorter and wider, as the surviving core was surrounded by a spiral ramp. The outline of this ramp is still visible in the restored exterior. The final storey was likely surmounted with a dome.

The earliest known reference to the lighthouse at Brigantium is by Paulus Orosius in Historiae adversum Paganos written around 415-417:

Secundus angulus circium intendit, ubi Brigantia Gallaeciae civitas sita altissimum farum et inter pauca memorandi operis ad speculam Britanniae erigit
("At the second angle of the circuit circumnavigating Hispania, where the Gallaecian city of Brigantia is sited, a very tall lighthouse is erected among a few commemorative works, for looking towards Britannia.")

In 1788, the surviving 34-metre (112 ft) tower core was given a neoclassical restoration, including a new 21-metre (69 ft) fourth story. The restoration was undertaken by naval engineer Eustaquio Giannini during the reign of Charles III of Spain, and was finished in 1791. UNESCO praised the work: "The Tower of Hercules was restored in the 18th century in an exemplary manner, which has protected the central core of the original Roman monument while restoring its technical functions". Within, the much-repaired Roman and medieval masonry may be inspected.

The Romans who conquered this region of Spain believed it to be, in a figurative sense, the end of the earth - hence its name, Finisterra. This region is notorious for shipwrecks, earning it the name Costa da Morte, "Coast of Death".

Through the millennia many mythical stories of the lighthouse's origin have been told. According to a myth that mixes Celtic and Greco-Roman elements, the hero Hercules slew the giant tyrant Geryon after three days and three nights of continuous battle. Hercules then-in a Celtic gesture-buried the head of Geryon with his weapons and ordered that a city be built on the site. The lighthouse atop a skull and crossbones representing the buried head of Hercules' slain enemy appears in the coat-of-arms of the city of Coruña.

Another legend embodied in the 11th-century Irish compilation Lebor Gabála Érenn-the "Book of Invasions"-King Breogán, the founding father of the Galician Celtic nation, constructed a massive tower of such a grand height that his sons could see a distant green shore from its top. The glimpse of that distant green land lured them to sail north to Ireland. According to the legend, Breogán's descendants stayed in Ireland and are the Celtic ancestors of the current Irish people. A colossal statue of Breogán has been erected near the Tower.

Throughout the Middle Ages multiple naval crusading itineraries to the Holy Land mentioned the obligatory stopover at the Lighthouse. Usually, the crusader fleets would disembark there to reach the shrine of the Apostle James at Santiago of Compostela on foot. De expugnatione Lyxbonensi and De itinere Frisunum helped to perpetuate the legend that the lighthouse had been built by Julius Caesar perhaps by a misreading of the ancient inscription.

Early geographical descriptions on the location of point out that the town could be actually located in Corunna or in the locality of the modern town of Betanzos. There is some debate about this, as the people from Betanzos claim it as a fact that Betanzos was referred to as "the former city of Brigancia" until the 17th century, both in literary accounts as well as in maps, and they also believe that the name Betanzos is a phonetical evolution from Brigantium > Breganzo > Betanzos. This, however, could be a false etymology.

The Betanzos tradition claims that the port of Betanzos was getting too small for the larger mediaeval ships, and that king Alfonso IX of León decided to create a bigger port nearby in the 13th century. The place he chose was an uninhabited place called Clunia, which later on evolved to Cruña and Coruña, and so (in English) to Corunna. The place name Clunia is believed to come from the Proto-Celtic root *klou̯ni (cf. Old Irish cluain), meaning meadow.

However, the Coruña tradition maintains that the "port" of Betanzos (which is a fluvial one, in a quite small river) was far too small for Roman warships to dock at, for example when Julius Caesar visited this area with "more than a hundred triremes". It is demonstrated that Corunna was an important Roman site, as graveyards and other Roman remains have been found in the city centre, demonstrating that the site was inhabited in the Roman period, and was deserted only during the early Middle Ages due to Viking attacks, when its people moved inland to O Burgo (now Culleredo). The proponents of Corunna also explain the different name as a change that occurred in the Middle Ages, and point out that the lighthouse, which was called "Pharum Brigantium", was erected in Corunna, and is at least 25 km (or a day's walk) from Betanzos.

Also in La Coruña there was the tribe of the Brigantes, in Betanzos the tribe of the Nemeti. Today[when? ] almost all historians agree that Brigantia is La Coruña. Brigantia is not only La Coruña; today it is believed that Brigantia was located from La Coruña until A Laracha and Carballo in the Bergantiños region (Brigantes > Brigantinos > Bergantiños undoing the modification of medieval Galician).[clarification needed ]

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The Tower of Hercules ( Spanish: Torre de Hércules) is the oldest extant lighthouse known. It has an ancient Roman origin on a peninsula about 2.4 km (1.5 mi) from the centre of A Coruña, Galicia, in north-western Spain. Until the 20th century, it was known as the Farum Brigantium.

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Teide National Park ( Spanish: Parque nacional del Teide, pronounced [ˈpaɾke naθjoˈnal de ˈtejðe]) is a national park located in Tenerife ( Canary Islands, Spain).

The national park is centered on Mount Teide, the highest mountain of Spain (3,718 meters high) in addition, the highest volcano in the Atlantic Ocean islands and the third highest volcano in the world from its base in the ocean floor (7.500 meters high). Pico Viejo, also included within the national park limits, is the second highest volcano in the Canary Islands with its 3,135 m peak. Mount Teide and Pico Viejo are the only two peaks in the Canary islands rising above the 3,000 m level.

The park has an area of 18,990 hectares located in the municipality of La Orotava[citation needed ]. It was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO on June 28, 2007. Since the end of 2007, it has also been one of the 12 Treasures of Spain. On a ridge, to the east of Teide, are the telescopes of the Observatorio del Teide.

Teide is the most visited national park in Spain and −by 2015− the eighth most visited in the world, with some 3 million visitors yearly. In 2016, it was visited by 4,079,823 visitors and tourists reaching a historical record.

There are morning and afternoon coach trips through the park, departing from selected areas in the south of Tenerife's tourist towns. Access to the peak requires a free permit that needs to be booked in advance.

The Teide National Park has a large historical value. This place had an important spiritual significance to aboriginal Guanches and important archaeological sites have been discovered in the park. For the Guanches the Teide was a place of worship, they thought it was the gate of hell ( Echeyde).

National park status was declared on January 22, 1954, which was one of the third in Spain. In 1981 the park was reclassified and established as a special legal regime. In 1989, the Council of Europe awarded the European Diploma of Protected Areas, in its highest category. This recognition and conservation management has been subsequently renewed in 1994, 1999 and 2004.

In celebration of the 50th anniversary of its transformation into a national park, in 2002 the paperwork was begun to declare the park a UNESCO World Heritage Site. On June 28, 2007, after five years of work and effort, UNESCO decided to declare the Teide National Park, World Heritage Site in the World Heritage Convention of UNESCO held in Christchurch, New Zealand. Teide National Park is also at the end of 2007, one of the 12 Treasures of Spain.

Teide National Park is complementary to the Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park, this is mainly due to being in each of them represented the volcanic structures and forms less evolved magmas of such islands ( Hawaii) and more evolved and differentiated (Teide). Moreover, Teide National Park shares similar scenic characteristics with the Grand Canyon National Park in Arizona, United States.

The lava flows on the flanks of Teide weather to a very thin, but nutrient and mineral rich soil that supports a diverse number of plant species. Vascular flora consists of 168 plant species, 33 of which are endemic to Tenerife.

Forests of Canary Island pine (Pinus canariensis) occur from 1000-2100 m, covering the middle slopes of the volcano, and having an alpine timberline 1000 m lower than that of continental mountains of similar latitude. At higher altitudes, the Las Cañadas caldera provides sufficient shelter for more fragile species such as the Canary Island cedar (Juniperus cedrus), and the Canary Island pine (Pinus canariensis) to grow.

The most dominant plant species in the Teide National Park are the Teide white broom (Spartocytisus supranubius), which has a white and pink flower; the Canary Island wallflower (Erysimum scoparium), which has white and violet flowers; and the Teide bugloss (Echium wildpretii), whose red flowers form a pyramid up to 3m in height. The Teide daisy (Argyranthemum teneriffae) can be found at altitudes close to 3,600m above sea level. The Teide violet (Viola cheiranthifolia) can be found right up to the summit of the volcano, making it the highest flowering plant in Spain.

These plants are adapted to the tough environmental conditions on the volcano such as high altitude, intense sunlight, extreme temperature variations, and lack of moisture. Adaptations include acquiring semi-spherical forms, acquiring a downy or waxy cover, reducing the exposed leaf area, and having a high flower production. Flowering takes place in the late spring or early summer, in the months of May and June.

The Teide National Park contains a huge range of invertebrate fauna, over 40% of which are endemic species, with 70 species only being found in the national park. The invertebrate fauna include spiders, beetles, dipterans, hemipterans, and hymenopterae.

In contrast, Teide national park has only a limited variety of vertebrate fauna. Ten species of bird nest in the park. These include the blue chaffinch (Fringilla teydea teydea); Berthelot's pipit ( Anthus berthelotii berthelotii); the Atlantic canary (Serinus canaria); and a subspecies of kestrel (Falco tinnunculus canariensis).

Three endemic reptile species are also found in the park - the Canary Island lizard (Gallotia galloti galloti), the Canary Island wall gecko (Tarentola delalandii), and the Canary Island skink (Chalcides viridanus viridanus).

The only mammals native to the park are bats, the most common species of which is Leisler's bat (Nyctalus leisleri). Other mammals such as the mouflon, the rabbit, the house mouse, the black rat, the feral cat, and the Algerian hedgehog have all been introduced to the park.

The similarity between environmental and geological conditions in the Teide National Park and the planet Mars have turned this spot into a volcanic reference point for studies related to the red planet.

The similarity between environmental and geological conditions of Teide National Park and the planet Mars have made the park the ideal place for testing instruments that will travel to Mars and reveal past or present life on Mars. In 2010 a research team tested at Las Cañadas del Teide the Raman instrument that was to be used in the ESA-NASA ExoMars expedition to Mars.

In 2017, ESA tested planetary rovers in an area of the park known as Las Minas de San José.

Besides the Teide National Park participates in different international programs and exchange advice with other national parks in the world, especially Central America, South America and Europe. In regard to international cooperation, the Teide National Park has provided technical support to the Souss-Massa National Park located in southwestern of Morocco.

This dramatic scenery has been featured in films such as One Million Years B.C. (1966), (2002), Clash of the Titans (2010) and Wrath of the Titans (2012).

The Raquel Welch poster of One Million Years B.C. that plays a significant role in the 1994 film The Shawshank Redemption was taken at the Teide.

Mike Oldfield included in his compilation The Complete fel of 1985, the song Mount Teide dedicated to this famous volcano from Tenerife.

The park has a small chapel dedicated to the Virgen de las Nieves which is the highest Christian church in Spain.

Tenerife was the place where L. Ron Hubbard (founder of the Church of Scientology) called picked "OT-III materials", according to this doctrine one of the volcanoes which were cast the "thetans" 75 million years ago is the Teide together with other volcanoes in the world, mainly from Hawaii.

On 24 June 1989 the radio Espacio en Blanco of the Radiocadena Española called a "UFO Alert" in the Teide National Park in order to achieve some kind of contact with extraterrestrials. This event was attended by about forty thousand people.

The sixth installment of The Fast and the Furious starring Vin Diesel, and directed by Justin Lin, The Teide had the main stage for most of its outer planes.

In 2017, Teide National Park was the eighth most sought after site on the Google Street View platform with a total of 8.6 million visitors, being similar to places like the Taj Mahal, Mont Blanc, the Necropolis of Giza, Angkor Wat or Stonehenge.

In 2018, the surroundings of the National Park hosted part of the filming of the American film Rambo: Last Blood, starring Sylvester Stallone and Paz Vega among others.

1. ^ Carracedo, Juan Carlos; Troll, Valentin R., eds. (2013). Teide Volcano: Geology and Eruptions of a Highly Differentiated Oceanic Stratovolcano. Active Volcanoes of the World. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-642-25892-3.

2. ^ "El Parque Nacional del Teide, Patrimonio Mundial: Valores geológicos determinantes" (PDF). Acceda.ulpgc.es.

3. Dupont, Yoko L., Dennis M., Olesen, Jens M., Structure of a plant-flower-visitor network in the high altitude sub-alpine desert of Tenerife, Canary Islands, Ecography. 26(3), 2003, pp. 301-310.

4. J.M. Fernandez-Palacios, Climatic response of plant species on Tenerife, the Canary islands, J. Veg. Sci. 3, 1992, pp. 595-602

5. Thorpe, R.S., McGregor, D.P., Cumming, A.M., and Jordan, W.C., DNA evolution and colonisation sequence of island lizards in relation to geological history: MTDNA RFLP, cytochrome B, cytochrome oxidase, 123 RRNA sequence, and nuclear RAPD analysis, evolution, 48(2), 1994, pp. 230-240

6. ^ Lever, Christopher (2003). Naturalized Reptiles and Amphibians of the World (First ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-850771-0..

7. "Cooperación internacional entre parques nacionales" (PDF). Magrama.gob.es.

8. ^ Montgomery, Jack (22 February 2011). "Clash of the Titans 2 & Los Cristianos Carnival in Tenerife News of the Week". Tenerife Magazine. Archived from the original on 3 September 2014.

9. ^ Fotheringham, William (23 May 2012). "Volcano gives Bradley Wiggins the fire for assault on Tour de France". guardian.co.uk.

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Teide National Park ( Spanish: Parque nacional del Teide, pronounced [ˈpaɾke naθjoˈnal de ˈtejðe]) is a national park located in Tenerife ( Canary Islands, Spain). The national park is centered on Mount Teide, the highest mountain of Spain (3,718 meters high) in addition, the highest volcano in the Atlantic Ocean islands and the third highest volcano in the world from its base in the ocean floor (7.500 meters high).

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Vizcaya Bridge, Puente de Vizcaya Zubia, Getxo, Espanya

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Vizcaya Bridge, Puente de Vizcaya Zubia, Getxo, Espanya

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Vizcaya Bridge, Puente de Vizcaya Zubia, Getxo, Espanya

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The Churches of the Vall de Boí are a set of nine Early Romanesque churches declared World Heritage Site by UNESCO and located in the Vall de Boí, in the Catalan comarca of Alta Ribagorça ( Province of Lleida).

UNESCO declared World Heritage Sites in 2000 to nine churches:

During the early 20th century there was a major effort to study and catalog the Romanesque wall paintings in the churches of the Vall de Boí area. This activity was driven by both the academic interests of scholars, and by art dealers (whose motives were financial gain).

In 1904 and 1906, the Hiking Club of Catalonia organised the first trips to inter-alia the Vall de Boí, with the aim of collecting plans, photographs and taking notes. Subsequently, in June 1907 an expedition by the Institute for Catalan Studies undertook to study, document and photograph culturally important buildings and art works the Vall d'Aran and Alta Ribagorça which included the Vall de Boí.

As a result, between 1905 and 1909 the Board of the Museums of Barcelona printed faithful reproductions of these Pyrenean frescoes, and the publication of these works unleashed a desire for their acquisition by museums and private collectors.

By 1919, many intermediaries were involved in buying and selling these works, which went mostly to museums and private collections within the United States. In one documented case, Italian and Polish craftsmen were paid by unscrupulous Barcelona industrialist and art collector Lluis Planidura to remove frescoes in isolated churches and sold the apse of the church of Santa Maria de Mur to the Boston Museum of Fine Arts in 1921 (entirely legally) before an outcry by Spanish artists and curators had him stopped.

The Taüll region became an exception to this trend, since the local population refused to allow the frescoes and other art works to leave their churches. This action was escalated to the level of the Commonwealth of Catalonia and to the bishop of La Seu d'Urgell. Finally, it was agreed that the frescoes would be best kept in the National Museum of Catalan Art (MNAC), secure from possible theft or unscrupulous transactions. A team of Italian restorers carried out the task of removing the paintings from the walls and, in some cases, replacing the works with in situ reproductions.

The Taüll Romanesque paintings preserved in MNAC have since become world-famous. Interest by art academics and professionals has led to a systematic study of all other remaining Romanesque murals of the Vall de Boí area, and most of these are now in safe protection at MNAC in Barcelona and at the Museum of Vic.

The church of Sant Climent de Taüll was consecrated the December 10, 1123 by the bishop of Roda. This is a church with three naves separated by cylindrical columns, topped by three semicircular apses. The roof, of two sheds, is built of wood. Next to the building stands a six-story bell tower which despite being attached to the building, is not an integral part thereof.

The main entrance is located on the south facade and is arched. Inside the church there were many frescoes by an unknown painter called the Master of Taüll. The Pantocrator of the church, now preserved in the Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya (MNAC), is considered one of the best examples of Romanesque art in Catalonia.

Also was consecrated in 1123 and worked as parish of the municipality of Taüll during the 18th century. Its structure is very similar to that of Sant Climent. Basilica floor plan, consists of three naves and three apses. The bell tower is in the center of the nave. In its inside also were found many frescoes studied in 1907 by Josep Puig i Cadafalch. Highlights the fresco representing the Saint Mary with the child on his lap and that is also shown in the MNAC.

It is also a church with three naves. Originally, the roof was made of wood but later was changed to a stone hedge. The bell tower, of clear- Lombard style, is attached to the lateral nave located in the south. Only two of its original stories are preserved, as the last level of the bell tower was added later. Only the apse of the church is preserved. It also has a notable collection of paintings from the 12th century among the highlights of which are those representing various mythical animals. The originals, the Paintings from Sant Joan in Boí, are in the MNAC while reproductions can be seen in the church.

It was declared a monumento histórico artístico in 1962. The building is a single nave with a semicircular apse. The outer side has a portico decorated with cylindrical columns. The bell tower, typical example of Lombard architecture of the Vall de Boí, is of six stories, with a total height of 23 meters. It is decorated with double windows that frame the arches. In the sacristy was found a 12th-century sculptural group known as El Davallament. The sculpture is preserved separately: one part is at the MNAC and one in the Episcopal Museum of Vic.

First appears documented in the late 13th century but little is known of its history. Located in the municipality of Barruera, is a building with a single nave with a barrel vault. The nave is headed by a semicircular apse.

Situated at an altitude of 1,386 meters, in the small town of Durrës, the church is documented for the first time in the 11th century when it belonged to the County of Pallars. Its style and characteristics are very similar to those already mentioned. It has a single nave and a single apse and five-story bell tower has very few openings.

It is a small hermitage of simple architecture. The nave is covered with barrel vault and finished in a presbytery, slightly higher than the rest of the nave. The entrance door is arched with voussoirs. The hermitage is very dimly lit and only has a porthole in its head and small openings on the west facade.

This is a church of small dimensions of a single nave covered with four sections of a grain vault. Being situated on a slope, the apse, of two floors, is at a higher level than the central nave. In the basement of the apse is a crypt.

Also known as the church of the Assumption, is a single nave with barrel vault. The bell tower is square and consists of two floors: the first consists of pointed windows while in the second hold the bells. Believed to be built during the second third of the 13th century.

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Catalan Romanesque Churches of the Vall de Boí - Wikipedia

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The Churches of the Vall de Boí are a set of nine Early Romanesque churches declared World Heritage Site by UNESCO and located in the Vall de Boí, in the Catalan comarca of Alta Ribagorça ( Province of Lleida).

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The Churches of the Vall de Boí are a set of nine Early Romanesque churches declared World Heritage Site by UNESCO and located in the Vall de Boí, in the Catalan comarca of Alta Ribagorça ( Province of Lleida).

UNESCO declared World Heritage Sites in 2000 to nine churches:

During the early 20th century there was a major effort to study and catalog the Romanesque wall paintings in the churches of the Vall de Boí area. This activity was driven by both the academic interests of scholars, and by art dealers (whose motives were financial gain).

In 1904 and 1906, the Hiking Club of Catalonia organised the first trips to inter-alia the Vall de Boí, with the aim of collecting plans, photographs and taking notes. Subsequently, in June 1907 an expedition by the Institute for Catalan Studies undertook to study, document and photograph culturally important buildings and art works the Vall d'Aran and Alta Ribagorça which included the Vall de Boí.

As a result, between 1905 and 1909 the Board of the Museums of Barcelona printed faithful reproductions of these Pyrenean frescoes, and the publication of these works unleashed a desire for their acquisition by museums and private collectors.

By 1919, many intermediaries were involved in buying and selling these works, which went mostly to museums and private collections within the United States. In one documented case, Italian and Polish craftsmen were paid by unscrupulous Barcelona industrialist and art collector Lluis Planidura to remove frescoes in isolated churches and sold the apse of the church of Santa Maria de Mur to the Boston Museum of Fine Arts in 1921 (entirely legally) before an outcry by Spanish artists and curators had him stopped.

The Taüll region became an exception to this trend, since the local population refused to allow the frescoes and other art works to leave their churches. This action was escalated to the level of the Commonwealth of Catalonia and to the bishop of La Seu d'Urgell. Finally, it was agreed that the frescoes would be best kept in the National Museum of Catalan Art (MNAC), secure from possible theft or unscrupulous transactions. A team of Italian restorers carried out the task of removing the paintings from the walls and, in some cases, replacing the works with in situ reproductions.

The Taüll Romanesque paintings preserved in MNAC have since become world-famous. Interest by art academics and professionals has led to a systematic study of all other remaining Romanesque murals of the Vall de Boí area, and most of these are now in safe protection at MNAC in Barcelona and at the Museum of Vic.

The church of Sant Climent de Taüll was consecrated the December 10, 1123 by the bishop of Roda. This is a church with three naves separated by cylindrical columns, topped by three semicircular apses. The roof, of two sheds, is built of wood. Next to the building stands a six-story bell tower which despite being attached to the building, is not an integral part thereof.

The main entrance is located on the south facade and is arched. Inside the church there were many frescoes by an unknown painter called the Master of Taüll. The Pantocrator of the church, now preserved in the Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya (MNAC), is considered one of the best examples of Romanesque art in Catalonia.

Also was consecrated in 1123 and worked as parish of the municipality of Taüll during the 18th century. Its structure is very similar to that of Sant Climent. Basilica floor plan, consists of three naves and three apses. The bell tower is in the center of the nave. In its inside also were found many frescoes studied in 1907 by Josep Puig i Cadafalch. Highlights the fresco representing the Saint Mary with the child on his lap and that is also shown in the MNAC.

It is also a church with three naves. Originally, the roof was made of wood but later was changed to a stone hedge. The bell tower, of clear- Lombard style, is attached to the lateral nave located in the south. Only two of its original stories are preserved, as the last level of the bell tower was added later. Only the apse of the church is preserved. It also has a notable collection of paintings from the 12th century among the highlights of which are those representing various mythical animals. The originals, the Paintings from Sant Joan in Boí, are in the MNAC while reproductions can be seen in the church.

It was declared a monumento histórico artístico in 1962. The building is a single nave with a semicircular apse. The outer side has a portico decorated with cylindrical columns. The bell tower, typical example of Lombard architecture of the Vall de Boí, is of six stories, with a total height of 23 meters. It is decorated with double windows that frame the arches. In the sacristy was found a 12th-century sculptural group known as El Davallament. The sculpture is preserved separately: one part is at the MNAC and one in the Episcopal Museum of Vic.

First appears documented in the late 13th century but little is known of its history. Located in the municipality of Barruera, is a building with a single nave with a barrel vault. The nave is headed by a semicircular apse.

Situated at an altitude of 1,386 meters, in the small town of Durrës, the church is documented for the first time in the 11th century when it belonged to the County of Pallars. Its style and characteristics are very similar to those already mentioned. It has a single nave and a single apse and five-story bell tower has very few openings.

It is a small hermitage of simple architecture. The nave is covered with barrel vault and finished in a presbytery, slightly higher than the rest of the nave. The entrance door is arched with voussoirs. The hermitage is very dimly lit and only has a porthole in its head and small openings on the west facade.

This is a church of small dimensions of a single nave covered with four sections of a grain vault. Being situated on a slope, the apse, of two floors, is at a higher level than the central nave. In the basement of the apse is a crypt.

Also known as the church of the Assumption, is a single nave with barrel vault. The bell tower is square and consists of two floors: the first consists of pointed windows while in the second hold the bells. Believed to be built during the second third of the 13th century.

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Catalan Romanesque Churches of the Vall de Boí - Wikipedia

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The Churches of the Vall de Boí are a set of nine Early Romanesque churches declared World Heritage Site by UNESCO and located in the Vall de Boí, in the Catalan comarca of Alta Ribagorça ( Province of Lleida).

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El Palmeral de Elche, Passeig de l'Estació, Elx, Espanya

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El Palmeral de Elche, Passeig de l'Estació, Elx, Espanya

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El Palmeral de Elche, Passeig de l'Estació, Elx, Espanya

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The Palmeral or Palm Grove of Elche (Spanish: Palmeral de Elche, Valencian: Palmerar d'Elx) is the generic name for a system of date palm orchards in the city of Elche, Spain. It was planted in Roman times and underwent modifications in the medieval period under Islamic and Christian rulers. The Roman empire introduced water management techniques to Elche, but the 10th c. Islamic Caliphate of Córdoba and later rulers of Al-Andalus planted palm groves and garden-estates in huertos (rectangular base agricultural units). Islamic rulers also constructed the largest canal system sections in Elche. In the 13th century Christian rulers conquered Elche and expanded the canal system. Industrialization and urban sprawl contracted the Palmeral in the late 19th and 20th century. The Spanish national government and Valencian regional government enacted legislation to protect the Palm Grove. In 2000, UNESCO designated the Palmeral a World Heritage Site, but climate change, pests, and disease threaten the site. The Palmeral includes a National Artistic Garden, Palm Grove Museum, Route of El Palmeral, and Municipal Park.

In the 5th century BCE, Carthaginian settlers in the town of Ilici planted the first date palms of Elche. After Rome's conquest of the Iberian peninsula in the 2nd century BCE, Roman settlers introduced the first elaborate forms of agricultural water management. To irrigate their cereal and olive tree crop fields, the Romans constructed a dam at the Vinalopó River bed in the mountains north of Elche. Aqueducts then channeled the dam water to Elche.

In the 10th century CE, the Caliphate of Córdoba moved the city of Elche seven km away from Ilici to its present location. The Caliphate from the 7th to 10th century expanded the irrigation system into a complicated canal system centered on the Vinalopó river. The rulers applied North African water management techniques to create an oasis in an arid environment. Faced with scarce rainfall, irregular river flow, and brackish water from the Vinalopó river, the Caliphate in the second half of the tenth century planted palm groves. The palm trees prevented soil erosion, decreased water evaporation, provided shade, and protected crops from wind. The Caliphate divided the groves into huertos (rectangular base agricultural unit, Spanish for orchard) forming huertas (groups of huertos). Palm trees were planted in a grid pattern with single or double rows along the rectangular huerto edges. The palm trees enhanced agricultural production in an arid region with summer temperatures consistently above 30 °C and annual rainfall below 250 mm (9.8 in). Forage plants, cereals ( i.e., corn, wheat, barley, alfafa), and medium-sized trees ( i.e., pomegranates) were planted inside the huerto for human and livestock consumption. The palm groves also provided construction material for wood, fibers ( i.e., baskets, thatched house roofing), and ornamentation. Huertas were bounded by cascabots (fences of plaited dried palm leaves) or 1-2 m high plastered walls of undressed stone. In addition to agriculture, tenants planted elaborate gardens.

Elche residents prized gardens and orchards as respites from the arid conditions, offering an oasis of scents, sounds, touch, and visual beauty. In the Islamic period, gardens symbolized paradise. A strong literary tradition presented gardens as metaphors for love, loss, memory and the passing of time. The "desert castles" garden-estate concept first entered the Iberian peninsula in the 8th century CE when Umayyad amīr Abd al-Rahman I fled from Syria to Córdoba, Spain. Under the Caliphate of Córdoba, the garden-estate tradition percolated into Toledo, Seville, Granada, and Elche. After the fall of the Umayyad dynasty, later rulers of Al-Andalus continued the garden-estate tradition. Elche residents planted linear walled gardens in which water channels established symmetrical plots, irrigating rectangular landscapes of fruit trees, flowers, vegetation, and often walkways flanked the sides.

The Caliphate of Córdoba constructed a comprehensive canal system for urban consumption, industrial production, and crop irrigation. Islamic rulers regarded water as a social good and designed the canal system to maximize water conservation. With over 20 branches, the main canal Acequia Mayor channeled the brackish water from the Vinalopó River through secondary channels and partidores to crop fields. Upon reaching partidores north of Elche, the water flow split into the partidor de Albinella and the partidor de Marchena. The partidor de Albinella diverted water into Elche for urban consumption and industrial production. The partidor supplied small industries ( i.e., oil and soap producers), bathhouses, and local markets. The partidor de Marchena within the Acequia Marchena channeled water to the right side of the Vinalopó River. The Acequia Mayor on the left side of the Vinalopó River stretched south across Elche to the crop fields. Elche residents cultivated crop fields for human and livestock consumption as well as sale in local markets. The Acequia Mayor ended at a partidor channeling excess flow into two reservoirs. The canal system was maintained under Islamic rule until the Christian Reconquista.

In the 13th century, Christian rulers conquered the city of Elche from Al-Andalus. The Christian rulers claimed the canal network and redistributed its sections between Elche's Christian and Muslim residents. All lands left of the river, called the Huerta Major or Huerta de los Cristianos, belonged to the Christian tenants. The Christian canal system contained nine irrigation parts from the Acequia Mayor. All lands right of the Vinalopó River, known as the Huerta de los Moros, belonged to the Muslim occupants. The partidores, constructed from wood and stone, were redeployed within different irrigation system sections. After redistributing water rights, the Christian rulers expanded the canal system. In the main canal, partidores shifted the current flow to secondary canals. The secondary canals channeled one water part to the Albinella for Elche urban consumption, two parts for the Séquia de Marchena and 25 parts for the Acequia Mayor. In the 14th century, the Christian tenants constructed water mills on the main canal for flour production. The water mills disappeared in the 20th century due to the introduction of electricity to Elche. The Christian residents also introduced palm weaving. The locals wove desiccated "white palms" for decorative and processional use on Palm Sunday. The palm weaving tradition and Palm Sunday parade continues in Elche today.

In the 16th century, rapid population expansion paired with Elche's arid environment prompted canal expansion. In 1529, Elche officials constructed the Contraséquia section to prevent Vinalopó river flooding and irrigate crop fields with the excess flow. The canal extension distributed water to a reservoir north of the town then south to the Séquia Major for crop irrigation. From 1632 to 1646, Elche residents built a dam to reinforce the Contraséquia. The dam stored and channeled any excess drainage from the nearby Tarafa stream into the canal network. Frequent reservoir clogging and elevated salinity levels from evaporation limited the dam's impact. As the canal network expanded, so too did the need for water administration. The Libro Major and Libro Chico water books recorded rights and dates for water distribution in tanda (irrigation round) or 37.5 day sessions. Every landowner received water at a specified time and water part. The irrigation system distributed water in a two-ring system composed of huerto water and dula water. The first ring contained huerto water for urban consumption and palm groves within Elche. The second ring comprised dula water for crop irrigation outside Elche city limits. Greater irrigation distance resulted in stricter standards for dula water. The tandas and ring system lost function in the 20th century. As Elche industrialized in the late 19th and 20th century, the canal system and palm grove production declined.

Urban sprawl on the eastern part of the city encroach on the palm groves today. Beginning in 1884, railways sectioned off huertas from uninterrupted fields into isolated plots. In the 20th century, industrialization and urban sprawl led to the abandonment of many huertas. Industrialization supplanted agricultural production economically, reducing palm groves to a cultural and landscape role. By the second half of the 20th century, date harvesting (which still occurs between November and December) and "white palm" production became heritage activities reserved for the local marketplace. Limited land availability for the expanding footwear industry and a rising urban population resulted in the government seizing many huertas. Housing, social infrastructure, and parks were erected atop former huertas. As industrialization reduced palm production to a minor economic role, the Palmeral contracted in size. Legislative action by the Spanish national government and Valencian regional government preserved the site.

Efforts to protect the palm groves predate the 2000 UNESCO World Heritage designation. As the Palmeral faded in economic importance, tenants abandoned huertas. The Spanish government first passed protective legislation in the 1930s. The Ministry of Agriculture in the Republic of Spain barred logging operations and palm-endangering activities on March 8, 1933. The Ministry of National Education invoked the Artistic Treasury Law on July 27, 1943 and designated all Elche palm groves an Artistic Garden. The Valencian General Urban Development Plan of 1962 permitted detached houses in huertos for education, hospitality, or parks. To bypass legislation, residents replanted the palm trees within the huerto, thereby breaking up the original palm grove alignment. In the 1970s, the Valencian government reclassified some palm groves as social huertos to address the growing need for social infrastructure. The reclassification allowed the construction of artistic gardens, schools, hotels, houses as well as health, sport, and religious facilities on specified palm groves. Early legislation did not halt Palmeral contraction.

In response, the Valencian regional government passed stricter legislation. The Regional Government of Valencia passed the Law of the Tutelage and Protection of the Palmeral of Elche in 1986, thereby replacing all previous regulations. The Valencian government formed a board of trustees, called the Patronato del Palmeral, to protect and promote the palm groves within and outside the Elche city limits. The Patronato del Palmeral closed legal loopholes and regulated their operations, including the cutting of white palms for Palm Sunday. To protect the palm groves for historical and cultural heritage, the 1998 General Urban Development Plan converted private huertas into public spaces. The plan added urban historical gardens to the palm grove protections and barred any intervention without approval from the Patronato del Palmeral. The legislation proved effective until the UNESCO World Heritage Site designation in 2000.

In December 2000 at the XXIV meeting of the World Heritage Committee, UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization) successfully established the Palm Grove and El Misteri d'Elx (The Mystery of Elche) as a World Heritage Site. The UN organization cited two of the six protection requirements, particularly Criteria II and Criteria V. Under Criteria II, the Palmeral of Elche represented cultural expansion and cohesion through landscape transference practices from North Africa to Europe. The Palm Grove of Elche remains a ritualized and romanticized site, including the palm weaving for processional use. Under Criteria V, the heterogeneous (i.e., Roman, Islamic, and Christian) irrigation system constituted cultural significance. In addition to UNESCO, Spain partnered with France in the Phoenix Station ( Estación Phoenix) to protect the Palmeral. The partnership includes the Spanish Municipality of Elche, Government of Valencia, and the Universities of Elche and Alicante as well as the French National Institute of Agronomic Research and the Centre of International Co-operation of Agronomic Research for Development.

Protections are currently under revision from the Elche City Council and UNESCO. The Elche City Council is reviewing another special plan, allowing for temporary constructions ( i.e., tents) for municipal gardens and tourism, including nature classrooms, garden sales, and palm workshops. The plan may affect 67 orchards (1.5 million m ² out of the total 2.4 million m ² ) within the World Heritage site. UNESCO is currently discussing protection changes to grant a broader use of the palm trees opposed to just their leaves. Despite UNESCO protections, the Palm Grove remains under threat from forces beyond industrialization.

Climate change, pests, and diseases threaten the Palmeral. Inadequate sun, humidity, and wider temperature ranges from climate change curb the palm tree growth season. The red palm weevil ( Rhynchophorus ferrugineus) pest has infested several huertas, laying its eggs inside the palm tree stems. The scale insect Red Date Scale ( Phoenicococcus marlatti) lays eggs on the trunk and stems, resulting in an invasive fungus. To combat the red palm weevil and Red Date Scale, Palmeral management deploys biological pest control, pheromone traps, and approved specific pesticides. Within the Phoenix Station, the French National Institute of Agronomic Research and the Centre of International Co-operation of Agronomic Research for Development performs biological research to increase palm tree climate, pets, and disease resistance. Palmeral management also has deployed red date scale predators Rhyzobius lophantae and Chilocorus bipustulatus.

Under UNESCO and Phoenix Station management, the Palmeral transitioned from a local site to a tourist destination. The Palmeral is the only palm grove in Europe with North African origins and the largest on the continent. The Palm Grove also constitutes the northernmost and one of the largest palm groves in the world. Today, the city of Elche contains 97 orchards composed of 70,000 date palms, concentrated in the east bank of the Vinalopó. Outside the Elche city domain, other large plantations contain approximately 130,000 date palms. In total, Elche and its vicinity hold 200,000 palms. The Palm Grove ranges over 3.5 km ² (1.4 sq mi), including 1.5 km ² (0.58 sq mi) within the city of Elche. The Palm Grove of Elche comprises the National Artistic Garden, Palm Grove Museum, Route of El Palmeral, and Municipal Park.

The National Artistic Garden encompasses the palm groves, the Ornamental Collections, ponds, sculptures, and the garden house. Some palm trees grow to a height of more than 30 metres and live up to 300 years. The famous "Imperial Palm" ( Palmera Imperial) is a 176 year old, male date palm tree ( Phoenix dactylifera) with 7 stems in the shape of a candelabra. The city Elche named the Palm after Elisabeth (Sissi), the Empress consort of Franz Joseph, who visited the plantation in 1894 by Chaplain Castaño. The Ornamental Collection contains palm trees from 70 different species, chiefly date palm trees ( Phoenix dactylifera), as well as olive trees and citrus trees.

The Palm Grove Museum, housed within two traditional 19th century houses connected by a skybridge, details the historical and cultural context of the Palm Grove and UNESCO World Heritage status. The two-story museum also provides demonstrations by Palmereros (palm workers) that plait white palms.

The Route of El Palmeral, which starts and finishes at the Palm Grove Museum, takes visitors across the Acequia Mayor del Pantano irrigation system to the Huerto del Cura and Filet de Fora Palm Trees Park. The Filet de Flora Palm Trees Park includes the Huertos de Rogeta, Sempere, Casimira, Pastoret, Mareta, Borreguet, and Monjo palm groves.

The Municipal Park, located in the center of Elche, comprises six hectares or 20,000 square meters. The site includes the Huertos del Colomer garden, Molí del Real water mill, and Hort de Baix outdoor amphitheater. The city council controls the conservation and maintenance of the public park outside UNESCO.

AGASTA Julio and PINEDA Enrique, La gestión del Palmeral de Elche, BARCIELA C., LÓPEZ M.I., MELGAREJO J. (eds.), Los bienes culturales y su aportación al desarrollo sostenible, San Vicente del Raspeig, Universidad de Alicante, 2012.

AGULLÓ Miguel, GALIANA Carlos, La palmera datilera. Cultivo y aprovechamiento, Alicante, Instituto de Estudios Alicantinos, 1983.

AZUAR Rafael, Espacio hidráulico y ciudad islámica en el Vinalopó. La huerta de Elche, Agua y territorio. I Congreso de Estudios del Vinalopó, Petrel, Ayuntamiento de Petrel - Ayuntamiento de Villena, 1998.

AYUNTAMIENTO DE ELCHE, Plan Especial de Protección del Palmeral. Normativa, 2013. "Bienes declarados Patrimonio Mundial. Palmeral de Elche". www.mecd.gob.es. Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte.

Blair, Sheila., and Jonathan Bloom. "Rivers of Paradise : Water in Islamic Art and Culture / Edited by Sheila Blair and Jonathan Bloom." New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009.

Carmona-Zubiri, Daniel, and Antonio Miguel Nogués-Pedregal. Coping with two World Heritages. The two UNESCO declarations and local identity in Elche. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Heritage and Sustainable Development.

CREMADES Vicente, Protección y tutela normativa de "el palmeral de Elche", Revista de Sociales y Jurídicas, 2009.

D. Fairchild Ruggles, Islamic gardens and landscapes, Philadelphia 2008.

Gharipour, Mohammad. Gardens of Renaissance Europe and the Islamic Empires : Encounters and Confluences / Edited by Mohammad Gharipour. University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2017.

GIL Antonio. El regadío de Elche. Estudios Geográficos, 1968.

GLICK Thomas, Regadío y sociedad en la Valencia medieval, Valencia, Biblioteca Valenciana, 2003.

GRACIA Lina, Indicadores ambientales y paisajísticos del palmeral de Elche, doctoral thesis. Elche, 2006.

GUINOT Enric and SELMA Sergi, Las acequias de Elche y Crevillente, Valencia, Consellería d'Agricultura, Peixca i Alimentació, 2003.

IBARRA Pedro, Estudio acerca de la institución del riego de Elche y origen de sus aguas, Madrid, Establecimiento tipográfico de Jaime Ratés, 1914.

John Brookes, Gardens of paradise. The history and design of the great Islamic gardens, New York 1987

LAUREANO Pietro, Atlas de agua. Los conocimientos tradicionales para combatir la desertificación, Barcelona, Ipogea, 2005.

Michael Ferry, et al. Date Palms of Elche. The Date Palm of Elche Spain: Research for the Sustainable Preservation of A World Heritage Site. 2002. Vol 46 (3).

Museo del Palmeral. "El Regadío." Government of Elche. Accessed 11.14.2020. https://www.elche.es/museos/museo-del-palmeral/el%20regadio/

National Artistic Palm Grove. "Elche's Palm Grove." Huerto del Cura. Accessed 11.12.2020. https://www.huertodelcura.com/elches-palm-grove/

National Artistic Palm Grove. "Ornamental Collections." Huerto del Cura. Accessed 11.12.2020. https://www.huertodelcura.com/ornamental-collections

National Artistic Palm Grove. "The Imperial Palm Tree." Huerto del Cura. Accessed 11.14.2020. www.huertodelcura.com/the-imperial-palm-tree/

Ortiz Mayordomo, C., and L. G. Vicente. Agrosystems protection as heritage elements: Cultural Landscapes. In Fourth International Scientific Symposium Agrosym 2013, Jahorina, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 3-6 October 2013. Book of Proceedings. Faculty of Agriculture, University of East Sarajevo, 2013.

SAGASTA Julio and PINEDA Enrique, La gestión del Palmeral de Elche, BARCIELA C., LÓPEZ M.I., MELGAREJO J. (eds.), Los bienes culturales y su aportación al desarrollo sostenible, San Vicente del Raspeig, Universidad de Alicante, 2012.

SEVILLA Martín, Crecimiento y urbanización. Elche 1960-1980, Valencia, Universidad de Alicante, Ayuntamiento de Elche, 1985. SANS, Francisco X., La diversidad de los agroecosistemas, Ecosistemas, 16, 2007, 1.

Visit Elche Local Autonomous Body. "Palmeral de Elche." Elche Tourist Office, Government of Elche. Accessed 11.14.2020. http://www.visitelche.com/en/patrimonios-de-la-humanidad/palmeral-de-elche/

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The Palmeral or Palm Grove of Elche (Spanish: Palmeral de Elche, Valencian: Palmerar d'Elx) is the generic name for a system of date palm orchards in the city of Elche, Spain. It was planted in Roman times and underwent modifications in the medieval period under Islamic and Christian rulers.

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University of Alcalá, Plaza de San Diego, Alcalá de Henares, Espanya

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University of Alcalá, Plaza de San Diego, Alcalá de Henares, Espanya

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University of Alcalá, Plaza de San Diego, Alcalá de Henares, Espanya

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The University of Alcalá ( Spanish: Universidad de Alcalá) is a public university located in Alcalá de Henares, a city 35 km (22 miles) northeast of Madrid in Spain and also the third-largest city of the region. It was founded in 1293 as a Studium Generale for the public, and was refounded in 1977. The University of Alcalá is especially renowned in the Spanish-speaking world for its annual presentation of the highly prestigious Cervantes Prize. The University currently enrolls 28,336 students, 17,252 of whom are studying undergraduate degrees which are taught by a teaching staff of 2,608 professors, lecturers and researchers belonging to 24 departments. The administrative tasks is carried out by the Administration and Services, comprising approximately 800 people.

One of the university's campuses, located in the city center, is housed partly in historic buildings which were once used by the Complutense University of Madrid, which was located in Alcalá from its medieval origins until it was moved to Madrid in 1836.

On May 20 of 1293, the king Sancho IV of Castile granted license to archbishop of Toledo. Gonzalo Pérez Gudiel to create a Studium Generale (as the university studies were then called through Europe) in Alcalá de Henares, "with the same frankness for teachers and students, which were granted to General Study of Valladolid". These studies, although quite modest, survived through time to link with the Cisneros refoundation. On July 17, 1459 Pope Pius II granted a bull, requested by the archbishop Alfonso Carrillo de Acuña, "for the erection of three Cathedras of Arts and Grammar in this study of Alcalá". These last chatedras, subsisting of that General Study of the 13th century, were integrated by Cisneros into the "new" university.

In 1499, Cardinal Cisneros founded a university in Alcalá de Henares. This university is known in historiography in different ways: Complutense University, Cisneriana University, University of Alcalá ... and reached, together with the University of Salamanca, a pre-eminent place among the Castilian universities during the Golden Age. However, it later entered a period of decline until in 1836 the government decreed its transfer to Madrid, renamed Central University of Madrid. This, in 1970, adopted the name of Complutense University of Madrid. The Complutense University of Madrid, in accordance with such historical trajectory, shows continuity with the university founded by Cisneros in 1499.

By a royal order of 29 October 1836, Queen Regent Maria Christina ordered The University to move to Madrid, where they took the name of Literary University and, in 1851, the Central University of Madrid. The University would be known under this name until its original name of "Complutense" was restored in the 1970s.

In 1975, after years of the buildings passing between various businesses, Complutense University opened its Alcalá branch as a means to decongest its growing student population. In 1977, the university was re-founded as "the University of Alcalá de Henares," which later was shortened to "the University of Alcalá" in 1996. In 1998 Unesco named it a World Heritage site.

Today's University of Alcalá preserves its traditional humanities faculties, a testimony to the university's special efforts, past and present, to promote and diffuse the Spanish language through both its studies and the Cervantes Prize, which is awarded annually by the King and Queen of Spain in the elegant sixteenth-century Paraninfo (Great Hall). The University has added to its time-honoured education in the humanities and social sciences new degree subjects in scientific fields such as health sciences or engineering, spread out across its different sites (the Alcalá Campus, the Science and Technology Campus and Guadalajara), all of which, together with the Science and Technology Park, are a key factor in its projection abroad, while also acting as a dynamo for activities in its local region.

Because of its rich tradition in the humanities, the University of Alcalá offers several programs in Spanish language and literature. Alcalingua, a Department of the University of Alcalá, offers Spanish language and culture courses to foreigners and develops materials for teaching Spanish as a foreign language. The University of Alcalá, together with EDUESPAÑA, grants the CEELE, Certificado de Calidad en la Enseñanza del Español como Lengua Extranjera (Quality Certificate for Teaching Spanish as a Foreign Language).

The University of Alcalá is a party to various bilateral agreements with institutions in non-European countries, above all with universities in Latin America and the USA. Some of these agreements stipulate exchanges for first and second stage students. Like Erasmus Programme students, foreign students who take advantage of these exchange schemes are exempt of payment of tuition fees to the University of Alcalá, though they must meet their own costs of travel, accommodation and upkeep. Application to take part in these exchanges should be carried out in the university of origin. Once selected, the university of origin will inform the University of Alcalá.

The University of Alcalá offers degrees in five branches of knowledge: Arts and Humanities, Law and Social Sciences, Sciences, Health Sciences, and Engineering and Architecture. Its approximately 20,000 undergraduate students are spread across its three campuses:

Arts & Humanities

Bachelor's Degree in English Studies (Bilingual Spanish-English)

Bachelor's Degree in Hispanic Studies

Bachelor's Degree in History

Bachelor's Degree in Humanities

Bachelor's Degree in Modern Languages Applied to Translation (Bilingual Spanish-English)

Bachelor's Degree in Modern Languages Applied to Translation. Guadalajara (Bilingual Spanish-English)

Bachelor's Degree in Health Biology

Bachelor's Degree in Medicine

Bachelor's Degree in Nursing

Bachelor's Degree in Nursing. Guadalajara

Bachelor's Degree in Pharmacy

Bachelor's Degree in Physical Activity and Sports Sciences

Bachelor's Degree in Physiotherapy

Architecture & Engineering

Bachelor's Degree in Basics of Architecture and Town Planning

Bachelor's Degree in Communications Electronic Engineering (Bilingual Spanish-English)

Bachelor's Degree in Computer Engineering (Bilingual Spanish-English)

Bachelor's Degree in Computer Science (Bilingual Spanish-English)

Bachelor's Degree in Construction Engineering

Bachelor's Degree in Electronics and Industrial Automation Engineering (Partially bilingual Spanish-English)

Bachelor's Degree in Information Systems (Bilingual Spanish-English)

Bachelor's Degree in Telecommunication Systems Engineering (Bilingual Spanish-English)

Bachelor's Degree in Telecommunication Technologies Engineering (Bilingual Spanish-English)

Bachelor's Degree in Telematics Engineering (Bilingual Spanish-English)

Law & Social Sciences

Bachelor's Degree in Accounting and Finance

Bachelor's Degree in Audiovisual Communication

Bachelor's Degree in Business Administration and Management

Bachelor's Degree in Business Administration and Management. Guadalajara

Bachelor's Degree in Economics

Bachelor's Degree in Economics and International Business

Bachelor's Degree in Infant Education

Bachelor's Degree in Infant Education. Cardenal Cisneros Associated School

Bachelor's Degree in Infant Education. Cardenal Cisneros Associated School (Bilingual Spanish-English)

Bachelor's Degree in Law

Bachelor's Degree in Law and Business Administration and Management

Bachelor's Degree in Primary Education (Bilingual Spanish-English)

Bachelor's Degree in Primary Education. Cardenal Cisneros Associated School

Bachelor's Degree in Primary Education. Cardenal Cisneros Associated School (Bilingual Spanish-English)

Bachelor's Degree in Social Education. Cardenal Cisneros Associated School

Bachelor's Degree in Tourism

Bachelor's Degree in Tourism and Business Administration and Management

The University of Alcalá has three campuses:

This campus occupies, among others, the buildings formerly used by the Universidad Complutense de Madrid when it was itself the Universidad de Alcalá. It includes the main administration building, the Faculties of Philosophy and Arts, Law, Economics and Business, and Documentation, as well as the Technical School of Architecture and Geodesy. Also located in the historical campus are Alcalingua (the University's Spanish language school), the Benjamin Franklin North American Studies University Research Institute, the Research Institute of Economic and Social Analysis, the Police Sciences University Research Institute, the Postgraduate School, the Institute of Educational Sciences, the Cisneros International Center for Historical Studies, the Cervantes Research Center, the Foreign Languages Center, the Institute of Business Organization and Management, the International Financial Training Center Foundation and the General Foundation of the University.

This campus includes the Faculties of Biology, Chemistry, Environmental Sciences, Pharmacy, Medicine, Nursing and Physiotherapy, as well as the School of Computer Engineering and the Polytechnic School. The students' Residence Halls (the University Residential City and the Giner de los Ríos University Residence) are also located in this campus, as well as sports facilities, the Botanical Garden, Computer Services, numerous research centers and the Science and Technology Park.

The "Multidepartamental" building is home to the Faculties of Tourism and Nursing, and the Schools of Business Studies and Architecture. The Faculty of Education offers degrees in Audiovisual Communication and Modern Languages and Translation (the latter can also be studied at the historical campus in Alcalá).

1981: Jesús Reyes Heroles

1982: Manuel Cobo del Rosal

1983: Salvador Jorge Blanco, J. William Fulbright, Luis García de Valdeavellano, Bermudo Meléndez, Ángel Santos Ruiz, Luis Solé Sabaris

1992: Horst Albach, Jacques Delors, Werner Maihofer, Iris Murdoch, Andrew V. Schally, Demetrio Sodi Pallarés, Santiago Torres Bernández, Rodrigo Uría González

1993: Claudio Boada Villalonga, Luis Ángel Rojo

1994: Miguel Delibes, Árpád Göncz, Federico Mayor Zaragoza, Derek Walcott

1995: Luzt Birnbaumer, Enrique Fuentes Quintana

1996: Yasser Arafat, Louis Vicente Avioli, K. C. Nicolaou, Shimon Peres

1997: Louis Lasagna

1998: José Botella Llusía

1999: Gabriella Morreale

2000: José Barluenga, José Elguero, Richard Herr

2001: Kofi Annan, Antonio Fernández Alba, Frank Gehry, José Luis Leal Maldonado, Humberto López Morales, Juan Van-Halen Acedo

2003: Víctor García de la Concha, Fernando Savater

2004: Luis Hernando Avendaño, Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva

2005: Juan Ramón de la Fuente, Antonio Mingote

2006: Carlos Martínez Alonso, Susumu Tonegawa

2007: Ginés Morata

2008: Fernando Álvarez de Miranda y Torres, Antonio Fontán Pérez, Santiago Mir Puig, Benzion Netanyahu

2010: Samuel G. Armistead, Carlos Fernández-Nóvoa, Miguel León-Portilla, Stephen A. Zeff

2011: Luis Miguel Enciso Recio, Enrique Valentín Iglesias García, Gregorio Salvador Caja, José Luis Sampedro Sáez, Joseph Wang

2012: John Elliott

2013: Francisco Márquez Villanueva, Elisa Pérez Vera, Stephen G. Wozniak

The University of Alcalá is spread across three main sites:

The renovated 16th and 17th century buildings located in the city centre of Alcalá de Henares are home to studies in the traditional fields of Humanities, Social Sciences and Law, as well as to the School of Architecture.

Health Sciences, specialised experimental sciences, and the new technologies are found in faculties and university schools built from scratch on the campus just outside the city of Alcalá de Henares.

Part of its recent process of expansion, the development of the Guadalajara Campus deserves special mention. Here, as well as the long-standing Escuela de Magisterio (primary education teacher-training college) and the Castilla-La Mancha Health Service Nursing College, both attached to the University, may be found the Multi-departmental Building, which is home for Technical Architecture, Business Science, and Tourism.

The University of Alcalá has a network of 14 libraries spread across its three campuses. They offer extended hours year-round and during exam periods they never close.

The university also offers a wide range of sporting activities, including aikido, archery, badminton, fencing, rugby and yoga. There are also courses in snorkelling, horseriding and mountaineering, as well as other popular sports such as football.

The university has a hall for music, dance, theatre or flamenco, as well as the university choir, "La Tuna" (a traditional student music group), and the Film Club.

Many buildings on the campus of Texas Tech University in Lubbock, Texas borrow architectural elements from those found at the University of Alcalá.

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The University of Alcalá ( Spanish: Universidad de Alcalá) is a public university located in Alcalá de Henares, a city 35 km (22 miles) northeast of Madrid in Spain and also the third-largest city of the region. It was founded in 1293 as a Studium Generale for the public, and was refounded in 1977.

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Tarraco is the ancient name of the current city of Tarragona ( Catalonia, Spain). It was the oldest Roman settlement on the Iberian Peninsula. It became the capital of the Roman province of Hispania Citerior during the period of the Roman Republic, and of Hispania Tarraconensis following the latter's creation during the Roman Empire.

In 2000, the archaeological ensemble of Tarraco was declared a World heritage site by UNESCO.

The municipality was inhabited in pre-Roman times by Iberians who had commercial contacts with the Greeks and Phoenicians who settled on the coast. The Iberian colonies were mainly located in the Ebro Valley. Evidence of Iberian colonies in the municipality of Tarragona has been dated to the 5th century BC.

References in the literature to the presence of Iberians in Tarraco are ambiguous. Livy mentions an oppidum parvum (small town) called Cissis and Polybius talks about a polis called Kissa (Κίσσα). Tarraco is mentioned for first time shortly after the arrival of Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus at Empúries in 218 BC at the start of the Second Punic War which began the Roman conquest of Hispania. Livy writes that the Romans conquered a field of Punic supplies for Hannibal's troops near Cissis and took the city. A short time later, the Romans were attacked "not far from Tarraco" ( haud procul Tarracone). But it remains unclear whether Cissis and Tarraco were the same city. A coin found in Empúries bears the inscription Tarakon-salir ( salir probably means silver). The coin, engraved in keeping with other Empúries models at an undisclosed location, is generally dated to 250 BC, certainly before the arrival of the Romans. The name Kesse appears on coins of Iberian origin from the 1st and 2nd century BC that were marked according to Roman weight standards. Kesse may be equated with Cissis, the place of origin of the Cissisians mentioned by Pliny.

In 217 BC reinforcements arrived from Italy under the command of Publius Scipio, and he and his brother Gnaeus Cornelius are attributed with the fortification of Tarraco and the establishment of a military port, and as Pliny the Elder said: Tarraco Scipionum opus, Tarraco was work by the Scipios as Carthage was by the Carthaginians. The Roman city wall was probably constructed on top of the more ancient wall characteristic of the Iberian stonemason.

After the death of the Scipio brothers, Tarraco was 25-year-old Scipio Africanus's (son of Publius) winter base between 211 and 210, and where he met the tribes of Hispania in conventus. The population was largely loyal to the Romans during the war. Livy called them allies and friends of the Roman people ( socii et amici populi Romani) and the fishermen of Tarraco ( piscatores Tarraconenses) served with their boats during the siege of Carthago Nova.

The conquest of the Iberian Peninsula by the Romans took over 200 years.

During the following two centuries Tarraco remained a supply and winter base camp during the wars against the Celtiberians, as it was during the Second Punic War. There was therefore a strong military presence during this period, possibly in the highest area of what is currently the city's historic quarter, called the Part Alta. In 197 BC, all of the conquered areas, even narrow strips along the Mediterranean coast, were divided between the new provinces of Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Citerior. The capital of Hispania Citerior was principally Carthago Nova but Strabo says that the governors also resided in Tarraco.

The legal status of Tarraco is not entirely clear. It was probably organized as conventus civium Romanorum (convent = meeting of Roman citizens of the province) during the Republic, with two magistri (civilian directors) at its head. Gaius Porcius Cato, consul in the year 114 BC, chose Tarraco as the place of his exile in the year 108, indicating that Tarraco was a free city or perhaps an ally at that time.

According to Strabo, one of the "most recent" of the Roman battles took place not far from Tarraco. When Caesar conquered supporters of Pompey in 49 BC in Ilerda ( Lleida), Tarraco supported his army with food. It is not entirely clear whether Tarraco received the status of colony at the hand of Julius Caesar or Augustus, but current research tends to assume that was the former who granted it after his victory in Munda, around the year 45BC, and reflected in the epithet Iulia in its formal name: Colonia Iulia Urbs Triumphalis Tarraco, which would remain for the duration of the Empire.

In 27 BC, Emperor Augustus went to Spain to monitor the campaigns in Cantabria. However, due to his poor health he preferred to stay in Tarraco. Apparently, Augustus had built an altar in the city, and a story by the rhetorician Quintilian mentions that the inhabitants of Tarraco complained to Augustus that a palm tree had grown on the altar. He replied that would mean it was not used very often.

Soon after he arrived the old via Herculea became the Via Augusta. A milestone, found in Tarragona's Plaça de Braus, mentions the road between 12 and 6 BC, leading to Barcino to the north-east and Dertosa, Saguntum and ( Valentia) to the south.

The city flourished under Augustus. The writer Pomponius Mela describes it in the 1st century AD as follows: "Tarraco is the richest port on this coast" ( Tarraco urbs est en his oris maritimarum opulentissima). Tarraco under Augustus and Tiberius minted its own coins with depictions of the imperial cult and the inscription CVT, CVTT o CVTTAR.

After the death of Augustus in the year 14 AD, the emperor was officially deified and in 15 AD a temple was erected in his honour, probably in the easternmost neighbourhood of the city or near the Colonial Forum, as mentioned by Tacitus in his annales.

In 68 AD Galba, who lived in Tarraco for eight years, was proclaimed emperor in Clunia Sulpicia. Vespasian began a reorganization of the precarious finances of the state. According to Pliny, this allowed Latin citizenship to be granted to the inhabitants of Hispania. The Iberian peninsula, which since ancient times consisted of urban areas and a land divided by tribal organizations, was transformed into areas organized around urban centers, whether in colonies or municipalities, thereby facilitating tax collection. A rapid increase in construction took place, possibly due to the reorganization of the province. Tarragona Amphitheatre, the temple area, and the Provincial forum at the top of the city were probably built during this period. Most of the statues at these locations were probably placed there between 70 and 180 AD.

The patron of the city Senator Lucius Licinius Sura was appointed under the Emperor Trajan. Sura came from Tarraconensis and reached one of the highest offices of state. In the winter 122-123 AD Hadrian is thought to have visited the city to hold a conventus for Hispania. He also rebuilt the temple of Augustus.

Tarraco started experiencing severe economic difficulties at the end of the 2nd century AD. Few statues were built in honor of the city, probably due to a lack of funds. This period also saw the defeat of the struggle against the Emperor Clodius Albinus, who was supported by the governor of Tarraconensis Novio, Lucius Rufo. At this time inscriptions dedicated to Provinciae Concilium start to disappear to be increasingly replaced by inscriptions dedicated to members of the military. There started being fewer influential merchants in the ordo decurionum (civil administration) and more patroni (large landowners and public senior officials). Severus rebuilt the amphitheater and associated structures, as evidenced by an inscription at the bottom.

After the imperial administration reforms of Diocletian, the peninsula became a diocese divided into six provinces that were much smaller than before. Tarraco remained the capital, but of a much smaller province.

The invasions in about 260 by groups of both Franks and Alemanni created hardships for a decade but excavations have not shown effects of these raids within the city and destruction has only been seen in the harbour area and outside the walls.

A portico of Jupiter was built between Diocletian and Maximian (286 to 293) which may be part of a basílica.

In 476, following the collapse of Roman defenses along the Rhine, Tarraco was occupied by the Visigoths and King Euric. There is no evidence of destruction and apparently the capture of the city was relatively quiet. The Visigoths probably took over existing structures by establishing a small group of nobles, which the existence of Christian tombs in this period seems to confirm. The end of the ancient history of the city came with the arrival of the Muslims in 713 or 714.

The archaeological ensemble of Tarraco is one of the largest archaeological sites of Roman Hispania preserved in Spain today. It was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2000. The city of Tarraco is the oldest Roman settlement on the Iberian Peninsula, having become the capital of the province of Hispania Citerior in the 1st century BC.

There are still many important Roman ruins in Tarragona. Part of the foundations of the large Cyclopean walls near the Pilate's offices are believed to be of pre-Roman origins. This building, which was a prison in the 19th century, is said to be the palace of Augustus.

Tarraco, like many ancient cities, has remained inhabited, and has been slowly dismantled by its own citizens for building materials. In spite of this the amphitheater, located near the seashore and long used as a quarry, stands with large parts of its structure surviving. It was built after the circus, and measures 45.72 meters long, although some sections of it may still be undocumented.

Inscriptions on the stones of houses written in Latin and even in Phoenician can be found throughout the city.

Two ancient monuments, a small distance from the city, have aged well. The first is a magnificent aqueduct, which crosses a valley 1.5 km (0.93 mi) from the city gates. It is 21 m (69 ft) long, and its lower arches, of which there are two rows, are almost 3 m (9.8 ft) tall. The other monument, to the north-west of the city, and also about 1.5 km (0.93 mi) from it, is a Roman tomb, which is usually called Torre dels Escipions, although there is no evidence to suggest that the Scipio brothers were buried there.

UNESCO included the ruins of the ancient Roman city of Tarraco that on its list of World Heritage Sites because they meet two criteria:

Criterion ii. The Roman remains of Tarraco are of exceptional importance in the Roman development of planning and urban design and served as model for provincial capitals elsewhere in the world. Criterion iii. Tarraco provides an eloquent and unparalleled testimony in the history of the Mediterranean lands in the Ancient times.[citation needed ]

Protected sites

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Tarraco is the ancient name of the current city of Tarragona ( Catalonia, Spain). It was the oldest Roman settlement on the Iberian Peninsula. It became the capital of the Roman province of Hispania Citerior during the period of the Roman Republic, and of Hispania Tarraconensis following the latter's creation during the Roman Empire.

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The monasteries of San Millán de Suso (6th century) and San Millán de Yuso (11th century) are two monasteries situated in the village of San Millán de la Cogolla, La Rioja, Spain. They have been designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO since December 1997.

The two monasteries' names Suso and Yuso mean the "upper" and the "lower" in archaic Castilian, respectively. Suso is the older building and is believed to be built on the site of a hermitage where Saint Emilian ( Spanish: San Millán) lived. Perhaps Suso's major claim to fame is as the place where phrases in the Spanish and Basque languages were written for the first time. UNESCO acknowledges the property "as the birthplace of the modern written and spoken Spanish language". The phrases in Spanish and Basque are glosses on a Latin text and are known as the Glosas Emilianenses. There is some debate as to whether the Spanish words are written in an early form of Castilian or in a related dialect. In either case, San Millán's importance as a cradle of the Spanish language is reinforced by the proximity of the village of Berceo which is associated with Gonzalo de Berceo, the first Spanish poet known by name.

There is a continuous history of Christianity at San Millán since the time of the saint. The scriptorium produced the second phase of the San Millán Beatus and remained active during the period of Muslim rule; and over the centuries, the religious community has overcome various vicissitudes which affected the monasteries (for example being sacked by the Black Prince). However the type of monastic life evolved: the original monks living at Suso were hermits, but Yuso, the refoundation of the monastery on a lower site, developed as a Benedictine community. As the UNESCO evaluation noted, San Millán shows the transformation from an eremetic to a cenobitic community in material terms.

Suso monastery has been uninhabited since the Ecclesiastical Confiscations of Mendizábal in the nineteenth century. Yuso monastery was also abandoned for some years in the nineteenth century, but was reoccupied. It houses an Augustinian community, but part of the monastery has been converted into a hotel. Today San Millán attracts pilgrims on the Way of St James (even though it lies somewhat off the line of the official route between Nájera and Burgos).

Processional cloister. Yuso Monastery.

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Monasteries of San Millán de la Cogolla - Wikipedia

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The monasteries of San Millán de Suso (6th century) and San Millán de Yuso (11th century) are two monasteries situated in the village of San Millán de la Cogolla, La Rioja, Spain. They have been designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO since December 1997.

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Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Carrer de Sant Quintí, Barcelona, Espanya

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Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Carrer de Sant Quintí, Barcelona, Espanya

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Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Carrer de Sant Quintí, Barcelona, Espanya

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The former Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau ( Catalan pronunciation: [uspiˈtal də lə ˈsantə ˈkɾɛw i ˈsam ˈpaw], English: Hospital of the Holy Cross and Saint Paul) in the neighborhood of El Guinardó, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, is a complex built between 1901 and 1930, designed by the Catalan modernisme architect Lluís Domènech i Montaner. Together with Palau de la Música Catalana, it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

It was a fully functioning hospital until June 2009, when the new hospital opened next to it, before undergoing restoration for use as a museum and cultural center, which opened in 2014.

Although the hospital's current 26 buildings date from the 20th century, the Hospital de la Santa Creu (the last part of its name, "Sant Pau", was added in honour of the banker, Pau Gil, who paid for the new buildings in the twentieth century) was founded in 1401 when six small medieval hospitals merged. The hospital's former buildings near the center of Barcelona date from the 15th century, and now house an art school ( Escola Massana) and Biblioteca de Catalunya (National Library of Catalonia).

In 1991, the hospital was awarded St. George's Cross by the Generalitat de Catalunya.

In 2003, a new hospital building was erected to the north of the Domènech i Montaner's Modernista pavilions were almost all departments moved out. However, few departments such as the Blood and Tissue Bank, the radiography department and the physical therapist department remain in some of the old buildings.

Media related to Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau at Wikimedia Commons

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The former Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau ( Catalan pronunciation: [uspiˈtal də lə ˈsantə ˈkɾɛw i ˈsam ˈpaw], English: Hospital of the Holy Cross and Saint Paul) in the neighborhood of El Guinardó, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, is a complex built between 1901 and 1930, designed by the Catalan modernisme architect Lluís Domènech i Montaner.

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Palau de la Música Catalana, Carrer del Palau de la Música, Barcelona, Espanya

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Palau de la Música Catalana, Carrer del Palau de la Música, Barcelona, Espanya

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Palau de la Música Catalana, Carrer del Palau de la Música, Barcelona, Espanya

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The Palau de la Música Catalana ( Catalan pronunciation: [pəˈlaw ðə lə ˈmuzikə kətəˈlanə], English: Palace of Catalan Music) is a concert hall in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. Designed in the Catalan modernista style by the architect Lluís Domènech i Montaner, it was built between 1905 and 1908 for the Orfeó Català, a choral society founded in 1891 that was a leading force in the Catalan cultural movement that came to be known as the Renaixença (Catalan Rebirth). It was inaugurated on 9 February 1908.

The Orfeó Català primarily financed primarily the construction project, but important financial contributions also came from Barcelona's wealthy industrialists and bourgeoisie. The Palau won the architect an award from the Barcelona City Council in 1909, given to the best building built during the previous year. Between 1982 and 1989, the building underwent extensive restoration, remodeling, and extension under the direction of architects Oscar Tusquets and Carles Díaz. In 1997, the Palau de la Música Catalana was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site along with Hospital de Sant Pau. Today, more than half a million people a year attend musical performances in the Palau that range from symphonic and chamber music to jazz and Cançó (Catalan song).

The Palau is located in the corner of a cramped street, Carrer Palau de la Música, and Carrer de Sant Pere Mes Alt, in the section of old Barcelona known as Casc Antic. Most of the other prominent modernista buildings, those designed by Antoni Gaudí, for example, are located in the chic 19th-century extension of the city known as the Eixample.

The design of the Palau is typical of Catalan modernism in that curves predominate over straight lines, dynamic shapes are preferred over static forms, and rich decoration that emphasizes floral and other organic motifs is used extensively. In contrast to many other buildings built in the modernisme style, however, it must also be said that the design of the Palau is eminently rational. It pays strict attention to function and makes full use of the most up-to-date materials and technologies available at the beginning of the 20th century (e.g., steel framing). As Tim Benton has commented:

"To eyes unaccustomed to the architecture of Barcelona, the impression of a riot of ornament lacking any logic or control seems overwhelming. And yet the building follows exactly the exhortations of the [architectural] rationalists. The structure, in brick and iron, is clearly expressed." Actually, its walls are the first example of curtain wall structures.

The wealthy citizens of Barcelona, who were becoming ever more sympathetic to the Renaixença at the time the Palau was built, asked its architect for building materials and techniques that symbolized the Catalan character. In response, he commissioned and gave great creative freedom to a variety of local artisans and craftsmen to produce the fabulous ornamentation, sculpture, and decorative structural elements for which the Palau is famous.

The rich decoration of the façade of the Palau, which incorporates elements from many sources, including traditional Spanish and Arabic architecture, is successfully married with the building's structure. The exposed red brick and iron, the mosaics, the stained glass, and the glazed tiles were chosen and situated to give a feeling of openness and transparency. Even Miguel Blay's massive sculptural group symbolizing Catalan music on the corner of the building does not impede the view into or out from the interior (see photograph). As Carandell and co-authors (2006, 20) have pointed out, in the Palau "the house as a defense and protected inner space has ceased to exist."

Two colonnades enjoy a commanding position on the second-level balcony of the main façade. Each column is covered uniquely with multicolored glazed tile pieces in mostly floral designs and is capped with a candelabrum that at night blazes with light (see photograph). Above the columns are large busts of Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, Johann Sebastian Bach, and Ludwig van Beethoven on the main façade and Richard Wagner on the side. The top of the main façade is graced by a large allegoric mosaic by Lluís Bru that represents the members of the Orfeó Català, but it is impossible to see it clearly from the narrow street below.

Originally, guests entered the Palau from the street through two arches supported by thick pillars that opened into the vestibule. The former ticket windows, which are located in the center pillar, are beautiful concentric arches adorned with floral mosaics of various materials created by Lluís Bru.

The ceiling of the vestibule is decorated with glazed ceramic moldings that are arranged in the shape of stars. From the vestibule, on the left and right, grand marble staircases ascend from between crowned lamps on columns to bring visitors to the second floor. The balustrades of the staircases, also marble, are supported by unusual transparent yellow glass balusters. The underside of the staircases is covered with tiles that form gleaming canopies on either side of the vestibule.

Today, guests generally enter the Palau through the foyer, which was created in the renovations of Tusquets and Díaz from what originally were the headquarters of the Orfeó Català. The large space of the foyer is more soberly decorated than the rest of the Palau, but the wide exposed brick arches with their marvelous glazed green, pink, and yellow ceramic flowers recapitulate the ornamentation of the rest of building. The foyer features a large counter where tapas and beverages can be served to concert-goers or visitors who are touring the building. The bar is situated between massive pillars of brick and is illuminated from behind by expansive stained-glass panes that are suspended above it. A glass case in the foyer displays the Orfeó Català's banner, which bears its crest embroidered on fabric in the modernisme style.

The Lluís Millet hall is a salon located on the second floor of the Palau that is named after one of the founders of the Orfeó Català. The hall is a popular gathering place for concert-goers and also serves as a teaching area for visitors touring the building. From floor to ceiling the hall is two stories high and affords views of the intricate mosaics on the two rows of columns outside its windows that are much better than those available from the street.

It is ornated by several bronze busts of musicians related to the Palau: Lluís Millet and Amadeu Vives (Orfeó Català founders), Pablo Casals, Eduard Toldrà (founder and first conductor of the Orquestra Municipal de Barcelona), Just Cabot (Orfeó Català president) and pianist Rosa Sabater.

The concert hall is one of the most beautiful in the world (...) without exaggeration. It is one of its most important architectural treasures. Its pace, simple, complex, mystical and paradoxical, defies accurate description.

-David Mackay
(Quoted in Carandell et al. 2006, 62)

The concert hall of the Palau, which seats about 2,200 people, is the only auditorium in Europe that is illuminated during daylight hours entirely by natural light. The walls on two sides consist primarily of stained-glass panes set in magnificent arches, and overhead is an enormous skylight of stained glass, designed by Antoni Rigalt, whose centerpiece is an inverted dome in shades of gold surrounded by blue that suggests the sun and the sky.

The architectural decoration in the concert hall is a masterpiece of creativity and imagination, yet everything has been carefully considered for its utility in the presentation of music. The hall is not a theater, because the massive sculptures flanking the stage make the use of scenery nearly impossible. Likewise, even though a noble pipe organ graces the apse-like area above and behind the stage, the hall is not a church.

The dominant theme in the sumptuous sculptural decor of the concert hall is choral music, something that might be expected in an auditorium commissioned by a choral society. A choir of young women surrounds the "sun" in the stained-glass skylight, and a bust of Anselm Clavé, a famous choir director who was instrumental in reviving Catalan folk songs, is situated on the left side of the stage, under a stone tree. Seated beneath this statue are sculpted girls singing the Catalan song Les Flors de Maig ( The Flowers of May).

The whole arch over the front of the stage was sculpted by Dídac Masana and Pablo Gargallo. On the right side is depicted the 'Ride of the Valkyries' from Wagner's opera Die Walküre. Under the Valkyries and among two Doric columns is a bust of Beethoven. The arch thus represents folk music on the left and classical music on the right, both united at the top of the arch.

In a semicircle on the sides of the back of the stage are the figures of 18 young women popularly known as the ' muses'. The upper bodies were sculpted by Eusebi Arnau and the mosaic work of their lower bodies was created by Lluís Bru. The monotone upper bodies of the women protrude from the wall and their lower bodies are depicted by colorful mosaics that form part of the wall. Each of the women is playing a different musical instrument, and each is wearing a different skirt, blouse, and headdress of elaborate design. In the middle between the two groups is a mosaic of the coat of arms of Catalonia. The muse to the right of the Catalan coat of arms is the only one that depicts on her dress the coat of arms of Austria and double-headed eagle of the Spanish Habsburgs dynasty.

The sculptures of winged horses that enjoy a commanding position in the upper balcony are in honour of Pegasus, the horse of Greek mythology and the symbol of high-flying imagination.

Robert Hughes has noted how the non-soundproof glass walls of the Palau impact the acoustics of the hall:

"...there was never a shortage of complaint about its acoustic conditions - which, since its glass walls carry music like drum skins, have always been awful."

Between 1982 and 1989 parts of the building were restored to their original state, technically upgraded and expanded to allow additional uses. The new work did not compromise the decorative or structural integrity of the original building. Stone, brick, iron, glass, and ceramics were used in the same way that Domènech i Montaner used them. One of the most important expansions is the adjoining building of six stories that houses dressing rooms, a library, and an archive.

From 2006 to 2008, further restoration was carried out: the lantern on the top of the tower on the corner of the building was reinstalled, as were some ornamental features of the façade.

Opened in 2004, the Petit Palau is 11 metres below the square that was created in the work of 1982-1989 between the Palau and the neighbouring church. It has a seating capacity of 538 people and is equipped with variable acoustics for different types of music and spoken word. It also possesses the latest in audiovisual technology. Like the other additions, it was designed in the spirit of Domènech i Montaner. It is light and transparent like the Palau proper, but at the same time it is modern in its great flexibility for different cultural, social, and business uses.

On 7 September 2018, the Palau de la Música appeared in BBC TV's Release Date trailer for Season 11 of Doctor Who. The trailer shows Jodie Whittaker, as the first female Doctor, literally 'shattering the glass ceiling' of the Palau's striking skylight.

From the opening of the Palau de la Música Catalana in 1908 special attention was given to the promotion of local composers and artists. After World War I the Orquestra Pau Casals performed at the Palau, and among composers featured gave presentations of the music of Enrique Granados from 1921 onwards.

Many of the world's best soloists and singers have visited the Palau de la Música Catalana, among them: Andrés Segovia, Lela Tsurtsumia, Pablo Casals, Jacques Thibaud, Alfred Cortot, Eugène Ysaÿe, Albert Schweitzer, Enric Granados, Blanche Selva, Wilhelm Backhaus, Emil Sauer, Wanda Landowska, Clara Haskil, Fritz Kreisler, Manuel Quiroga, Arthur Rubinstein, Claudio Arrau, Yehudi Menuhin, Mstislav Rostropovich, Julian Lloyd Webber, Alicia de Larrocha, Victòria dels Àngels, Montserrat Caballé, Josep Carreras, Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, Barbara Hendricks, Alfred Brendel, Wilhelm Kempff, Sviatoslav Richter, Vladimir Ashkenazy, Maurizio Pollini, Maria João Pires, Jean-Pierre Rampal, Jessye Norman, and Daniel Barenboim.

The Palau became an emblematic theater for Catalan singers of the Nova Cançó (New Song, or Catalan popular song from the 1960s). Singing at the Palau was a kind of consecration for a singer. For example, Raimon, Joan Manuel Serrat, Maria del Mar Bonet, and Lluís Llach have sung there.

For some years, plays were performed there. Companies such as the Teatre Experimental Català, Companyia Adrià Gual or Agrupació Dramàtica de Barcelona (1955-1963) performed their shows at the Palau.

As the main concert hall in the city, the Palau de la Música Catalana has staged many world premières of musical compositions, including the following (the most relevant for music history are in bold type):

1908 Enric Granados' symphonic poem .

1911 Enric Granados' first book of his piano suite and his Allegro de concierto and Cant de les estrelles (Song of the stars), for chorus and orchestra; Isaac Albéniz's Azulejos, prelude for piano finished by Enric Granados.

1914 Enric Granados' Tonadillas, song cycle for voice and piano.

1921 Eduard Toldrà's string quartett Vistes al mar (Sight to the sea) (31 May).

1923 Joaquín Turina's Tres arias for soprano and piano.

1925 Manuel de Falla's Psyché, and Frederic Mompou's Charmes, núm. 4-6.

1926 Jaume Pahissa's Suite intertonal (October 26); Joaquín Turina's Dos canciones (October 29) for soprano and piano; Manuel de Falla's Harpsichord Concerto (November 5).

1928 Eduard Toldrà's opera El giravolt de maig (The May sunflower); Frederic Mompou's Comptines, three songs for voice and piano; Joaquín Turina's Ritmos: fantasia coreográfica for orchestra (Rhythms: a choreographic fantasy) (October 23), and Evocaciones for piano (October 29).

1929 Roberto Gerhard's Concertino for strings, Wind quintet, and other of the author's early works.

1932 Manuel Blancafor]'s El rapte de les sabines (The Sabine women abduction) (other Blancafort's works were premiered here after: Ermita i panorama (Hermit and panorame) (1946), Concert omaggio a Franz Liszt (1944), Concert ibèric (Iberian concerto) (1950), Simfonia en mi (1951), Cantata Verge Maria (Virgin Mary cantata) (1968), Rapsòdia catalana (Catalan rhapsody) (1972), etc.)

1936 Alban Berg's Violin concerto (April 19); Roberto Gerhard's suite from the ballet Ariel.

1938 Roberto Gerhard's Albada, interludi i dansa (Sunrise, interlude and dance) (May 14)

1940 Joaquín Rodrigo's Concierto de Aranjuez (November 9).

1945 Xavier Montsalvatge's Cinco canciones negras (only the four first songs; the first performance of the five songs was given a few months after at the Ateneu Barcelonès); many other of the Montsalvatge's works have had their premieres at the Palau.

1946 Joaquín Rodrigo's Quatre cançons en llengua catalana (Four songs in Catalan language). and Tríptic de Mossèn Cinto (Jacint Verdaguer's triptych), both song cycles for soprano and orchestra.

1948 Xavier Montsalvatge's Simfonia mediterrània (Mediterranean Symphony).

1952 Frederic Mompou's Cantar del alma, choral version.

1954 Salvador Bacarisse's 3rd Piano Concerto.

1957 Salvador Espriu's play Primera història d'Esther.

1959 Joaquín Nin-Culmell's ballet Don Juan.

1960 Xavier Montsalvatge's Càntic espiritual.

1961 Frederic Mompou's Variacions sobre un tema de Chopin for orchestra; Joan Brossa's play Or i sal.

1963 Xavier Montsalvatge's Desintegració morfològica de la xacona de J. S. Bach (Morphological disintegration of J.S. Bach's chaconne); Josep Carner's play El Ben Cofat i l'altre.

1966 Joaquin Homs' String quartet no. 6; other of Homs's works have had their premieres at the Palau: Invention for orchestra (1965), Presències for orchestra (1970), Dos soliloquis (1976), Brief symphony (1978), Nonet (1979).

1967 Cristòfol Taltabull's oratorio La Passió (Passion).

1971 Krzystof Penderecki's Prélude for winds, percussion and double basses.

1974 Josep Soler's opera-oratorio Oedipus et Iocasta (many of Soler's works were first performed at the Palau); Cristóbal Halffter's Oración a Platero for choir and orchestra.

1977 Joaquín Rodrigo's Sonata a la breve, for cello and piano.

2017 Guido Lopez-Gavilan's Una Cancion de Amor (24 July), for choir (commissioned by the IFCM for the Ansan City Choir, on the occasion of the 11th World Symposium on Choral Music); Xavier Pages-Corella's Audito e un Canto (24 July), for choir (commissioned by the IFCM for The Rose Ensemble, on occasion of the 11th World Symposium on Choral Music); Jaakko Mantyjarvi's Juliet November Tango (27 July), for choir (commissioned by the IFCM for Elektra Women's Choir, on occasion of the 11th World Symposium on Choral Music).

Cararach, Joan Anton, El Palau de la Música Catalana: simfonia d'un segle, Barcelona: Edicions 62, 2007. ISBN .

Domènech i Girbau, Lluís. L'arquitectura del Palau. Barcelona: Lunwerg Editores, 2000. ISBN .

Fahr-Becker G. Art Nouveau, Königswinter: Tandem Verlag GmbH, 2004. ISBN .

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The Palau de la Música Catalana ( Catalan pronunciation: [pəˈlaw ðə lə ˈmuzikə kətəˈlanə], English: Palace of Catalan Music) is a concert hall in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.

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Las Médulas ( Spanish pronunciation: [laz ˈmeðulas]) is a historic gold-mining site near the town of Ponferrada in the comarca of El Bierzo ( province of León, Castile and León, Spain). It was the most important gold mine, as well as the largest open-pit gold mine, in the entire Roman Empire. Las Médulas Cultural Landscape is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. Advanced aerial surveys conducted in 2014 using LIDAR have confirmed the wide extent of the Roman-era works.

The spectacular landscape of Las Médulas resulted from the ruina montium (wrecking of the mountains), a Roman mining technique described by Pliny the Elder in 77 AD. The technique employed was a type of hydraulic mining which involved undermining a mountain with large quantities of water. The water was supplied by interbasin transfer. At least seven long aqueducts tapped the streams of the La Cabrera district (where the rainfall in the mountains is relatively high) at a range of altitudes. The same aqueducts were used to wash the extensive alluvial gold deposits.

The area Hispania Tarraconensis was conquered in 25 BC by the emperor Augustus. Before the Roman conquest, the indigenous inhabitants obtained gold from alluvial deposits. Large-scale production did not begin until the second half of the 1st century AD.

Pliny the Elder, who was a procurator in the region in 74 AD, described a technique of hydraulic mining that may be based on direct observation at Las Médulas:

What happens is far beyond the work of giants. The mountains are bored with corridors and galleries made by lamplight with a duration that is used to measure the shifts. For months, the miners cannot see the sunlight and many of them die inside the tunnels. This type of mine has been given the name of ruina montium. The cracks made in the entrails of the stone are so dangerous that it would be easier to find purpurine or pearls at the bottom of the sea than make scars in the rock. How dangerous we have made the Earth!

Pliny also describes the methods used to wash the ores using smaller streams on riffle tables to enable the heavy gold particles to be collected. Detailed discussion of the methods of underground mining follows, once the alluvial placer deposits had been exhausted and the mother lode sought and discovered. Many such deep mines have been found in the mountains around Las Médulas. Mining would start with the building of aqueducts and tanks above the mineral veins, and a method called hushing used to expose the veins under the overburden.

The remains of such a system have been well studied at Dolaucothi Gold Mines, a smaller-scale site in South Wales. Opencast methods would be pursued by fire-setting, which involved building fires against the rock and quenching with water. The weakened rock could then be attacked mechanically and the debris swept away by waves of water. Only when all opencast work was uneconomical would the vein be pursued by tunneling and stoping.

Pliny also stated that 20,000 Roman pounds (6,560 kg) of gold were extracted each year. The exploitation, involving 60,000 free workers, brought 5,000,000 Roman pounds (1,640,000 kg) in 250 years.

Parts of the aqueducts are still well preserved in precipitous locations, including some rock-cut inscriptions.

Research on Las Médulas had been mainly carried out by Claude Domergue (1990). Systematic archaeological studies of the area, however, have been carried out since 1988 by the research group Social Structure and Territory-Landscape Archaeology of the Spanish Council for Scientific Research ( CSIC). As a result, Las Médulas ceased to be only a gold mine with its techniques and became a cultural landscape in which all the implications of Roman mining were made apparent. The survey and excavations of pre-Roman and Roman settlements throughout the area allowed for new historical interpretations that greatly enriched the study of Roman mining.

A positive result of these systematic studies was the inclusion of Las Médulas as a World Heritage Site in 1997. Since then, the management of the Cultural Park has been monitored by the Las Médulas Foundation, which includes local, regional, and national stakeholders, both public and private. Currently, Las Médulas serves as an example of good research-management-society applied to heritage.

The massive scale of mining at Las Médulas and other Roman sites had considerable environmental impact. Ice core data taken from Greenland suggest that mineral air pollution peaked during the Roman period in Spain. Levels of atmospheric lead from this period were not reached again until the Industrial Revolution some 1,700 years later.

The inclusion of Las Médulas as a World Heritage Site was controversial for similar reasons. The delegate from Thailand opposed the designation because he considered the site "a result of human destructive activities as well as harmful to the noble cause of environmental promotion and protection."

Lewis, P. R. and G. D. B. Jones, Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain, Journal of Roman Studies 60 (1970): 169-85

Jones, R. F. J. and Bird, D. G., Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna, Journal of Roman Studies 62 (1972): 59-74.
Domergue, C. and Hérail, G., Conditions de gisement et exploitation antique à Las Médulas (León, Espagne) in L'or dans l'antiquité: de la mine à l'objet, B. Cauuet, ed., Aquitania Supplement, 9 (Bordeaux 1999): 93-116.

Journeys Through European Landscapes/Voyages dans les Paysages Européens. COST-ESF, Ponferrada: 101-104.

Pipino g. "Lo sfruttamento dei terrazzi auriferi nella Gallia Cisalpina. Le aurifodine dell'Ovadese, del Canavese-Vercellese, del Biellese, del Ticino e dell'Adda". Museo Storico dell'Oro Italiano, Ovada 2015

It is not thde true that Las Medulas Landscape is the result of a Roman mining.

Abstract Pliny's "Ruina Montium" and the Roman gold mining in Asturias: critical observations on the alleged application to Las Medulas.

According to numerous publications, in particular by the French prof. Claude Domergue and the Spanish researcher Javier Sanchez-Palencia (Ramos), and their pupils, the high alluvial formation of the Tertiary age, which dominates Las Medulas village, would have been the object of gold mining in Roman times, and the procedure of "ruina montium" described by Pliny, consisting in an hidraulic technique, would have been used: so that, in 1997's the territory has been declared a Unesco World Heritage Site. In reality, from the careful reading of the Latin author and from the local giacimentology and the historical-mining emergencies, it appears that the procedure consisted in the dry demolition of primary deposits, derive from the "cuniculos" technique used in the military field, and that it was applied for the exploitations of the primary gold deposits in the maritime Asturias, during the first century BC. It was not used for the high tertiary alluvial sediments of Las Medulas, as finally recognized by the first creator, as they contain only a few and hardly recoverable gold, and there are no trace, or evidences, of the supposed works. However, his outdated theories continue to be supported and spread, in particular by Spanish CSIC researchers, but it is clear that at the basis of the "continuity" there are the huge public economic resources put in place for supporting the defined and unanimously accepted World Heritage. The alleged hydraulic abatement, channeling and washing of large portions of sediment, in order to recover the inconsistent presence of gold, has no basis or possibility to be a useful system of gold exploitation, in any time. On the other hand, there are historical testimonials and geomorphological evidence to prove that the fantastic landscape of Las Medulas is the result of natural events, facilitated by some tunnels that cross the tertiary high deposit. These tunnels represent ancient water pipes for different purposes, including the exploitation of real alluvial gold deposits, consisting of fluvio-glacial gold deposits that covered the low terraces of the Sil stream, as well as other streams south of the Cantabrian Mountains. The reveries of the aforementioned CSIC researchers also translate into studies tending to demonstrate an impossible metallurgical use of mercury by the Romans, for recovery the fine gold of Las Medulas. And the authors do not explain how it is possible to discriminate between the alleged (and improbable) Roman mercury traces from those left by the certain and massive recent use. With regard to the low terraces deposits, which were certainly exploited by the Romans in the 2nd century AD, French and Spanish scholars also affirm that they contained only gold in small and thin flakes, they ignore the precise testimonies of the presence and collection of grains and nuggets and, as a result, they provide ridiculous tenors and total production. Furthermore, they ignore the real historical exploitation techniques of these deposits, and give unreal interpretations.

 G. Pipino   "La Ruina Montium di Plinio e la mineria aurifera nelle Asturie..." Pulicazionme Museo Storico dell'Oro Italiano, Ovada 20020.  Postyed in Academia.edu

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Las Médulas ( Spanish pronunciation: [laz ˈmeðulas]) is a historic gold-mining site near the town of Ponferrada in the comarca of El Bierzo ( province of León, Castile and León, Spain). It was the most important gold mine, as well as the largest open-pit gold mine, in the entire Roman Empire.

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Llotja de la Seda, Carrer de la Llotja, València, Espanya

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Llotja de la Seda, Carrer de la Llotja, València, Espanya

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Llotja de la Seda, Carrer de la Llotja, València, Espanya

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The Llotja de la Seda ( Valencian pronunciation: [ˈʎɔdʒa ðe la ˈseða], Spanish: Lonja de la Seda, English "Silk Exchange") is a late Valencian Gothic-style civil building in Valencia, Spain. It is a principal tourist attraction in the city.

Built between 1482 and 1533, la Lonja is composed of three parts (plus the Orange Garden - a walled court-yard). The main hall, Sala de Contratacion (The Contract Hall), is a large lavishly decorated space supported by gorgeous twisted columns. This was the financial centre of La Lonja, where the merchants work out contracts. The side-wing is named the Pavilion of the Consulate, and this was the seat of the Tribunal del Mar - the first marine merchant tribunal to ever be formed in Spain. The first two floors were the main function rooms, with the upper one hosting a richly decorated ceiling. These rooms are still maintained original furnishings. On occasion, the Tribunal would imprison merchants for debts in the central tower of La Lonja - the third part of the structure.

Behind the current building, there was an earlier one from the 14th century, which was called the Oil Exchange ( Llotja de l'Oli, in Valencian, or Lonja del Aceite, in Spanish). It was used not only for trading with agricultural oils, but for all kind of business. Where in 1348 was traded perxal ( percale) as some kind of silk.

Valencia's commercial prosperity reached its peak during the 15th century, and led to the construction of a new building.

The design of the new Lonja of Valencia was derived from a similar structure in the Lonja of Palma de Majorca, built by the architect Guillem Sagrera in 1448. The architect in charge of the new Lonja was Pere Compte, who built the main body of the building - the Trading Hall (or Sala de Contractació in Valencian) - in only fifteen years (1483-1498). So is written in a blue band that runs along all four walls of the Trading Hall, also called "Hall of Columns". It proclaims in golden letters the following inscription:

Inclita domus sum annis aedificata quindecim. Gustate et videte concives quoniam bona est negotiatio, quae non agit dolum in lingua, quae jurat proximo et non deficit, quae pecuniam non dedit ad usuram eius. Mercator sic agens divitiis redundabit, et tandem vita fructur aeterna.

According to the local Valencian scholar Joan Francesc Mira, this inscription showed that it was not a necessary to be a Protestant or a foreigner to establish the basis of a good trade; it also showed the union of ethics and economy. Other construction and decoration works lumbered on until 1548, such as the Consolat del Mar (Consulate of the Sea), a Renaissance building adjoined to La Lonja.

During subsequent centuries, La Lonja functioned as a silk exchange. The honesty of its traders is honored by the inscription that runs around the main contract hall.

The UNESCO considered it as a World Heritage Site in 1996 since "the site is of outstanding universal value as it is a wholly exceptional example of a secular building in late Gothic style, which dramatically illustrates the power and wealth of one of the great Mediterranean mercantile cities."

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The Llotja de la Seda ( Valencian pronunciation: [ˈʎɔdʒa ðe la ˈseða], Spanish: Lonja de la Seda, English "Silk Exchange") is a late Valencian Gothic-style civil building in Valencia, Spain. It is a principal tourist attraction in the city. Built between 1482 and 1533, la Lonja is composed of three parts (plus the Orange Garden - a walled court-yard).

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Pyrénées - Mont Perdu World Heritage Site - Wikipedia

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The Pyrénées - Mont Perdu World Heritage Site (also known as UNESCO Patrimonio Mundial Pirineos - Monte Perdido in Spanish) is a World Heritage site straddling the border between Spain and France in the Pyrenees mountain chain. The summit of Monte Perdido ( French: Mont Perdu) is on the Spanish side of the border.

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The Camino de Santiago ( Latin: Peregrinatio Compostellana, "Pilgrimage of Compostela"; Galician: O Camiño de Santiago), known in English as the Way of St James, is a network of pilgrims' ways or pilgrimages leading to the shrine of the apostle Saint James the Great in the cathedral of Santiago de Compostela in Galicia in northwestern Spain, where tradition holds that the remains of the apostle are buried.

As Pope Benedict XVI said, "It is a way sown with so many demonstrations of fervour, repentance, hospitality, art and culture which speak to us eloquently of the spiritual roots of the Old Continent." Many follow its routes as a form of spiritual path or retreat for their spiritual growth. It is also popular with hiking and cycling enthusiasts and organized tour groups.

Created and established after the discovery of the relics of Saint James the Great at the beginning of the 9th century, the Way of St James became a major pilgrimage route of medieval Christianity from the 10th century onwards. But it was only after the capture of Granada in 1492, under the reign of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, that Pope Alexander VI officially declared the Camino de Santiago to be one of the "three great pilgrimages of Christendom", along with Jerusalem and Rome.

In 1987, the Camino de Santiago, which encompasses several routes in Spain, France and Portugal, was declared the first Cultural Route of the Council of Europe. Since 2013, the Camino de Santiago has attracted more than 200,000 pilgrims each year, with an annual growth rate of more than 10 percent. Pilgrims come mainly on foot and often from nearby cities, requiring several days of walking to reach Santiago. The French Way gathers two-thirds of the walkers, but other minor routes are experiencing a growth in popularity. The French Way and the routes in Spain were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, followed by the routes in France in 1998, because of their historical significance for Christianity as a major pilgrimage route and their testimony to the exchange of ideas and cultures across the routes.

The Way of St James was one of the most important Christian pilgrimages during the later Middle Ages, and a pilgrimage route on which a plenary indulgence could be earned; other major pilgrimage routes include the Via Francigena to Rome and the pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Legend holds that St James's remains were carried by boat from Jerusalem to northern Spain, where he was buried in what is now the city of Santiago de Compostela.

Pilgrims on the Way can take one of dozens of pilgrimage routes to Santiago de Compostela. Traditionally, as with most pilgrimages, the Way of Saint James begins at one's home and ends at the pilgrimage site. However, a few of the routes are considered main ones. During the Middle Ages, the route was highly travelled. However, the Black Death, the Protestant Reformation, and political unrest in 16th century Europe led to its decline. By the 1980s, only a few hundred pilgrims per year registered in the pilgrim's office in Santiago.[citation needed ]

Whenever St James's Day (25 July) falls on a Sunday, the cathedral declares a Holy or Jubilee Year. Depending on leap years, Holy Years occur in 5-, 6-, and 11-year intervals. The most recent were 1993, 1999, 2004, 2010 and 2021. The next will be 2027, and 2032.

The main pilgrimage route to Santiago follows an earlier Roman trade route, which continues to the Atlantic coast of Galicia, ending at Cape Finisterre. Although it is known today that Cape Finisterre, Spain's westernmost point, is not the westernmost point of Europe ( Cabo da Roca in Portugal is further west), the fact that the Romans called it Finisterrae (literally the end of the world or Land's End in Latin) indicates that they viewed it as such. At night, the Milky Way overhead seems to point the way, so the route acquired the nickname "Voie lactée" - the Milky Way in French.

The scallop shell, often found on the shores in Galicia, has long been the symbol of the Camino de Santiago. Over the centuries the scallop shell has taken on a variety of meanings, metaphorical, practical, and mythical, even if its relevance may have actually derived from the desire of pilgrims to take home a souvenir.

According to Spanish legends, Saint James had spent time preaching the gospel in Spain, but returned to Judaea upon seeing a vision of the Virgin Mary on the bank of the Ebro River. Two versions of the most common myth about the origin of the symbol concern the death of Saint James, who was martyred by beheading in Jerusalem in 44 AD. They are:

Version 1: After James's death, his disciples shipped his body to the Iberian Peninsula to be buried in what is now Santiago. Off the coast of Spain, a heavy storm hit the ship, and the body was lost to the ocean. After some time, however, it washed ashore undamaged, covered in scallops.[citation needed ]

Version 2: After James's martyrdom, his body was transported by a ship piloted by an angel, back to the Iberian Peninsula to be buried in what is now Santiago. As the ship approached land, a wedding was taking place on shore. The young groom was on horseback, and, upon seeing the ship's approach, his horse got spooked, and horse and rider plunged into the sea. Through miraculous intervention, the horse and rider emerged from the water alive, covered in seashells.

From its connection to the Camino, the scallop shell came to represent pilgrimage, both to a specific shrine as well as to heaven, recalling Hebrews 11:13, identifying that Christians "are pilgrims and strangers on the earth". The scallop shell is an ubiquitous sight along the Camino, where it often serves as a guide for pilgrims. The shell is even more commonly seen on the pilgrims themselves, who are thereby identified as pilgrims. Most pilgrims receive a shell at the beginning of their journey and display it throughout their journey. During the medieval period, the shell was more a proof of completion than a symbol worn during the pilgrimage. The pilgrim's staff is a walking stick used by pilgrims on the way to the shrine of Santiago de Compostela in Spain. Generally, the stick has a hook so that something may be hung from it; it may have a crosspiece. The usual form of representation is with a hook, but in some the hook is absent. The pilgrim's staff is represented under different forms and is referred to using different names, e.g. a pilgrim's crutch, a crutch-staff. The crutch, perhaps, should be represented with the transverse piece on the top of the staff (like the letter "T") instead of across it.

The earliest records of visits paid to the shrine at Santiago de Compostela date from the 9th century, in the time of the Kingdom of Asturias and Galicia. The pilgrimage to the shrine became the most renowned medieval pilgrimage, and it became customary for those who returned from Compostela to carry back with them a Galician scallop shell as proof of their completion of the journey. This practice gradually led to the scallop shell becoming the badge of a pilgrim.

The earliest recorded pilgrims from beyond the Pyrenees visited the shrine in the middle of the 11th century, but it seems that it was not until a century later that large numbers of pilgrims from abroad were regularly journeying there. The earliest records of pilgrims that arrived from England belong to the period between 1092 and 1105. However, by the early 12th century the pilgrimage had become a highly organized affair.

One of the great proponents of the pilgrimage in the 12th century was Pope Callixtus II, who started the Compostelan Holy Years.

The official guide in those times was the Codex Calixtinus. Published around 1140, the 5th book of the Codex is still considered the definitive source for many modern guidebooks. Four pilgrimage routes listed in the Codex originate in France and converge at Puente la Reina. From there, a well-defined route crosses northern Spain, linking Burgos, Carrión de los Condes, Sahagún, León, Astorga, and Compostela.

The daily needs of pilgrims on their way to and from Compostela were met by a series of hospitals. Indeed, these institutions contributed to the development of the modern concept of 'hospital'. Some Spanish towns still bear the name, such as Hospital de Órbigo. The hospitals were often staffed by Catholic orders and under royal protection. Donations were encouraged but many poorer pilgrims had few clothes and poor health often barely getting to the next hospital.

Romanesque architecture, a new genre of ecclesiastical architecture, was designed with massive archways to cope with huge crowds of the devout.

There was also the sale of the now-familiar paraphernalia of tourism, such as badges and souvenirs. Pilgrims often prayed to Saint Roch whose numerous depictions with the Cross of St James can still be seen along the Way.

The pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela was made possible by the protection and freedom provided by the Kingdom of France, from which the majority of pilgrims originated. Enterprising French (including Gascons and other peoples not under the French crown) settled in towns along the pilgrimage routes, where their names appear in the archives. The pilgrims were tended by people like Domingo de la Calzada, who was later recognized as a saint.

Pilgrims walked the Way of St James, often for months and occasionally years at a time, to arrive at the great church in the main square of Compostela and pay homage to St James. Many arrived with very little due to illness or robbery or both. Traditionally pilgrims lay their hands on the pillar just inside the doorway of the cathedral, and so many now have done this it has visibly worn away the stone.

The popular Spanish name for the astronomical Milky Way is El Camino de Santiago. According to a common medieval legend, the Milky Way was formed from the dust raised by travelling pilgrims.

Another legend states that when a hermit saw a bright star shining over a hillside near San Fiz de Solovio, he informed the bishop of Iria Flavia, who found a grave at the site with three bodies inside, one of which, he asserted, was that of St James. Subsequently, the location was called "the field of the star" ( Campus Stellae, corrupted to "Compostela").

Another origin myth mentioned in Book IV of the Book of Saint James relates how the saint appeared in a dream to Charlemagne, urging him to liberate his tomb from the Moors and showing him the direction to follow by the route of the Milky Way.[citation needed ]

The Church employed (and employs) rituals (the sacrament of confession) that can lead to the imposition by a priest of penance, through which the sinner atones for his or her sins. Pilgrimages were deemed to be a suitable form of expiation for sin and long pilgrimages would be imposed as penance for very serious sins. As noted in the Catholic Encyclopedia:

In the registers of the Inquisition at Carcassone...we find the four following places noted as being the centres of the greater pilgrimages to be imposed as penances for the graver crimes: the tomb of the Apostles at Rome, the shrine of St. James at Compostella [sic], St. Thomas' body at Canterbury, and the relics of the Three Kings at Cologne.

Pilgrimages could also be imposed as judicial punishment for crime, a practice that is still occasionally used today. For example, a tradition in Flanders persists of pardoning and releasing one prisoner every year under the condition that, accompanied by a guard, the prisoner walks to Santiago wearing a heavy backpack.

During the American Revolution, John Adams (who would become the second President of the United States) was ordered by Congress to go to Paris to obtain funds for the cause. His ship started leaking and he disembarked with his two sons at Finisterre in 1779. From there, he proceeded to follow the Way of St James in the reverse direction of the pilgrims' route, in order to get to Paris overland. He did not stop to visit Santiago, which he later regretted. In his autobiography, Adams described the customs and lodgings afforded to St James's pilgrims in the 18th century and he recounted the legend as it was told to him:

I have always regretted that We could not find time to make a Pilgrimage to Saintiago de Compostella. We were informed ... that the Original of this Shrine and Temple of St. Iago was this. A certain Shepherd saw a bright Light there in the night. Afterwards it was revealed to an Archbishop that St. James was buried there. This laid the Foundation of a Church, and they have built an Altar on the Spot where the Shepherd saw the Light. In the time of the Moors, the People made a Vow, that if the Moors should be driven from this Country, they would give a certain portion of the Income of their Lands to Saint James. The Moors were defeated and expelled and it was reported and believed, that Saint James was in the Battle and fought with a drawn Sword at the head of the Spanish Troops, on Horseback. The People, believing that they owed the Victory to the Saint, very cheerfully fulfilled their Vows by paying the Tribute. ... Upon the Supposition that this is the place of the Sepulchre of Saint James, there are great numbers of Pilgrims, who visit it, every Year, from France, Spain, Italy and other parts of Europe, many of them on foot.

Although it is commonly believed that the pilgrimage to Santiago has continued without interruption since the Middle Ages, few modern pilgrimages antedate the 1957 publication of Irish Hispanist and traveler Walter Starkie's The Road to Santiago. The revival of the pilgrimage was supported by the Spanish government of Francisco Franco, much inclined to promote Spain's Catholic history. "It has been only recently (1990s) that the pilgrimage to Santiago regained the popularity it had in the Middle Ages."

Since then, hundreds of thousands (over 300,000 in 2017) of Christian pilgrims and many others set out each year from their homes, or from popular starting points across Europe, to make their way to Santiago de Compostela. Most travel by foot, some by bicycle, and some even travel as their medieval counterparts did, on horseback or by donkey. In addition to those undertaking a religious pilgrimage, many are hikers who walk the route for travel or sport. Also, many consider the experience a spiritual retreat from modern life.

Here, only a few routes are named. For a complete list of all the routes (traditional and less so), see: Camino de Santiago (route descriptions).

The Camino Francés, or , is the most popular. The Via Regia is the last portion of the ( Camino Francés).[citation needed ] Historically, because of the Codex Calixtinus, most pilgrims came from France: typically from Arles, Le Puy, Paris, and Vézelay; some from Saint Gilles. Cluny, site of the celebrated medieval abbey, was another important rallying point for pilgrims and, in 2002, it was integrated into the official European pilgrimage route linking Vézelay and Le Puy.

Most Spanish consider the French border in the Pyrenees the natural starting point. By far the most common, modern starting point on the Camino Francés is Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port, on the French side of the Pyrenees, with Roncesvalles on the Spanish side also being popular. The distance from Roncesvalles to Santiago de Compostela through León is about 800 km (500 mi).

The Camino Primitivo, or Original Way, is the oldest route to Santiago de Compostela, first taken in the 9th century, which begins in Oviedo. Camino Portugués, or the Portuguese Way, is the second-most-popular route, starting at the cathedral in Lisbon (for a total of about 610 km) or at the cathedral in Porto in the north of Portugal (for a total of about 227 km), and crossing into Galicia at Valença.

The Camino del Norte, or Northern Way, is also less traveled and starts in the Basque city of Irun on the border with France, or sometimes in San Sebastián. It is a less popular route because of its changes in elevation, whereas the Camino Frances is mostly flat. The route follows the coast along the Bay of Biscay until it nears Santiago. Though it does not pass through as many historic points of interest as the Camino Frances, it has cooler summer weather. The route is believed to have been first used by pilgrims to avoid traveling through the territories occupied by the Muslims in the Middle Ages.

The Central European camino was revived after the Fall of the Berlin Wall. Medieval routes, Camino Baltico and the Via Regia in Poland pass through present-day Poland reach as far north as the Baltic states, taking in Vilnius, and Eastwards to present-day Ukraine and take in Lviv, Sandomierz and Kraków.

In Spain, France, and Portugal, pilgrims' hostels with beds in dormitories provide overnight accommodation for pilgrims who hold a credencial (see below). In Spain this type of accommodation is called a refugio or albergue, both of which are similar to youth hostels or hostelries in the French system of gîtes d'étape.

Hostels may be run by a local parish, the local council, private owners, or pilgrims' associations. Occasionally, these refugios are located in monasteries, such as the one in the Monastery of San Xulián de Samos that is run by monks, and the one in Santiago de Compostela.

The final hostel on the route is the famous Hostal de los Reyes Católicos, which lies in the Praza do Obradoiro across the Cathedral. It was originally constructed as hospice and hospital for pilgrims by Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, the Catholic Monarchs. Today it is a luxury 5-star Parador hotel, which still provides free services to a limited number of pilgrims daily.

Credencial or pilgrim's passport

Most pilgrims purchase and carry a document called the credencial, which gives access to overnight accommodation along the route. Also known as the "pilgrim's passport", the credencial is stamped with the official St. James stamp of each town or refugio at which the pilgrim has stayed. It provides pilgrims with a record of where they ate or slept and serves as proof to the Pilgrim's Office in Santiago that the journey was accomplished according to an official route and thus that the pilgrim qualifies to receive a compostela (certificate of completion of the pilgrimage).

The compostela is a certificate of accomplishment given to pilgrims on completing the Way. To earn the compostela one needs to walk a minimum of 100 km or cycle at least 200 km. In practice, for walkers, the closest convenient point to start is Sarria, as it has good bus and rail connections to other places in Spain. Pilgrims arriving in Santiago de Compostela who have walked at least the last 100 km (62 mi), or cycled 200 km (120 mi) to get there (as indicated on their credencial), and who state that their motivation was at least partially religious, are eligible for the compostela from the Pilgrim's Office in Santiago.

The compostela has been indulgenced since the Early Middle Ages and remains so to this day, during Holy Years. The English translation reads:

The CHAPTER of this holy apostolic and metropolitan Church of Compostela, guardian of the seal of the Altar of the blessed Apostle James, in order that it may provide authentic certificates of visitation to all the faithful and to pilgrims from all over the earth who come with devout affection or for the sake of a vow to the shrine of our Apostle St. James, the patron and protector of Spain, hereby makes known to each and all who shall inspect this present document that [Name]

has visited this most sacred temple for the sake of pious devotion. As a faithful witness of these things I confer upon him [or her] the present document, authenticated by the seal of the same Holy Church.

Given at Compostela on the [day] of the month of [month] in the year of the Lord [year].

Deputy Canon for Pilgrims

The simpler certificate of completion in Spanish for those with non-religious motivation reads:

La S.A.M.I. Catedral de Santiago de Compostela le expresa su bienvenida cordial a la Tumba Apostólica de Santiago el Mayor; y desea que el Santo Apóstol le conceda, con abundancia, las gracias de la Peregrinación.

English translation:

The Holy Apostolic Metropolitan Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela expresses its warm welcome to the Tomb of the Apostle St. James the Greater; and wishes that the holy Apostle may grant you, in abundance, the graces of the Pilgrimage.

The Pilgrim's Office gives more than 100,000 compostelas each year to pilgrims from more than 100 countries. However, the requirements to earn a compostela ensure that not everyone who walks on the Camino receives one. The requirements for receiving a compostela are: 1) make the Pilgrimage for religious/spiritual reasons or at least have an attitude of search, 2) do the last 100 km on foot or horseback or the last 200 km by bicycle. 3) collect a certain number of stamps on a credencial.

Pilgrim's Mass

Green bars are holy years

A Pilgrim's Mass is held in the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela each day at 12:00 and 19:30. Pilgrims who received the compostela the day before have their countries of origin and the starting point of their pilgrimage announced at the Mass. The Botafumeiro, one of the largest censers in the world, is operated during certain Solemnities and on every Friday, except Good Friday, at 19:30. Priests administer the Sacrament of Penance, or confession, in many languages. In the Holy Year of 2010 the Pilgrim's Mass was exceptionally held four times a day, at 10:00, 12:00, 18:00, and 19:30, catering for the greater number of pilgrims arriving in the Holy Year.

The Xunta de Galicia ( Galicia's regional government) promotes the Way as a tourist activity, particularly in Holy Compostela Years (when 25 July falls on a Sunday). Following Galicia's investment and advertising campaign for the Holy Year of 1993, the number of pilgrims completing the route has been steadily rising. The most recent Holy Year occurred in 2021, 11 years after the last Holy Year of 2010. More than 272,000 pilgrims made the trip during the course of 2010. The next Holy Year pilgrimage will occur in 2027.

(Chronological)

The pilgrimage is central to the plot of the film The Milky Way (1969), directed by surrealist Luis Buñuel. It is intended to critique the Catholic church, as the modern pilgrims encounter various manifestations of Catholic dogma and heresy.

The Naked Pilgrim (2003) documents the journey of art critic and journalist Brian Sewell to Santiago de Compostela for the UK's Channel Five. Travelling by car along the French route, he visited many towns and cities on the way including Paris, Chartres, Roncesvalles, Burgos, León and Frómista. Sewell, a lapsed Catholic, was moved by the stories of other pilgrims and by the sights he saw. The series climaxed with Sewell's emotional response to the Mass at Compostela.

The Way of St. James was the central feature of the film Saint Jacques... La Mecque (2005) directed by Coline Serreau.

In (2010), written and directed by Emilio Estevez, Martin Sheen learns that his son (Estevez) has died early along the route and takes up the pilgrimage in order to complete it on the son's behalf. The film was presented at the Toronto International Film Festival in September 2010 and premiered in Santiago in November 2010.

On his PBS travel Europe television series, Rick Steves covers Northern Spain and the Camino de Santiago in series 6.

In 2013, Simon Reeve presented the "Pilgrimage" series on BBC2, in which he followed various pilgrimage routes across Europe, including the Camino de Santiago in episode 2.

In 2014, Lydia B Smith and Future Educational Films released Walking the Camino: Six Ways to Santiago in theatres across the U.S. and Canada. The film features the accounts and perspectives of six pilgrims as they navigate their respective journeys from France to Santiago de Compostela. In 2015, it was distributed across the World, playing theatres throughout Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. It recently aired on NPTV and continues to be featured in festivals relating to the Spirituality, Mind Body, Travel, and Adventure.

In 2018, series one of BBC Two's Pilgrimage followed this pilgrimage.

(Alphabetical by author's surname)

1. In other languages: ^ Spanish: El Camino de Santiago; Portuguese: O Caminho de Santiago; French: Le chemin de Saint-Jacques; German: Der Jakobsweg; Italian: Il Cammino di san Giacomo.

2. ^ Kent, William H. (1913). "Indulgences" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. This entry on indulgences suggests that the evolution of the doctrine came to include a pilgrimage to shrines as a trend that developed from the 8th century A.D.: "Among other forms of commutation were pilgrimages to well-known shrines such as that at St. Albans in England or at Compostela in Spain. But the most important place of pilgrimage was Rome. According to Bede (674-735) the visitatio liminum, or visit to the tomb of the Apostles, was even then regarded as a good work of great efficacy (Hist. Eccl., IV, 23). At first the pilgrims came simply to venerate the relics of the Apostles and martyrs, but in course of time their chief purpose was to gain the indulgences granted by the pope and attached especially to the Stations."

3. "^ Medieval footpath under the stars of the Milky Way Archived 17 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine". Telegraph Online.

4. Pilgrim's or Palmer's Staff ^ French: bourdon: this was used as a device in a coat of arms as early at least as Edward II's reign, as will be seen. The Staff and the Escallop shell were the badge of the pilgrim, and hence it is but natural it should find its way into the shields of those who had visited the Holy Land.

5. ^ Aruna Vasadevan (5 November 2013). "Santiago de Compostela (La Coruña, Spain)". In Trudy Ring; Noelle Watson; Paul Schellinger (eds.). Southern Europe: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Taylor & Francis. pp. 621-624. ISBN 978-1-134-25965-6.

6. ^ Mitchell-Lanham, Jean (2015). The Lore of the Camino de Santiago: A Literary Pilgrimage. Two Harbors Press. p. xv. ISBN 978-1-63413-333-3.

7. ^ Camino Polaco. Teologia - Sztuka - Historia - Teraźniejszość - Edited by Fr. dr. Piotr Roszak and professor dr. Waldemar Rozynkowski. published by Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika (Toruń); volume 1 (2014), volume 2 (2015), volume 3 (2016) in Polish.

8. Barry Smith, Olimpia Giuliana Loddo and Giuseppe Lorini, "On Credentials", ^ Journal of Social Ontology, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/jso-2019-0034 | Published online: 07 Aug 2020.

9. ^ "Masses Hours". catedraldesantiago.es. Catedral de Santiago de Compostela. Archived from the original on 12 August 2016.

10. ^ "The Botafumeiro". catedraldesantiago.es. Catedral de Santiago de Compostela. Archived from the original on 12 August 2016.

11. ^ "The Holy Year: When Does the Holy Year Take Place?". catedraldesantiago.es. Catedral de Santiago de Compostela. Archived from the original on 16 August 2016. It is Holy Year in Compostela when the 25th of July, Commemoration of the Martyrdom of Saint James, falls on a Sunday. 8 December 2015 - 20 November 2016, Pope Francis's Extraordinary Jubilee of Mercy, was also a Holy Year.

12. ^ "Rick Steves travel show, episode: "Northern Spain and the Camino de Santiago"". ricksteves.com. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011.

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The Camino de Santiago ( Latin: Peregrinatio Compostellana, "Pilgrimage of Compostela"; Galician: O Camiño de Santiago), known in English as the Way of St James, is a network of pilgrims' ways or pilgrimages leading to the shrine of the apostle Saint James the Great in the cathedral of Santiago de Compostela in Galicia in northwestern Spain, where tradition holds that the remains of the apostle are buried.

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Poblet Abbey, otherwise the Royal Abbey of Santa Maria de Poblet ( Catalan: Reial Monestir de Santa Maria de Poblet), is a Cistercian monastery, founded in 1151, located at the foot of the Prades Mountains, in the comarca of Conca de Barberà, in Catalonia ( Spain). It was founded by Cistercian monks from France on lands conquered from the Moors. The main architect was Arnau Bargués.

This monastery was the first of three sister monasteries, known as the Cistercian triangle, that helped consolidate power in Catalonia in the 12th century. (The other two are Vallbona de les Monges and Santes Creus.)

Poblet was one of the two royal pantheons of the kings of the Crown of Aragon since James I of Aragon (along with Monastery of San Juan de la Peña). Some of the most important royal sepulchres have alabaster statues that lie over the tomb. The kings have lion sculptures at their feet, while the queens have dogs.

Peter IV of Aragon (1319 - 1387) made it a condition, under solemn oath at the moment of crowning, that all the Aragonese kings be buried there. Only Ferdinand II of Aragon broke the oath, after his kingdom had been merged with the Kingdom of Castile, and was buried in Granada.

The following kings and queens of Aragon are buried at Poblet Monastery:

Alfonso II (1196)

James I (1276)

Peter IV (1387), and his first three wives Maria of Navarre, Eleanor of Portugal, and Eleanor of Sicily

John I (1396), and his wives, Martha of Armagnac and Violant of Bar

Martin (1410), and his first wife, Maria de Luna

Ferdinand I (1416), and his wife, Eleanor of Alburquerque

Alfonso V (1458)

John II (1479), and his second wife, Joana Enríquez

Additional notable figures interred here include the Hungarian queen Beatrice of Naples (1508), Philip Wharton, 1st Duke of Wharton (1731) and Archduke Carlos Píus of Austria-Tuscany (1953).

The tombs of the royals were restored by the Catalan sculptor Frederic Marés in 1948.

The monastery, which had already suffered damage during the First Carlist War, was closed down due to the Ecclesiastical Confiscations of Mendizábal in 1835 during Isabella II of Spain's rule. The Desamortización or secularization of the place brought monastic life to an end. On 24 July of the same year the monastery was plundered by representatives of the Mendizábal's government and unruly mobs. During the events all valuable paintings and furniture were removed and dispersed. Also parts of the monastery were destroyed by fire.

In the years that followed, the Monastery fell into disrepair and ruin; some of the main roofs caved in. The tombs of the rulers of the Kingdom of Aragon were desecrated and the remains were transferred and kept for a while in the Cathedral of Tarragona, thanks to the intervention of Rev. Antoni Serret from the neighboring town of L'Espluga.

Finally the monastery was refounded in 1940 by Italian monks of the same order and repair and reconstruction began. Close to the entrance of the church one building has been kept in a ruined state as a reminder. Remains of the deceased of the ancient Royal House of Aragon were put back in sepulchres, but they are unfortunately now co-mingled.

Poblet belongs to the Cistercian Congregation of the Crown of Aragon, along with Santa Maria de Solius and convents such as Santa Maria de Vallbona and Santa Maria de Valldonzella. The Abbot of Poblet is the ex officio chairman of the Congregation. Today the monastic community of Poblet is composed of 29 professed monks, 1 regular oblate, 1 novice and 2 familiars.

Poblet Monastery has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1991. The altar (1527) was sculpted by Damián Forment.

In 2010, Spanish architect Mariano Bayón designed the Poblet Monastery Guesthouse.

The current abbot is the 105th abbot.

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Poblet Abbey, otherwise the Royal Abbey of Santa Maria de Poblet ( Catalan: Reial Monestir de Santa Maria de Poblet), is a Cistercian monastery, founded in 1151, located at the foot of the Prades Mountains, in the comarca of Conca de Barberà, in Catalonia ( Spain).

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Posidonia oceanica (commonly known as Neptune grass or Mediterranean tapeweed) is a seagrass species that is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. It forms large underwater meadows that are an important part of the ecosystem. The fruit is free floating and known in Italy as "the olive of the sea" ( l'oliva di mare). Balls of fibrous material from its foliage, known as egagropili, wash up to nearby shorelines.

Posidonia oceanica is a flowering plant which lives in dense meadows or along channels in the sands of the Mediterranean. It is found at depths from 1-35 metres (3.3-114.8 ft),[citation needed ] according to water clarity. Subsurface rhizomes and roots stabilize the plant while erect rhizomes and leaves reduce silt accumulation.

The leaves are ribbon-like, appearing in tufts of 6 or 7, and up to 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) long.[citation needed ] Average leaf width is around 10 millimetres (0.39 in).[citation needed ] The leaves are bright green, perhaps turning brown with age, and have 13 to 17 parallel veins. The leaf terminus is rounded or sometimes absent because of damage. Leaves are arranged in groups, with older leaves on the outside, longer and differing in form from the younger leaves they surround.

The rhizome type stems are found in two forms: one growing up to 150 centimetres (59 in) beneath the sand and the other rising above the sand. All stems are approximately 10 millimetres (0.39 in) thick and upright in habit. This arrangement of the rhizomes eventually forms a mat; the surface contains the active parts of the plant, whereas the center is a dense network of roots and decomposing stems.[citation needed ]

The flowering plant's common name is Neptune grass.

In 2006 a huge clonal colony of P. oceanica was discovered south of the island of Ibiza and stretches as far south as La Savina and Es Pujols on the island of Formentera. At 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) across, and estimated at around 100,000 years old, it may be one of the largest and oldest clonal colonies on Earth.

This species is found only in the Mediterranean Sea where it is in decline, occupying an area of about 3% of the basin. This corresponds to a surface area of about 38,000 square kilometres (15,000 sq mi). Posidonia grows best in clean waters, and its presence is a marker for lack of pollution. The presence of Posidonia can be detected by the masses of decomposing leaves on beaches. Such plant material has been used for composting, but Italian laws prohibit the use of marine algae and plants for this purpose.

The genus Posidonia is named after Poseidon, the Greek god of the seas, while oceanica refers to its former wide distribution. Carl Linnaeus gave the first botanical description of this species in Systema Naturae, although the genus was then named Zostera. The APG system (1998) and APG II system (2003) accept the genus as constituting the sole genus in the family Posidoniaceae, which it places in the order Alismatales, in the clade monocots. The Angiosperm Phylogeny Website concludes that the three families Cymodoceaceae, Posidoniaceae and Ruppiaceae form a monophyletic group. Earlier systems classified this genus in the family Potamogetonaceae or in the family Posidoniaceae but belonging to order Zosterales.

To date 51 natural products have been reported from P. oceanica, including natural phenols, phenylmethane derivatives, phenylethane derivatives, phenylpropane derivatives and their esters, chalkones, flavonols, 5-alpha-cholestanes, and cholest-5-enes. Many of the compounds reported for P. oceanica were, however, not detected by appropriate phytochemical methods and some most probably represent artifacts and are not genuine natural products of P. oceanica.

Media related to Posidonia oceanica at Wikimedia Commons

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Posidonia oceanica (commonly known as Neptune grass or Mediterranean tapeweed) is a seagrass species that is endemic to the Mediterranean Sea. It forms large underwater meadows that are an important part of the ecosystem. The fruit is free floating and known in Italy as "the olive of the sea" ( l'oliva di mare).

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Old Town of Cáceres, Calle Arco de la Estrella, Càceres, Espanya

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Old Town of Cáceres, Calle Arco de la Estrella, Càceres, Espanya

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Old Town of Cáceres, Calle Arco de la Estrella, Càceres, Espanya

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Old Town of Cáceres is an historic walled city in Cáceres, Spain.

Cáceres was declared a World Heritage City by UNESCO in 1986 because of the city's blend of Roman, Moorish, Northern Gothic and Italian Renaissance architecture. Thirty towers from the Islamic period still stand in Cáceres, of which the Torre del Bujaco is the most famous.

There have been settlements near Cáceres since prehistoric times. Evidence of this can be found in the caves of Maltravieso and El Conejar. The city was founded by the Romans in 25 BC.

The Old Town ( Parte Antigua) still has its ancient walls; this part of town is also well known for its multitude of storks' nests. The walls contain a medieval town setting with no outward signs of modernity, which is why many television shows and films have been shot there

The origins of Cáceres were in prehistoric times, as evidenced by the paintings in the Cuevas de Maltravieso (Maltravieso Caves) which date back to the late Paleolithic period. Visitors can see remains from medieval times, the Roman occupation, Moorish occupation and the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain. Cáceres has four main areas to be explored: the historical quarter, the Jewish quarter, the modern centre, and the outskirts.

The Old Town of Caceres is delimited in two great zones by the wall: intramuros (inside the wall) and extramuros (outside of the wall). The enclosure intramuros is what is usually known as "Monumental City" or "Old Part" and is the best known, while the area outside the walls is less well known. The whole Old Town, since the Middle Ages, is divided into 4 parishes, around which the structure of the city was configured. The four parishes are Santa Maria, San Mateo, Santiago and San Juan, with the first two intramuros and the last two outside the walls.

Santa María

The Santa Maria quarter is formed by the union of two squares, the Plaza de Santa María and the Plaza de los Golfines, creating both a unique space. It is presided over by the Holy Church Cathedral of Santa María la Mayor, around which a set of palaces, mansions and noble houses are arranged delimiting the square. Adjacent to the apse of the Concatedral is the Palacio de Carvajal (headquarters of the Tourist Board of the Diputación de Cáceres, you can visit its interior facilities, the patio and the garden) and at the end of Calle Tiendas is possible to see the Torre de The Espaderos. Once again in the Plaza de Santa María you can see the Palacio de Hernando de Ovando and the Episcopal Palace, after which, in the Plaza del Conde de Canilleros, you will find the Toledo-Moctezuma Palace (Headquarters of the Provincial Historical Archives). If you continue in the Plaza de Santa María you can still see the Mayoralgo Palace, the House of Moraga (Provincial Center of Crafts), the House of Golfin-Toledo or Dukes of Valencia, the Palace of the Diputación, the Palace of Fomento and the magnificent Palace of Golfines de Abajo, which served as accommodation for the Catholic Monarchs during their stays in Caceres.

The Plaza de San Jorge, in the center of the walled enclosure, is characterized by three buildings. Thus, it is dominated by the Church of San Francisco Javier or Church of the Precious Blood (in whose crypt is the Interpretation Center of the Holy Week of Cáceres and allows access to the largest cistern of Cáceres, eighteenth century). Next to it is located the College of the Company of Jesus. This baroque set that presides the square is accompanied to the right by the House of the Becerra (Headquarters of the Foundation Mercedes Calles and Carlos Ballestero). Finally, to the left, behind some stores selling souvenirs and handicrafts, is the Garden of Cristina de Ulloa, open space within the set formed by these three buildings of the Plaza de San Jorge, dedicated to the patron saint of the city.

The San Mateo quarter, smaller than Santa Maria, is made up of three squares, the Plaza de San Mateo, the Plaza de San Pablo and the Plaza de las Veletas. This area is presided over by the Church of San Mateo (built on the old mosque). There is also another religious building, the Convent of San Pablo. Among the civil buildings, the most outstanding is the Palace of the Cáceres Ovando or Palace of the Storks (Headquarters of the Military Government). Completing the area of San Mateo, specifically in the Plaza de las Veletas, is the Palace of Veletas (Headquarters of the Archeology and Ethnography Section of the Museum of Cáceres, with a magnificent Almohad cistern, the oldest in the city) and The House of the Horses (Headquarters of the Section of Fine Arts of the Museum of Cáceres). Immediately behind the Church of San Mateo, there is a small square in which are three beautiful buildings that form a harmonious whole, the House of the Sun, the House of the Eagle and the Tower of Sande.

Returning again to the Plaza de San Mateo, it is possible to see the impressive Palace of Golfines de Arriba. Finally, from San Mateo, you can descend through the Calle Ancha to admire the set of buildings that delimit this street. Among them are the House of Lorenzo Ulloa (Headquarters of the School of Fine Arts Eulogio Blasco), the House of Diego de Ulloa the Rico, the House of Walls-Saavedra, the Palace of the Commander of Alcuéscar or the Marquis of Torreorgaz ( It houses the Parador de Turismo de Cáceres) and the Casa de los Sánchez Paredes.

At this point, after crossing Calle Ancha, you will find the Puerta de Mérida. At this level it is possible to see the Hospital de los Caballeros to the right, while if you turn left you can appreciate the House of the Perers (Headquarters of the College Major Francisco de Sande).

From Plaza de San Mateo, if you take Calle Condes, you will reach the area of the Adarves. The adarves are the streets adjacent to the wall, which is also known as the round road. In Cáceres five streets retain the name of Adarves (Father Rosalío, Santa Ana, Estrella, Bishop Álvarez de Castro and Christ), although when speaking of "the adarves", usually refers to the first three, which are followed, As if it were one way. The adarves (of Father Rosalío, Santa Ana and Estrella) constitute a street in slope, with narrows and pavement of small songs.

In this area you can appreciate the Arco de Santa Ana and Puerta del Postigo, the Tower of the Ved or the Postigo and the Tower of Santa Ana. In a small square in front of the Arch of Santa Ana is located the Palace of the Counts of Adanero. As the adarves descend, on the left is the entrance to Casa Miron (Headquarters of the Municipal Museum of Cáceres), and a little lower on the right is the Plaza de los Caldereros. This square, to the right of the adarves, is delimited by two buildings, facing each other, the Palacio de la Generala and the Palace of Ribera. Both buildings are the headquarters of the Rectorate of the University of Extremadura.

In front of the Plaza de los Caldereros there is a small door that leads to a few stairs that descend to the Forum of the Balbos, delimited by the Tower of the Furnace and the Tower of the Yerba, you can see from here the Town Hall and the Plaza Mayor. If the adarves are completely lowered and you return to the Plaza de Santa María, at the height of the House of Moraga, it is possible to start the passage through an area of streets, alleys and alleys of the Monumental City of great charm. Here, in the House of Moraga, begins an axis formed by the streets Cuesta de Aldana and Olmos, located in straight line, narrow and tortuous. Here you will find such important buildings as the Mono House, the Casa del Aldana, the Mudéjar House, the Casa de los Ovando Perero and the San Antonio Nursery. Finally, the small square where the Nursing of San Antonio is located ends at the union of the Calle Puerta de Mérida with the Adarve of Father Rosalío, being able to appreciate the Hospital of the Magdalena.

The Arco del Cristo is the eastern gate of the old wall of Cáceres. It conserves Roman ashlars and in the antiquity was the door of the thistle of the colony Norba Caesarina.

Caceres came to have two Jewish neighborhoods: the Old Judería (in the enclosure intramuros) and the Jewish Quarter (in the area outside the walls). The Old Jewish Quarter or Old Jewish Quarter is also known as the neighborhood of San Antonio de la Quebrada. It preserves the layout and organization of the typical streets of the Islamic and Jewish period. These are narrow streets and on slopes, with small squares connected to each other, and with streets "in bottom of sack", that is to say, streets without exit. The houses are small, one to two floors, mostly white and decorated some of them with flowers such as geraniums among others, which gives a great tipismo to this neighborhood. It is conformed by the streets of San Antonio, Callejón del Moral, Rincon de la Monja and Cuesta del Marqués among others. The main building and center of the old Jewish quarter is the Ermita de San Antonio (built on the old synagogue). An interesting house is the House of the Rich Jew (popularly known for presenting a stone facade instead of being covered with lime, as was typical of humble Jewish houses). In the same Jewish quarter, through one of its houses, it is possible to access the Baluarte de los Pozos. It is a section of wall advanced to the rest formed by two towers, the Tower of the Wells or the Gypsy and the Tower Coraja or the Aljibes. It was a key point to guarantee access to the Ribera water. Also in the Jewry itself, near the Pizarro Gate, you will find access to the Olivar de la Juderia, which consists of a space like a garden or park located at the foot of the wall.

If you continue on Rincón de la Monja street, at the junction of the street with Cuesta del Marqués, there are two buildings to highlight. One of them is the House of Durán de la Rocha and the other is the Arab Museum House. When descending by Cuesta del Marqués, you arrive at the lowest point of the Monumental City and the most located to the east. Here you can find the Arco del Cristo, Puerta del Río or the Council (the only door of Roman origin that has persisted in the city). From this point it is possible to visualize the Round Tower and, after crossing the arch, the River Tower. Surroundings

When the intramural enclosure could not accommodate more buildings, it was decided to build outside the walls around three fundamental spaces: the Plaza Mayor and the two parishes (Santiago and San Juan).

The Plaza Mayor is constituted as the center of the Historic Quarter and gateway to the Monumental City. It emerged as a large space for markets, outside the walls. It is dominated in its east side by a frontal formed by the Tower of Bujaco, the Hermitage of the Peace and the Arc of the Star, being able to see also the Tower of the Pulpits and the Tower of the Yerba. To the south is the Town Hall, built at the end of the 19th century. The rest of the Plaza Mayor is formed by arcades that have their origin in the sixteenth century, although the buildings built on them are of very different epochs.

The portals housed different guilds, such as the Pan Portal, the Portal of the Plateros, the Portal of the Scribes, the Portal of the Apothecaries and the Portal of the Watchers, among others. The rest of guilds of the city settled in streets near the Plaza Mayor, such as the well-known and commercial Calle Pintores and others such as Paneras, Hornos, Hornillos, Zapatería, Caleros, Tenerías, Rivera de Curtidores, Boilers, Shops. In the surroundings and in the vicinity of the Plaza Mayor are the two medieval parishes (Santiago and San Juan), around which new spaces were created that, together with the Plaza Mayor, created the urban structure of the enclosure outside the walls.

Church and convent of San Pablo (15th century)

Convent of la Compañía de Jesus, in Baroque style, today used for art exhibitions

Church of Santa María, cathedral built in the 13th century, in Gothic style

Iglesia de San Mateo, a 15th-century church built on the site of a former mosque

Iglesia de San Francisco Javier (18th century), in Baroque style

Iglesia de San Juan, large majestic church built between the 13th and 15th century

Hermitage of San Antonio Iglesia de Santo Domingo

Hermitage de la Paz

Church of Santiago

Torre de Bujaco (12th century)

Arco de la Estrella (18th century)

Torre de Sande (14th-15th centuries)

Palacio de los Golfines de Abajo. Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Fernando I lived here

Palacio del Comendador de Alcuescar

Palacio de los Golfines de Arriba

Palacio-Fortaleza de los Torreorgaz, today a Parador hotel

Palacio de Carvajal (15th century).

Palacio casa de los Becerra

This article incorporates text available under the CC BY-SA 3.0 license.

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Old Town of Cáceres is an historic walled city in Cáceres, Spain. Cáceres was declared a World Heritage City by UNESCO in 1986 because of the city's blend of Roman, Moorish, Northern Gothic and Italian Renaissance architecture. Thirty towers from the Islamic period still stand in Cáceres, of which the Torre del Bujaco is the most famous.

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The Cathedral of Saint Mary of the See ( Spanish: Catedral de Santa María de la Sede), better known as Seville Cathedral, is a Roman Catholic cathedral in Seville ( Andalusia, Spain). It was registered in 1987 by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, along with the adjoining Alcázar palace complex and the General Archive of the Indies.

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University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Espanya

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University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Espanya

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University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Espanya

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The University of Salamanca ( Spanish: Universidad de Salamanca) is a Spanish higher education institution, located in the city of Salamanca, west of Madrid, in the autonomous community of Castile and León. It was founded in 1218 by King Alfonso IX. It is the oldest university in the Hispanic world and one of the oldest in the world in continuous operation.

Prior to the foundation of the university, Salamanca was home to a cathedral school, known to have been in existence by 1130. The university was founded as a studium generale by the Leonese King Alfonso IX in 1218 as the scholas Salamanticae, with the actual creation of the university (or the transformation of the existing school into the university) occurring between August 1218 and the following winter. A further royal charter from King Alfonso X, dated 8 May 1254, established rules for the organisation and financial endowment of the university, and referred to it for the first time by that name. A papal bull of Alexander IV in 1255 confirmed the Royal Charter of Alfonso X and granted universal recognition to the university's degrees.

The historical phrases Quod natura non dat, Salmantica non praestat (what nature does not give, Salamanca does not lend, in Latin) and Multos et doctissimos Salmantica habet (many and very versed Salamanca has) give an idea of the prestige the institution rapidly acquired.[failed verification ]

In the reign of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile, the Spanish government was revamped. Contemporary with the Spanish Inquisition, the expulsion of the Jews and Muslims, and the conquest of Granada, there was a certain professionalization of the apparatus of the state. This involved the massive employment of "letrados", i.e., bureaucrats and lawyers, who were "licenciados" (university graduates), particularly, of Salamanca, and the newly founded University of Alcalá. These men staffed the various councils of state, including, eventually, the Consejo de Indias and Casa de Contratacion, the two highest bodies in metropolitan Spain for the government of the Spanish Empire in the New World.[citation needed ]

While Columbus was lobbying the King and Queen for a contract to seek out a western route to the Indies, he made his case to a council of geographers at the University of Salamanca. While the geographers were skeptical of Columbus and his voyage calculations, the University of Salamanca always defended the theory of unknown territories to the west, and supported Columbus' voyage, believing that new territories may be discovered. In the next century, the morality and laws of colonization in the Indies were debated by the School of Salamanca, along with the development of the study of science, geography and cartography of the Americas, and as well as the study of general subjects of economics, philosophy and theology.[citation needed ]

Like Oxford and Cambridge, Salamanca had a number of colleges ( Colegios Mayores). These were founded as charitable institutions to enable poor scholars to attend the university. By the eighteenth century they had become closed corporations controlled by the families of their founders, and dominated the university between them. Most were destroyed by Napoleon's troops. Today some have been turned into faculty buildings while others survive as halls of residence.[citation needed ]

In the 19th century, the Spanish government dissolved the university's faculties of canon law and theology. They were later reestablished in the 1940s as part of the Pontifical University of Salamanca.[citation needed ]

The faculty of this university discussed the feasibility of Christopher Columbus's project and the effects his claims brought. Once America was discovered, they discussed the rights of indigenous people as being recognized with full plenitude, which was revolutionary for that period, economic processes were analyzed for the first time and they developed the science of law as it became a classical scholarly focus. It was the period when some of the brightest minds attended the university and it was known as the School of Salamanca. The school's members renovated theology, laid the foundation for modern-day law, international law, modern economic science and actively participated in the Council of Trent. The school's mathematicians studied the calendar reform, commissioned by Pope Gregory XIII and proposed the solution that was later implemented. By 1580, 6,500 new students had arrived at Salamanca each year, amongst the graduates were state officials of the Spanish monarchy administration were nourished. It was also during this period when the first female university students were probably admitted, Beatriz Galindo and Lucía de Medrano, the latter being the first woman ever to give classes at a university.

Salamanca draws undergraduate and graduate students from across Spain and the world; it is the top-ranked university in Spain based on the number of students coming from other regions. It is also known for its Spanish courses for non-native speakers, which attract more than two thousand foreign students each year.

Today, the University of Salamanca is an important center for the study of humanities and is particularly noted for its language studies, as well as in laws and economics. Scientific research is carried out in the university and research centers associated with it, such as at the Centro de Investigación del Cáncer [Cancer Research Centre], Instituto de Neurociencias de Castilla y León or INCyL [Institute of Neuroscience of Castile and León], Centro de Láseres Pulsados Ultracortos Ultraintensos [Ultrashort Ultraintense Pulse Lasers Centre]. It is one of only two Hispanophone universities in the world that have a MoU with the United Nations to train language professionals for the organization. In conjunction with the University of Cambridge, the University of Salamanca co-founded the Association of Language Testers in Europe (ALTE) in 1989.

In 2018, the institution celebrated its eighth centennial.

The library holds about 906,000 volumes.

Notable staff

Notable students

Other notable students and academic teachers include:

Manuel Fernández Álvarez, Luis E. Rodríguez San Pedro & Julián Álvarez Villar, The University of Salamanca, Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, 1992. ISBN 84-7481-701-3.

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The University of Salamanca ( Spanish: Universidad de Salamanca) is a Spanish higher education institution, located in the city of Salamanca, west of Madrid, in the autonomous community of Castile and León. It was founded in 1218 by King Alfonso IX.

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Parque Nacional de Garajonay, La Palmita, Espanya

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Parque Nacional de Garajonay, La Palmita, Espanya

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Parque Nacional de Garajonay, La Palmita, Espanya

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Garajonay National Park ( Spanish: Parque nacional de Garajonay, pronounced [ˈpaɾke naθjoˈnal de ɣaɾaxoˈnaj]) is located in the center and north of the island of La Gomera, one of the Canary Islands ( Spain). It was declared a national park in 1981 and a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1986. It occupies 40 km ² (15 sq mi) and it extends into each of the six municipalities on the island.

Nearly 450,000 tourists visit the park every year. There is accommodation for tourists just outside the park's boundary.

The park is named after the rock formation of Garajonay, the highest point on the island at 1,487 metres (4,879 ft). It also includes a small plateau whose altitude is 790-1,400 m above sea level. Features of the national park include the massive rocks that are found along the island. These are former volcanoes whose shapes have been carved by erosion. Some, like the "Fortaleza" (fortress in Spanish) were considered sacred by the native islanders, as well as ideal refuges when attacked. The park is crossed by a large network of 18 footpaths, trekking being one of the main tourist activities in the island.

Many of the species of flora and fauna are endemic to the Macaronesian islands, the Canary Islands or La Gomera, and the Garajonay forest harbors a rich biota of understory plants, invertebrates, and birds and bats, including a large number of endemic species. The park provides the best example of Canarian laurisilva, a humid subtropical forest that in the Tertiary covered almost all of Southern Europe. It is also found on the Azores and the Madeira Islands. Laurus azorica, known as Azores laurel, or by the Portuguese names louro, loureiro, louro-da-terra, and louro-de-cheiro, can be found in the park, as well as Laurus novocanariensis, known as Canary laurel. Although named as a single type of forest, the national park englobes several varieties of forests. Most humid and protected valleys oriented to the North have the richest and most complex forests. It is known as valley laurisilva, a true subtropical rainforest where the largest laurel trees can be found. At higher altitudes, with less protection from wind and sun, the forest loses some of its more delicate species. Here it is called slope laurisilva (laurisilva de ladera). At the south the forest is mainly a mix of beech and heather, species adapted to the less humid atmosphere. In August 2012, a forest fire burned 747 hectareas (18%) of this national park.

Two species of reptile, Gallotia gomerana (Gomeran lizard) and Chalcides viridanus (Gomeran skink), can be found. Amphibians include the stripeless tree frog, Hyla meridionalis. The park is renowned as one of the best places to observe the two Canarian endemic pigeons, laurel pigeon ( Columba junoniae) and Bolle's pigeon ( Columba bollii). The park has been recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports populations of various birds. As well as thew two endemic pigeon species, these include Barbary partridges, plain swifts, Eurasian sparrowhawks, Berthelot's pipits and island canaries.

The peak and park are named after Guanche lore, the hapless lovers Gara and Jonay. Their romance evokes those of Romeo and Juliet and Hero and Leander. Gara was a princess of Agulo on La Gomera. During the festival of Beñesmén, it was customary for unmarried girls of Agulo to gaze at their reflections in the waters of Chorros del Epina. If the water was clear, they would find a husband; if it was cloudy, some misfortune would befall them. When Gara looked at the water, she saw her reflection clearly. However, she gazed too long and the sun's reflection blinded her temporarily. A wise man named Gerián told her that this meant that she needed to avoid all fire or else it would consume her.

Jonay was the son of the Guanche mencey or king of Adeje on Tenerife, who arrived on the island to celebrate these ceremonies. Jonay's participation in the ensuing games attracted the attention of Gara, and the two fell in love. Unfortunately, when the engagement was announced, the volcano Teide, visible from La Gomera, began to erupt as if in disapproval. This was interpreted as a bad omen and the couple's respective parents broke the engagement. Jonay was made to return to Tenerife, but one night, he swam across the channel that separated the two islands and rejoined his beloved. Their respective fathers ordered that the two be found. The lovers were soon trapped on a mountain, where they decided to take their own lives.

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Garajonay National Park ( Spanish: Parque nacional de Garajonay, pronounced [ˈpaɾke naθjoˈnal de ɣaɾaxoˈnaj]) is located in the center and north of the island of La Gomera, one of the Canary Islands ( Spain). It was declared a national park in 1981 and a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1986.

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Calle Mudejar de Aragón, Aranjuez, Espanya

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Calle Mudejar de Aragón, Aranjuez, Espanya

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Calle Mudejar de Aragón, Aranjuez, Espanya

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Mudéjar (, also , Spanish: , Catalan: mudèjar , Portuguese: ; from Arabic: مدجن‎, mudajjan, 'subjugated; tamed; domesticated') refers to the group of Muslims who remained in Iberia in the late medieval period despite the Christian reconquest. It is also a term for Mudejar art, which was much influenced by Islamic art, but produced typically by Christian craftsmen for Christian patrons.

Mudéjar was originally the term used for Moors or Muslims of Al-Andalus who remained in Iberia after the Christian Reconquista but were not initially forcibly converted to Christianity or exiled. The word Mudéjar references several historical interpretations and cultural borrowings. It was a medieval Castilian borrowing of the Arabic word Mudajjan مدجن, meaning "subjugated; tamed", referring to Muslims who submitted to the rule of Christian kings. The term likely originated as a taunt, as the word was usually applied to domesticated animals such as poultry. The term Mudéjar also can be translated from Arabic as "one permitted to remain", which refers to the Christians allowing Muslims to remain in Christian Iberia.

Another term with the same meaning, ahl al-dajn ("people who stay on"), was used by Muslim writers, notably al-Wansharisi in his work Kitab al-Mi'yar. Mudéjars in Iberia lived under a protected tributary status known as dajn, which refer to ahl al-dajn. This protected status suggested subjugation at the hands of Christian rulers, as the word dajn resembled haywanāt dājina meaning "tame animals". Their protected status was enforced by the fueros or local charters which dictated Christians laws. Muslims of other regions outside of the Iberian Peninsula disapproved of the Mudéjar subjugated status and their willingness to live with non-Muslims.

Mudéjar was used in contrast to both Muslims in Muslim-ruled areas (for example, Muslims of Granada before 1492) and Moriscos, who were forcibly converted and may or may not have continued to secretly practice Islam.

The Treaty of Granada (1491) protected religious and cultural freedoms for Muslims in the imminent transition from the Emirate of Granada to a Province of Castile. After the fall of the last Islamic kingdom in the Battle of Granada in January 1492, the Mudéjars, unlike the Jews who were expelled that same year, kept a protected religious status, although there were Catholic efforts to convert them. However, over the next several years, their religious freedom deteriorated and they were increasingly persecuted.

Islam was outlawed in Portugal by 1497, the Crown of Castile by 1502, and the Crown of Aragon by 1526, forcing the Mudéjars to convert or, in some cases, leave the country. Following the forced conversions, they faced suspicions that they were not truly converted but remained crypto-Muslims, and were known as Moriscos. The Moriscos, too, were eventually expelled, in 1609-1614.

Mudéjar social status in Spain

The Muslim population in Castile originally immigrated from Toledo, Seville and other Andalusi territories. They were not original to the land in Castile. Muslim immigration into Castile was sponsored settlement by the Kingdom of Castile. It is hypothesized that the slow-growing Christian population demonstrated a need to bring more people into Castile. Primary documents written by Castilians in the 13th century indicate that Muslims were able to maintain some agency under Christian rule. The Mudéjars were able to maintain their religion, their laws, and had their own judges. The Mudéjars in Castile spoke the same Romance languages and dialects as their Christian neighbors.

Aragon and Catalonia

Like the Mudéjars in Castile, Aragonese and Catalan Mudéjars also spoke the Romance languages of their Christian counterparts. However, unlike the Mudéjars in Castile, there were Muslim villages in Aragon and, to a lesser extent, in south-western Catalonia which populated the land before the Christian reconquests, setting up a history of Muslim cultivation and population of the land. Besides the large Muslim populations in Granada and Valencia, the Aragonese Muslim peasants were the most well-established Muslim community in the region, while in Catalonia Muslim authoctonous presence was limited only to the Low Ebro and Low Segre areas. Aragonese and Catalan Muslims were under the jurisdiction of the Christian Crown and were designated a special status. This status applied to the Mudéjar cultivators, the exarici, and this status made them subservient to their Christian superiors because by law; they were required to cultivate the land of royal estates. However, this status was also beneficial as the law suggested that this land be passed down through Muslim family members. Despite their expulsion at the end of the Morisco period, the Mudéjars in Aragon left evidence of their style in architecture, while in Catalonia only some reminiscences of this can be appreciated in some Gothic churches and cathedrals in some shires of Lleida.

Lleida/Lérida in Catalonia was, besides Tortosa, the only major Catalan town to have a Muslim quarter, at which its numerous Muslim population of Andalusi origins, was organized as a community ( Aljama or Al-Jama'ah), even though there were also Muslims living outside the quarter. Its Muslim population descended from the population that did not leave Madinat Larida when it was taken over from the Moors by the counts of Urgell and Barcelona. The autochthonous Muslim community, largely composed of a mix of skilled artisans, laborers, and peasants, although progressively diminishing throughout the Middle Ages by emigration to the neighbouring Kingdom of Aragon, to the nearby increasingly powerful and numerous Aljamas of Aitona and Serós, and to Islamic countries ( Al-Hijrah) as well as by increasing conversions to Christianity, was nevertheless also being reinforced by immigration of Navarrese and Aragonese Muslims (Mudéjares) and by intermittent arrivals of Valencian, Granadan, and North African origin, these being mostly slaves or former slaves. The quarter and its Aljama or community enjoyed a special status within the social reality of the city, with its own elites: Alfaquins, Cadís and Sabasales ( Al-Fuqaha, Al-Qudat and Ashab As-Salat, that is, Islamic scholars, Islamic Judges and Imams respectively); Escrivans (Scrives); Alamins ( Al-'Amin), or officials that represented the Aljama before the king (in case of the royal Aljamas) or the feudal lords (in case of the rural manor Aljamas), etc. The Morería had its Mosque ( Al-Masjid), its baths ( Al-Hammam), its cemetery ( Al-Maqbara, in the outskirts of the city), its Halal butchery, its market or Assoc ( As-Suq) and its bakery. The Aljama suffered a period of decadence throughout the late Middle Ages, leading to its progressive reduction in numbers and privileges, up to the forced conversions of the late medieval period, and finally its total expulsion from the city during the early modern period.

In the 13th century, the Aragonese Christians conquered Valencia. Unlike in Aragon and in Catalonia, the Mudéjar population in Valencia vastly outnumbered Christians in the area. In Valencia, the majority of communities were peasant, Arabic-speaking and Muslim. Although there was a disparity between Christians and Muslims, it is important to note that a Christian king ruled over Valencia, and not a sultan or an imam and this shaped the experience of Mudéjars in this region. An effect of Christian rule were the outbreaks of rioting against Mudéjars in Valencia. Mudéjar communities were frequently attacked by Christian rioters, despite being protected by the Crown. Violence against Mudéjars in Valencia was common.

References

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Mudéjar (, also , Spanish: , Catalan: mudèjar , Portuguese: ; from Arabic: مدجن‎, mudajjan, 'subjugated; tamed; domesticated') refers to the group of Muslims who remained in Iberia in the late medieval period despite the Christian reconquest. It is also a term for Mudejar art, which was much influenced by Islamic art, but produced typically by Christian craftsmen for Christian patrons.

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Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, Praza do Obradoiro, Santiago de Compostel·la, Espanya

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Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, Praza do Obradoiro, Santiago de Compostel·la, Espanya

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Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, Praza do Obradoiro, Santiago de Compostel·la, Espanya

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The Santiago de Compostela Archcathedral Basilica ( Spanish and Galician: Catedral Basilica de Santiago de Compostela) is part of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Santiago de Compostela and is an integral component of the Santiago de Compostela World Heritage Site in Galicia, Spain. The cathedral is the reputed burial place of Saint James the Great, one of the apostles of Jesus Christ. It is also among the remaining churches in the world built over the tomb of an apostle, the other ones being St Peter's Basilica in Vatican City, St Thomas Cathedral Basilica in Chennai, India and Basilica of St. John in Izmir, Turkey.

The archcathedral basilica has historically been a place of pilgrimage on the Way of St James since the Early Middle Ages and marks the traditional end of the pilgrimage route. The building is a Romanesque structure, with later Gothic and Baroque additions.

According to the legend, the apostle Saint James the Great brought Christianity to the Iberian Peninsula. According to legend, this tomb was rediscovered in AD 814 by Pelagius the Hermit, after he witnessed strange lights in the night sky above the Libredon forest. Bishop Theodomirus of Iria recognized this as a miracle and informed king Alfonso II of Asturias and Galicia (791-842). The king ordered the construction of a chapel on the site. Legend has it that the king was the first pilgrim to this shrine. This was followed by the first church in AD 829 and then in AD 899 by a pre-Romanesque church, ordered by king Alfonso III of León, which caused the gradual development of this major place of pilgrimage.

In 997 the early church was reduced to ashes by Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir (938-1002), army commander of the caliph of Córdoba. St James' tomb and relics were left undisturbed. The gates and the bells, carried by local Christian captives to Córdoba, were added to the Aljama Mosque. When Córdoba was taken by king Ferdinand III of Castile in 1236, these same gates and bells were then transported by Muslim captives to Toledo, to be inserted in the Cathedral of Saint Mary of Toledo.

Construction of the present cathedral began in 1075 under the reign of Alfonso VI of Castile (1040-1109) and the patronage of bishop Diego Peláez. It was built according to the same plan as the monastic brick church of Saint Sernin in Toulouse, probably the greatest Romanesque edifice in France.[according to whom? ] It was built mostly in granite. Construction was halted several times and, according to the Liber Sancti Iacobi, the last stone was laid in 1122. But by then, the construction of the cathedral was certainly not finished. The cathedral was consecrated in 1211 in the presence of king Alfonso IX of Leon.

According to the Codex Calixtinus the architects were "Bernard the elder, a wonderful master", his assistants Robertus Galperinus and, later possibly, "Esteban, master of the cathedral works". In the last stage "Bernard, the younger" was finishing the building, while Galperinus was in charge of the coordination. He also constructed a monumental fountain in front of the north portal in 1122.

The city became an episcopal see in 1075 and the church its cathedral. Due to its growing importance as a place of pilgrimage, it was raised to an archiepiscopal see by pope Urban II in 1100. A university was added in 1495.[citation needed ]

It has been proposed that the peculiar lantern towers of several churches in the Duero valley ( Zamora, Plasencia, Toro, Évora) were inspired by the Romanesque dome of Santiago, substituted by a Gothic one in the 15th century. The cathedral was expanded and embellished with additions in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries.

Each of the façades along with their adjoining squares constitute a large urban square. The Baroque façade of the Praza do Obradoiro square was completed by Fernando de Casas Novoa in 1740. Also in baroque style is the Acibecharía façade by Ferro Caaveiro and Fernández Sarela, later modified by Ventura Rodríguez. The Pratarías façade, built by the Master Esteban in 1103, and most importantly the Pórtico da Gloria, an early work of Romanesque sculpture, were completed by Master Mateo in 1188.

The Obradoiro square in front of the façade alludes to the workshop ( Galician: obradoiro) of stonemasons who worked on the square during the construction of the cathedral. In order to protect the Pórtico da Gloria from deterioration caused by weather, this façade and towers have had several reforms since the 16th century. In the 18th century it was decided to build the current Baroque façade, designed by Fernando de Casas Novoa. It has large glazed windows that illuminate the ancient Romanesque façade, located between the towers of the Bells and of the Ratchet. In the middle of the central body is St. James and one level below his two disciples Athanasius and Theodore, all dressed as pilgrims. In between, the urn (representing the found tomb) and the star (representing the lights Hermit Pelagius saw) between angels and clouds. The tower on the right depicts Mary Salome, mother of St. James, and the tower on the left depicts his father Zebedee. The balustrade on the left side depicts St. Susanna and St. John and the one on the right depicts St. Barbara and James the Less.

A stair allows entrance to the façade. The stair was made in the 17th century by Ginés Martínez and it is of Renaissance style inspired by Giacomo Vignola of Palazzo Farnese. It is diamond-shaped with two ramps that surround the entrance to the old 12th century Romanesque crypt of the Master Mateo, popularly called the "Old Cathedral".

Between the existing plane of the façade of the Obradoiro and the old Romanesque portal (Pórtico da Gloria) there is a covered narthex.

This façade has become a symbol of the cathedral and the city of Santiago de Compostela. As such, it is the engraving on the back of the Spanish euro coins of 1, 2 and 5 cents.

The façade of the Silverware (Pratarías in Galician) is the southern façade of the transept of the cathedral of Santiago de Compostela; it is the only Romanesque façade that is preserved in the cathedral. It was built between 1103 and 1117 and elements from other parts of the cathedral have been added in subsequent years. The square is bound by the cathedral and cloister on two sides. Next to the cathedral is the Casa do Cabido.

It has two entrance doors in degradation with archivolts and historical tympanums. The archivolts are attached over eleven columns, three are of white marble (middle and corners) and the rest of granite. In the center are the figures of twelve prophets and the Apostles on the sideline. On the tympanums is a large frieze separated from the upper body by a strip supported by grotesque corbels; on this floor are two windows decorated with Romanesque archivolts.

In the central frieze is Christ, with various characters and scenes. On the right six figures belong to the Stone choir of Master Mateo that were placed in the late 19th century. The original provision of the iconographic elements was invalidated since in the 18th century numerous images were introduced recovered from the dismantled Acibecharía façade. A central medallion shows the Eternal Father (or Transfiguration) with open hands and on the top surface there are four angels with trumpets heralding the Final Judgment.

In the tympanum of the left door is Christ tempted by a group of demons. To the right is a half-dressed woman with a skull in her hands, which could be Eve or the adulterous woman. This figure is not praying on her knees but is sitting on two lions. The jambs are Saint Andrew and Moses. In the left abutment, the Biblical King David seated on his throne with his legs crossed, translucent through the thin fabric of his clothes, and playing what appears to be a rebec, personifies the triumph over evil and is an outstanding Romanesque work, sculpted by Master Esteban. The creation of Adam and Christ's blessing is also shown. Many of these figures come from the Romanesque façade of the north or do Paraíso (current façade of the Acibecharía) and were placed on this façade in the 18th century.

In the tympanum of the right door there are several scenes from the Passion of Christ and the Adoration of the Magi. In one of the jambs is the inscription commemorating the laying of the stone:

ERA / IC / XVI / V IDUS / JULLII

Registration follows the Roman calendar, according to the computation of the Spanish era, corresponding to July 11, 1078. An image, unidentified, of a fox eating a rabbit and, against this, a badly dressed woman with an animal in her lap. Supported on the wall of the tower Berenguela appear other images representing the creation of Eve, Christ on a throne, and the Binding of Isaac.

The façade "da Acibecharía" (Galician name derived from the jet gemstone) is in the Praza da Inmaculada or Acibecharía, draining the last section of urban roads: French, Primitive, Northern and English through the old gate Franxígena or Paradise door. The Romanesque portal was built in 1122 by Bernardo, treasurer of the temple. This portal was demolished after suffering a fire in 1758; some sculptural pieces that were saved were placed on the façade das Pratarías. The new façade was designed in Baroque style by Lucas Ferro Caaveiro and finished by Domingo Lois Monteagudo and Clemente Fernández Sarela in the neoclassical style in 1769, although it retained some traces of the baroque.

At the top of the façade is an 18th-century statue of St. James, with two kings in prayer at his feet: Alfonso III of Asturias and Ordoño II of León. In the centre is the statue of Faith.

The façade of the cathedral that overlooks the Plaza de la Quintana has two gates: the Porta Real (royal gate) and the Porta Santa (holy gate). The construction of the Porta Real, baroque, was begun under the direction of José de Vega y Verdugo and by José de la Peña de Toro in 1666, and was completed by Domingo de Andrade in 1700, who built some of the columns that span two floors of windows, a balustrade with large pinnacles, and an aedicula with an equestrian statue of Saint James (now disappeared), well adorned with decorative fruit clusters and large-scale military trophies. The kings of Spain entered the cathedral through this door, hence its name, and the royal coat of arms on its lintel.

The holy door (Porta Santa) or Door of Forgiveness (Porta do Perdón) is the closest to the steps. It is usually closed with a fence and opened only in a Jacobean holy year (years when Saint James' Day, 25 July, falls on a Sunday). It was one of the seven lesser gates and was dedicated to St. Pelagius (for whom is named a convent just opposite). On this door niches contain the image of James, with his disciples Athanasius and Theodore at his side. On the bottom and sides of the door were placed twenty-four figures of prophets and apostles (including St. James) coming from the old stone choir of Master Mateo. Inside this door through a small courtyard is the true Holy Door, which enters into the ambulatory of the apse of the church.

The early towers in the main façade of the cathedral were Romanesque (current façade of the Obradoiro). They are called the Torre das Campás, which is situated on the side of the Epistle (right) and Torre da Carraca, to the side of the Gospel (left). The two have a height of between 75 and 80 metres.

The first part of the tower was built in the 12th century, but in the 15th century several modifications were made and King Louis XI of France donated in 1483 the two largest of the thirteen bells.

Due to a tilt that was detected in its structure between the 16th and 17th centuries, the towers had to be reinforced with buttresses, between 1667 and 1670. The towers housing the bells were made by José de la Peña de Toro (1614-1676) in a baroque style, and completed by Domingo de Andrade. The architecture of the towers has a great effect in perspective with its vertical lines and the sequencing of its floors.

It is located to the left of the façade del Obradoiro, and was built - like its partner - on the opposite side of an earlier tower of the Romanesque period. It was designed by Fernando de Casas Novoa in 1738, imitating the bell towers by Peña de Toro and Domingo de Andrade in the 17th century: baroque decorations adorned all kinds of ornamentation that provided a unifying architecture across the façade.

The Clock Tower, also called Torre da Trindade or, Berenguela, is at the intersection of the Pratarías square and the Quintana Square. Traditionally, construction was thought to begin in 1316, at the request of Archbishop Rodrigo del Padrón as a defence tower. After his death his successor, Archbishop Bérenger de Landore, continued work on it, though these dates are questioned by some authors. When he became main master of the cathedral, Domingo de Andrade continued with its construction and between 1676 and 1680 raised it two floors higher; the use of various structures achieved a harmonious and ornamental design, with a pyramid-shaped crown and a lantern as a final element, with four light bulbs permanently lit. It rises to 75 m (246 ft).

In 1833, a clock was placed on each side of the tower by Andrés Antelo, commissioned by the Archbishop Rafael de Vélez. As part of its mechanism it has two bells, one, at the hour, called Berenguela, and a smaller one marking the quarter hours. These two were cast in 1729 by Güemes Sampedro. Berenguela has a diameter of 255 cm (100 in) and a height of 215 cm (85 in), weighing approximately 9,600 kg (21,200 lb), and the smaller weighs 1,839 kg (4,054 lb) with a diameter of 147 cm (58 in) and a height of 150 cm (59 in). Both original bells cracked, forcing their replacement. The current replicas were cast in Asten (Netherlands) by the Eijsbouts house in 1989 and were placed in the cathedral in February 1990.

During a Jacobean Holy Year, pilgrims may enter the cathedral through the holy door (Porta Santa) to gain a plenary indulgence. During a holy year, the lantern of the Berenguela Tower is lit throughout the year. otherwise it stays unlit. The light acts as a lighthouse to guide pilgrims to the cathedral during the holy years.

The cathedral is 97 m (318 ft) long and 22 m (72 ft) high. It preserves its original, barrel-vaulted, cruciform, Romanesque interior. It consists of a nave, two lateral aisles, a wide transept, and a choir with radiating chapels. Compared with many other important churches, the interior of this cathedral gives a first impression of austerity until one enters further and sees the magnificent organ and the exuberance of the choir. It is the largest Romanesque church in Spain and one of the largest in Europe.

The Portico of Glory ("Pórtico da Gloria" in Galician) of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela is a Romanesque portico by Master Mateo and his workshop commissioned by King Ferdinand II of León. To commemorate its completion in 1188, the date was carved on a stone and set in the cathedral, and the lintels were placed on the portico. Finalising the complete three-piece set took until 1211, when the temple was consecrated in the presence of King Alfonso IX of León.

The portico has three round arches that correspond to the three naves of the church, supported by thick piers with pilasters. The central arch, twice as wide as the other two, has a tympanum and is divided by a central column-a mullion-containing a depiction of Saint James. Vertically, the lower part is formed by the bases of the columns, decorated with fantastic animals, the middle portion consists of columns adorned with statues of the Apostles, and the upper part supports the base of the arches crowning the three doors. The sculpture is intended to serve as an iconographic representation of various symbols derived from the Book of Revelation and books of the Old Testament.

Pantokrator's tympanum Pórtico da Gloria

The arrangement of the tympanum is based on the description of Christ that John the Evangelist makes in Revelation ( Chapter 1 v 1 to 18). In the centre, the Pantocrator is shown, with the image of Christ in Majesty, displaying in his hands and feet the wounds of crucifixion. Surrounding Christ is the tetramorph with the figures of the four Evangelists with their attributes: left, top St. John and the eagle and below St. Luke with the ox; on the right above, St. Matthew on the hood of the tax collector and below St. Mark and the lion.

On both sides of the evangelists, behind Mark and Luke, there are four angels on each side with the instruments of the Passion of Christ. Some are, without touching them directly, the cross and crown of thorns (left) and lance and four nails (right), another the column in which he was whipped and the jar through which Pontius Pilate proclaimed his innocence. Above the heads of these angels, two large groups of souls of the blessed, forty in all. In the archivolt of the central tympanum are seated the elders of the Apocalypse, each holding a musical instrument, as if preparing a concert in honor of God.

Mullion with the figure of Santiago

In the mullion, the figure of Saint James is seated with a pilgrim's staff, as a patron of the basilica. St. James appears with a scroll which contains written Misit me Dominus (the Lord sent me). The column just above his head with a capital which represents the temptations of Christ. On three of its sides, facing the inside of the temple, two kneeling angels pray. At the foot of the saint there is another capital with the figures of the Holy Trinity. Under the Apostle there is a representation of the tree of Jesse, the name given to the family tree of Jesus Christ from Jesse, father of King David; this is the first time that this subject is represented in religious iconography in the Iberian Peninsula. The column rests on a base where there is a figure with beard to his chest (perhaps an image of Noah) and two lions. At the foot of the central column at the top inside, looking towards the main altar of the cathedral, there is the kneeling figure of the Master Mateo himself, holding a sign on which is written Architectus. This image is popularly known as Santo dos Croques from the ancient tradition of students hitting their heads against the figure for wisdom, a tradition that was adopted later by pilgrims, although steps are being taken to limit access, to stem deterioration from which the work has suffered.

Apostles of the jambs of the Pórtico da Gloria

In the columns of the central door and two side doors, the apostles are represented, as well as prophets and other figures with their iconographic attributes. All are topped with its own capital which represents different animals and human heads with leaf motifs. The names of all the figures are on the books or scrolls held in their hands.

The four pillars of the portico are based on strong foundations which represent various groups of animals and human heads with beards. For some historians, these figures are images of demons and symbolize the weight of glory (the portico in this case) crushing sin. Other sources give an apocalyptic interpretation, with wars, famine and death (represented by the beasts) with situations that can only be saved by human intelligence (the heads of older men).

The archivolt of the right door is the Last Judgment.

The arch of the right door represents the Last Judgment. The double archivolt is divided into two equal parts by two heads. Some authors identify these heads with the figures of archangel Michael and Christ. For others, they are Christ-Judge and an angel or may indicate God the Father and God the Son. To the right of these heads, Hell is represented with figures of monsters ( demons) that drag and torture the souls of the damned. On the left is Heaven with the elect, with figures of angels with children symbolizing the saved souls.

The arch of the left door depicts scenes from the Old Testament, with the righteous awaiting the arrival of the Savior. In the center of the first archivolt is God the Creator who blesses the pilgrim and holds the Book of Eternal Truth; to his right are Adam (naked), Abraham (with the index raised), and Jacob. With them are two figures that could be Noah (new father of humanity saved through the Flood) and Esau or Isaac and Judah. To the left of God are Eve, Moses, Aaron, King David and Solomon. In the second archivolt, the top, ten small figures represent the twelve tribes of Israel.

The barrel-vaulted nave and the groin-vaulted aisles consist of eleven bays, while the wide transept consists of six bays. Every clustered pier is flanked by semi-columns, three of which carry the cross vaults of the side aisles and the truss of the arched vaults, while the fourth reaches to the spring of the vault. Lit galleries run, at a remarkable height, above the side aisles around the church.

The choir is covered by three bays and surrounded with an ambulatory and five radiating chapels. The vault of the apse is pierced by round windows, forming a clerestory. The choir displays a surprising exuberance in this Romanesque setting. An enormous baldachin, with a sumptuous decorated statue of Saint James from the 13th century, rises above the main altar. The pilgrims can kiss the saint's mantle via a narrow passage behind the altar.

In the choir aisle the lattice work and the vault of the Mondragon chapel (1521) stand out. The radiating chapels constitute a museum of paintings, retables, reliquaries and sculptures, accumulated throughout the centuries. In the Chapel of the Reliquary ( Galician: Capela do Relicario) is a gold crucifix, dated 874, containing an alleged piece of the True Cross.

The crypt, below the main altar, shows the substructure of the 9th-century church. This was the final destination of the pilgrims. The crypt houses the relics of Saint James and two of his disciples: Saint Theodorus and Saint Athanasius. The silver reliquary (by José Losada, 1886) was put in the crypt at the end of the 19th century, after authentication of the relics by Pope Leo XIII in 1884.

Throughout the course of time, the burial place of the saint had been almost forgotten. Because of regular Dutch and English incursions, the relics had been transferred in 1589 from their place under the main altar to a safer place. They were rediscovered in January 1879.

The swinging Botafumeiro dispensing clouds of incense

A dome above the crossing contains the pulley mechanism to swing the " Botafumeiro", which is a famous thurible found in this church. It was created by the goldsmith José Losada in 1851. The Santiago de Compostela Botafumeiro is the largest censer in the world, weighing 80 kg (180 lb) and measuring 1.60 m (5.2 ft) in height. It is normally on exhibition in the library of the cathedral, but during certain important religious holidays it is attached to the pulley mechanism, filled with 40 kg (88 lb) of charcoal and incense. In the Jubilee Years (whenever St James's Day falls on a Sunday) the Botafumeiro is also used in all the Pilgrims' Masses. Eight red-robed tiraboleiros pull the ropes and bring it into a swinging motion almost to the roof of the transept, reaching speeds of 80 km/h (50 mph) and dispensing thick clouds of incense.[citation needed ]

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Álvarez Martínez, Rosario (2002). Music Iconography of Romanesque Sculpture in the Light of Sculptors' Work Procedures: The Jaca Cathedral, Las Platerías in Santiago de Compostela, and San Isidoro de León. pp. 13-45. ISSN 1522-7464.

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Garrido Torres, Carlos (2000). Las Guías visuales de España: Galicia. Depósito legal: B 18469. El País.

Gómez Moreno, María Elena (1947). Mil Joyas del Arte Español, Piezas selectas, Monumentos magistrales: Tomo primero Antigüedad y Edad Media. Barcelona: Instituto Gallach.

Otero Pedrayo, Ramón (1965). Guía de Galicia (4ª ed.). publisher Galaxia. pp. 351ff.

Portela Silva, E. (2003). Historia de la ciudad de Santiago de Compostela. Universidad de Santiago de Compostela. ISBN 8497501373.

Sanmartín, Juan R. (1984). "O Botafumeiro: Parametric pumping in the Middle Ages". American Journal of Physics. 52 (10): 937-945. Bibcode:1984AmJPh..52..937S. doi:10.1119/1.13798.

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Santiago de Compostela Cathedral - Wikipedia

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The Santiago de Compostela Archcathedral Basilica ( Spanish and Galician: Catedral Basilica de Santiago de Compostela) is part of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Santiago de Compostela and is an integral component of the Santiago de Compostela World Heritage Site in Galicia, Spain.

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The Basílica i Temple Expiatori de la Sagrada Família, otherwise known as Sagrada Família, is a church under construction in the Eixample district of Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. It is the largest unfinished Catholic church in the world. Designed by architect Antoni Gaudí (1852-1926), his work on Sagrada Família is part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site. On 7 November 2010, Pope Benedict XVI consecrated the church and proclaimed it a minor basilica.

On 19 March 1882, construction of the Sagrada Família began under architect Francisco de Paula del Villar. In 1883, when Villar resigned, Gaudí took over as chief architect, transforming the project with his architectural and engineering style, combining Gothic and curvilinear Art Nouveau forms. Gaudí devoted the remainder of his life to the project, and he is buried in the church's crypt. At the time of his death in 1926, less than a quarter of the project was complete.

Relying solely on private donations, the Sagrada Família's construction progressed slowly and was interrupted by the Spanish Civil War. In July 1936, anarchists from the FAI set fire to the crypt and broke their way into the workshop, partially destroying Gaudí's original plans. In 1939, Francesc de Paula Quintana took over site management, which was able to go on due to the material that was saved from Gaudí's workshop and that was reconstructed from published plans and photographs. Construction resumed to intermittent progress in the 1950s. Advancements in technologies such as computer-aided design and computerised numerical control (CNC) have since enabled faster progress and construction passed the midpoint in 2010. However, some of the project's greatest challenges remain, including the construction of ten more spires, each symbolising an important Biblical figure in the New Testament. It was anticipated that the building would be completed by 2026, the centenary of Gaudí's death, but this has now been delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Some aspects of it may only be finished by 2040.

Describing the Sagrada Família, art critic Rainer Zerbst said "it is probably impossible to find a church building anything like it in the entire history of art", and Paul Goldberger describes it as "the most extraordinary personal interpretation of Gothic architecture since the Middle Ages". The basilica is not the cathedral church of the Archdiocese of Barcelona, as that title belongs to the Cathedral of the Holy Cross and Saint Eulalia ( Barcelona Cathedral).

The Sagrada Família was inspired by a bookseller, José María Bocabella, founder of Asociación Espiritual de Devotos de San José (Spiritual Association of Devotees of St. Joseph). After a visit to the Vatican in 1872, Bocabella returned from Italy with the intention of building a church inspired by the basilica at Loreto. The apse crypt of the church, funded by donations, was begun 19 March 1882, on the festival of St. Joseph, to the design of the architect Francisco de Paula del Villar, whose plan was for a Gothic revival church of a standard form. The apse crypt was completed before Villar's resignation on 18 March 1883, when Antoni Gaudí assumed responsibility for its design, which he changed radically. Gaudi began work on the church in 1883 but was not appointed Architect Director until 1884.

On the subject of the extremely long construction period, Gaudí is said to have remarked: "My client is not in a hurry." When Gaudí died in 1926, the basilica was between 15 and 25 percent complete. After Gaudí's death, work continued under the direction of his main disciple Domènec Sugrañes i Gras until interrupted by the Spanish Civil War in 1936. Parts of the unfinished basilica and Gaudí's models and workshop were destroyed during the war. The present design is based on reconstructed versions of the plans that were burned in a fire as well as on modern adaptations. Since 1940, the architects Francesc Quintana, Isidre Puig Boada, Lluís Bonet i Garí and Francesc Cardoner have carried on the work. The illumination was designed by Carles Buïgas. The director until 2012 was the son of Lluís Bonet, Jordi Bonet i Armengol. Armengol began introducing computers into the design and construction process in the 1980s.

The central nave vaulting was completed in 2000 and the main tasks since then have been the construction of the transept vaults and apse. In 2002, the Sagrada Família Schools building was relocated from the eastern corner of the site to the southern corner, and began housing an exhibition. The school was originally designed by Gaudí in 1909 for the children of the construction workers.

As of 2006, work concentrated on the crossing and supporting structure for the main steeple of Jesus Christ as well as the southern enclosure of the central nave, which will become the Glory façade. Computer-aided design technology has allowed stone to be shaped off-site by a CNC milling machine, whereas in the 20th century the stone was carved by hand. In 2008, some renowned Catalan architects advocated halting construction to respect Gaudí's original designs, which, although they were not exhaustive and were partially destroyed, have been partially reconstructed in recent years.

Since 2013, AVE high-speed trains have passed near the Sagrada Família through a tunnel that runs beneath the centre of Barcelona. The tunnel's construction, which began on 26 March 2010, was controversial. The Ministry of Public Works of Spain ( Ministerio de Fomento) claimed the project posed no risk to the church. Sagrada Família engineers and architects disagreed, saying there was no guarantee that the tunnel would not affect the stability of the building. The Board of the Sagrada Família ( Patronat de la Sagrada Família) and the neighborhood association AVE pel Litoral (AVE by the Coast) led a campaign against this route for the AVE, without success. In October 2010, the tunnel boring machine reached the church underground under the location of the building's principal façade. Service through the tunnel was inaugurated on 8 January 2013. Track in the tunnel makes use of a system by Edilon Sedra in which the rails are embedded in an elastic material to dampen vibrations.

The main nave was covered and an organ installed in mid-2010, allowing the still-unfinished building to be used for liturgies. The church was consecrated by Pope Benedict XVI on 7 November 2010 in front of a congregation of 6,500people. A further 50,000 people followed the consecration Mass from outside the basilica, where more than 100bishops and 300priests were on hand to distribute Holy Communion.

In 2012, Barcelona-born Jordi Faulí i Oller took over as architect of the project. Mark Burry of New Zealand serves as Executive Architect and Researcher. Sculptures by J. Busquets, Etsuro Sotoo and the controversial Josep Maria Subirachs decorate the fantastical façades.

Chief architect Jordi Faulí announced in October 2015 that construction was 70 percent complete and had entered its final phase of raising six immense steeples. The steeples and most of the church's structure were planned be completed by 2026, the centennial of Gaudí's death; as of a 2017 estimate, decorative elements should be complete by 2030 or 2032. Visitor entrance fees of €15 to €20 finance the annual construction budget of €25million. Completion of the structure will use post-tensioned stone.

Starting on 9 July 2017, an international mass is celebrated at the basilica every Sunday and holy day of obligation, at 9a.m., and is open to the public (until the church is full). Occasionally, Mass is celebrated at other times, where attendance requires an invitation. When masses are scheduled, instructions to obtain an invitation are posted on the basilica's website. In addition, visitors may pray in the chapel of the Blessed Sacrament and Penitence.

The stone initially used in its construction came from the Monserrat mountains. Until recently, the stone began to become more fragile the deeper they quarried, so an alternative source had to be found to complete the construction. In 2018, the stone type needed for the construction was found in a quarry in Brinscall, near Chorley, England.

On 19 April 2011, an arsonist started a small fire in the sacristy which forced the evacuation of tourists and construction workers. The sacristy was damaged, and the fire took 45 minutes to contain.

On 11 March 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain, construction temporarily stopped and the basilica was closed. This was the first time the construction had been halted since the Spanish Civil War. The Gaudí House Museum in Park Güell was also closed. The basilica reopened, initially to key workers, on 4 July 2020.

On 29 November 2021, a 7 m (23 ft) twelve-pointed illuminated crystal star was installed on one of the main towers of the basilica dedicated to the Virgin Mary. There were concerns about plans to build a large stairway leading up to the basilica's main entrance, unfinished at the time, which could require the demolition of three city blocks, the homes to 1,000 people as well as some businesses.

Plan view of the Sagrada Família

Reconstruction of the schools

See the image page for the map's full legend.

The style of the Sagrada Família is variously likened to Spanish Late Gothic, Catalan Modernism or Art Nouveau. While the Sagrada Família falls within the Art Nouveau period, Nikolaus Pevsner points out that, along with Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, Gaudí carried the Art Nouveau style far beyond its usual application as a surface decoration.

While never a cathedral, the Sagrada Família was planned from the outset to be a large building, comparable in size to a cathedral. Its ground-plan has obvious links to earlier Spanish cathedrals such as Burgos Cathedral, León Cathedral and Seville Cathedral. In common with Catalan and many other European Gothic cathedrals, the Sagrada Família is short in comparison to its width, and has a great complexity of parts, which include double aisles, an ambulatory with a chevet of seven apsidal chapels, a multitude of steeples and three portals, each widely different in structure as well as ornament. Where it is common for cathedrals in Spain to be surrounded by numerous chapels and ecclesiastical buildings, the plan of the Sagrada Família has an unusual feature: a covered passage or cloister which forms a rectangle enclosing the church and passing through the narthex of each of its three portals. With this peculiarity aside, the plan, influenced by Villar's crypt, barely hints at the complexity of Gaudí's design or its deviations from traditional church architecture. There are no exact right angles to be seen inside or outside the church, and few straight lines in the design.

Gaudí's original design calls for a total of eighteen spires, representing in ascending order of height the Twelve Apostles, the Virgin Mary, the four Evangelists and, tallest of all, Jesus Christ. Thirteen spires have been built as of 2023, corresponding to four apostles at the Nativity façade and four apostles at the Passion façade, the four Evangelists, and the Virgin Mary.

According to the 2005 "Works Report" of the project's official website, drawings signed by Gaudí and recently found in the Municipal Archives, indicate that the spire of the Virgin was in fact intended by Gaudí to be shorter than those of the evangelists. The spire height will follow Gaudí's intention, which according to the report will work with the existing foundation.

The Evangelists' spires are surmounted by sculptures of their traditional symbols: a winged bull ( Saint Luke), a winged man ( Saint Matthew), an eagle ( Saint John), and a winged lion ( Saint Mark). The central spire of Jesus Christ is to be surmounted by a giant cross; its total height (172.5 metres (566 ft)) will be less than that of Montjuïc hill in Barcelona, as Gaudí believed that his creation should not surpass God's. The lower spires are surmounted by communion hosts with sheaves of wheat and chalices with bunches of grapes, representing the Eucharist. Plans call for tubular bells to be placed within the spires, driven by the force of the wind, and driving sound down into the interior of the church. Gaudí performed acoustic studies to achieve the appropriate acoustic results inside the temple. However, only one bell is currently in place.

The completion of the spires will make Sagrada Família the tallest church building in the world-11 metres taller than the current record-holder, Ulm Minster, which is 161.5 metres (530 ft) at its highest point.

The construction makes use of Post-tensioned stone panels, which are pre-assembled before incorporation into the main structure; using this method has significant structural and operational benefits.

The Church is designed to have three grand façades: the Nativity façade to the East, the Passion façade to the West, and the Glory façade to the South (yet to be completed).

The Nativity Façade was built before work was interrupted in 1935 and bears the most direct Gaudí influence.

The Passion façade was built according to the design that Gaudi created in 1917. The construction began in 1954, and the steeples, built over the elliptical plan, were finished in 1976. It is especially striking for its spare, gaunt, tormented characters, including emaciated figures of Christ being scourged at the pillar; and Christ on the Cross. These controversial designs are the work of Josep Maria Subirachs.

The Glory façade, on which construction began in 2002, will be the largest and most monumental of the three and will represent one's ascension to God. It will also depict various scenes such as Hell, Purgatory, and will include elements such as the seven deadly sins and the seven heavenly virtues.

Nativity Façade

Constructed between 1893 and 1936, the Nativity façade was the first façade to be completed. Dedicated to the birth of Jesus, it is decorated with scenes reminiscent of elements of life. Characteristic of Gaudí's naturalistic style, the sculptures are ornately arranged and decorated with scenes and images from nature, each a symbol in its own manner. For instance, the three porticos are separated by two large columns, and at the base of each lies a turtle or a tortoise (one to represent the land and the other the sea; each are symbols of time as something set in stone and unchangeable). In contrast to the figures of turtles and their symbolism, two chameleons can be found at either side of the façade, and are symbolic of change.

The façade faces the rising sun to the northeast, a symbol for the birth of Christ. It is divided into three porticos, each of which represents a theological virtue (Hope, Faith and Charity). The Tree of Life rises above the door of Jesus in the portico of Charity. Four steeples complete the façade and are each dedicated to a Saint ( Matthias, Barnabas, Jude the Apostle, and Simon the Zealot).

Originally, Gaudí intended for this façade to be polychromed, for each archivolt to be painted with a wide array of colours. He wanted every statue and figure to be painted. In this way the figures of humans would appear as much alive as the figures of plants and animals.

Gaudí chose this façade to embody the structure and decoration of the whole church. He was well aware that he would not finish the church and that he would need to set an artistic and architectural example for others to follow. He also chose for this façade to be the first on which to begin construction and for it to be, in his opinion, the most attractive and accessible to the public. He believed that if he had begun construction with the Passion Façade, one that would be hard and bare (as if made of bones), before the Nativity Façade, people would have withdrawn at the sight of it. Some of the statues were destroyed in 1936 during the Spanish Civil War, and subsequently were reconstructed by the Japanese artist Etsuro Sotoo.

Passion Façade

In contrast to the highly decorated Nativity Façade, the Passion Façade is austere, plain and simple, with ample bare stone, and is carved with harsh straight lines to resemble the bones of a skeleton. Dedicated to the Passion of Christ, the suffering of Jesus during his crucifixion, the façade was intended to portray the sins of man. Construction began in 1954, following the drawings and instructions left by Gaudí for future architects and sculptors. The steeples were completed in 1976, and in 1987 a team of sculptors, headed by Josep Maria Subirachs, began work sculpting the various scenes and details of the façade. They aimed to give a rigid, angular form to provoke a dramatic effect. Gaudí intended for this façade to strike fear into the onlooker. He wanted to "break" arcs and "cut" columns, and to use the effect of chiaroscuro (dark angular shadows contrasted by harsh rigid light) to further show the severity and brutality of Christ's sacrifice.

Facing the setting sun, indicative and symbolic of the death of Christ, the Passion Façade is supported by six large and inclined columns, designed to resemble strained muscles. Above there is a pyramidal pediment, made up of eighteen bone-shaped columns, which culminate in a large cross with a crown of thorns. Each of the four steeples is dedicated to an apostle ( James, Thomas, Philip, and Bartholomew) and, like the Nativity Façade, there are three porticos, each representing the theological virtues, though in a much different light.

The scenes sculpted into the façade may be divided into three levels, which ascend in an S form and reproduce the stations of the cross ( Via Crucis of Christ). The lowest level depicts scenes from Jesus' last night before the crucifixion, including the Last Supper, Kiss of Judas, Ecce homo, and the Sanhedrin trial of Jesus. The middle level portrays the Calvary, or Golgotha, of Christ, and includes The Three Marys, Saint Longinus, Saint Veronica, and a hollow-face illusion of Christ on the Veil of Veronica. In the third and final level the Death, Burial and the Resurrection of Christ can be seen. A bronze figure situated on a bridge creating a link between the steeples of Saint Bartholomew and Saint Thomas represents the Ascension of Jesus.

The façade contains a magic square based on the magic square in the 1514 print Melencolia I. The square is rotated and one number in each row and column is reduced by one so the rows and columns add up to 33 instead of the standard 34 for a 4x4 magic square.

Glory Façade

The largest and most striking of the façades will be the Glory Façade, on which construction began in 2002. It will be the principal façade and will offer access to the central nave. Dedicated to the Celestial Glory of Jesus, it represents the road to God: Death, Final Judgment, and Glory, while Hell is left for those who deviate from God's will. Aware that he would not live long enough to see this façade completed, Gaudí made a model which was demolished in 1936, whose original fragments were used as the basis for the development of the design for the façade. The completion of this façade may require the partial demolition of the block with buildings across the Carrer de Mallorca. The decision should be proposed in May 2023.

To reach the Glory Portico the large staircase will lead over the underground passage built over Carrer de Mallorca with the decoration representing Hell and vice. On other projects Carrer de Mallorca will have to go underground. It will be decorated with demons, idols, false gods, heresy and schisms, etc. Purgatory and death will also be depicted, the latter using tombs along the ground. The portico will have seven large columns dedicated to gifts of the Holy Spirit. At the base of the columns there will be representations of the seven deadly sins, and at the top, the seven heavenly virtues.

Gifts: wisdom, understanding, counsel, fortitude, knowledge, piety and fear of the Lord.

Sins: greed, lust, pride, gluttony, sloth, wrath, envy.

Virtues: kindness, diligence, patience, charity, temperance, humility, chastity.

This façade will have five doors corresponding to the five naves of the temple, with the central one having a triple entrance, that will give the Glory Façade a total seven doors representing the sacraments:

In September 2008, the doors of the Glory façade, by Subirachs, were installed. Inscribed with the words of the Our Father, these central doors are inscribed with the words "Give us our daily bread" in fifty different languages. The handles of the door are the letters "A" and "G" that form the initials of Antoni Gaudí within the phrase "lead us not into temptation".

The church plan is that of a Latin cross with five aisles. The central nave vaults reach forty-five metres (148 feet) while the side nave vaults reach thirty metres (98 feet). The transept has three aisles. The columns are on a 7.5 metres (25 ft) grid. However, the columns of the apse, resting on del Villar's foundation, do not adhere to the grid, requiring a section of columns of the ambulatory to transition to the grid thus creating a horseshoe pattern to the layout of those columns. The crossing rests on the four central columns of porphyry supporting a great hyperboloid surrounded by two rings of twelve hyperboloids (currently under construction). The central vault reaches sixty metres (200 ft). The apse is capped by a hyperboloid vault reaching seventy-five metres (246 ft). Gaudí intended that a visitor standing at the main entrance be able to see the vaults of the nave, crossing, and apse; thus the graduated increase in vault loft.

There are gaps in the floor of the apse, providing a view down into the crypt below.

The columns of the interior are a unique Gaudí design. Besides branching to support their load, their ever-changing surfaces are the result of the intersection of various geometric forms. The simplest example is that of a square base evolving into an octagon as the column rises, then a sixteen-sided form, and eventually to a circle. This effect is the result of a three-dimensional intersection of helicoidal columns (for example a square cross-section column twisting clockwise and a similar one twisting counter-clockwise).

Essentially none of the interior surfaces are flat; the ornamentation is comprehensive and rich, consisting in large part of abstract shapes which combine smooth curves and jagged points. Even detail-level work such as the iron railings for balconies and stairways are full of curvaceous elaboration.

In 2010 an organ was installed in the chancel by the Blancafort Orgueners de Montserrat organ builders. The instrument has 26 stops (1,492 pipes) on two manuals and a pedalboard.

To overcome the unique acoustical challenges posed by the church's architecture and vast size, several additional organs will be installed at various points within the building. These instruments will be playable separately (from their own individual consoles) and simultaneously (from a single mobile console), yielding an organ of some 8,000 pipes when completed.

Alpha and Omega carving at Sagrada Família entrance

The steeples on the Nativity façade are crowned with geometrically shaped tops that are reminiscent of Cubism (they were finished around 1930), and the intricate decoration is contemporary to the style of Art Nouveau, but Gaudí's unique style drew primarily from nature, not other artists or architects, and resists categorization.

Gaudí used hyperboloid structures in later designs of the Sagrada Família (more obviously after 1914). However, there are a few places on the nativity façade-a design not equated with Gaudí's ruled-surface design-where the hyperboloid crops up. For example, all around the scene with the pelican, there are numerous examples (including the basket held by one of the figures). There is a hyperboloid adding structural stability to the cypress tree (by connecting it to the bridge). Finally, the "bishop's mitre" spires are capped with hyperboloid structures. In his later designs, ruled surfaces are prominent in the nave's vaults and windows and the surfaces of the Passion Façade.

Detail of a steeple of the Passion Façade decorated with the word Sanctus

Themes throughout the decoration include words from the liturgy. The steeples are decorated with words such as "Hosanna", "Excelsis", and "Sanctus"; the great doors of the Passion façade reproduce excerpts of the Passion of Jesus from the New Testament in various languages, mainly Catalan; and the Glory façade is to be decorated with the words from the Apostles' Creed, while its main door reproduce the entire Lord's Prayer in Catalan, surrounded by multiple variations of "Give us this day our daily bread" in other languages. The three entrances symbolize the three virtues: Faith, Hope and Love. Each of them is also dedicated to a part of Christ's life. The Nativity Façade is dedicated to his birth; it also has a cypress tree which symbolizes the tree of life. The Glory Façade is dedicated to his glory period. The Passion Façade is symbolic of his suffering. The apse steeple bears Latin text of Hail Mary.

Areas of the sanctuary will be designated to represent various concepts, such as saints, virtues and sins, and secular concepts such as regions, presumably with decoration to match.

The art historian Nikolaus Pevsner, writing in the 1960s, referred to Gaudí's buildings as growing "like sugar loaves and anthills" and describes the ornamenting of buildings with shards of broken pottery as possibly "bad taste" but handled with vitality and "ruthless audacity".

The building's design itself has been polarizing. Assessments by Gaudí's fellow architects were generally positive; Louis Sullivan greatly admired it, describing Sagrada Família as the "greatest piece of creative architecture in the last twenty-five years. It is spirit symbolised in stone!" Walter Gropius praised the Sagrada Família, describing the building's walls as "a marvel of technical perfection". magazine called it "sensual, spiritual, whimsical, exuberant". However, author and critic George Orwell called it "one of the most hideous buildings in the world", author James A. Michener called it "one of the strangest-looking serious buildings in the world" and British historian Gerald Brenan stated about the building "Not even in the European architecture of the period can one discover anything so vulgar or pretentious." The building's distinctive silhouette has nevertheless become symbolic of Barcelona itself, drawing an estimated 3 million visitors annually.

Together with six other Gaudí buildings in Barcelona, part of la Sagrada Família is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, as testifying "to Gaudí's exceptional creative contribution to the development of architecture and building technology", "having represented el Modernisme of Catalonia" and "anticipated and influenced many of the forms and techniques that were relevant to the development of modern construction in the 20th century". The inscription only includes the Crypt and the Nativity Façade.

Visitors can access the Nave, Crypt, Museum, Shop, and the Passion and Nativity steeples. Entrance to either of the steeples requires a reservation and advance purchase of a ticket. Access is possible only by lift (elevator) and a short walk up the remainder of the steeples to the bridge between the steeples. Descent is via a very narrow spiral staircase of over 300 steps. There is a posted caution for those with medical conditions.

As of June 2017, online ticket purchase has been available. As of August 2010, there had been a service whereby visitors could buy an entry code either at Servicaixa ATM kiosks (part of CaixaBank) or online. During the peak season, May to October, reservation delays for entrance of up to a few days are not unusual.

The Archdiocese of Barcelona holds an international mass at the Basilica of the Sagrada Família every Sunday and on holy days of obligation.

Date and time: Every Sunday and on holy days of obligation at 9am.

There is no charge for attending mass but capacity is limited

Visitors are asked to dress appropriately and behave respectfully.

Construction on Sagrada Família is not supported by any government or official church sources. Private patrons funded the initial stages. Money from tickets purchased by tourists is now used to pay for the work, and private donations are accepted through the Friends of the Sagrada Família.

The construction budget for 2009 was €18 million.

In October 2018, Sagrada Família trustees agreed to pay city authorities €36 million for a building permit, after 136 years of unlicensed construction. Most of the funds would be directed to improve the access between the church and the Barcelona Metro. The permit was issued by the city on 7 June 2019.

Faulí, Jordi (2014). La Basílica de la Sagrada Família (in Catalan). P&M. ISBN 978-84-8003-667-2.

Giralt-Miracle, Daniel (2012). Gaudí esencial (in Spanish). Barcelona: La Vanguardia Ediciones S.L. ISBN 978-84-96642-73-7.

Puig i Boada, Isidre (1952). El templo de la Sagrada Familia (in Spanish). Barcelona: Omega.

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The Basílica i Temple Expiatori de la Sagrada Família, otherwise known as Sagrada Família, is a church under construction in the Eixample district of Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. It is the largest unfinished Catholic church in the world. Designed by architect Antoni Gaudí (1852-1926), his work on Sagrada Família is part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

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El Escorial, or the Royal Site of San Lorenzo de El Escorial ( Spanish: Monasterio y Sitio de El Escorial en Madrid), or Monasterio del Escorial (Spanish pronunciation: [eleskoˈɾjal]), is a historical residence of the King of Spain located in the town of San Lorenzo de El Escorial, 2.06 kilometres (1.28 mi) up the valley (4.1 km [2.5 mi] road distance) from the town of El Escorial and about 45 kilometres (28 mi) northwest of the Spanish capital Madrid. Built between 1563 and 1584 by order of King Philip II (who reigned 1556-1598), El Escorial is the largest Renaissance building in the world. It is one of the Spanish royal sites and functions as a monastery, basilica, royal palace, pantheon, library, museum, university, school, and hospital.

El Escorial consists of two architectural complexes of great historical and cultural significance: the royal monastery itself and La Granjilla de La Fresneda, a royal hunting lodge and monastic retreat about five kilometres (3.1 mi) away. These sites have a dual nature: during the 16th and 17th centuries, they were places in which the power of the Spanish monarchy and the ecclesiastical predominance of the Roman Catholic religion in Spain found a common architectural manifestation. El Escorial was both a Spanish royal palace and a monastery, although Philip II is the only monarch who ever lived in the main building. Established with a community of Hieronymite monks, it has become a monastery of the Order of Saint Augustine. It was also a boarding school: the Real Colegio de Alfonso XII.

Philip II engaged the Spanish architect Juan Bautista de Toledo to be his collaborator in the building of the complex at El Escorial. Toledo had spent the greater part of his career in Rome, where he had worked on St. Peter's Basilica, and in Naples serving the king's viceroy, whose recommendation brought him to the king's attention. Philip appointed him architect-royal in 1559, and, together, they designed El Escorial as a monument to Spain's role as a center of the Christian world.

On 2 November 1984, UNESCO declared The Royal Seat of San Lorenzo of El Escorial a World Heritage Site. It is a popular tourist attraction, often visited by daytrippers from Madrid-more than 500,000 visitors come to El Escorial every year.

El Escorial is situated at the foot of Mount Abantos in the Sierra de Guadarrama. This austere location, hardly an obvious choice for the site of a royal palace, was chosen by King Philip II of Spain, and it was he who ordained the building of a grand edifice here to commemorate the 1557 Spanish victory at the Battle of St. Quentin in Picardy against Henry II, king of France. Philip also intended the complex to serve as a necropolis for the interment of the remains of his parents, Charles I and Isabella of Portugal, himself, and his descendants. In addition, Philip envisioned El Escorial as a center for studies in aid of the Counter-Reformation cause.

The building's cornerstone was laid on 23 April 1563. The design and construction were overseen by Juan Bautista de Toledo, who did not live to see the completion of the project. With Toledo's death in 1567, direction passed to his apprentice, Juan de Herrera, under whom the building was completed in 1584, in slightly less than 21 years. To this day, la obra de El Escorial ("the work of El Escorial") is a proverbial expression for a thing that takes a long time to finish.

Since then, El Escorial has been the burial site for most of the Spanish kings of the last five centuries, Bourbons as well as Habsburgs. The Royal Pantheon contains the tombs of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (who ruled Spain as King Charles I), Philip II, Philip III, Philip IV, Charles II, Louis I, Charles III, Charles IV, Ferdinand VII, Isabella II, Alfonso XII, and Alfonso XIII. Two Bourbon kings, Philip V (who reigned from 1700 to 1724 and again from 1724 to 1746) and Ferdinand VI (1746-1759), as well as King Amadeus (1870-1873), are not buried in the monastery.

El Escorial: floor plan, based on the floorplan of Solomon's Temple

The floor plan of the building is in the form of a gridiron. The traditional belief is that this design was chosen in honor of St. Lawrence, who, in the third century AD, was martyred by being roasted to death on a grill. St. Lawrence's feast day is 10 August, the same date as the 1557 Battle of St. Quentin.

However, the origin of the building's layout is quite controversial. The grill-like shape, which did not fully emerge until Herrera eliminated from the original conception the six interior towers of the facade, was, by no means, unique to El Escorial. Other buildings had been constructed with churches or chapels fronting on interior courtyards: King's College, Cambridge, dating from 1441, is one such example; the old Ospedale Maggiore, Milan's first hospital, begun in 1456 by Antonio Filarete, is another grid-like building with interior courtyards. In fact, palaces of this approximate design were commonplace in the Byzantine and Arab world. Strikingly similar to El Escorial is the layout of the Alcázar of Seville and the design of the Alhambra at Granada, where, as at El Escorial, two courtyards in succession separate the main portal of the complex from a fully enclosed place of worship.

The most persuasive theory for the origin of the floor plan is that it is based on descriptions of the Temple of Solomon by the Judeo-Roman historian Flavius Josephus: a portico followed by a courtyard open to the sky, followed by a second portico and a second courtyard, all flanked by arcades and enclosed passageways, leading to the "holy of holies". Statues of David and Solomon on either side of the entrance to the basilica of El Escorial lend further weight to the theory that this is the true origin of the design. A more personal connection can be drawn between the David-warrior figure, representing Charles V, and his son, the stolid and solomonically prudent Philip II. Echoing the same theme, a fresco in the center of El Escorial's library, a reminder of Solomon's legendary wisdom, affirms Philip's preoccupation with the great Jewish king, his thoughtful and logical character, and his extraordinary, monumental temple.

The Temple-of-Solomon design, if indeed it was the basis for El Escorial, was extensively modified to accommodate the additional functions Philip II intended the building to serve. Beside being a monastery, El Escorial is also a pantheon, a basilica, a convent, a school, a library, and a royal palace. All these functional demands resulted in a doubling of the building's size from the time of its original conception.

Built primarily from locally quarried gray granite, square and sparsely ornamented, El Escorial is austere, even forbidding, in its outward appearance, seemingly more like a fortress than a monastery or palace. It takes the form of a gigantic quadrangle, approximately 224 by 153 metres (735 by 502 ft), which encloses a series of intersecting passageways and courtyards. At each of the four corners is a square tower surmounted by a spire, and, near the center of the complex (and taller than the rest), rise the pointed belfries and round dome of the basilica. Philip's instructions to Toledo were simple and clear, directing that the architects should produce "simplicity in the construction, severity in the whole, nobility without arrogance, majesty without ostentation."

Aside from its explicit purposes, the complex is also an enormous storehouse of art. In it are displayed masterworks by Titian, Tintoretto, Benvenuto Cellini, El Greco, Velázquez, Rogier van der Weyden, Paolo Veronese, Bernini, Alonso Cano, José de Ribera, Claudio Coello, and others. Giambattista Castello designed the magnificent main staircase. The library contains thousands of priceless manuscripts: for example, the collection of the sultan Zidan Abu Maali, who ruled Morocco from 1603 to 1627, is housed here.

The main entrance of the El Escorial is the west façade, which has three doors: the middle one leads to the Courtyard of the Kings ( Patio de los Reyes) and the side ones lead to a school and to a monastery. Above the center door is a niche where the image of Saint Lawrence has been placed. The Courtyard of the Kings owes its name to the statues of the Kings of Judah that adorn the façade of the Basílica, located at the east end of the courtyard. Steps of red marble lead to the large, public chapel, past the narthex, with is one of the highlights of the basilica. The basilica has a floor in the shape of a Greek cross and an enormous dome, inspired by St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, above the crossing. The naves are covered over by barrel vaults decorated with frescoes by Luca Giordano. The main altarpiece is 30 metres (98 ft) high and divided into compartments of different sizes where are found bronze sculptures, and canvases painted by Tibaldi, Zuccari, and Leoni. In the sacristy, paintings such as Joseph's Coat by Velázquez, The Last Supper by Titian, and The Adoration of the Sacred Host by Charles II by Claudio Coello are on exhibit.

Under the royal chapel of the Basilica is the Royal Pantheon crypt. This is the place of burial for the kings of Spain. It is an octagonal Baroque mausoleum made of marble where all of the Spanish monarchs since Charles I have been buried, with the exception of Philip V, Ferdinand VI, and Amadeus of Savoy. The remains of Juan de Borbon, father of King Juan Carlos I of Spain, also rest in this pantheon despite the fact that he never became king himself. The enclosure is presided over by an altar of veined marble, and the sarcophagi are bronze and marble. There is also the Pantheon of the Princes, where the bodies of the queens who did not have a crowned succession and the princes and princesses were laid to rest. This part was built in the nineteenth century.

Next to the basilica, to the south, is the Courtyard of the Evangelists. This is a gardened patio in whose center rises a magnificent pavilion, by Juan de Herrera, in which one can find sculptures of the Evangelists. Around the courtyard are the galleries of the main cloister, decorated with frescoes by Pellegrino Tibaldi and his workshop, in which scenes from the history of the Redemption are represented. In the East gallery, one finds the splendid main staircase with a fresco-decorated vaulted ceiling depicting The glory of the Spanish monarchy, painted by Luca Giordano in 1692.

The Palace of the Austrians ( Palacio de los Austrias), also known as the House of the King ( Casa del Rey), is found behind the presbytery of the basilica. The outbuildings of this palace, of Italian style, are distributed around the Courtyard of the Fountainheads ( Patio de los Mascarones). Inside the House of the King are the Sala de las Batallas (Hall of Battles), which contains frescoes of the battles of San Quintín and Higueruela, among others. The next building contains the rooms of Philip II and of the Infanta Isabel Clara Eugenia. Another outbuilding is that of Alcoba del Rey, housing the bed in which Philip II died.

The basilica of San Lorenzo el Real, the central building in the El Escorial complex, was originally designed, like most of the late Gothic cathedrals of Western Europe, to take the form of a Latin cross. As such, it has a long nave on the east-west axis intersected by a shorter transept, about three-quarters of the way between the west entrance and the high altar. This plan was modified by Juan de Herrera to that of a Greek cross, a form with all four arms of equal length. Coincident with this shift in approach, the bell towers at the western end of the church were somewhat reduced in size and the small half-dome intended to stand over the altar was replaced with a full circular dome over the center of the church, where the four arms of the Greek cross meet.

Clearly Juan Bautista de Toledo's experience with the dome of St. Peter's basilica in Rome influenced the design of El Escorial's basilica. However, the Roman dome is supported by ranks of tapered Corinthian columns, with their extravagant capitals of acanthus leaves and their elaborately fluted shafts, while the dome at El Escorial, soaring nearly 100 metres (330 ft) into the air, is supported by four heavy granite piers connected by simple Romanesque arches and decorated by simple Doric pilasters, plain, solid, and largely unprepossessing. It would not be a flight of fancy to interpret St. Peter's as the quintessential expression of Baroque sensuality and the basilica at El Escorial as a statement of the stark rigidity and grim purposefulness of the Inquisition, the two sides of the Counter-Reformation.

The most richly decorated part of the church is the area surrounding the high altar. Behind the altar is a three-tiered , or altar screen, made of red granite and jasper, nearly 28 metres (92 ft) tall, adorned with gilded bronze statuary by Leone Leoni, and three sets of religious paintings commissioned by Philip II. To either side are gilded life-size bronzes of the kneeling family groups of Charles and Philip, also by Leoni, with help from his son Pompeo. In a shallow niche at the center of the lowest level is the tabernacle, a repository for the physical elements of the communion ceremony, a so-called "House of the Sacrament", designed by Juan de Herrera in jasper and bronze. It was built between 1579 and 1586 by Jacopo da Trezzo.

To decorate the reredos, the king's preferences had been Michelangelo or Titian, but both of these giants were already more than eighty years old and in frail health. Consequently, Philip consulted his foreign ambassadors for recommendations, and the result was a lengthy parade of the lesser European artists of that time, all swanning through the construction site at El Escorial seeking the king's favor.

One chapel exhibits the famous Crucifix carved in white marble by Benvenuto Cellini. This statue of Christ is unusual because it was represented fully nude; although for modesty it wears one cloth covering the genitals.

Situated next to the main altar of the Basilica, the residence of King Philip II consists of a series of austerely decorated rooms. It features a window from which the king could observe mass from his bed when incapacitated by the gout that afflicted him.[citation needed ]

The gallery was originally called the King's Gallery (Galería del Rey) but came to be known as the Hall of Battles (Sala de Batallas) for its fresco paintings depicting the most important Spanish military victories. These include a medieval victory over the Moors, as well as several of Philip's campaigns against the French.

Pantheon of the Kings

This chamber consists of twenty-six marble sepulchres containing the remains of the kings and queens regnant (the only queen regnant since Philip II being Isabella II) of the Habsburg and Bourbon dynasties, from Charles I to the present, except for Philip V and Ferdinand VI.

The sepulchres also contain the remains of royal consorts who were parents of monarchs. The only king consort is Francis of Asis de Bourbon, husband of Queen Isabella II and father of Alfonso XII.

The most recent monarch interred in the pantheon is King Alfonso XIII, removed there from the Church of Santa Maria in Monserrato, Rome in 1980. The remains of Alfonso XIII's wife, Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg were interred in the pantheon in 2011.

The remains of Alfonso XIII's third son Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona, and daughter-in-law Princess María de las Mercedes of Bourbon-Two Sicilies (the father and mother of King Juan Carlos I), lie at a prepared place called a pudridero, or decaying chamber, awaiting interment in the Pantheon of the Kings. With the interment of these remains, all the sepulchres in the pantheon will be filled. No decision has yet been announced as to the final resting place of now-abdicated Juan Carlos, Queen Sofía, Felipe VI, Queen Letizia, and any future monarchs and consorts.

There are two pudrideros at El Escorial, one for the Pantheon of the Kings and the other for the Pantheon of the Princes. These can only be visited by monks from the Monastery. In these rooms, the remains of the deceased are placed in a small leaden urn, which in turn will be placed in the marble sepulchres of the appropriate pantheon after the passage of fifty years, the estimated time necessary for the complete decomposition of the bodies.

The interment of the remains of Queen Victoria Eugenie and the Count and Countess of Barcelona in the Royal Pantheon will each constitute an exception to tradition. First, Victoria Eugenie, although the wife of a king, was never the mother of a king in the strict sense. Secondly, the Count of Barcelona never reigned as king, although he was head of the Spanish royal family between the renunciation of his father's rights on 14 January 1941 and his renunciation of his own rights in favour of his son Juan Carlos I on 14 May 1977. Thirdly, the Countess of Barcelona was the mother of a king but not the wife of a king. However, some consider the Count of Barcelona to have been de jure King of Spain from 1941 to 1977, which in turn would make him, his mother, Queen Victoria Eugenie, and his wife, the Countess of Barcelona, eligible for interment in the Pantheon of Kings.

There has already been one exception to tradition: Elisabeth of Bourbon is for the moment the only queen in the pantheon who has not been mother to a king. That is because her only son, the presumed heir to the throne, died after her but before he could become king. But she is the great-grandmother of Philip V (by her daughter Maria Theresa of Spain) and she is an ancestor of the King of Spain.

The walls of polished Toledo marble are ornamented in gold-plated bronze.

All of the wood used in El Escorial comes from the ancient forests of Sagua La Grande, on the so-called Golden Coast of Cuba.

Pantheon of the Princes

The pantheon's name in Spanish is Panteón de Infantes. Completed in 1888, this group of nine burial chapels is the final resting place of princes, princesses, and consorts other than the parents of monarchs. With floors and ceiling of white marble, the tomb of Prince John of Austria is especially notable.

Among the more recent interments is that of Infante Alfonso in October 1992. The younger brother of King Juan Carlos I, he was buried originally in Portugal, after being killed in a still-mysterious 1956 shooting at the family home in Estoril.

In 1994, King Juan Carlos I signed a decree raising his cousin and close personal friend Carlos, Duke of Calabria to the status of a Spanish , making him eligible for interment in the Pantheon of the Princes. Upon his death in October 2015, his funeral was held at El Escorial and his body placed in the pudridero, awaiting future interment in the pantheon.

Thirty-seven of the sixty available niches are filled.

Consists of works of the German, Flemish, Venetian, Lombard, Ligurian and more Italian and Spanish schools from the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries.[citation needed ]

Its eleven rooms showcase the tools, cranes and other materials used in the construction of the edifice, as well as reproductions of blueprints and documents related to the project.[citation needed ]

Constructed at the order of Philip II, a great lover of nature, these constitute an ideal place for repose and meditation. Manuel Azaña, the Socialist who served as the last president of the Second Spanish Republic, studied in the monastery's Augustinian-run school and mentions them in his Memorias (Memoirs) and his play El jardín de los frailes (The Garden of the Friars). Students at the school still use it today to study and pass the time.[citation needed ]

The Escorial has three libraries. One is located behind the Chorus of the basilica. Another, within the monastery itself, used to be distributed to the different cells and rooms of the monks and that the Augustine monks have gradually managed make their own. Finally, the Royal Library, which is public and exists under a special papal bull of protection.

From the beginning, the Royal Library was meant to be a monumental work of art, and its execution was commissioned to prominent architects of the moment: Juan de Toledo and Juan de Herrera, who shared the king's neoplatonic views and who also designed the library's shelves. It constituted, along with the basilica, the heart of the entire project, and the project was redrafted several times to accommodate changes in the organization of the library itself. As was usual for Juan de Herrera's work, it was the most advanced of its kind in Europe. It was the first library on the continent that broke with medieval design. Domenico Fontana was inspired by Herrera's design, after a visit, for his design of the Vatican Library. Philip was involved in every part of the design process of the library.

The Royal Library, like everything else in El Escorial, forms part of a larger symbolic structure and has symbolic meaning. It links the monastery and the seminary across the principal axis of the building, symbolizing the union of the spiritual and physical world. The books on the profane subjects-such as history, geography, and botany-are located in the part closest to the entrance. The library corridors branch out into different sections just to re-converge in the end, and as they advance towards the basilica, the subjects are the more abstract forms-such as poetry, grammar, and mathematics. The subjects closest to the basilica are those the king conceived as being the most abstract distillations of the others, and the closest to the origin, which was God in the Basilica: theology, geometry, and mathematics. The visitor must leave the noisy world behind and walk through the halls of knowledge in a specific, comprehensible order from concreteness to abstraction before being able to reach God and understand His message, a notion quite in line with both Charles I and Philip II's hermeticist view of religion.

During Philip II's reign, the library introduced a novel way of arranging the library's bookcases or "book presses". Until then most book presses were combined with desks and stood at right angles to the library's walls. This system was known as the "stall system" and allowed light from the library's windows to illuminate the shelves. Phillip's library began using a "wall system", placing the bookcases along the walls.

Currently the library has more than 40,000 volumes, located in a great hall 54 metres (177 ft) in length, 9 metres (30 ft) wide, and 10 metres (33 ft) tall, with marble floors and beautifully carved wood shelves. De Herrera and Italian construction engineer Giussep Flecha y Gamboa were careful to consider the security of the library's holdings in armarios (large bookcases), as well as their display, safeguards against fire hazards, and use of available natural lighting. This library was a Renaissance statement of power, majesty, prowess, and intellectual world leadership, designed for both the preservation of the old (binding multiple cultural histories into a single Catholic Spanish culture) and discovery of the new (imprinted by that culture).

The vault of the library's ceiling is decorated with frescoes, painted by Pellegrino Tibaldi, depicting the seven liberal arts: grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. This arrangement of parallel book cases was initiated by Philip II and was called the "wall system".

The fire of 1671, which engulfed the library, destroyed about 5,280 handwritten codices, but the printed collections were saved. The printed collection of the library is made up of more than 600 incunabules, 10,608 books from the 16th century, 2,179 books from the 17th century, and an increasing number of books from the 18th century. The manuscript collection is made up of a few thousands of medieval codices.

Collecting process

Philip II donated his personal collection of documents to the building, and also undertook the acquisition of the finest libraries and works of Western European Humanism. During Phillip's reign, there was an entire room dedicated to ancient manuscripts, most of them in Latin, many in Greek, but also some in Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic, Italian, French, and Spanish. There were approximately 1,800 Arabic titles. The first of those books were acquired in 1571 through Juan Paez de Castro. After that many books were obtained as a "peace price" during the many battles of the Spanish Empire with the Ottoman Empire. As part of his active efforts, in 1571 Philip II bought a large portion of the collection of Gonzalo Pérez, one of his advisors. This meant 57 original Greek, from Sicily, manuscripts, and 112 Latin ones, from Calabria. He also bought 315 original volumes, in Greek and Arabic, from Juan Páez de Castro's personal library. The king charged specific ambassadors with traveling through his Empire and neighboring kingdoms searching and buying the best for El Escorial's library. These ambassadors were coordinated by the head librarian, who had total authority to direct their movements, and who stayed in contact with them through all their travels. Diego Guzmán de Silva was one such ambassador and made one of the most important purchases for the library during his time in Venice: an ancient collection of Greek manuscripts and Latin codices (1569-1577).

An inventory prepared in 1576 counted 4,546 volumes, over 2,000 manuscripts, and 2,500 printed books. That same year the library of Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, the most valuable in Spain at the time, was bought. It included 850 codices and over 1,000 printed volumes. At this point, the size of the library was such that Benito Arias Montano had to be specially hired to organize the books and classify them by language, in addition to subject. In the 1580s the Library acquired some of its most unique pieces. Jorge Beteta donated a manuscript of the Concilios visigóticos (the Visigothic Councils) from the ninth century. Philip acquired several books from the Library of Granada, that belonged to Isabela of Castile, including her Libro the Horas of astonishing visual beauty. Other valuable libraries acquired by Philip were the library of Pedro Fajardo, and of Antonio Agustín, one of the largest in Spain at the time. Not all of those books are still in El Escorial, since many ended up in the Vatican; but around a thousand of them can still be found there. The king actively purchased rare books-often on esoteric, scientific, or theological subjects-from the East. He also collected and preserved over four hundred books prohibited by the Inquisition, which he agreed should not be available for those likely to "misunderstand" them but only to experts. By 1602, the library had a large cartographic collection and over 150 mathematical instruments.

Before his death, Philip II left in his last will a pension for the Escorial Library, to ensure that it would still be able to acquire new volumes.

Philip III continued his father's policy of protection and enrichment of the library, even though he was not theologically inclined. In addition to continuing the search for, and purchase of, especially valuable and old books, he promulgated a new decree, according to which the library of El Escorial ought to receive a copy of every book published inside the Empire. Of course, the orders of continuing to search for books for the library were still in place. Arias Montano donated a large number of original Hebrew manuscripts, and Admiral Luis Fajardo brought back the complete Zaydani library captured during his wars with the Sultan Muley Zidán.

The library reached its peak under Philip IV. In 1671 a great fire destroyed 5280 codices; the main hall, in which the printed books were kept, was saved. Among the most important losses were the Concilios visigóticos and the Historia natural de las Indias ( Natural History of the Indies), a 19-volume encyclopedia on biology and botany by Francisco Hernández de Toledo. After the fire, the priest Antonio de San José spent over 25 years reclassifying and taking inventories of the surviving copies. His list of surviving books counted 45,000. Shortly after, as the Habsburg dynasty came to its end and the Bourbons took the throne after the War of the Spanish Succession, a further loss took place, as the Bourbon kings reversed the trend of acquiring books for the library and instead proceeded to take books to send to France or to their own libraries.

Currently, the library has over 40,000 volumes. The library includes many important illuminated manuscripts, such as the Ottonian Golden Gospels of Henry III (1045-46). The only known copy of the Kitab al-I'tibar, a 12th-century Syrian autobiography, was discovered there in the 19th century.

Following a rule approved by the Council of Trent dealing with the veneration of saints, Philip II donated to the monastery one of the largest reliquaries in all of Catholic Christendom. The collection consists of some 7,500 relics, which are stored in 570 sculpted reliquaries designed by Juan de Herrera, with most being constructed by the artisan Juan de Arfe Villafañe. These reliquaries are found in highly varied forms (heads, arms, pyramidal cases, coffers, etc.) and are distributed throughout the monastery, with the most important being concentrated in the basilica.

In the basilica, the relics are kept within two altarpieces, with the door panels painted by Federico Zuccaro. Within the altarpiece depicting the "Annunciation") are relics of female saints; it's companion includes the relics of male saints.

Juan de Herrera also designed the Casas de Oficios (Official Buildings) opposite the monastery's north façade; and his successor, Francisco de Mora, designed the Casa de la Compaña (Company Quarters).[citation needed ]

1. ^ UNESCO (2008). "The Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial and Natural Surroundings".

2. ^ Mary Crawford Volk; Kubler, George (1 March 1987). "Building the Escorial". The Art Bulletin. The Art Bulletin, Vol. 69, No. 1. 69 (1): 150-153. doi:10.2307/3051093. JSTOR 3051093.

3. ^ Fodor's Review (2008). "Real Monasterio de San Lorenzo de El Escorial".

4. ^ Tenth International Symposium on High Performance Computer Architecture (2004). "El Escorial" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 March 2007.

5. Real Monasterio-Palacio De El Escorial: Estudios Inéditos En Commemoración Del IV Centenario De La Terminación De Las Obras. Madrid: Consejo Superior De Investigaciones Científicas, Centro De Estudios Históricos, Departamento De Arte Diego Velázquez, 1987

6. "El Escorial Library". Archived from the original on 24 July 2011.

7. Fadul, Valeria López. "Juan Páez de Castro and the Project of a Universal Library." ^ Pacific Coast Philology Vol. 52, no. 2 (2017): 173-183.

8. DE SIGÜENZA, F. J., La fundación del Monasterio de El Escorial, 1ª Edición, Madrid: Turner Libros S. A., 1986, pp. 273-305, ^ ISBN 84-7506-178-8

9. DE ANDRÉS, G., Perfil histórico de la Real Biblioteca de El Escorial, en SANTIAGO PAÉZ, E. (coord.), El Escorial en la Biblioteca Nacional. IV Centenario, 1ª Edición, Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura, 1985, pp. 561-565, ^ ISBN 84-505-2529-2.

10. ^ Purtuondo, Maria (2010). "The Study of Nature, Philosophy, and the Royal Library of San Lorenzo of the Escorial". Renaissance Quarterly. 63 (4): 1106-1150. doi:10.1086/658508. S2CID 191268336.

11. ^ Tribe, Shawn. "Some Impressive Monumental Lipsanotheca and Relic Chapels", Liturgical Arts Journal. September 06, 2021

Cable, Mary (1971). El Escorial. New York: Newsweek.

Kamen, Henry (2010). The Escorial: Art and Power in the Renaissance. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.

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El Escorial, or the Royal Site of San Lorenzo de El Escorial ( Spanish: Monasterio y Sitio de El Escorial en Madrid), or Monasterio del Escorial (Spanish pronunciation: [eleskoˈɾjal]), is a historical residence of the King of Spain located in the town of San Lorenzo de El Escorial, 2.06 kilometres (1.28 mi) up the valley (4.1 km [2.5 mi] road distance) from the town of El Escorial and about 45 kilometres (28 mi) northwest of the Spanish capital Madrid.

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Burgos Cathedral, Plaza Santa María, Burgos, Espanya

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Burgos Cathedral, Plaza Santa María, Burgos, Espanya

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Burgos Cathedral, Plaza Santa María, Burgos, Espanya

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The Cathedral of Saint Mary of Burgos ( Spanish: Santa Iglesia Basílica Catedral Metropolitana de Santa María de Burgos) is a Catholic church dedicated to the Virgin Mary located in the historical center of the Spanish city of Burgos. Its official name is Santa Iglesia Catedral Basílica Metropolitana de Santa María de Burgos.

Its construction began in 1221, in the style of French Gothic architecture and is based on a Latin Cross. After a hiatus of almost 200 years, it went through major embellishments of great splendor in the 15th and 16th centuries: the spires of the main facade, the capilla del Condestable, 'Chapel of the Constable' and dome of the transept. These are elements of the flamboyant Gothic which gives the cathedral its unmistakable profile. The last works of importance (the Sacristy or the Chapel of Saint Thecla) were performed in the 18th century, during which the Gothic portals of the main facade were also modified. The style of the cathedral is the Gothic, although it has several decorative Renaissance and Baroque elements as well. The construction and renovations were made with limestone extracted from the quarries of the nearby town of Hontoria de la Cantera.

Many works of extraordinary artists are preserved in the cathedral, bearing testimony to the creative genius of architects and sculptors of the Colonia family ( Juan, Simón and Francisco), the architect Juan de Vallejo, sculptors Gil de Siloé, Felipe Bigarny, Rodrigo de la Haya, Martín de la Haya, Juan de Ancheta and Juan Pascual de Mena, the sculptor and architect Diego de Siloé, the fencer Cristóbal de Andino, the glazier Arnao de Flandes and the painters Alonso de Sedano, Mateo Cerezo, Sebastiano del Piombo or Juan Ricci, among others.

The design of the main facade is related to the purest French Gothic style such as found in the contemporary great cathedrals of Paris and Reims, while the interior elevation refers to Bourges Cathedral. The facade consists of three stories topped by two lateral square bell towers. The spires, showing Germanic influence, were added in the 15th century by Juan de Colonia. The portals of Sarmental and la Coronería were constructed in 13th century Gothic style, while the portal de la Pellejería shows 16th century Plateresques-Renaissance influences.

The cathedral was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO on October 31, 1984. It is the only Spanish cathedral that has this distinction independently, without being joined to the historic center of a city (as in Salamanca, Santiago de Compostela, Ávila, Córdoba, Toledo, Alcalá de Henares or Cuenca) or in union with other buildings, as in Seville. It is similar in design to Brussels Cathedral.[citation needed ]

Burgos became a bishopric in 1075 by the king Alfonso VI of León and Castile "the Brave" on authority of Pope Gregory VII, giving it a canonical continuation with the episcopal tradition of the diocese of Oca, whose prelate was in 589 already recorded as a signatory to the Third Council of Toledo during the reign of the Visigoths.

The monarch dedicated the construction of a cathedral to the Virgin Mary . Its design is not known, but it is supposedly Romanesque and of the type of contemporary works (of the Abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos, of the Monastery of San Pedro de Arlanza of San Martín de Tours de Frómista or the Cathedral of Jaca). There is documentary evidence that the monarch donated the outdoor area of the royal palace that had belonged to his father Ferdinand I of León and a small church dedicated to Saint Mary that was under construction.

In 1096 the construction on this church was finished. But the church soon became too small for the needs of a city that was the symbolic capital of the kingdom, a powerful bishopric (the cathedral chapter had more than thirty canons already before 1200) and an increasingly dynamic business center. The decision to build a new cathedral was finally made in the 13th century. As was common at the time, the Romanesque building was destroyed (of which now only some sculptural elements remain), presumably during the second construction campaign of the new cathedral in the 1240s and the 1250s. And on this site, expanded through the demolition of neighboring houses, with donations by the Bishop Marino, rose a new Gothic cathedral.

1. Portico del Sarmental.

2. Transept, South arm.

3. Door of the upper cloister.

4. Chapel of the Visitation.

5. Chapel of Saint Henry.

6. Chapel of Saint John of Sahagún.

7. Chapel of the Relics.

8. Chapel of the Presentation.

9. Chapel of the Santísimo Cristo de Burgos.

10. Central nave and Papamoscas.

11. Chapel of Saint Thecla.

12. Chapel of Saint Anne or of the Conception.

13. Transept, North arm and Golden staircase.

14. Chapel of Saint Nicholas.

15. Crossing, Dome, Tomb of El Cid and Doña Jimena.

16. Chapel and Altarpiece.

17. Central nave, Choir.

18. Chapel of the Nativity.

19. Chapel of the Annunciation.

20. Chapel of Saint Gregory.

21. Aisles, Ambulatory and Girola.

22. Chapel of the Constable.

23. Sacristy.

24. High cloister.

25. Cloistered chapel of Saint Jerome.

26. Chapel of the Corpus Christi.

27. Chapterhouse.

28. Chapel of Saint Catherine.

29. Chapel of Saint John the Baptist and Saint James.

30. Narthex, Gate of Saint Mary.

31. Gate of the Coronería.

32. Gate of the Pellejería.

33. Low cloister.

The first stone of the new cathedral was laid on June 20, 1221 in the presence of the promoters of the cathedral: the king Ferdinand III of Castile "the Saint" and Bishop Maurice of Burgos, bishop of the Burgalese diocese since 1213. Pope Honorius III granted an indulgence to all contributors to the construction. Presumably, the first master builder was an anonymous French architect - although some researchers posit the name of the canon Johan de Champagne, cited in a document of 1227 -, most likely brought to Burgos by bishop Maurice himself, after his trip to France and Germany to arrange the marriage of the monarch with Elisabeth of Swabia. The bridal ceremony was held precisely in the old Romanesque cathedral.

The cathedral was located just at the point where the slope of the hill, presided over by the Castle of Burgos, begins to rise. The construction was initiated at the front and at the presbytery, where the founding bishop was buried. His remains were later transferred to the center of the chapter choir. By 1240 the so-called Master Enrique became the master-architect of the works. He would also be responsible for the construction of the Cathedral of León and was inspired definitely by the Cathedral of Reims, with whose facade the gable of the Cathedral of Burgos shows great similarities. The work progressed very quickly and in 1238, year of the death of the founder prelate, buried in the presbytery, the front and much of the transept and the naves were already almost completed. The consecration of the cathedral took place in 1260, although ecclesiastical services were already held from 1230.

The chapels of the aisles were completed between the second half of the 13th century and early 14th century and a new cloister was built. Master Enrique died in Burgos in 1277 and was succeeded by Master Juan Pérez. He was succeeded later by Aparicio Pérez, active in 1327, Pedro Sánchez de Molina and Martín Fernández, who died in 1396 and 1418 respectively.

In the 15th century the Colonia family, originally from Cologne, incorporated the open spires of the main facade (between 1442 and 1458), the dome over the transept and the Chapel of the Constables. In the 16th century, besides the modifications to several chapels, highlights the construction of a new dome by Juan de Vallejo ( fl. c. 1518-1569) and Felipe Vigarny , who replaced the original cimborio (a domed crossing tower) constructed by Juan de Colonia (sunk after a hurricane). This cimborio is a pinnacled, two-storey octagonal richly decorated lantern. In the 18th century the construction began of the magnificent Churrigueresque Chapel of Saint Thecla (finished in 1734) (on the site of the original parish church), the Chapel of the Relics and the Sacristy.

One of the most famous bishops of Burgos was the 15th-century scholar and historian Alphonsus a Sancta Maria.

Burgos Cathedral owes its many works of art of the 13th to 18th centuries, especially to the fact that during the 19th and 20th centuries no decisive restorations were taken. [clarification needed ]

Outside the scope of the new cloister only was essential way reformed, after 1800, the chapel of the Santo Cristo or of Our Lady of the Remedies, located in the west of the old cloister. The renovation began with the transfer of the highly revered crucifix of the Holy Christ from the Convento de San Agustín to the chapel, thereafter, was called chapel of the Santo Cristo de Burgos. In the 1890s Vicente Lampérez y Romea, master architect of the cathedral from 1887, undertook an extensive restoration of this chapel, removing the plaster added of the walls and vaults and completely renovated the cover that gives the nave. also date from this restoration the neo-Gothic tracery windows, the blind arcades of the walls and most of the remaining architectural elements.

Between 1899 and 1911 Lampérez also restored the called New cloister, getting essentially recover its original shape. In the cloister it had overbuilt a third level with small Baroque windows that this architect did eliminate, and, incidentally, he opened the original windows of the cloister that had been almost closed. The installation of ornamental windows following models and old techniques, represented the end of the restoration. While the upper body of the cloister hardly experienced any change, the lower cloister was remarkably restored. The forms of its rib, apparently late Gothic, are due to Lampérez. Before the restoration, the lower cloister was divided into several compartments and generally in poor state of conservation. It is likely that during the restoration of the cloister was removed the stairwell that had subsequently been added, situated in the inner southwest corner of the same cloister. Subsequently, the connection between the two levels of the cloister only is established through a wooden staircase beneath the chapel of Saint Jerome.

The most recent restoration of the cathedral, by architect Marcos Rico Santamaría, has replaced the roof by a light steel framing. Regarding the rib star freely suspended in the center tower of the transept, it has laid a glass surface that achieves the complete enlightenment of the fabric of the rib. Regardless of such measures, there have been few the recent attempts to modify the architectural and sculptural substance of the cathedral. On August 12, 1994, a statue of Saint Lawrence came off from the final stretch of the north tower of the main facade, which made public the immediate need to resume the protection and conservation measures of the monument.

Finally, are noteworthy other contemporary interventions, without seeking any modification of the monument, have significantly contributed to the enhancement of the cathedral, as has been the elimination in the early 20th century of some buildings that had been attached to the temple, as the Archbishop's Palace.

Descending the stairs to the Plaza de Santa María, one comes in front of the western facade of the cathedral, inspired by the facade of the cathedrals of Paris and Reims.

The Portal of Saint Mary consists of three pointed arches. The central portal is called the Royal Door, or the Door of Forgiveness.The lateral portals are dedicated to the Assumption and the Immaculate Conception. This portal was built in the 13th century and, with its iconography dedicated to the Virgin, it was considered the most important sculptural manifestation of Gothic art in Castile. The side portals were rebuilt, due to their serious deterioration, in 1663 by Juan de Pobes. In 1790 the central portal was rebuilt in Neoclassical style, with horizontal lintels and a triangular pediment. In the tympanums of the side portals reliefs were placed of the Conception and the Coronation, holding the hand of Juan de Pobes, and in the spandrels, two doubles side arches that shelter the respective statuettes.

The second part of the facade was also erected in the 13th century. It contains in its middle a rosette of Cistercian inspiration, with tracery of a six-pointed star, or of Solomon's seal.

The third part show an elegant gallery marked by spires and several pinnacles, and consists of two large windows with mullions and tracery of three quadrilobed oculi. Under the eight arches that form the mullions of both arches are placed the statues of the first eight kings of Castile from Ferdinand I of León "the Magnus" to Ferdinand III of Castile "the Saint". Above it stands a thin rail-cresting of pointed arches with a statue of the Virgin and Child, accompanied by the inscription Pulchra es et decora ("Thou art fair and beautiful"), alluding to the Mother of Christ. This final addition was made in the mid-15th century by Juan de Colonia.

Above the side doors of the first part were raised two almost identical towers in the 13th century. They consist of three stories, with pilasters decorated with pinnacles and statues at their corners, and with decorated openings pointed on each side of each story: one flared with mullion and tracery with an oculus, covered with stained glasses, in the first; two are arranged in pairs without mullion and without tracery, in the second; and two other are arranged in pairs with mullion and tracery, in the third.

In the middle of the 15th century, Juan de Colonia raised on these towers open pyramidal needles or spires with an octagonal base. Their fine fretwork definitely shaped the silhouette of the Burgos cathedral. He originated from Cologne (as Johan von Köln). His design matches the project of the Cologne Cathedral, which at that time only existed in drawings that he could have seen. The spires of the Cologne cathedral were only added much later. The spires of the Burgos cathedral were raised with the financial contributions of the bishop Alonso de Cartagena and of his successor at headquarters, Luis de Acuña, whose coats of arms, along with the Castilian-Leonese monarchy, appear in the parapets that connect to the tops of the towers. In these parapets master Juan also had the inscription pax vobis and the sculpture of Christ showing the footsteps of his Passion, in one, and the inscription ecce agnus dei and a sculpture of Saint John the Baptist, in the other.

Two polygonal turrets mark the facade, decorated with lobed arches, with statues and pinnacles and topped in pyramidal spires amounting to the start of the spires. Inside are spiral staircases ascending to the clerestory and the vaults of the naves.

Less known as Sacramental Door, this door, opened in the southern transept and looking out to the Plaza del Rey San Fernando, which is accessed saving a steep staircase, was built approximately 1230 and 1240. This is one of the best Classicism Gothic sculptural set of the 13th century in Spain. It is dedicated to the archaic theme of Christ in Majesty, but using an innovative plastic.

The central element and artistically most refined is the tympanum, whose execution is attributed to a French artist referred to as the Master of the Beau Dieu of Amiens. What is certain is the influence of the sculpture of the Cathedral of Amiens in the masterly Burgalese door. In this almost triangular space representing to seated Jesus as Pantocrator showing the Book of the Law and, surrounding him, the Four Evangelists, in its case double way represented: iconically, themselves bent over their desks writing the Gospels, and symbolically, by the Tetramorph. Below, separated by a lintel, appears a full Apostolate in a seated pose, attributed to another French artist known as the Master of the Sarmental. The tympanum is surrounded by three archivolts occupying the 24 elders of the Apocalypse, playing or tuning medieval musical instruments, several choirs of angels and an allegory of the Arts. This iconographic set had to be carved by local sculptors led by the French masters.

The door is divided by a mullion in which it appears, covered by a canopy on which effigy the Lamb, which could also be carved by Master of the Sarmental) representing a bishop; is tradition identify the portrayed as D. Mauricio, although it may well be of D. Asterio or Saint Indaletius, first bishop of Almería, martyr and Christianizator of the province of Burgos. In the side jambs are carved six figures, after the rest of the portal, four of which represent Moses, Aaron, Saint Peter and Paul the Apostle; the other two are not easily identifiable.

Although the portal concentrates all the interest, it can not be ignored the rest of the gable, escorting robust buttresses topped with pinnacles. It's later work, of the late-13th century. Its two upper sections, structured along the lines of the central body of the facade of Saint Mary, are occupied by a rosette and on it a set of open gallery with three arches with soffits openwork with triple quatrefoil and supported by mullions against the looming one statuary interpreted as the Divine Liturgy, which Christ administers the Eucharist flanked by twelve angels cerifers[check spelling ] and thurifers.

Currently, tourist visits access the Cathedral by the Door of the Sarmental.

Facade and Door of the Coronería

In the gable of the north transept, at the height of the calle Fernán González but at a level, several meters higher than the floor of the temple opens the Door of the Coronería, or Door of the Apostles, which from inside the Cathedral communicates with the nave through the Golden Staircase by Diego de Siloé. It is work done between 1250 and 1257 by local artists from the circle of master Enrique, sometimes called the master of the Coronería. Fully Gothic, part of the sculptural themes, however, prolong the Romanesque tradition. In addition, the environment of the door was renovated in the 18th century, in 1786, with a semicircular arch of large voussoirs and of the Baroque style, which replaced a Gothic mullion in which would be represented the figure of God the Father. Shortly undertake the remodeling, the Council decided to close this door by the excessive and annoying traffic of neighbors who descended into the lower part of the city with supplies and utensils. Thus ended another movement of people, this pious, since through the Coronería had access to the Cathedral the pilgrims that followed the Camino de Santiago.

Below and above the jambs, and extending through the surrounding wall, forming friezes, blind respective series of ogival and trefoil pointed arches, that in the lower socket mounted on paired columns with vegetable capitals. This blind gallery of trefoils and columns underlies a complete Apostolate, consisting of statues in the round and almost life-size. Six are shown on each side, attached to the wall, and separated by the jambs.

The three archivolts are garrisoned by reliefs of seraphim on the inside, thurifer angels in the middle, and scenes of the resurrection of the deads on the outside. The tympanum, divided into two parts, representing the Last Judgment. On the lintel justly above the door appears a long scene in relief chaired by Archangel Michael with a scale weighing the souls; around him, to the left, a demon trying to unlevel in their favor the weight of the sins as well as those convicted who are driven to Hell, and, to the right, a little house with the open door representing the entrance to paradise, where are already nobles, a king, a queen, a monk with hood and a Franciscan friar, the blessed. This motif of psicostasis is an iconographic heritage of the Romanesque art. At the top of the tympanum appears another motif common to the Romanesque, the Deesis, with Christ enthroned as universal judge, with arms raised, showing the wounded of the side and flanked by the Virgin and St. John imploring mercy for souls of the poor. At the apex of the tympanum, on a cloud, and angels bearing the insignia of the Passion. The attempts at drama and grimacing expression that show various images of this facade away of the full French classicism and put in relation to a more naturalistic trend of clear Hispanic flavor.

It considers this facade akin to the Judgment of the western facade of the Cathedral of León and the iconographic theme of the cathedrals of Reims and Chartres, although its most obvious reference is the neighbor Door of the Sarmental, whose perfect balance, however, can not achieve.

The facade of the portal of the Coronería extends upwards with a large window of stepped triple bow and on it, needles by respectives marked spires, a gallery of three ogival arches, with mullions and tracery of three quadrilobulates circles. Attached to the mullions are twelve crowned statues alluding to the Castilian royalty and, attached to the spandrels of the arches, thurifer angels. Following seen on the facade of the Sarmental, the gable of the Coronería ends at the top with a handrail formed by arches.

There are numerous architectural, sculptural and pictorial treasures inside. Highlights include:

The Gothic-Plateresque dome, raised by Juan de Colonia in the 15th century.

The Chapel del Constable, of Isabelline Gothic style, which worked the Colonia family, Diego de Siloé and Felipe Bigarny.

The Spanish-Flemish Gothic altarpiece by Gil de Siloé for the Chapel of Saint Anne.

The stalls of the choir Renaissance Plateresque work by Bigarny.

The late Gothic reliefs of the girola by Bigarny.

Numerous Gothic and Renaissance tombs.

The Renaissance Golden staircase built by Diego de Siloé in the early 1520s. It was modelled on the stairway of the Cortile Belvedere by Bramante (in the Vatican).

The Santísimo Cristo de Burgos, image of great devotional tradition.

The tomb of El Cid and his wife Doña Jimena, his letter of Down payment and his chest.

The Papamoscas, articulated statue that opens his mouth to give the chiming of the hours.

Branner R., La Cathédrale de Bourges et sa place dans m'architecture gothique; Paris, 1962

Karge H., Die Kathedrale von Burgos und die spanische Architectur der 13. Jahrhunderts; Französische Hochgotik in Kastilien und Leon; Berlin, 1989

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The Cathedral of Saint Mary of Burgos ( Spanish: Santa Iglesia Basílica Catedral Metropolitana de Santa María de Burgos) is a Catholic church dedicated to the Virgin Mary located in the historical center of the Spanish city of Burgos. Its official name is Santa Iglesia Catedral Basílica Metropolitana de Santa María de Burgos.

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The Alhambra (, Spanish: ; Arabic: الْحَمْرَاء‎, Al-Ḥamrāʾ, pronounced [alħamˈraːʔ], lit. 'The Red One') is a palace and fortress complex located in Granada, Andalusia, Spain. It was originally constructed as a small fortress in 889 CE on the remains of ancient Roman fortifications, and then largely ignored until its ruins were renovated and rebuilt in the mid-13th century by the Arab Nasrid emir Mohammed ben Al-Ahmar of the Emirate of Granada, who built its current palace and walls. It was converted into a royal palace in 1333 by Yusuf I, Sultan of Granada. After the conclusion of the Christian Reconquista in 1492, the site became the Royal Court of Ferdinand and Isabella (where Christopher Columbus received royal endorsement for his expedition), and the palaces were partially altered in the Renaissance style. In 1526, Charles I of Spain commissioned a new Renaissance palace better befitting the Holy Roman Emperor in the revolutionary Mannerist style influenced by humanist philosophy in direct juxtaposition with the Nasrid Andalusian architecture, but it was ultimately never completed due to Morisco rebellions in Granada.

Alhambra's last flowering of Islamic palaces was built for the final Muslim emirs in Spain during the decline of the Nasrid dynasty, who were increasingly subject to the Christian kings of Castile. After being allowed to fall into disrepair for centuries, the buildings occupied by squatters, Alhambra was rediscovered following the defeat of Napoleon I, who had conducted retaliatory destruction of the site. The rediscoverers were first British intellectuals and then other northern European Romantic travelers. It is now one of Spain's major tourist attractions, exhibiting the country's most significant and well-known Islamic architecture, together with 16th-century and later Christian building and garden interventions. The Alhambra is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Moorish poets described it as "a pearl set in emeralds", an allusion to the colour of its buildings and the woods around them. The palace complex was designed with the mountainous site in mind and many forms of technology were considered. The park (Alameda de la Alhambra), which is overgrown with wildflowers and grass in the spring, was planted by the Moors with roses, oranges, and myrtles; its most characteristic feature, however, is the dense wood of English elms brought by the Duke of Wellington in 1812.[citation needed ] The park has a multitude of nightingales and is usually filled with the sound of running water from several fountains and cascades. These are supplied through a conduit 8 km (5.0 mi) long, which is connected with the Darro at the monastery of Jesus del Valle above Granada.

Despite long neglect, willful vandalism, and some ill-judged restoration, the Alhambra endures as an atypical example of Muslim art in its final European stages, relatively uninfluenced by the direct Byzantine influences found in the Mezquita of Córdoba. Most of the palace buildings are quadrangular in plan, with all the rooms opening on to a central court, and the whole reached its present size simply by the gradual addition of new quadrangles, designed on the same principle, though varying in dimensions, and connected with each other by smaller rooms and passages. Alhambra was extended by the different Muslim rulers who lived in the complex. However, each new section that was added followed the consistent theme of "paradise on earth". Column arcades, fountains with running water, and reflecting pools were used to add to the aesthetic and functional complexity. In every case, the exterior was left plain and austere. Sun and wind were freely admitted. Blue, red, and a golden yellow, all somewhat faded through lapse of time and exposure, are the colors chiefly employed. The name Alhambra means the red one or the red castle, which refers to the sun-dried bricks that the outer wall is made of.

The decoration consists for the upper part of the walls, as a rule, of Arabic inscriptions-mostly poems by Ibn Zamrak and others praising the palace-that are manipulated into geometrical patterns with vegetal background set onto an arabesque setting ("Ataurique"). Much of this ornament is carved stucco (plaster) rather than stone. Tile mosaics ("alicatado"), with complicated mathematical patterns ("tracería", most precisely "lacería"), are largely used as panelling for the lower part. Metal was also not present very mainly.[clarification needed ] Similar designs are displayed on wooden ceilings ( Alfarje). Muqarnas are the main elements for vaulting with stucco, and some of the most accomplished dome examples of this kind are in the Court of the Lions halls. The palace complex is designed in the Nasrid style, the last blooming of Islamic Art in the Iberian Peninsula, that had a great influence on the Maghreb to the present day, and on contemporary Mudejar Art, which is characteristic of western elements reinterpreted into Islamic forms and widely popular during the Reconquista in Spain.

Alhambra derives from the Arabic الْحَمْرَاء al-Ḥamrāʼ (f.), meaning "the red one", the complete form of which was الْقَلْعَةُ ٱلْحَمْرَاءُ al-Qalʻat al-Ḥamrāʼ "the red fortress ( qalat)". The "Al-" in "Alhambra" means "the" in Arabic, but this is ignored in general usage in both English and Spanish, where the name is normally given the definite article.

The literal translation of Alhambra, "the red (feminine)", reflects the colour of the red clay of the surroundings of which the fort is made. The buildings of the Alhambra were originally whitewashed; however, the buildings as seen today are reddish. Another possible origin of the name is the tribal designation of the Nasrid Dynasty, known as the Banu al-Ahmar Arabic: Sons of the Red (masculine), a sub-tribe of the Arab Qahtanite Banu Khazraj tribe. One of the early Nasrid ancestors was nicknamed Yusuf Al Ahmar (Yusuf the Red) and hence the (Nasrid) fraction of the Banu Khazraj took up the name of Banu al-Ahmar.

The first reference to the Qal'at al-Ḥamra was during the battles between the Arabs and the Muladies during the rule of the 'Abdullah ibn Muhammad (r. 888-912). According to surviving documents from the era, the red castle was quite small, and its walls were not capable of deterring an army intent on conquering. The first reference to al-Ḥamrāʼ came in lines of poetry attached to an arrow shot over the ramparts, recorded by Ibn Hayyan:

"Deserted and roofless are the houses of our enemies;
Invaded by the autumnal rains, traversed by impetuous winds;
Let them within the red castle (Kalat al hamra) hold their mischievous councils;
Perdition and woe surround them on every side."

The castle was then largely ignored until the eleventh century, when its ruins were renovated and rebuilt by Samuel ibn Naghrela, vizier to the emir Badis ben Habus of the Zirid Dynasty of Al Andalus, in an attempt to preserve the Jewish settlement also located on the natural plateau, Sabikah Hill.

Completed towards the end of Muslim rule of Spain by Yusuf I (1333-1353) and Muhammad V (1353-1391), the Alhambra is a reflection of the culture of the last centuries of the Muslim rule of Al Andalus, reduced to the Nasrid Emirate of Granada. It is a place where artists and intellectuals had taken refuge as the Reconquista by Spanish Christians won victories over Al Andalus. The Alhambra integrates natural site qualities with constructed structures and gardens, and is a testament to Moorish culture in Spain and the skills of Muslim and Jewish artisans, craftsmen, and builders of their era.

Ibn Nasr, the founder of the Nasrid Dynasty, was forced to flee to Jaén to avoid persecution by King Ferdinand III of Castile and the Reconquista supporters working to end Spain's Moorish rule. After retreating to Granada, Ibn-Nasr took up residence at the Palace of Badis ben Habus in the Alhambra. A few months later, he embarked on the construction of a new Alhambra fit for the residence of a sultan. According to an Arabic manuscript since published as the Anónimo de Granada y Copenhague,

This year, 1238 Abdallah ibn al-Ahmar climbed to the place called "the Alhambra" inspected it, laid out the foundations of a castle and left someone in charge of its construction...

The design included plans for six palaces, five of which were grouped in the northeast quadrant forming a royal quarter, two circuit towers, and numerous bathhouses. During the reign of the Nasrid Dynasty, the Alhambra was transformed into a palatine city, complete with an irrigation system composed of acequias for the gardens of the Generalife located outside the fortress. Previously, the old Alhambra structure had been dependent upon rainwater collected from a cistern and from what could be brought up from the Albaicín. The creation of the Sultan's Canal solidified the identity of the Alhambra as a palace-city rather than a defensive and ascetic structure. The hydraulic system includes two long water channels and several sophisticated elevation devices to bring water onto the plateau.

The decoration within the palaces comes from the last great period of Andalusian art in Granada. With little of the Byzantine influence of contemporary Abassid architecture, artists endlessly reproduced the same forms and trends, creating a new style that developed over the course of the Nasrid Dynasty. The Nasrids used freely all the stylistic elements that had been created and developed during eight centuries of Muslim rule in the Peninsula, including the Caliphate horseshoe arch, the Almohad sebka (a grid of rhombuses), the Almoravid palm, and unique combinations of them, as well as innovations such as stilted arches and muqarnas (stalactite ceiling decorations). Structurally, the design is simple and does not evince significant innovation. While artistically pleasing it was until the reconquest structurally ad hoc and reliant on the skills of subject artisans and workers.

Columns and muqarnas appear in several chambers, and the interiors of numerous palaces are decorated with arabesques and calligraphy. The arabesques of the interior are ascribed to, among other sultans, Yusuf I, Mohammed V, and Ismail I, Sultan of Granada. However, the muqarnas in the Lions' Courtyard at Alhambra have different configurations from their original designs, which might have been altered by repairs.

Reconquista and Christian Spanish period

The last Nasrid sultan, Muhammad XII of Granada, surrendered the Emirate of Granada in 1492 without the Alhambra itself being attacked when the forces of the Reyes Católicos, King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile, took the surrounding territory with a force of overwhelming numbers. Muhammad XII moved the remains of his ancestors from the complex, as was verified by Leopoldo Torres Balbás in 1925, when he found seventy empty tombs. The remains are now likely to be located in Mondújar in the principality of Lecrín.

After the Christian conquest of the city in 1492, the conquerors began to alter the Alhambra. The open work was filled up with whitewash, the painting and gilding effaced, and the furniture soiled, torn, or removed. Charles I (1516-1556) rebuilt portions in the Renaissance style of the period and destroyed the greater part of the winter palace to make room for a Renaissance-style structure which was never completed. Philip V (1700-1746) Italianised the rooms and completed his palace in the middle of what had been the Moorish building; he had partitions constructed which blocked up whole apartments.

Over subsequent centuries the Moorish art was further damaged, and in 1812 some of the towers were destroyed by the French under Count Sebastiani. In 1821, an earthquake caused further damage. Restoration work was undertaken in 1828 by the architect José Contreras, endowed in 1830 by Ferdinand VII. After the death of Contreras in 1847, it was continued by his son Rafael (died 1890) and his grandson. Especially notable was the intervention of Leopoldo Torres Balbás in the 1930s: the young architect "opened arcades that had been walled up, re-excavated filled-in pools, replaced missing tiles, completed inscriptions that lacked portions of their stuccoed lettering, and installed a ceiling in the still unfinished palace of Charles V".

According to the site's current architect, Pedro Salmeron Escobar, the Alhambra evolved organically over a period of several centuries from the ancient hilltop fortress defined by a narrow promontory carved by the river Darro and overlooking the Vega or Plain of Granada as it descends from the Sierra Nevada. The red earth from which the fortress is constructed is a granular aggregate held together by a medium of red clay which gives the resulting layered brick- and stone- reinforced construction ( tapial calicastrado) its characteristic hue and is at the root of the name of 'the Red Hill'. This crude earthiness is counterpointed by the startling fine alabaster white stucco work of the famous interiors.

Alhambra is about 740 metres (2,430 ft) in length by 205 metres (670 ft) at its greatest width. It extends from west-northwest to east-southeast and covers an area of about 142,000 square metres (1,530,000 sq ft) or 35 acres. The Alhambra's most westerly feature is the Alcazaba (citadel), a strongly fortified position built to protect the original post-Roman districts of Iliberri, now 'Centro', and Gárnata al-yahūd ('Granada of the Jews', now Realejo, and the Moorish suburb of El Albayzín.

Due to touristic demand, modern access runs contrary to the original sequence which began from a principal access via the Puerta de la Justicia (Gate of Justice) onto a large souq or public market square facing the Alcazaba, now subdivided and obscured by later Christian-era development. From the Puerta del Vino (Wine Gate) ran the Calle Real (Royal Street) dividing the Alhambra along its axial spine into a southern residential quarter, with mosques, hamams (bathhouses) and diverse functional establishments, and a greater northern portion, occupied by several palaces of the nobility with extensive landscaped gardens commanding views over the Albayzin. All of this was subservient to the great Tower of the Ambassadors in the Palacio Comares, which acted as the royal audience chamber and throne room with its three arched windows dominating the city. The private, internalised universe of the Palacio de Los Leones (Palace of the Lions) adjoins the public spaces at right angles (see Plan illustration) but was originally connected only by the function of the Royal Baths, the Eye of Aixa's Room serving as the exquisitely decorated focus of meditation and authority overlooking the refined garden of Lindaraja/Daraxa toward the city.

The rest of the plateau comprises a number of earlier and later Moorish palaces, enclosed by a fortified wall, with thirteen defensive towers, some such as the Torres de la Infanta and Cattiva containing elaborate vertical palaces in miniature. The river Darro passes through a ravine on the north and divides the plateau from the Albaicín district of Granada. Similarly, the Assabica Valley, containing the Alhambra Park, lies on the west and south, and, beyond this valley, the almost parallel ridge of Monte Mauror separates it from the Antequeruela district. Another ravine separates it from the Generalife, the summer pleasure gardens of the emir. Escobar notes that the later planting of deciduous elms obscures the overall perception of the layout, so a better reading of the original landscape is given in winter when the trees are bare.

Access from the city to the Alhambra Park is afforded by the Puerta de las Granadas (Gate of Pomegranates), a triumphal arch dating from the 15th century. A steep ascent leads past the Pillar of Charles V, a fountain erected in 1554, to the main entrance of the Alhambra. This is the Puerta de la Justicia (Gate of Justice), a massive horseshoe archway surmounted by a square tower and used by the Moors as an informal court of justice. The hand of Fatima, with fingers outstretched as a talisman against the evil eye, is carved above this gate on the exterior; a key, the symbol of authority, occupies the corresponding place on the interior. A narrow passage leads inward to the Plaza de los Aljibes (Place of the Cisterns), a broad open space which divides the Alcazaba from the Moorish palace. To the left of the passage rises the Torre del Vino (Wine Tower), built in 1345 and used in the 16th century as a cellar. On the right is the palace of Charles V, a smaller Renaissance building, to construct which part of the Alhambra, including the original main entrance, was torn down.

The Alcazaba or citadel, its oldest part, is built on the isolated and precipitous foreland which terminates the plateau on the northwest. All that remains are its massive outer walls, towers and ramparts. On its watchtower, the 25 m (85 ft) high Torre de la Vela, the flag of Ferdinand and Isabella was first raised as a symbol of the Spanish conquest of Granada on 2 January 1492. A turret containing a large bell was added in the 18th century and restored after being damaged by lightning in 1881. Beyond the Alcazaba is the palace of the Moorish rulers, The Nasrid Palaces or Alhambra proper, and beyond this is the Alhambra Alta (Upper Alhambra), originally occupied by officials and courtiers.

The royal palace complex consists of three main parts: Mexuar, Serallo, and the Harem. The Mexuar is modest in decor and houses the functional areas for conducting business and administration. Strapwork is used to decorate the surfaces in Mexuar. The ceilings, floors, and trim are made of dark wood and are in sharp contrast to white, plaster walls. Serallo, built during the reign of Yusuf I in the 14th century, contains the Patio de los Arrayanes (Court of the Myrtles). Brightly colored interiors featured dado panels, , azulejo, cedar, and artesonado. Artesonado are highly decorative ceilings and other woodwork. Lastly, the Harem is also elaborately decorated and contains the living quarters for the wives and mistresses of the Arab monarchs. This area contains a bathroom with running water (cold and hot), baths, and pressurized water for showering. The bathrooms were open to the elements in order to allow in light and air.

Court of the Myrtles

The Court of the Myrtles was built under Muhammad V of Granada, and with 11 qasā'id by Ibn Zamrak, 8 of which remain. The present entrance to the Palacio Árabe (Arab palace), or Casa Real, is by a small door from which a corridor connects to the Patio de los Arrayanes (Court of the Myrtles), also called the Patio de la Alberca (Court of the Blessing or Court of the Pond), from the Arabic birka, "pool". The birka helped to cool the palace and acted as a symbol of power. Because water was usually in short supply, the technology required to keep these pools full was expensive and difficult. This court is 42 m (140 ft) long by 22 m (74 ft) broad, and in the centre there is a large pond set in the marble pavement, full of goldfish, and with myrtles growing along its sides. There are galleries on the north and south sides; the southern gallery is 7 m (23 ft) high and supported by a marble colonnade. Underneath it, to the right, was the principal entrance, and over it are three windows with arches and miniature pillars. From this court, the walls of the Torre de Comares are seen rising over the roof to the north and reflected in the pond.

Hall of the Ambassadors

The Salón de los Embajadores (Hall of the Ambassadors) is the largest room in the Alhambra and occupies all the Torre de Comares. It is a square room, the sides being 12 m (37 ft) in length, while the centre of the dome is 23 m (75 ft) high. This was the grand reception room, and the throne of the sultan was placed opposite the entrance. The grand hall projects from the walls of the palace, providing views in three directions. In this sense, it was a "mirador" from which the palace's inhabitants could gaze outward to the surrounding landscape. The tiles are nearly 4 ft (1.2 m) high all round, and the colours vary at intervals. Over them is a series of oval medallions with inscriptions, interwoven with flowers and leaves. There are nine windows, three on each facade, and the ceiling is decorated with white, blue and gold inlays in the shape of circles, crowns and stars. The walls are covered with varied stucco works, surrounding many ancient escutcheons.

Court of the Lions

The Court of the Lions ( Patio de los Leones) is an oblong courtyard, 116 ft (35 m) in length by 66 ft (20 m) in width, surrounded by a low gallery supported on 124 white marble columns. A pavilion projects into the court at each extremity, with filigree walls and a light domed roof. The square is paved with coloured tiles and the colonnade with white marble, while the walls are covered 5 ft (1.5 m) up from the ground with blue and yellow tiles, with a border above and below of enamelled blue and gold. The columns supporting the roof and gallery are irregularly placed. They are adorned by varieties of foliage, etc.; about each arch there is a large square of stucco arabesques; and over the pillars is another stucco square of filigree work.

In the centre of the court is the Fountain of the Lions, an alabaster basin supported by the figures of twelve lions in white marble, not designed with sculptural accuracy but as symbols of strength, power, and sovereignty. Each hour one lion would produce water from its mouth. At the edge of the great fountain there is a poem written by Ibn Zamrak. This praises the beauty of the fountain and the power of the lions, but it also describes their ingenious hydraulic systems and how they actually worked, which baffled all those who saw them.

The Sala de los Abencerrajes (Hall of the Abencerrages) derives its name from a legend according to which the father of Boabdil, the last sultan of Granada, having invited the chiefs of that line to a banquet, massacred them here. This room is a perfect square, with a lofty dome and trellised windows at its base. The roof is decorated in blue, brown, red and gold, and the columns supporting it spring out into the arch form in a remarkably beautiful manner. Opposite to this hall is the Sala de las dos Hermanas (Hall of the two Sisters), so-called from two white marble slabs laid as part of the pavement. These slabs measure 500 by 220 cm (15 by 7½ ft). There is a fountain in the middle of this hall, and the roof - a dome honeycombed with tiny cells, all different, and said to number 5000 - is an example of the "stalactite vaulting" of the Moors.

Other features in the palace complex

Among the other features of the Alhambra are the Patio del Mexuar (Court of the Council Chamber), the Patio de Daraxa (Court of the Vestibule), the Peinador de la Reina (Queen's Robing Room), and the Palacio del Partal (Partal Palace), in which there is similar architecture and decoration. The palace and the Upper Alhambra also contain baths, rows of bedrooms and summer-rooms, a whispering gallery and labyrinth, and vaulted sepulchres.

Of the outlying buildings connected to the Alhambra, the foremost in interest is the Palacio de Generalife (the Arabic Jennat al Arif, "Garden of Arif", or "Garden of the Architect"). This villa dates from the beginning of the 14th century but has been restored several times. The Villa de los Martires (Martyrs' Villa), on the summit of Monte Mauror, commemorates by its name the Christian slaves who were forced to build the Alhambra and confined here in subterranean cells.

The Torres Bermejas (Vermilion Towers), also on Monte Mauror, are a well-preserved Moorish fortification, with underground cisterns, stables, and accommodation for a garrison of 200 men. Several Roman tombs were discovered in 1829 and 1857 at the base of Monte Mauror.

Water was provided to both the Alhambra and the Generalife by the Acequia Real (also known as the Acequia del Rey or Acequia del Sultan), which still exists in large part today. It draws water from the Darro River at an uphill location in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada, about 6.1 kilometers east of the Alhambra. A smaller branch known as the Acequia del Tercio also splits off from it several kilometers upstream and proceeded along higher ground before arriving at the top point of the Generalife's palace and gardens. The main branch, proceeding along lower ground, also arrives at the Generalife palace and supplies water to its iconic Patio de la Acequia. Both canals generally ran along the surface but some parts ran through tunnels cut directly into the bedrock. The Silla del Moro ('Seat of the Moor'), a ruined structure today on the hilltop overlooking the Generalife, was once a fort and monitoring post that protected the water supply infrastructure of this area.

After arriving at the Generalife, the canals turn towards the southeast and run past the gardens. They then join together before turning back towards the Alhambra, where the water enters via an arched aqueduct next to the Torre del Agua ('Water Tower') at the Alhambra's eastern tip. From here it is channeled through the citadel via a complex system of conduits ( acequias) and water tanks ( albercones) which create the celebrated interplay of light, sound and surface in the palaces.

The original furniture of the palace is represented by one of the famous Alhambra vases, very large Hispano-Moresque ware vases made in the Sultanate to stand in niches around the palace. These famous examples of Hispano-Moresque ware date from the 14th and 15th centuries. The one remaining in the palace, from about 1400, is 1.3 m (4 ft 3 in) high; the background is white and the decoration is blue, white and gold.

The Alhambra features various styles of the Arabic epigraphy that developed under the Nasrid dynasty, and particularly under Yusuf I and Muhammad V. José Miguel Puerta Vílchez compares the walls of the Alhambra to the pages of a manuscript, drawing similarities between the zilīj-covered dados and the geometric manuscript illuminations, and the epigraphical forms in the palace to calligraphic motifs in contemporary Arabic manuscripts.

The texts of the Alhambra include "devout, regal, votive, and Quranic phrases and sentences," formed into arabesques, carved into wood and marble, and glazed onto tiles. Poets of the Narsid court, including Ibn al-Khatīb and Ibn Zamrak, composed poems for the palace. Most of the poetry is inscribed in Nasrid cursive script, while foliate and floral Kufic inscriptions-often formed into arches, columns, enjambments, and "architectural calligrams"-are generally used as decorative elements. Kufic calligrams, particularly of the words "blessing" (بركة baraka) and "felicity" (يمن yumn), are used as decorative motifs in arabesque throughout the palace.

Parts of the following works are set in the Alhambra:

The plot of the Ballet-héroïque entitled Zaïde, reine de Grenade, by the French Baroque composer Joseph-Nicolas-Pancrace Royer (c. 1705-1755), takes place at the Alhambra. Alhambra has directly inspired musical compositions including Francisco Tárrega's famous tremolo study for guitar Recuerdos de la Alhambra, as well as Claude Debussy's piece for two pianos composed in 1901, Lindaraja, and the prelude, La Puerta del Vino, from the second book of preludes composed from 1912 to 1913. Isaac Albéniz wrote a piano suite Recuerdos de viaje, which included a piece called "En La Alhambra", while his suite contained a piece called "El Albacin". Albéniz also composed an uncompleted Suite Alhambra.

"En los Jardines del Generalife", the first movement of Manuel de Falla's Noches en los Jardines de España, and other pieces by composers such as Ruperto Chapí ( Los Gnomos de la Alhambra, 1891), Tomás Bretón, and many others are included in a stream referred to by scholars as Alhambrismo.

In 1976, filmmaker Christopher Nupen filmed The Song of the Guitar at the Alhambra which was an hour-long program featuring the legendary Spanish guitarist, Andrés Segovia.

British composer Peter Seabourne wrote an extended piano cycle Steps Volume 3: Arabesques (2008-2012) based on shared experiences of the Alhambra with his painter aunt Ann Seabourne, and a movement from his Steps Volume 1 is entitled "El Suspiro del Moro" inspired by the legend of the expulsion of the last Moorish King of Granada. In 2000, Julian Anderson wrote a piece for contemporary chamber ensemble, Alhambra Fantasy.

In pop and folk music, Alhambra is the subject of the Ghymes song of the same name. The rock band Grateful Dead released a song called "Terrapin Station" on the 1977 album of the same name. It consisted of a series of small compositions penned by Robert Hunter and put to music by Jerry Garcia; a lyrical section of this suite was called "Alhambra". In September 2006, Canadian singer/composer Loreena McKennitt performed live at the Alhambra. The resulting video recordings premiered on PBS and were later released as a 3-disc DVD/CD set called Nights from the Alhambra. The Basque pop group Mocedades performed a song called "Juntos En La Alhambra". is the title of an EP recording by Canadian rock band, The Tea Party, containing acoustic versions of a few of their songs. Alhambra and Albaicín are mentioned in the Mägo de Oz song named "El Paseo de los Tristes" from the album entitled Gaia II. On California rapper Dom Kennedy's 2015 album By Dom Kennedy, there is a song entitled "Alhambra".

The Alhambra tiles are remarkable in that they contain nearly all, if not all, of the seventeen mathematically possible wallpaper groups. This is a unique accomplishment in world architecture. M. C. Escher's visit in 1922 and study of the Moorish use of symmetries in the Alhambra tiles inspired his subsequent work on tessellation, which he called "regular divisions of the plane".

Marcel L'Herbier's 1921 film features many scenes shot in and around the Alhambra palace. This was the first time permission had been granted for a feature film company to shoot inside the Alhambra palace and L'Herbier gave prominent place to its gardens, fountains and geometric architectural patterns, which became some of the film's most memorable images.

Animated films by Spanish director Juan Bautista Berasategui such as Ahmed, El Principe de la Alhambra and El Embrujo del Sur are based on stories in Washington Irving's Tales of the Alhambra.

The Alhambra stands in for Baghdad in the 1958 adventure film The 7th Voyage of Sinbad. Interior palace scenes, including in the Tower of Comares, the Court of the Myrtles, and the Court of the Lions, were shot at night so as not to disturb tourists. The Patio de los Aljibes, backed by the Alcazaba-standing in for a prison yard-was filmed by day.

Columbus interview with Queen Isabella in Conquest of Paradise representing Granada after the Reconquest were filmed at Alhambra. As well as the Palace Scenes of Kingdom of Heaven representing Jerusalem during the Crusades. Both films were made by Ridley Scott.

The Court of the Lions was depicted in Assassin's Creed (2016) when Sultan Muhammad XII surrenders the 'Apple of Eden', a powerful artifact in the center of the movie plot, in exchange for his son's safe return. Both the Court of the Lions and Granada's Albaicin are featured on the animated film Tad Jones: The Hero Returns.

The fictional Broadway theatre (the interior actually Auckland, New Zealand's Civic Theatre), in which Kong is displayed as the 'Eighth Wonder of the World' in 2005's , is named "The Alhambra".

2018 South Korean television series Memories of the Alhambra is based in Granada, Spain with the Alhambra palace as the backdrop of an AR game within the series. Many features and stories of the palace were used as clues and characters for the game progression and AR Alhambra was depicted as 'a place of magic' and 'Mecca for Gamers' to establish the Gaming plot in the story.

There is a main belt asteroid named Alhambra.

The Alhambra inspired:

Grabar, Oleg. The Alhambra. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1978.

Lowney, Chris. A Vanished World: Medieval Spain's Golden Age of Enlightenment. New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc., 2005.

Menocal, Maria, Rosa. The Ornament of the World. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 2002.

Read, Jan. The Moors in Spain and Portugal. London: Faber and Faber, 1974.

Ruggles, D. Fairchild. "Alhambra," in Encyclopaedia of Islam, third edition. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2008.

Ruggles, D. Fairchild. Gardens, Landscape, and Vision in the Palaces of Islamic Spain, Philadelphia: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000.

Ruggles, D. Fairchild. Islamic Gardens and Landscapes, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008.

Steves, Rick (2004). Spain and Portugal 2004, pp. 204-205. Avalon Travel Publishing. ISBN 1-56691-529-5.

Stewart, Desmond. The Alhambra. Newsweek Publishing, 1974. ISBN 0-88225-088-4.

The World Heritage. Istanbul and Cordoba, Vol. #15. Film Ideas, 2008. ISBN 1-57557-715-1.

García-Pulido, Luis José (September 2016). "The Mastery in Hydraulic Techniques for Water Supply at the Alhambra". Journal of Islamic Studies. 27 (3): 355-382. doi:10.1093/jis/etw016.

Al-Hassani, Salim T. S.; Woodcock, Elizabeth; Saoud, Rabah (2007). 1001 Inventions: Muslim Heritage in our World (2nd ed.). Manchester, UK: Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation. ISBN 978-0-9552426-1-8.

Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Alhambra, The" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 656-658.

Irwin, Robert (2004). The Alhambra. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Ruggles, D. Fairchild (1992). "The gardens of the Alhambra and the concept of the garden in Islamic Spain". In Jerrilynn Dodds (ed.). Al-Andalus: The Arts of Islamic Spain. New York, NY: Metropolitan Museum. pp. 163-171. ISBN 978-0-87099-636-8.

Salmerón Escobar, Pedro (2007). The Alhambra: Structure and Landscape. La Biblioteca de la Alhambra. Translated by Diana Kelham. ISBN 9788461181230.

Owen Jones; Jules Goury; Pascual de Gayangos (1842), Plans, Elevations, Sections and Details of the Alhambra, two volumes

Owen Jones; Francis Bedford (1856), "Moresque Ornament from the Alhambra", The Grammar of Ornament, Day & Son, pp. 127-143

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The Alhambra (, Spanish: ; Arabic: الْحَمْرَاء‎, Al-Ḥamrāʾ, pronounced [alħamˈraːʔ], lit. 'The Red One') is a palace and fortress complex located in Granada, Andalusia, Spain.

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Historic centre of Córdoba

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The historic centre of Córdoba, Spain is one of the largest of its kind in Europe. In 1984, UNESCO registered the Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba as a World Heritage Site. A decade later, it expanded the inscription to include much of the old town. The historic centre has a wealth of monuments preserving large traces of Roman, Arabic, and Christian times.

First a Carthaginian township, Córdoba was captured by the Romans in 206 BC, soon becoming the capital of Hispania Citerior with fine buildings and imposing fortifications. In the 6th century, with the crumbling of the Roman Empire, the city fell to the Visigoths until the beginning of the 8th century when it was conquered by the Moors. In 716, Córdoba became a provincial capital and, in 766, capital of the Muslim emirate of al-Andalus. By the 10th century, as the Caliphate of Córdoba it had become one of the most advanced cities in the world, recognized for its culture, learning and religious tolerance. It addition to a huge library, the city enclosed over 300 mosques and a multitude of palaces and administrative buildings.

In 1236, King Ferdinand III took the city, built new defences and converted the Grand Mosque into a cathedral. The Christian city grew up around the cathedral with palaces, churches, and a fortress. Although the city lost its political significance under Christian rule, it continued to play an important role in commerce thanks to the nearby Sierra Morena copper mines.

The historic centre as defined by UNESCO comprises the buildings and narrow winding streets around the cathedral. It is bordered on the south by the River Guadalquivir so as to include the Roman Bridge and the Calahorra Tower, on the east by the Calle San Fernando, and on the north by the commercial centre. To the west, it includes the Alcázar and the San Basilio district.

Evidence of the Roman period can be seen in the 16-span bridge over the Guadalquivir, the mosaics in the Alcázar, the columns of the Roman temple, and the remains of the Roman walls. In addition to the Caliphal Baths, the Moorish influence in the city's design is evident in the Alcázar gardens adjacent to the former Grand Mosque. Minarets from the period survive in the churches of Santiago, San Lorenzo, San Juan and the Santa Clara Hermitage. The Jewish presence during Muslim rule can be seen in the La Judería district in which the synagogue was used until 1492.

The Alcázar, originally a Moorish castle, was adapted to serve as a residence for the Christian kings in the 14th century while the Calahorra Tower, built by the Almohads, was comprehensively reworked by King Henry II in 1369. The little Chapel of San Bartolomé was completed in the Gothic-Mudéjar style in 1410. Originally a church, the former San Sebastián Hospital, now the Congress Centre, was completed in 1516 in a combination of Gothic, Mudéjar and Renaissance styles. Other churches from the period include San Nicolás and San Francisco.

There are also a number of important 16th-century buildings including the San Pelagio Seminary, the Puerta del Puente, and the Palacio del Marqués de la Fuensanta del Valle designed by Hernán Ruiz. Also of note is the 18th-century Hospital del Cardenal Salazar with its Baroque facade.

Other historic monuments in the old town include the Episcopal Palace built on the remains of the former Visigoth palace and now the Diocesan Fine Arts Museum, and the Royal Stables built by King Philip II in 1570 as part of the Alcázar.

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The historic centre of Córdoba , Spain is one of the largest of its kind in Europe. In 1984, UNESCO registered the Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba as a World Heritage Site. A decade later, it expanded the inscription to include much of the old town.

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The Aqueduct of Segovia ( Spanish: Acueducto de Segovia; more accurately, the aqueduct bridge) is a Roman aqueduct in Segovia, Spain. It is one of the best-preserved elevated Roman aqueducts and the foremost symbol of Segovia, as evidenced by its presence on the city's coat of arms.

As the aqueduct lacks a legible inscription (one was apparently located in the structure's attic, or top portion[citation needed ]), the date of construction cannot be definitively determined. The general date of the Aqueduct's construction was long a mystery, although it was thought to have been during the 1st century AD, during the reigns of the Emperors Domitian, Nerva, and Trajan. At the end of the 20th century, Géza Alföldy deciphered the text on the dedication plaque by studying the anchors that held the now missing bronze letters in place. He determined that Emperor Domitian (AD 81-96) ordered its construction and the year 98 AD was proposed as the most likely date of completion. However, in 2016 archeological evidence was published which points to a slightly later date, after 112 AD, during the government of Trajan or in the beginning of the government of emperor Hadrian, from 117 AD.

The beginnings of Segovia are also not definitively known. The Arevaci people are known to have populated the area before it was conquered by the Romans. Roman troops sent to control the area stayed behind to settle there. The area fell within the jurisdiction of the Roman provincial court (Latin conventus iuridici, Spanish convento jurídico) located in Clunia.

The aqueduct once transported water from the Rio Frio river, situated in mountains 17 km (11 mi) from the city in the La Acebeda region. It runs 15 km (9.3 mi) before arriving in the city.

The construction of the aqueduct follows the principles laid out by Vitruvius in his De Architectura published in the mid-first century BC.

The water was first gathered in a tank known as El Caserón (or Big House), and was then led through a channel to a second tower known as the Casa de Aguas (or Waterhouse). There it was naturally decanted and sand settled out before the water continued its route. Next the water traveled 728 m (796 yd) on a one-percent grade until it was high upon the Postigo, a rocky outcropping on which sits the walled city center with its Alcázar or castle.

To reach the old city, the water is conveyed by its aqueduct bridge. At Plaza de Díaz Sanz, the structure makes an abrupt turn and heads toward Plaza Azoguejo. It is there the monument begins to display its full splendor. At its tallest, the aqueduct reaches a height of 28.5 m (93 ft 6 in), including nearly 6 m (19 ft 8 in) of foundation. There are both single and double arches supported by pillars. From the point the aqueduct enters the city until it reaches Plaza de Díaz Sanz, it includes 75 single arches and 44 double arches (or 88 arches when counted individually), followed by four single arches, totalling 167 arches in all.

Within the walled city there was a distribution system. The details of this system are not fully known, but it has been established that the water followed a subterranean route, which has recently been marked on the city's pavements.

The first section of the aqueduct contains 36 semi-circular arches, rebuilt in the 15th century to restore a portion destroyed by the Moors in 1072. The line of arches is organized in two levels, decorated simply, in which simple moulds hold the frame and provide support to the structure. On the upper level, the arches are 5.1 metres (16.1 ft) wide. Built in two levels, the top pillars are both shorter and narrower than those on the lower level. The top of the structure contains the channel through which water travels, through a U-shaped hollow measuring 0.55 tall by 0.46 metre diameter. The top of each pillar has a cross-section measuring 1.8 by 2.5 metres (5.9 by 8.2 feet), while the base cross-section measures 2.4 by 3 metres (7.9 by 9.8 feet).

The aqueduct is built of unmortared, brick-like granite blocks. During the Roman era, each of the three tallest arches displayed a sign in bronze letters, indicating the name of its builder along with the date of construction. Today, two niches are still visible, one on each side of the aqueduct. One of them is known to have held the image of Hercules, who, according to legend, was founder of the city. That niche now contains an image of the Virgin. The other one used to hold an image of Saint Stephen, now lost.

The first reconstruction of the aqueduct took place during the reign of the King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, known as Los Reyes Católicos or the Catholic Monarchs. Don Pedro Mesa, the prior of the nearby Jerónimos del Parral monastery, led the project. A total of 36 arches were rebuilt, with great care taken not to change any of the original work or style. Later, in the 16th century, the central niches and above-mentioned statues were placed on the structure. On 4 December, the day of Saint Barbara, who is the patron saint of artillery, the cadets of the local military academy drape the image of the Virgen de la Fuencisla in a flag.

The aqueduct is the city's most important architectural landmark. It had been kept functioning throughout the centuries and preserved in excellent condition. It provided water to Segovia until the mid 19th century. Because of differential decay of stone blocks, water leakage from the upper viaduct, and pollution that caused the granite ashlar masonry to deteriorate and crack, the site was listed in the 2006 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund (WMF). Contrary to popular belief, vibrations caused by traffic that used to pass under the arches did not affect the aqueduct due to its great mass.[citation needed ] WMF Spain brought together the Ministry of Culture, the regional government of Castilla y León, and other local institutions to collaborate in implementing the project, and provided assistance through the global financial services company American Express.

One of the buildings of Segovia's former mint, the Real Casa de Moneda, houses an aqueduct interpretation centre, developed with funding from European Economic Area grants.

There is a connection between the mint and the aqueduct in that coins minted in Segovia used the aqueduct as a mint mark. Another link is that the 16th-century building harnessed water power to drive its machinery, although the water is taken directly from the River Eresma rather than sourced from the aqueduct.

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The Aqueduct of Segovia ( Spanish: Acueducto de Segovia; more accurately, the aqueduct bridge) is a Roman aqueduct in Segovia, Spain. It is one of the best-preserved elevated Roman aqueducts and the foremost symbol of Segovia, as evidenced by its presence on the city's coat of arms. As the aqueduct lacks a legible inscription (one was apparently located in the structure's attic, or top portion[citation needed ]), the date of construction cannot be definitively determined.

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Cave of Altamira and Paleolithic Cave Art of Northern Spain - Wikipedia

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The Cave of Altamira and Paleolithic Cave Art of Northern Spain ( Cueva de Altamira y arte rupestre paleolítico del Norte de España) is a grouping of 18 caves of northern Spain, which together represent the apogee of Upper Paleolithic cave art in Europe between 35,000 and 11,000 years ago ( Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean, Magdalenian, Azilian).

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Park Güell is the reflection of Gaudí's artistic plenitude, which belongs to his naturalist phase (first decade of the 20th century). During this period, the architect perfected his personal style through inspiration from organic shapes. He put into practice a series of new structural solutions rooted in the analysis of geometry. To that, the Catalan artist adds creative liberty and an imaginative, ornamental creation.

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Krzemionki Prehistoric Striped Flint Mining Region

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Krzemionki Prehistoric Striped Flint Mining Region

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Krzemionki Prehistoric Striped Flint Mining Region

Located in the mountain region of Świętokrzyskie, Krzemionki is an ensemble of four mining sites, dating from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age (about 3900 to 1600 BCE), dedicated to the extraction and processing of striped flint, which was mainly used for axe-making. With its underground mining structures, flint workshops and some 4,000 shafts and pits, the property features one of the most comprehensive prehistoric underground flint extraction and processing systems identified to date. The property provides information about life and work in prehistoric settlements and bears witness to an extinct cultural tradition. It is an exceptional testimony of the importance of the prehistoric period and of flint mining for tool production in human history.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Région minière préhistorique de silex rayé de Krzemionki

Situé dans la région des montagnes de Świętokrzyskie, Krzemionki est un ensemble de quatre sites miniers datant du Néolithique et de l'Âge du bronze (environ 3 900 à 1 600 ans AEC) dédiés à l'extraction et à la transformation de silex rayé, qui a principalement servi au façonnage de haches. Avec ses structures minières souterraines, ses ateliers de taille du silex et ses quelque 4 000 puits et fosses, le bien présente l'un des systèmes d'extraction et de traitement du silex souterrain préhistorique le plus complet répertorié à ce jour. Ce bien illustre les modes de vie et de travail des communautés préhistoriques sédentarisées et témoigne d'une tradition culturelle qui a disparu. Il s'agit d'une preuve exceptionnelle que la période préhistorique, avec l'extraction du silex pour produire des outils, a été une étape charnière dans l'histoire de l'humanité.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

منطقة تعدين الصوان التي تعود لفترة ما قبل التاريخ في كرازمنسكي

يوجد هذا الموقع في منطقة جبال سويتوكرزيسكي، ويتكون من أربعة مواقع تعدين يرجع تاريخها إلى العصر الحجري الحديث والعصر البرونزي (أي حوالي 3900 إلى 1600 سنة قبل الميلاد). وتستخدم هذه المناطق في المقام الأول لاستخراج ومعالجة الصوان المخطط، الذي كان يستخدم بشكل رئيسي لصناعة الفؤوس. ويتميز الموقع بفضل هياكل التعدين الموجودة تحت الأرض وورش قطع الصوان وامتلاكه لحوالي 4000 بئر وخندق، بامتلاكه لأحد نظم استخراج الصوان التي يرجع تاريخها إلى عصور ما قبل التاريخ وأكثرها تكاملاً حتى يومنا هذا. ويوضّح الموقع أنماط الحياة والأعمال التي كانت تمارسها المجتمعات في عصور ما قبل التاريخ، ويقف شاهداً على التقاليد الثقافية المندثرة. ويعدّ أيضاً دليلاً فريداً على أن فترة ما قبل التاريخ كانت، بفضل استخراج الصوان واستخدامه في إنتاج الأدوات، مرحلة فارقة في تاريخ البشرية.

source: UNESCO/ERI
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

科舍米翁奇的史前条纹燧石矿区

科舍米翁奇矿区位于圣十字省的山区，由4个采矿点组成。这些采矿点可追溯至新石器时代和青铜时代（公元前3900-1600年），开采和加工的条纹燧石用于石斧制造。该矿区包含地下采矿结构、燧石锻造工坊、4千多口矿井，是迄今发现的最全面的史前地下燧石采集和开发系统之一。该遗产地提供了关于史前人类定居点的生活和工作情况的信息，并见证了已灭绝的文化传统，是史前时期和用于工具生产的燧石开采在人类历史上的重要性的突出见证。

source: UNESCO/ERI
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Кшемёнки, район добычи полосатого кремня

Расположенный в районе Свентокшиских гор, Кшемёнки представляет собой ансамбль из четырех объектов добычи и переработки полосатого кремня эпохи неолита и бронзового века (около 3900 - 1600 гг. до н.э.). В те времена кремень использовался для производства топоров. На территории этого объекта находится около 4000 скважин и карьеров, а также мастерские и подземные шахтные сооружения. Этот культурный объект представляет собой одну из самых комплексных доисторических систем добычи и обработки кремня, дошедших до наших дней. Кшемёнки предоставляет информацию об образе жизни и работе в доисторических поселениях и свидетельствует об исчезнувшей культурной традиции. Это исключительное свидетельство того, что доисторический период извлечения кремня для производства орудий труда был важной вехой в истории человечества.

source: UNESCO/ERI
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Región minera prehistórica del sílex rayado de Krzemionki

Situado en la región montañosa de Świętokrzyskie, el sitio de Krzemionki comprende cuatro minas que datan del Periodo Neolítico y la Edad del Bronce (circa 3900-1600 años a.C.). Dedicadas a la extracción y transformación del sílex rayado para fabricar hachas principalmente, esas minas contaban con estructuras subterráneas e instalaciones para la talla de este mineral, y también con unos 4.000 pozos y fosas. Todos esos elementos hacen de este sitio el complejo prehistórico más completo de minería de fondo del sílex que se ha encontrado hasta la fecha. Este sitio ilustra los modos de vida y de trabajo de las comunidades prehistóricas sedentarizadas y es testimonio de una tradición cultural ya desaparecida. Se trata de una prueba excepcional de que el periodo prehistórico, con la extracción del sílex para fabricar herramientas, fue una etapa fundamental en la historia de la Humanidad.

source: UNESCO/ERI
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

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Krzemionki Prehistoric Striped Flint Mining Region

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Krzemionki Prehistoric Striped Flint Mining Region Located in the mountain region of Świętokrzyskie, Krzemionki is an ensemble of four mining sites, dating from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age (about 3900 to 1600 BCE), dedicated to the extraction and processing of striped flint, which was mainly used for axe-making.

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Tarnowskie Góry Lead-Silver-Zinc Mine and its Underground Water Management System

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Tarnowskie Góry Lead-Silver-Zinc Mine and its Underground Water Management System

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Tarnowskie Góry Lead-Silver-Zinc Mine and its Underground Water Management System

Located in Upper Silesia, in southern Poland, one of the main mining areas of central Europe, the property includes the entire underground mine with adits, shafts, galleries and other features of the water management system. Most of the property is situated underground while the surface mining topography features relics of shafts and waste heaps, as well as the remains of the 19th century steam water pumping station. The elements of the water management system, located underground and on the surface, testify to continuous efforts over three centuries to drain the underground extraction zone and to use undesirable water from the mines to supply towns and industry. Tarnowskie Góry represents a significant contribution to the global production of lead and zinc.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Mine de plomb, argent et zinc de Tarnowskie Góry et son système de gestion hydraulique souterrain

Situé dans le sud de la Pologne, en Haute-Silésie, l'une des principales régions minières d'Europe centrale, le bien comprend la totalité du réseau minier souterrain avec ses tunnels, ses puits et ses galeries d'accès ainsi que d'autres éléments du système de gestion hydraulique. La plus grande partie du bien est située en sous-sol, tandis qu'en surface subsistent des restes de puits et terrils, ainsi que des vestiges de la station de pompage à vapeur du XIXe siècle. Les éléments de ce système hydraulique, situés en sous-sol et en surface, reflètent les efforts continus, pendant trois siècles, pour assécher les sites d'extraction souterrains et pour transformer la présence indésirable de l'eau dans les mines en une opportunité d'approvisionner les villes et les industries. Tarnowskie Góry a apporté une contribution importante à la production mondiale de plomb et de zinc.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Mina de plomo, plata y zinc de Tarnowskie Góry y su sistema subterráneo de gestión hidráulica

Situado al sur de Polonia en la Alta Silesia, una de las principales regiones mineras del país, el sitio comprende una red minera subterránea completa, con sus galerías, pozos y accesos, así como el sistema de gestión hidráulica de la misma. La mayor parte del sitio es subterránea, en tanto que en la superficie subsisten únicamente algunos elementos como una estación de bombeo a vapor del siglo XIX. El sistema hidráulico refleja los esfuerzos continuos realizados a lo largo de tres siglos para desecar los sitios de extracción subterráneos. Así, permitió transformar la presencia dañina de agua en las minas en una oportunidad de abastecimiento hídrico para las ciudades e industrias. Tarnowskie Góry contribuyó de manera significativa a la producción mundial de plomo y zinc.

source: UNESCO/ERI
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Tarnowskie Góry lood-, zilver-, en zinkmijn en haar ondergrondse watermanagementsysteem

Deze werelderfgoedsite bevindt zich in Opper-Silezië, in Zuid-Polen, en is een van de belangrijkste mijngebieden van centraal Europa. De site omvat de totale ondergrondse mijn met de toegang, schachten, gallerijen en het watermanagementsysteem. Het grootste gedeelte van de site bevindt zich ondergronds, terwijl de zichtbare topografie van de mijn aan de oppervlakte de overblijfselen laat zien van het 19e eeuwse stoompompstation. Het station getuigt van de continue pogingen om gedurende drie eeuwen water af te voeren uit de extractieplaats. Het water dat uit de mijn werd gehaald maakte men beschikbaar voor de steden en industrie in de buurt. Tarnowskie Góry droeg significant bij aan de wereldwijde productie van lood en zink.

Source: unesco.nl

Outstanding Universal Value
Brief synthesis
Tarnowskie Góry Lead-Silver-Zinc Mine and its Underground Water Management System is located in the Silesian plateau of southern Poland, in one of Europe's classic metallogenic provinces. It possesses a monumental underground water management system that reflects a 300-year ingenious development of hydraulic engineering.

The mining and water management system was constructed in flat and technically challenging terrain, a gently undulating plateau at an elevation between 270-300 m above sea level; the difference between the highest and lowest points amounts to less than 50 m. This is unusual in that most European metalliferous deposits are located in mountainous terrain, an occurrence that heavily influenced drainage techniques, in particular. The underground system at Tarnowskie Góry experienced up to three times the volume of water inflow compared to other major European metal mines at the time and eventually comprised a water catchment of over 50 km of main drainage tunnels and 150 km of secondary drainage adits, access tunnels, shafts and extraction areas. This surviving network is complemented by substantial remains of the principal water management infrastructure, both above and below ground, together with directly connected surface elements that comprise essential mining landscape features.

The water supply system was planned, integrated and managed as part of a contemporary underground metal mining system, illustrating how, in a surviving and fully accessible mine context, modern steam-pumped water systems were developed using mining technology.

The integrated and symbiotic relationship of mineral extraction, mine dewatering and water supply, creatively developed at an early period under the same ownership, sets Tarnowskie Góry apart as being exceptional.

Criterion (i): Water Management System provides exceptional testimony to outstanding human technical creativity and application. It represents a masterpiece of mid-sixteenth to late-nineteenth century underground hydraulic engineering, its vast underground system representing the peak of European skills in such dewatering technology at a time when mining engineering provided the technical wherewithal for the development of the world's first large-scale public water supply systems based on the steam-powered pumping of groundwater.

Criterion (ii): Water Management System exhibits an exceptional interchange of technology, ideas and expertise in underground mining engineering and public water supply between leading mining and industrial centres in Saxony, Bohemia, Hungary, Britain and Poland. This led to the creation of a viable underground mine drainage network based on gravity free-flow, together with an integrated water pumping system that redistributed potable and industrial water to an entire region. This technical achievement, aided by the special natural attributes of the property, created a hotspot of industrial expertise in Silesia. The system still functions in much the same way as originally designed, supplying drinking water to the inhabitants of Tarnowskie Góry; an operation devised over two hundred years ago but which would be considered sustainable if conceived today.

Criterion (iv): Water Management System is an enduring technical ensemble of metal mining and water management, distinguished by a significant output of lead and zinc that sustained international metallurgical and architectural demands of the time, and a water system that ultimately drained the mine by gravity and met the needs of the most industrialized and urbanized region in Poland, and amongst the largest in Europe.
Integrity
The overall size of the property provides a complete representation of all the significant surviving attributes of the mine and its water management system, supporting historical and geographical-spatial integrity as well as structural and functional integrity. The majority of the site is underground, and the small number of discrete areas delineated at surface is directly linked to it in the third dimension.
Authenticity
The cultural value of the property is reliably and credibly expressed through: form and design of mine and water management features, both below and above ground; materials and workmanship manifested by original and intact physical and structural remains; and use and function fully understood through exceptional archives held in Poland, together with a gravity drainage and water pumping facility that continues in operation today. The property's location, and setting, is still pervaded by highly authentic and characteristic mining features in the landscape.
Protection and management requirements
The State Party has designated the property for which the preservation is in the public interest and which it protects through various forms of legal protection. The World Heritage Centre of The National Heritage Board of Poland cooperates directly with the Management Board of the stakeholder partnership that is responsible for the protection and management of the nominated site at the local level. A Conservation Management Plan is being developed that will further guide protection, conservation and presentation of the attributes that carry Outstanding Universal Value. Continuation of scientific research, documentation and survey is key to sustain the understanding and conservation of the Water Management System, its values and attributes.

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Tarnowskie Góry Lead-Silver-Zinc Mine and its Underground Water Management System

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Tarnowskie Góry Lead-Silver-Zinc Mine and its Underground Water Management System Located in Upper Silesia, in southern Poland, one of the main mining areas of central Europe, the property includes the entire underground mine with adits, shafts, galleries and other features of the water management system.

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Wooden Tserkvas of the Carpathian Region in Poland and Ukraine

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Wooden Tserkvas of the Carpathian Region in Poland and Ukraine

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Wooden Tserkvas of the Carpathian Region in Poland and Ukraine

Situated in the eastern fringe of Central Europe, the transnational property numbers a selection of sixteen tserkvas (churches). They were built of horizontal wooden logs between the 16 th and 19 th centuries by communities of Orthodox and Greek Catholic faiths. The tserkvas bear testimony to a distinct building tradition rooted in Orthodox ecclesiastic design interwoven with elements of local tradition, and symbolic references to their communities' cosmogony. The tserkva s are built on a tri-partite plan surmounted by open quadrilateral or octagonal domes and cupolas. Integral to are iconostasis screens, interior polychrome decorations, and other historic furnishings. Important elements of some tserkvas include wooden bell towers, churchyards, gatehouses and graveyards.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Tserkvas en bois de la région des Carpates en Pologne et en Ukraine

Situé aux confins orientaux de l'Europe centrale, ce bien transnational se compose d'une sélection de 16 tserkvas (églises). Elles ont été construites en rondins de bois disposés horizontalement entre le XVIe et le XIXe siècle par des communautés de confessions orthodoxe et grecque-catholique. Les tsverkvas témoignent d'une tradition de construction distincte ancrée dans la tradition ecclésiastique de l'Eglise orthodoxe imbriquées avec des éléments de la tradition locale et des références symboliques à la cosmogonie de leurs communautés. Les tserkvas sont construites sur un plan en trois parties surmontées de coupoles et de dômes ouverts sur un espace quadrilatère ou octogonal. Elles se caractérisent également par la présence d'iconostase, de décoration intérieure polychrome ainsi que d'autres éléments de mobilier historique. Certaines comportaient également des clochers en bois, des enclos paroissiaux, des loges et des cimetières.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Tserkvas de madera de la región de los Cárpatos en Polonia y Ucrania

source: UNESCO/ERI
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

ポーランド、ウクライナのカルパチア地方の木造教会

伝統的な木造工法で建てられた教会群。ポーランドとウクライナにまたがるカルパチア山脈周辺に点在する、１６棟の木造教会。16～19世紀に東方正教会とギリシャ・カトリックのコミュニティによって建設された。木材を水平に組み上げたログ構法で、外壁と屋根は木製シングル葺きである。内部は3室の単廊式平面で、天井は四角形や八角形のドームからなっており、木製の内陣仕切りや壁画が特徴的である。東方正教会の教会建築に地域の文化を織り交ぜた、伝統的な木造建築の傑出した事例である。

source: NFUAJ

Houten tserkvas van de Karpaten in Polen en Oekraïne

Dit transnationale werelderfgoed bevindt zich aan de oostelijke rand van Oost-Europa en bestaat uit 16 tserkvas: kerken gemaakt van horizontale houten stammen, gebouwd door oosters-orthodoxe en Grieks-katholieke gemeenschappen tussen de 16e en 19e eeuw. De kerken vormen de culturele expressie van vier etnografische groepen en hun vormelijke, technische en decoratieve kenmerken. De tserkvas zijn gebaseerd op een driedelig vloerontwerp met daarboven open vier- of achthoekige koepels. Ze zijn voorzien van houten klokkentorens, iconen dragende schermen, polychrome interieurdecoraties, kerkhoven, begraafplaatsen en poorthuizen. De houten kerken getuigen van een onderscheidende bouwtraditie geworteld in de orthodoxe kerkelijke architectuur, verweven met lokale elementen en symbolische verwijzingen naar hun kosmogonie.

Source: unesco.nl

Outstanding Universal Value
Brief synthesis
Located at the eastern fringes of Central Europe within the Polish and Ukrainian Carpathian mountain range, the sixteen wooden tserkvas (churches) are outstanding examples of the once widespread Orthodox ecclesiastical timber-building tradition in the Slavic countries that survives to this day. The architectural forms of the tserkvas with tri-partite plans, pyramidal domes, cupolas and bell towers conform to the requirements of Eastern liturgy while reflecting the cultural traditions of the local communities that developed separately due to the mountainous terrain. They include Hutsul types in the Ukrainian south-eastern Carpathians at Nyzhniy Verbizh and Yasynia; Halych types in the northern Carpathians either side of the Polish/Ukrainian border at Rohatyn, Drohobych, Zhovkva, Potelych, Radruż and Chotyniec; Boyko types either side of the Polish/Ukrainian border near the border with Slovakia at Smolnik, Uzhok and Matkiv, and western Lemko types in the Polish west Carpathians at Powroźnik, Brunary Wyźne, Owczary, Kwiatoń and Turzańsk. Built using the horizontal log technique with complex corner jointing, and exhibiting exceptional carpentry skills and structural solutions, the tserkvas were raised on wooden sills placed on stone foundations, with wooden shingles covering roofs and walls. The tserkvas with their associated graveyards and sometimes free-standing bell towers are bounded by perimeter walls or fences and gates, surrounded by trees.

Criterion (iii): The tserkvas bear exceptional testimony to a distinct ecclesiastical building tradition, which is grounded in the mainstream traditions of the Orthodox Church interwoven with local architectural language. The structures, designs and decorative schemes are characteristic for the cultural traditions of the resident communities in the Carpathian region and illustrate a multiplicity of symbolic references and sacred meanings related to the traditions.

Criterion (iv): The tserkvas are an outstanding example of a group of buildings in traditional log construction type which represents an important historical stage of architectural design in the Carpathian Region. Based on building traditions for Orthodox ecclesiastical purposes which were adapted in accordance with the local cultural traditions, the tserkvas, as they evolved from the 16th to the 19th centuries, reflect the sacred references of the resident communities.
Integrity
All elements necessary to express the value of the properties are included within the boundaries, including the perimeter wall or fence with gateways, and may include bell towers, graveyard and secondary buildings. The buildings are not threatened by development or neglect. However, special attention needs to be given to the location of car parks, as the integrity of the properties and the important views to and from thereof are still well maintained. The perimeter walls or fences with trees planted along them constitute a clearly recognizable zone or landmark.
Authenticity
The properties are considered to be authentic in terms of location and setting, use and function, 13 tserkvas are still used as churches, the other three - Radruż, Rohatyn and Drohobych are kept intact as museums. Also the authenticity of materials remains high as the structural timbers have been carefully repaired by traditional methods over the years. The art work has a high degree of authenticity and the timber exterior roof and wall cladding which requires replacement every 20-30 years has in most cases been appropriately restored. Given that periodic replacement of the wall cladding is part of the ongoing maintenance schemes, continuation of technical knowledge related to techniques and workmanship is and essential requirement for future preservation of authenticity in workmanship and maintenance techniques. Almost all tserkvas retain their original doors and locking devices, with inscriptions on the lintels giving the dates of construction and names of carpenters.
Management and protection requirements
All nominated properties in Poland are protected at the highest level by inclusion in the National Heritage Register under the Act on Preservation and Protection of Historic Monuments (2003). In Ukraine all nominated properties are protected at the highest level by inclusion on the State Register of Immovable Historical Monuments under the State Law on Protection of Cultural Heritage (2000). The properties and buffer zones will be recognised and protected in relevant district and local land use/development plans.

Management of the serial property will be coordinated by a Steering Committee acting on behalf of the Ministers for Culture of both countries, which will work with the administrators of the tserkvas to ensure their conservation and initiate training courses. Experts in various fields will be invited to meetings of the Steering Committee, which is also obliged to invite the owners and curators of properties, as well as ecclesiastical and secular authorities to participate in the ongoing cooperation, together with regional and local self-government authorities and restoration services. The Steering Committee will oversee municipal land use/development plans in cooperation with local authorities. In place of individual management plans, the Steering Committee will also oversee all matters relevant to the continuing maintenance of the properties' cultural value; maintenance of their physical condition and elimination of potential threats, including restrictions of development in land use plans within the immediate vicinity of the properties and their buffer zones. These restrictions are essential in some cases and the State Parties committed to establish adequate protection mechanisms in all concern land-use and development plans. Optimisation of tourist accessibility involving construction of tourist facilities and car parking has to be carefully planned to not compromise the integrity of the property components the important views to and from thereof, and risk prevention involving protection against fire and floods needs to be strong at all times to prevent impacts from potential disasters.

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Wooden Tserkvas of the Carpathian Region in Poland and Ukraine

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Wooden Tserkvas of the Carpathian Region in Poland and Ukraine Situated in the eastern fringe of Central Europe, the transnational property numbers a selection of sixteen tserkvas (churches). They were built of horizontal wooden logs between the 16 th and 19 th centuries by communities of Orthodox and Greek Catholic faiths.

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Wrocławskie Centrum Kongresowe (RCTB), Centennial Hall, Wystawowa, Wrocław

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Wrocławskie Centrum Kongresowe (RCTB), Centennial Hall, Wystawowa, Wrocław

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Wrocławskie Centrum Kongresowe (RCTB), Centennial Hall, Wystawowa, Wrocław

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Outstanding Universal Value

The Centennial Hall in Wrocław, a milestone in the history of reinforced concrete architecture, was designed by the architect Max Berg and built in 1911-1913. The hall has a symmetrical quatrefoil ground plan with a huge circular central space covered by a ribbed dome topped with a lantern. It can accommodate up to 10,000 people.

The Centennial Hall is an outstanding example of early Modernism and the innovative use of reinforced concrete structures in the building industry. At the time of its construction, it was the largest ever reinforced concrete dome in the world. It played a significant role in the creation of a new technological solution of high aesthetic value, which became an important point of reference in the design of public spaces and in the further evolution of this technology. Drawing on historical forms, the building was a pioneering design responding to emerging social needs, including an assembly hall, an auditorium for theatre performances, an exhibition space and a sports venue. The building is a significant watershed in the history of Modern architecture.

The Exhibition Grounds, whose main feature the Centennial Hall, stands at the intersection of its principal axes, constitutes an integral spatial whole. They were designed jointly by Max Berg and Hans Poelzig. On the west side of the Centennial Hall there is a monumental square modelled on the ancient forum, which is preceded by the colonnade (built in 1925) of the main entrance. To the north of the square stands the Pavilion of the Historical and Artistic Exhibition, now known as the Four Domes Pavilion, which was built in 1912-1913 according to a design by Hans Poelzig. In the northern part of the Exhibition Grounds stands a concrete pergola enclosing a pond. It is separated from the Centennial Hall by a building housing a restaurant with an open terrace.

The design of the Exhibition Grounds combined new elements with the southern part of the 19th-century Szczytnicki Park, which was used as the setting for thematic garden exhibitions, such as the Japanese Garden, as well as for the temporary Exhibition of Cemetery Art, an extant reminder of which is an 18th-century wooden church relocated from Upper Silesia in 1912.

Criterion (i): The Centennial Hall in Wrocław is a creative and innovative example in the development of construction technology in large reinforced concrete structures. The Centennial Hall occupies a key position in the evolution of methods of reinforcement used in architecture, and represents one of the climactic points in the history of the use of metal in structural consolidation.

Criterion (ii): The Centennial Hall is a pioneering work of Modern engineering and architecture, which exhibits an important interchange of influences in the early 20th century, becoming a key reference in the later development of reinforced concrete structures.

Criterion (iv): As part of the Exhibition Grounds of Wrocław, the Centennial Hall is an outstanding example of Modern recreational architecture that served a variety of purposes, ranging from hosting conferences and exhibitions to concerts, theatre and opera.
Integrity
The Exhibition Grounds, together with the Centennial Hall, have retained their compositional integrity within the boundary of the property. As a whole, they have retained their structural integrity and views on the property. Also, the use of the grounds is compatible with the originally intended functions.

Since the time of its construction, the Hall has remained a fully complete and unique facility in terms of structure and materials used. The building has undergone a series of renovations in order to maintain its structural condition and to replace installations in accordance with obligatory safety standards for public use buildings.

The property's boundaries include the entire extant central part of the Exhibition Grounds. After the end of the Centennial Exhibition in 1913, temporary architectural features and seasonal garden plantings were removed. Some permanent structures, such as the roof of the colonnade of the main entrance and the restaurant building with its open terrace, were destroyed during the Second World War.

Despite some losses, the most important features situated on the two main axes of the Exhibition Grounds survive to this day: the Centennial Hall, the Four Dome Pavilion, the colonnade of the main entrance and the pergola with its pond. The Japanese Garden and the wooden Baroque church are also extant.

In 1948, the composition of the Exhibition Grounds was supplemented with a steel spire designed by Stanisław Hempel, which was placed in the middle of the 'forum'.

All investment plans in the property and its buffer zone need to be assessed carefully to avoid adverse impacts on its Outstanding Universal Value.
Authenticity
The Centennial Hall and Exhibition Grounds within the boundaries of the inscription have retained their unique cohesive spatial layout and permanent compositional features. The Centennial Hall is a fully authentic building in terms of architectural form, specific construction technology and materials. The building is in good condition following the completion of renovation work addressing its conservation as well as functional and technical modernisation.

The structural condition of other features within the exhibition complex is varied, as is the state of preservation of their historic fabric. The property is used in accordance with its original intended functions.
Protection and management requirements
The entire property (36.69 ha) is legally protected under regulations governing the protection of monuments, which are implemented by national and local conservation services.

The system of legal protection pertaining to the property has been supplemented by the perennial efforts of the local self-government, which have led to the entire area within the buffer zone (189,68 ha) being covered by local spatial development plans protecting the property at the level of by-laws in accordance with the provisions of the spatial planning and development act.

All conservation and investment works are preceded by pertinent historical studies and research as well as environmental analyses, taking into consideration the spatial context. Each operation requires that the proposed work be approved and relevant permission be obtained from conservation services.

Responsibility for the property is shared by several legal entities with various profiles of activity, hence individual buildings and spaces are used for different functions. The main part of the Centennial Hall complex serves as an exhibition and conference centre and as a widely accessible recreational area, in keeping with its original intended purpose.

G All investment plans in the property and its buffer zone must be subordinate to the protection of the Outstanding Universal Value, and the preservation of its character and historical spatial context.

Fulfilment of this objective will be through the implementation of a Management Plan for the area inscribed on the World Heritage List. The aim of this document is to coordinate activities related to the management and monitoring of the Centennial Hall complex and its buffer zone. The plan will ensure the sustainable use and functioning of the entire complex, taking into account social, environmental and economic issues, as well as the full use of its tourism potential and the landscape values of the property and its surroundings.

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Outstanding Universal Value The Centennial Hall in Wrocław, a milestone in the history of reinforced concrete architecture, was designed by the architect Max Berg and built in 1911-1913. The hall has a symmetrical quatrefoil ground plan with a huge circular central space covered by a ribbed dome topped with a lantern.

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Park Mużakowski - Strona Polska, Droga Panoramiczna, Łęknica

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Muskauer Park / Park Mużakowski

A landscaped park of 559.9 ha astride the Neisse River and the border between Poland and Germany, it was created by Prince Hermann von Puckler-Muskau from 1815 to 1844. Blending seamlessly with the surrounding farmed landscape, the park pioneered new approaches to landscape design and influenced the development of landscape architecture in Europe and America. Designed as a 'painting with plants', it did not seek to evoke classical landscapes, paradise, or some lost perfection, instead using local plants to enhance the inherent qualities of the existing landscape. This integrated landscape extends into the town of Muskau with green passages that formed urban parks framing areas for development. The town thus became a design component in a utopian landscape. The site also features a reconstructed castle, bridges and an arboretum.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Parc de Muskau / Parc Mużakowski

Ce parc paysager de 559,90 ha, situé de part et d'autre de la Neisse et de la frontière germano-polonaise, a été créé par le prince Hermann von Pückler-Muskau entre 1815 et 1844. S'inscrivant harmonieusement dans le paysage agricole environnant, ce parc inaugura de nouvelles conceptions paysagères et influença le développement de l'architecture paysagère en Europe et en Amérique. Conçu comme un " tableau de verdure ", il ne cherchait pas à évoquer un paysage classique, une image de l'Éden ou quelque perfection perdue, mais exploitait la flore locale pour exalter les qualités intrinsèques du paysage existant. Ce paysage intégré se prolonge jusqu'à la ville de Muskau, avec des zones de verdure constituant des parcs urbains qui encadraient les zones urbanisées. La ville devenait ainsi une des composantes d'un paysage utopique. Le site comprend également un château reconstruit, des ponts et un arboretum.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

ムスカウアー公園／ムジャコフスキ公園

ポーランドとドイツの国境を流れるナイセ川の両岸に、559.9haにわたって広がる公園は、ヘルマン・フォン・ピュックラー=ムスカウ王子によって、1815～44年に造られた。新たな景観設計の手法により、周辺の農地景観と見事に一体化した公園は、ヨーロッパやアメリカでの景観計画にも影響を与えた。「草木で描く」ように設計されたこの公園は、伝統的な景観や楽園、失われた理想郷などを再現するのではなく、土地に根付く植物を重んじて、既存の景観のもつ質を向上させたのである。この調和のとれた景観はムスカウの町まで続き、その緑の筋は都会の公園の発展に寄与している。

source: NFUAJ

Muskauer Park / Park Mużakowski

Dit landschapspark van 559,9 hectare ligt aan de rivier de Neisse en de grens tussen Polen en Duitsland. Het werd van 1815 tot 1844 aangelegd door prins Hermann von Pückler-Muskau. Het park sloot naadloos aan bij het omringende cultuurlandschap. Deze nieuwe manier van landschapsarchitectuur was baanbrekend en kreeg navolging in Europa en Amerika. Met dit 'schilderij met planten' probeerde men niet een klassiek, paradijselijk of een verloren perfect landschap op te roepen. Er werd juist gebruik gemaakt van lokale planten om de kwaliteit van het bestaande landschap te bevorderen. Het park strekt zich uit tot de stad Muskau, dat hiermee onderdeel werd van een utopisch landschap.

Source: unesco.nl

Outstanding Universal Value
Brief synthesis
Muskauer Park / Park Mużakowski is an extensive landscape initially developed between 1815 and 1844 by Prince Hermann von Pückler-Muskau on the grounds of his estate, and continued by his student, Eduard Petzold. Set harmoniously in the river valley of the Lusatian Neisse, the park's integration into the local town and surrounding agricultural landscapes heralded a new approach to landscape design and contributed to the advancement of landscape architecture as a discipline. The extensive site includes the river Neisse, other water features, human-made and natural, bridges, buildings, forested areas, and paths. It is an example of a cultural landscape in which the site's natural attributes have been harnessed with the utmost skill.

The park is of the highest aesthetic quality and its composition blends fluidly with the naturally-formed river valley. Its essence is the visual relationship between the central residence, the New Castle, and a series of topographical focal points comprising ideal vantage points laid out along riverside terraces flanking the valley, each of which forms part of a masterfully fashioned network of vistas. Pückler incorporated human-made architectural elements into this network along with natural components, including the terrain's geological features. It is distinctive with its extraordinary simplicity and expansiveness.

The property encompasses the central portion of this extensive landscape composition measuring 348 ha (136.10 ha in Germany and 211.9 ha in Poland). The remaining part of the composition falls within the surrounding buffer zone of 1,205 ha.

Pückler laid the foundations of integrated landscape design with the extension of the park into the town of Bad Muskau through green passages and urban parks. The incorporation of the community into the overall composition, as a key component in his planned utopian landscape, had a great impact on contemporary town planning, particularly in the United States (as illustrated by the green areas of the city of Boston) and on the development of the landscape architecture profession. Pückler published his principles of landscape design theory in Andeutungen über Landschaftsgärtnerei (1834). Moreover, the training of landscape gardeners by Prince von Pückler and his student Eduard Petzold helped create skill standards which influenced the work of other gardeners and planners. This training tradition has been revived in recent times by the creation of the Muskauer School, as an international school for the training in garden and cultural landscape maintenance.

Criterion (i): Muskauer Park / Park Mużakowski is an exceptional example of a European landscape park that broke new ground in terms of development towards an ideal human-made landscape.

Criterion (iv): Muskauer Park / Park Mużakowski was the forerunner for new approaches to landscape design in cities, and influenced the development of landscape architecture as a discipline.
Integrity
The boundary of the property encompasses the core zone of this extensive landscape including, in their entirety, all of the most important features from the original concepts devised by Prince von Pückler and continued by Eduard Petzold. The remaining park has been included in the buffer zone. Within Germany, the estate comprises the Castle Park, Spa Park, and Upper Mountain Park including the Upper Walk. On the Polish side of the property, the Park on Terraces and Petzold's Arboretum can be found. The property's division by a national boundary does not compromise its integrity, since the joint transboundary management ensures that it retains its cohesive composition. The two parts of the park on either side of the Lusatian Neisse are regarded as an integral entity.

During the Second World War, the property sustained significant damage, particularly with the destruction of both castles along with the bridges spanning the river Neisse, and many individual elements of the property have not survived intact.
Authenticity
The park's basic layout has not undergone any major changes since it first came into being in the first half of the 19th century. Specifically, the composition retains its original spatial structure, including the layout of its roads, water features and topography. Although the property has changed hands several times and is no longer a private estate, successive owners and gardeners have upheld Prince von Pückler's original vision and design reflecting the high regard in which his genius continues to be held.

The conservation approach respects the evolution of the park throughout the 19th century and thus Pückler's initial design as it was implemented during his lifetime and after his death. This applies to the shape of the park and its spatial relationships as well as to the condition of trees, pathways, watercourses and buildings. Restoration work to address some of the damage sustained to the property during the Second World War stresses the overall plan and the relationship between built elements. This work is based on detailed documentation, original plans and other archival records, as well as on meticulous research. The recent restoration of the bridges re-establishes a link between the two halves of the property across the river.The authenticity of the property has been strengthened by the exterior restoration of the New Castle, the central element and spatial dominant of the original park layout created by Prince von Pückler.
Protection and management requirements
The property is primarily under state ownership. On the German side, the Free State of Saxony owns a large majority of the site and in Poland ownership is held by the State Treasury.

Both parts of the park are protected in their respective countries under the provisions of heritage protection, nature conservation and spatial planning laws, while in terms of implementing statutory provisions it is imperative to establish interdisciplinary protection priorities and the appropriate means of their implementation.

German and Polish institutions responsible for the individual parts of the park collaborate closely to manage the property, based on cooperation agreements regarding strategy planning and management of the estate. The managing institutions take decisions relating to strategy and joint investments, whilst the methods for implementing joint projects and initiatives are formulated by a Polish-German Working Group specially appointed for this purpose. The management of the park and all important decisions are evaluated and approved by the International Conservation Board of Muskauer Park / Park Mużakowski and Park Branitz. The system of management is determined by a single comprehensive Management Plan and the international cooperation fully guarantees the implementation of both general and detailed objectives of the plan focused on maintaining the property's integrity.

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Muskauer Park / Park Mużakowski A landscaped park of 559.9 ha astride the Neisse River and the border between Poland and Germany, it was created by Prince Hermann von Puckler-Muskau from 1815 to 1844. Blending seamlessly with the surrounding farmed landscape, the park pioneered new approaches to landscape design and influenced the development of landscape architecture in Europe and America.

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Outstanding Universal Value
Brief synthesis
The Wooden Churches of Southern Małopolska constitute a serial inscription of the six best preserved and oldest wooden Gothic churches that are characteristic of this region. They are located in the towns and villages of Blizne, Binarowa, Dębno Podhalańskie, Haczów, Lipnica Murowana, and Sękowa, which lie within the historic region of Małopolska in southern and south-eastern Poland, encompassing the Carpathian foothills of the northern part of the Western Carpathians. The churches represent a unique example of the tradition of medieval timber-built churches in Roman Catholic culture. They were built using the horizontal log technique, which was commonplace in Northern and Eastern Europe during the Middle Ages. The range of idiosyncratic structural solutions employed in their construction, however, rendered them unique.

The functional spatial layout of these buildings arose from liturgical requirements adopted from the West. The churches have an extensive spatial structure, which initially consisted of two elements: a rectangular nave; and a narrower chancel to the east, usually terminating in a three-sided apse. Later, chambered towers of post-and-beam construction were added at the west end (the church in Lipnica Murowana being an exception) and the main body of the churches was circumscribed by arcades known as soboty. Thanks to the use of high-quality structural joinery solutions, such as the system of roof trusses binding the log structures of the nave and chancel, they took on a characteristic architectural form featuring tall shingled roofs covering both the nave and the chancel and thus reinforcing the entire building. These churches also feature unique, high-quality joinery details, highlighting their Gothic character.

The churches boast particularly valuable décors and fittings that exhibit diverse techniques and styles of workmanship, rich iconography, and outstanding artistic quality. They also provide an illustration of the stylistic changes in the decoration of ecclesiastical interiors, starting from the Gothic period. All elements of the rich interior décors are harmoniously interrelated and complement one another perfectly in terms of their content, function, and style.

The churches constitute an example of dominant landmarks within rural settings, which determine their unique present-day landscape qualities - most of them are situated in picturesque mountain valleys. These buildings, which were founded by noble families as symbols of their prestige, all serve their original purpose as venues for traditional celebrations and religious ceremonies; in some of them, religious images renowned for securing divine favour are still revered.

The total area of the serial inscription amounts to 8.26 ha and the total area of the buffer zones amounts to 242 ha.

Criterion (iii): The wooden churches of Southern Małopolska bear important testimony to medieval church building traditions associated with the liturgical and cult functions of the Roman Catholic Church in this relatively isolated region of Central Europe.

Criterion (iv): The churches are the most representative examples of surviving Gothic churches built using the horizontal log technique; they are particularly impressive in their artistic and technical execution, and were sponsored by noble families and rulers as symbols of social and political prestige.
Integrity
Within the boundaries of the property are located all the elements that sustain the Outstanding Universal Value of the Wooden Churches of Southern Małopolska, which remain intact and in good condition. Even though they do not constitute an architectural complex in a territorial sense, the Wooden Churches of Southern Małopolska belong to a compact and distinctive group of ecclesiastical buildings, integrally interrelated with regard to their date of construction, function, materials and structural solutions used, and architectural form. The property is therefore of adequate size to ensure the complete representation of the features and processes that convey its significance, and it does not suffer from adverse effects of development and/or neglect.

The integrity of the wooden churches is also evident in the close connection between their architectural features and their interior décor and fittings, as well as in their unchanging function. Thus, historical and artistic interrelations are revealed, which not only reflect local traditions in both carpentry and art, but also provide evidence of religious and social relations during the medieval period in this region. All of the Wooden Churches of Southern Małopolska constitute rural landmarks, serving as integrating factors between the cultural and natural values of the local landscape.

The appearance of new building development that disrupts the scale of these churches and the way they are perceived in their historic setting may pose a threat to their integrity.
Authenticity
All of the Wooden Churches of Southern Małopolska are Gothic buildings that have survived in their historic form. Their authenticity is manifest in their locations and settings, their extant fabric, the structural solutions that were used in their construction (the horizontal log technique, the post-and-beam tower structure, the system of roof trusses binding the structures of the nave and chancel, and the king-post roof trusses), and their architectural form, defined principally by a characteristic tripartite ground plan (except for the towerless church in Lipnica Murowana), high roofs, chambered towers, and arcades, as well as superb carved wooden details. The Wooden Churches of Southern Małopolska are also characterised by an authenticity of function, since they still serve as venues for traditional celebrations and religious ceremonies, including (in some instances) reverence of original benevolent images.

Important attributes further evidencing the wooden churches' authenticity are their décor and interior fittings, primarily comprising polychrome painted decoration on the walls and ceilings showcasing various techniques and styles, subjects, and iconographic programmes, as well as providing examples of local patronage. The specific nature of this sponsored painting (extant in some of the churches), rooted in Gothic origins, is also a characteristic feature of this type of wooden church. Apart from their decorative function, and in keeping with medieval tradition, they also served educational purposes, providing ideological symbolism.

The wooden churches are examples of the tradition and technologies developed by the medieval guilds. The enduring continuity of workshop traditions ensures the consistent use of the same techniques and materials, thus preventing the loss of the property's original character.
Protection and management requirements
The Wooden Churches of Southern Małopolska are protected by law under the regulations determining the protection of historic monuments, implemented by the national monument protection services. The legal obligation to maintain these properties in good condition lies with the Roman Catholic parishes in Blizne, Binarowa, Dębno Podhalańskie, Haczów, Lipnica Murowana, and Sękowa. Responsibility for carrying out conservation programmes falls directly on the parishes, or on specially appointed plenipotentiaries, under the professional supervision of the relevant Provincial Conservator of Monuments, with the participation of diocesan conservators from the diocesan curiae.

In order to better protect and preserve the Outstanding Universal Value, authenticity, and integrity of these churches, cooperation between the parishes (administrators) and the local authorities and communities should be intensified. Developing detailed rules for monitoring the property and regulating the issues related to obtaining funds for conservation work is also recommended, as this would facilitate the churches' protection and maintenance. In order to provide effective protection of the churches and their surroundings, the development and implementation of an integrated Management Plan is essential.

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Wooden Churches of Southern Małopolska

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The wooden churches of southern Little Poland represent outstanding examples of the different aspects of medieval church-building traditions in Roman Catholic culture. Built using the horizontal log technique, ...

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Church of Peace in Świdnica, plac Pokoju, Świdnica

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Churches of Peace in Jawor and Świdnica

The Churches of Peace in Jawor and Świdnica, the largest timber-framed religious buildings in Europe, were built in the former Silesia in the mid-17th century, amid the religious strife that followed the Peace of Westphalia. Constrained by the physical and political conditions, the Churches of Peace bear testimony to the quest for religious freedom and are a rare expression of Lutheran ideology in an idiom generally associated with the Catholic Church.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Églises de la Paix à Jawor et Świdnica

Les églises de la Paix à Jawor et à Świdnica, les plus grands bâtiments religieux à charpente de bois d'Europe, ont été construites dans l'ancienne Silésie, au milieu du XVII e siècle, à l'époque du conflit religieux qui suivit la paix de Westphalie. Modelées par des facteurs physiques et politiques, elles témoignent de la quête de liberté religieuse et mettent en œuvre des formes architecturales généralement associées à l'église catholique mais très peu courantes s'agissant de la religion luthérienne.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

كنائس السلام في جافور وسودنيكا

بُنيت كنائس السلام في جافور وسويدنيكا، وهي أكبر المباني الدينية الخشبية الأوروبية، في سيليزيا القديمة في أوساط القرن السابع عشر في حقبة الصراع الديني الذي عقب السلام في ويستفاليا. بالرغم من تعديل العوامل الطبيعيّة والسياسيّة فيها، هي تشهد على السعي إلى الحرية الدينية وتستخدم أشكالاً هندسية تعود في الإجمال إلى الكنيسة الكاثوليكية، لكنّها تبقى نادرةً وهي تعود إلى الديانة اللوثرية.

source: UNESCO/ERI
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

扎沃尔和思维得尼加的和平教堂

扎沃尔和思维得尼加的和平教堂是欧洲最大的木制结构宗教建筑，始建于17世纪中期的原西里西亚，当时正值威斯特伐利亚和平条约签订之后宗教运动兴起之时。由于受到物质和政治上的压制，和平教堂宣布接受人们对于宗教自由的要求，表达了路德教派的思想，这在当时以天主教为主的地区是很少见的。

source: UNESCO/ERI
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Церкви Мира в Яворе и Свиднице

Церкви Мира в Яворе и Свиднице - это крупнейшие в Европе деревянные религиозные здания, которые были построены в бывшей Силезии в середине XVII в. во время религиозных споров, последовавших после заключения Вестфальского мира. Создание церквей Мира в условиях физических и политических ограничений является свидетельством поиска религиозной свободы и редким проявлением идеологии лютеранства в формах, ассоциируемых обычно с католической церковью.

source: UNESCO/ERI
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Iglesias de la Paz en Jawor y Swidnica

Las iglesias de la Paz de Jawor y Swidnica son los edificios religiosos de entramado de madera más grandes de toda Europa. Fueron erigidas en la antigua Silesia a mediados del siglo XVII, en el periodo de conflictos religiosos subsiguiente a la Paz de Westfalia. Construidos en función de una serie de imperativos de índole material y política, estos dos templos luteranos constituyen un testimonio de la búsqueda de la libertad religiosa y presentan características arquitectónicas generalmente vinculadas a los edificios de culto católico, que muy raras veces se dan en las iglesias protestantes.

source: UNESCO/ERI
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

ヤヴォルとシフィドニツァの平和教会群

ヤヴォルとシフィドニツァはポーランド南西部のバゥブジフ州北部にあり、共に13世紀初期の建設でポーランド最古の都市に属する。この2つの都市の平和教会はヨーロッパ最大の木造宗教建築物で、17世紀中期頃の宗教紛争の時期に、シュレジエンで最大の塔をもつゴシック様式の寺院として建設された。宗教的・政治的な制約の中で宗教的自由を探求した平和教会は、カトリック教会様式にルター的イデオロギーを表現した稀有な例証である。

source: NFUAJ

Vredeskerken in Jawor en Świdnica

De Vredeskerken in Jawor en Świdnica zijn de grootste houten religieuze gebouwen in Europa. Beide kerken zijn ontworpen door de architect Albert von Sabisch. Ze werden halverwege de 17e eeuw gebouwd in het voormalige Silezië, te midden van de religieuze strijd die volgde op de Vrede van Westfalen. De kerken getuigen van de zoektocht naar godsdienstvrijheid en zijn een zeldzame uiting van Lutherse ideologie in een vormentaal die over het algemeen geassocieerd wordt met de Katholieke Kerk. Een blijk van uitzonderlijke tolerantie van de katholieke Habsburgse keizer richting de protestantse gemeenschappen in Silezië in de periode na de Dertigjarige Oorlog in Europa.

Source: unesco.nl

Outstanding Universal Value
Brief synthesis
The Churches of Peace located in the towns of Jawor and Świdnica in the Silesia region of south-western Poland are the largest timber-framed Baroque ecclesiastical buildings in Europe. They were built in the mid-17th century to a scale and complexity unknown in European wooden architecture before or since, following the provisions of the Peace of Westphalia, which concluded the Thirty Years' War in 1648. The terms of the peace treaty effectively eradicated the Evangelical Church in the Silesian hereditary principalities directly controlled by the Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand III. The Evangelicals, who constituted the majority of the population in these areas, were deprived of the religious freedom they had hitherto enjoyed and lost almost all of their churches. It was only courtesy of Swedish diplomatic intervention that permission was granted to build three churches.

Lengthy and expensive efforts were made to secure imperial consent, which, when issued, imposed exceptionally strict conditions: the churches were to be located beyond town boundaries, within an area strictly defined by imperial officials; they were to be built of wood and clay; they could not feature a tower; and their construction was to be completed within one year. The architect and engineer Albrecht von Säbisch had to reconcile these requirements with the expectations of a large Evangelical community for whom these were to be the only churches. Using traditional materials and technologies, the architect created a set of buildings that represented the pinnacle of timber-framing construction technology. The centuries-long timber-frame tradition allowed carpenters to erect buildings that could survive for hundreds of years, in spite of the impermanence of the materials used. The Church of the Holy Spirit in Jawor was built in 1654-1655 as a rectangular three-aisled basilica with a three-sided chancel of reduced form. The Church of the Holy Trinity in Świdnica was built in 1656-1657 as a three-aisled basilica with a Greek cross ground plan. The third of the Churches of Peace allowed under the Peace of Westphalia was built in Głogów in 1652, but burned down a hundred years later.

Both of the surviving churches feature multi-tier galleries, thanks to which the capacity of building was extended to about seven thousand people each. The rich décor, which developed over the ensuing decades, integrates exuberant Baroque forms and complex imagery into their architectural framework in a unique way that celebrates the coexistence of Baroque art and Lutheran theology, and reflects the social hierarchy of the time.

An unparalleled tour de force, the Churches of Peace are masterpieces of skilled handicraft. Because of their technological complexity and size, the Churches of Peace were never duplicated elsewhere and remain without peer.

The total area of the serial inscription amounts to 0.23 ha and the total area of the buffer zones amounts to 12 ha.

Criterion (iii): The Churches of Peace are outstanding testimony to an exceptional act of tolerance on the part of the Catholic Habsburg Emperor towards Protestant communities in Silesia in the period following the Thirty Years' War in Europe.

Criterion (iv): As a result of conditions imposed by the Emperor, the Churches of Peace required the builders to implement pioneering constructional and architectural solutions of a scale and complexity unknown before or since in wooden architecture. The success may be judged by their survival to the present day.

Criterion (vi): The Churches of Peace bear exceptional witness to a particular political development in Europe in the 17th century of great spiritual power and commitment.
Integrity
Within the boundaries of the serial property are located all the elements necessary to sustain the Outstanding Universal Value of the Churches of Peace in Jawor and Świdnica, including the original structures of the wooden frameworks in-filled with clay panels (which are integrally combined with the historical extensions that were added over time), and the elements of the interior décor and furnishings. In the vicinity of each church but outside the property are located the parish buildings essential for the functioning of the church community, and a cemetery. The historically shaped spatial integrity between each church and its surroundings has been preserved. The silhouette of the entire architectural complex is clearly visible in each townscape. The property does not suffer from adverse effects of development and/or neglect.
Authenticity
The Churches of Peace survive in fully authentic form, particularly regarding their locations and settings, forms and designs, materials and substances, and function, as evidenced by their unaltered emplacement, the structural system and materials used in their construction, and the preservation of the original function of these Evangelical-Augsburg parish churches. Architectural features (such as galleries and guild and family box pews), interior décor, and furnishings that were added after the initial construction are consistent with the original architectural forms and maintain a cohesive artistic unity. Renovation and conservation work (including preventive conservation measures) carried out on the churches has preserved their Outstanding Universal Value and authenticity by slowing down the processes of deterioration. A full programme of conservation is applied solely to individual elements of the décor and furnishings. The only new technological elements introduced in both buildings are alarm and fire prevention systems. There are no potential threats and risks identified for the property.
Protection and management requirements
The Churches of Peace in Jawor and Świdnica, which are regularly used for religious services, are legally protected under the regulations on the protection of monuments, implemented by the national monument protection services. Responsibility for their guardianship and management lies with their owners, the Evangelical-Augsburg parishes in Jawor and Świdnica, which are legally entitled to carry out and finance conservation works. Renovation and conservation tasks in each case require approval of the planned work and relevant permission from the state conservation services.

Sustaining the Outstanding Universal Value, authenticity, and integrity of the property over time will require the development of a Management Plan as a strategic document in order to ensure the effective protection of the churches and their surroundings.

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Churches of Peace in Jawor and Świdnica The Churches of Peace in Jawor and Świdnica, the largest timber-framed religious buildings in Europe, were built in the former Silesia in the mid-17th century, amid the religious strife that followed the Peace of Westphalia.

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Kalwaria Zebrzydowska: the Mannerist Architectural and Park Landscape Complex and Pilgrimage Park

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Outstanding Universal Value Kalwaria Zebrzydowska: the Mannerist Architectural and Park Landscape Complex and Pilgrimage Park, which dates back to the first half of the 17th century, is a cultural landscape located south of Kraków that covers an area of the Żar and Lanckorońska hills.

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Outstanding Universal Value

Old City of Zamość in southeastern Poland is an outstanding example of a late 16th-century Central European town designed and built in accordance with Italian Renaissance theories on the creation of "ideal" cities. This innovative approach to town planning was the result of a very close cooperation between the town's enlightened founder and the distinguished Italian architect Bernardo Morando. The Old City of Zamość today retains its original rectilinear street plan and its unique blend of Italian and Central European architectural traditions, as well as parts of its encircling fortifications.

Located on the trade route linking western and northern Europe with the Black Sea, Zamość was conceived as a trade-based economic centre. From the outset it was intended to be multinational, and had a high level of religious tolerance. It became the tangible reflection of the social and cultural ideas of the Renaissance, which were readily embraced in Poland, as exemplified by the establishment of a university (Zamość Academy) by Jan Zamoyski, the founder and owner of the town. His architect Bernardo Morando's city plan combined the functions of a residential palace, an urban ensemble, and a fortress, all in accordance with Renaissance concepts.

The Old City of Zamość has two distinct sections: on the west is the Zamoyski palace, and on the east is the town proper, laid out around three squares. The central Great Market Square, located at the junction of the town's two main axial streets, is enclosed by arcaded merchants' houses and anchored by a magnificent Town Hall. These and many other notable structures such as the cathedral, arsenal, and fortification gates illustrate a key feature of this great undertaking: a creative enhancement realized through the incorporation of artistic achievements attained in local architecture. The consistent implementation of Morando's plan over time has resulted in a stylistically homogeneous urban composition with a high level of architectural and landscape values.

Criterion (iv): Zamość is an oustanding example of a Renaissance planned town of the late 16th century, which retains its original layout and fortifications and a large number of buildings of particular interest, blending Italian and Central European architectural traditions.
Integrity
The Old City of Zamość is an integral and complete example of a private Renaissance town established anew, ' in cruda radice ', based on Italian architectural theory. Within its boundaries are located all the elements necessary to sustain the Outstanding Universal Value of the 75.03 ha property, including its distinctive rectilinear urban layout with its compositional and functional axes, and the network of streets and squares together with buildings illustrating the fusion of Italian and Central European architectural traditions, among them the Town Hall, the founder's residence, the Zamość Academy, the churches, and the surviving system of fortifications with gates encircling the city. The property does not suffer from adverse effects of development and/or neglect.
Authenticity
Since the modern town of Zamość grew for the most part outside the old fortifications, and having escaped the vast destruction suffered by many other Polish towns during the Second World War, the Old City of Zamość today exhibits a high degree of authenticity, particularly regarding its location and setting, forms and designs, and materials and substances. The property's authenticity is evidenced in the conservation of its original urban layout filled with building blocks along with all its key buildings: the founder's residence, the Academy (still serving as an educational institution), the Town Hall, churches and places of worship representing various religions (constituting symbols of tolerance), and the town's surviving system of fortifications. Minor modifications carried out in the Baroque period did not disrupt the basic structure and composition of the Renaissance town; on the contrary, they enriched it. The greatest changes to the Renaissance-era layout were introduced in the first half of the 19th century, when the town was designated as a strategic state-owned fortress. In spite of some demolitions and reductions in architectural detail, the fundamental internal structure of the town was not affected. The town's system of fortifications, however, was modernized using the latest military technical solutions of the time, now only partially extant.

Some elements of the urban infrastructure - the ground transport infrastructure and localised utilities - are of particular concern and may be vulnerable unless planning policies and guidance are rigorously and consistently applied.
Protection and management requirements
The Old City of Zamość is subject to the highest level of legal protection, both at the national level through its inclusion in the National Heritage Register and its status as a Monument of History, and at the local level through local spatial development plans. The property - which is located within a contemporary town that serves as a local administrative, economic, religious, and cultural centre - is under the authority of the local government. Issues related to the protection of the historic area come under the authority of a special department operating within the structures of the municipal council and regional bodies of the national monument protection services.

In order to enhance the conservation of the property, a buffer zone (214.91 ha) has been outlined. The principles of heritage protection, along with details concerning the division of the property and its buffer zone into structural units determining both their purpose and the rules for their protection, are recorded in the town planning register.

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Outstanding Universal Value Old City of Zamość in southeastern Poland is an outstanding example of a late 16th-century Central European town designed and built in accordance with Italian Renaissance theories on the creation of "ideal" cities. This innovative approach to town planning was the result of a very close cooperation between the town's enlightened founder and the distinguished Italian architect Bernardo Morando.

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Outstanding Universal Value

Warsaw was deliberately annihilated in 1944 as a repression of the Polish resistance to the Nazi German occupation. The capital city was reduced to ruins with the intention of obliterating the centuries-old tradition of Polish statehood. The rebuilding of the historic city, 85% of which was destroyed, was the result of the determination of the inhabitants and the support of the whole nation. The reconstruction of the Old Town in its historic urban and architectural form was the manifestation of the care and attention taken to assure the survival of one of the most important testimonials of Polish culture. The city was rebuilt as a symbol of elective authority and tolerance, where the first democratic European constitution, the Constitution of 3 May 1791, was adopted. The reconstruction included the holistic recreation of the urban plan, together with the Old Town Market, townhouses, the circuit of the city walls, the Royal Castle, and important religious buildings.

The reconstruction of Warsaw's historic centre was a major contribution to the changes in the doctrines related to urbanisation and conservation of cities in most of the European countries after the destructions of World War II. Simultaneously, this example illustrates the effectiveness of conservation activities in the second half of the 20th century, which permitted the integral reconstruction of the complex urban ensemble.

The reconstruction of the Old Town was a coherent and consistently implemented project devised at the Warsaw Reconstruction Office in the years 1945-1951. The reconstruction project utilised any extant, undamaged structures built between the 14th and 18th centuries, together with the late-medieval network of streets, squares, and the main market square, as well as the circuit of city walls. Two guiding principles were followed: firstly, to use reliable archival documents where available, and secondly, to aim at recreating the historic city's late 18th-century appearance. The latter was dictated by the availability of detailed iconographic and documentary historical records from that period. Additionally, conservation inventories compiled before 1939 and after 1944 were used, along with the scientific knowledge and expertise of art historians, architects, and conservators. The Archive of the Warsaw Reconstruction Office, housing documentation of both the post-war damage and the reconstruction projects, was inscribed in the UNESCO Memory of the World Register in 2011.

The rebuilding of the Old Town continued until the mid-1960s. The entire process was completed with the reconstruction of the Royal Castle (opened to visitors in 1984). The reconstruction of individual buildings and their surroundings, in the adopted format of residential housing, featuring public functions dedicated to culture and science, as well as services, carried with it numerous challenges posed by the need to adapt to the social norms and demands of the time. In order to accentuate the defensive walls and the city panorama as viewed from the Vistula, the reconstruction of some buildings was deliberately foregone. The urban layout was retained, along with the division of the street frontages into historic building plots; however, the properties within these quarters were not rebuilt, thus creating communal open areas for residents. The interior layout of buildings and residential flats was revised to meet the standards in force at the time. However, both historical room plans and interior designs were recreated in many of the buildings intended for public use. A highly regarded feature was the decoration of exterior elevations carried out by a team of renowned artists, who drew in part on designs from the interwar period. Polychrome decoration was executed using traditional techniques, including sgraffito. In spite of the adaptations and the changes introduced, the site, along with the city panorama as seen from the Vistula (which has become a symbol of Warsaw), presents a cohesive picture of the oldest part of the city.

Combining extant features with those parts of the Old Town reconstructed as a result of the conservation programme led to the creation of an urban space unique in terms of its material dimension (the form of the oldest part of the city), its functional dimension (as a residential quarter and venue for important historical, social, and spiritual events), and its symbolic dimension (an invincible city).

Criterion (ii): The initiation of comprehensive conservation activities on the scale of the entire historic city was a unique European experience and contributed to the verification of conservation doctrines and practices.

Criterion (vi): The Historic Centre of Warsaw is an exceptional example of the comprehensive reconstruction of a city that had been deliberately and totally destroyed. The foundation of the material reconstruction was the inner strength and determination of the nation, which brought about the reconstruction of the heritage on a unique scale in the history of the world.
Integrity
This World Heritage property's boundaries encompass an entire comprehensively rebuilt portion of the city, located within the bounds of the medieval city walls and the Vistula Escarpment (including the eastern foot of this escarpment), with all of the characteristic features defining its identity. During the reconstruction, the original urban layout of the medieval city was preserved, and in some cases made more distinct. The principle of rebuilding and accentuating the historic layout was applied not only to the Old Town, but also to the buildings of the New Town and the Royal Route, which in effect created a sense of historical and spatial continuity within this urban complex (the aforementioned areas are located inside the limits of the buffer zone).

In order to maintain the integrity of this property, it is essential that the principles implemented during the process of reconstruction are maintained and continue to underpin the management system, and that the appropriate state of preservation and conservation of individual tangible and intangible elements of the complex, which carry Outstanding Universal Value, be ensured.

Maintaining the functional dimension of the Old Town as a residential quarter and venue for important historical, social, and spiritual events is a significant aspect of its integrity.
Authenticity
The cohesive rebuilding process came to an end with the reconstruction of the Royal Castle. Since then, the Historic Centre of Warsaw has fully retained its authenticity as a finished concept of post-war reconstruction. This World Heritage property includes two categories of structure. The first comprises extant structures predating the damage of World War II. This applies to most basements, some ground floor storeys and certain sections of wall up to the level of the first floor. The second category encompasses reconstructed features - this group includes buildings recreated in accordance with pre-war records (some of the Old Town's townhouses, the Sigismund's Column, churches, and the Royal Castle), and those rebuilt based on historical and conservation studies pertaining to the architecture of the 14th to 18th centuries (e.g. the façade of the cathedral, and the Old Town walls with the Barbican). The state of preservation of individual types of structure and entire buildings is satisfactory. Their maintenance requires the implementation of systematic conservation measures.

Protection and management requirements

The Historic Centre of Warsaw is an area subject to legal protection and conservation based on Polish legislation. Managing this area is the duty of the local government of the City of Warsaw. Management issues take into account the values and wishes of all stakeholders connected with the area.

The principal management tools are the Management Plan and the integrated spatial planning system, based on an agreed Local Spatial Development Plan. Outlining a buffer zone of significant value in terms of historical monuments protected on the basis of the city's spatial planning documents makes it possible to control the impact of the surroundings on this World Heritage property. The area is protected from potential threats by a system of problem identification and regular monitoring which assesses the state of preservation, ongoing conservation procedures, as well as urban, environmental, functional, and social changes.

Education and raising awareness of the significance of Warsaw's reconstruction in the post-war history of Poland and Europe is an important aspect of effective management for the future of the property.

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Outstanding Universal Value Warsaw was deliberately annihilated in 1944 as a repression of the Polish resistance to the Nazi German occupation. The capital city was reduced to ruins with the intention of obliterating the centuries-old tradition of Polish statehood.

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Białowieża Forest

The Białowieża Forest World Heritage site, on the border between Poland and Belarus, is an immense range of primary forest including both conifers and broadleaved trees covering a total area of 141,885 hectares. Situated on the watershed of the Baltic Sea and Black Sea, this transboundary property is exceptional for the opportunities it offers for biodiversity conservation. It is home to the largest population of the property's iconic species, the European bison.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Forêt Bialowieza

Le site du patrimoine mondial de la Forêt Bialowieża, sur la frontière entre la Pologne et la Bélarusse, est un vaste massif de forêt ancienne comprenant à la fois des conifères et des feuillus d'une superficie totale de 141 885 ha. Situé sur la ligne de partage des eaux entre la mer Baltique et la mer Noire, ce bien transfrontalier apparaît comme une région irremplaçable pour la conservation de la biodiversité. On y trouve la plus grande population de bisons d'Europe, l'espèce emblématique du bien.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Bosque de Bialowieża

El sitio del patrimonio mundial del Bosque de Bialowieża, situado en la frontera entre Polonia y Belarrús, abarca una vasta extensión de bosques arcaicos de hoja perenne y caduca de una superficie total de 141.885 hectáreas. Situado en la divisoria entre las cuencas de los ríos que van a parar al Báltico y el Mar Negro, este sitio transfronterizo es único en su género para la conservación de la biodiversidad. Alberga la mayor población existente de bisonte europeo, especie animal emblemática de la región.

source: UNESCO/ERI
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

ビャウォヴィエジャの森

ヨーロッパバイソンを象徴とした古くから残る森林景観として、1979年にポーランド、1992年にベラルーシで登録されたが、今回、ポーランド側で大規模な拡張が行われ、評価基準が景観の美しさから生物の価値へと変更された。この森林の特徴は、中央ヨーロッパを代表する低地林および周囲の湿地帯等が混在した生態系が人為の影響を受けずに広範囲に残っていること、そこに多くの野生生物が生息・生育していることにある。野生のヨーロッパバイソンの30％以上が生息するほか、動植物ともに野生生物の多様性に富み、特にキノコ類においては顕著である。

source: NFUAJ

Bos van Białowieża

Op de waterscheiding van de Oostzee en de Zwarte Zee ligt dit immens grote bos, bestaand uit naald- en loofbomen. Het bos gaat terug tot 8000 voor Christus en is het enige overgebleven voorbeeld van de oorspronkelijke bossen die ooit een groot deel van Europa bedekten. Er staan grenen, beuken, eiken, elzen en sparren. Met een totale oppervlakte van 141.885 hectare is dit grensoverschrijdende gebied uitzonderlijk qua mogelijkheden voor het behoud van biodiversiteit. Het is de thuisbasis van de grootste bevolking van een voor dit gebied iconische soort, de Europese bizon. Er komen ook andere zeldzame zoogdieren voor zoals de wolf, lynx en otter.

Source: unesco.nl

Outstanding Universal Value
Brief synthesis
Bialowieza Forest is a large forest complex located on the border between Poland and Belarus. Thanks to several ages of protection the Forest had survived in its natural state to this day. The Bialowieza National Park, Poland, was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1979 and extended to include Belovezhskaya Pushcha, Belarus, in 1992. A large extension of the property in 2014 results in a property of 141,885 ha with a buffer zone of 166,708 ha.

This property includes a complex of lowland forests that are characteristics of the Central European mixed forests terrestrial ecoregion. The area has exceptionally conservation significance due to the scale of its old growth forests, which include extensive undisturbed areas where natural processes are on-going. A consequence is the richness in dead wood, standing and on the ground, and consequently a high diversity of fungi and saproxylic invertebrates. The property protects a diverse and rich wildlife of which 59 mammal species, over 250 bird, 13 amphibian, 7 reptile and over 12,000 invertebrate species. The iconic symbol of the property is the European Bison: approximately 900 individuals in the whole property which make almost 25% of the total world's population and over 30% of free-living animals.

Criterion (ix): Bialowieza Forest conserves a diverse complex of protected forest ecosystems which exemplify the Central European mixed forests terrestrial ecoregion, and a range of associated non-forest habitats, including wet meadows, river valleys and other wetlands. The area has an exceptionally high nature conservation value, including extensive old-growth forests. The large and integral forest area supports complete food webs including viable populations of large mammals and large carnivores (wolf, lynx and otter) amongst other. The richness in dead wood, standing and on the ground, leads to a consequent high diversity of fungi and saproxylic invertebrates. The long tradition of research on the little disturbed forest ecosystem and the numerous publications, including description of new species, also contributes significantly to the values of the nominated property.

Criterion (x): Bialowieza Forest is an irreplaceable area for biodiversity conservation, due in particular to its size, protection status, and substantially undisturbed nature. The property is home to the largest free-roaming population of European Bison, which is the iconic species of this property. However the biodiversity conservation values are extensive, and include protection for 59 mammal species, over 250 bird species, 13 amphibians, 7 reptiles, and over 12,000 invertebrates. The flora is diverse and regionally significant, and the property also is notable for conservation of fungi. Several new species have been described here and many threatened species are still well represented.
Integrity
The property is a large, coherent area conserved via a range of protective designations representing the full range of forest ecosystems of the region, and providing habitat for large mammals. The presence of extensive undisturbed areas is crucial to its nature conservation values. Some of the ecosystems represented in the property (wet meadows, wetlands, river corridors) require maintenance through active management, due to the decrease of water flow and absence of agriculture (hay cutting). The buffer zone that has been proposed by both State Parties appears sufficient to provide effective protection of the integrity of the property from threats from outside its boundaries. There are some connectivity challenges, from barriers inside the property, and its relative isolation within surrounding agricultural landscapes, that require continued management and monitoring.
Protection and management requirements
The property benefits from legal and institutional protection in both States Parties, through a variety of protected area designations.

Protection and management requires strong and effective cooperation between the States Parties, and also between institutions in each State Party. The Bialowieza National Park (Poland), the Polish Forestry Administration and the Belovezhskaya Pushcha National Park authorities have entered into an agreement regarding preparation and implementation of an integrated management plan for the nominated property, and to establish a transboundary steering group. In addition the State Party of Poland has developed an agreement establishing a Steering Committee between the National Park and the Forest Administration aiming to achieve a coordinated approach to integrated management. It is essential to ensure the effective functioning of this Steering Committee, including through regular meetings, and its input to transboundary coordination and management. It is essential that the national parks of both States Parties maintain effective and legally adopted management plans, and an adopted management plan for the Bialowieza National Park (Poland), to support its inclusion in the property, is an essential and long-term requirement.

It is essential to ensure that the integrated management plan for the property addresses all key issues concerning the effective management of this property, particularly forest, meadows and wetlands management, and that it is adequately funded on a long term basis to ensure its effective implementation.

Effective and well-resourced conservation management is the main long-term requirement to secure the property, and maintain the necessary management interventions that sustain its natural values. Threats that require long-term attention via monitoring and continued management programmes include fire management, the impacts of barriers to connectivity, including roads, firebreaks and the border fence. There is also scope to continually improve aspects of the management of the property, including in relation to ensuring connectivity within the property, and in its wider landscape, and to also secure enhanced community engagement.

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Białowieża Forest The Białowieża Forest World Heritage site, on the border between Poland and Belarus, is an immense range of primary forest including both conifers and broadleaved trees covering a total area of 141,885 hectares. Situated on the watershed of the Baltic Sea and Black Sea, this transboundary property is exceptional for the opportunities it offers for biodiversity conservation.