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Why do Americans Celebrate Cinco de Mayo more

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Why do Americans Celebrate Cinco de Mayo more

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Cinco de Mayo has roots in Mexico, but it's become more widely celebrated in the US.

In Mexico, celebrations are smaller, and the day typically focuses on a military win.

But in the US, the day's festivities have become commercialized and focus on drinking and eating.

Visit Insider's homepage for more stories.

Cinco de Mayo doesn't celebrate Mexican Independence Day as many in the US believe.

Though many Americans assume Cinco de Mayo is Mexican Independence Day, that's not true. But it does have a military history.

On May 5, 1862, French troops - about 6,000 in number - led by General Charles de Lorencez attacked a small town in east-central Mexico called Puebla de los Ángeles. In response, Mexican President Benito Juárez sent around 2,000 of his men to fight.

In the short battle, the French were losing far more soldiers than the Mexican army, and they withdrew. The win didn't end Mexico's war with France, but the victory did become a symbol of resistance against French imperialism.

The actual Mexican Independence Day is September 16.

In the US, Mexican-Americans started observing Cinco de Mayo during the Civil War as a way to celebrate their heritage.

Although many use Cinco de Mayo as another day to party today, the holiday is an opportunity to celebrate Mexican identity, promote ethnic consciousness, and build community solidarity.

In the 1860s, some Americans of Mexican heritage in Southern California took inspiration from the victorious battle to fuel the Union's efforts in the American Civil War.

The fifth of May was originally celebrated with festivities like parades, dances, banquets, and bullfighting by those Californians.

Today, some of the largest festivals take place in Chicago, Denver, Portland, and St. Paul.

In Mexico, the holiday is pretty much only celebrated regionally.

Today, Cinco de Mayo isn't observed throughout all of Mexico. It's primarily celebrated in Puebla, where the battle the holiday celebrates took place.

In America, it's become a pretty commercialized affair.

Throughout the early- and mid-1900s in the US, the holiday was largely community-based and centered on celebrating Mexican heritage. But by the 1980s, the day of festivities started to become commercialized.

Several alcohol companies also started taking advantage of the opportunity to capitalize on the holiday, expediting this shift.

Some children get off school for the holiday in Mexico.

It's not a federal holiday in Mexico, so banks and other establishments aren't closed. But students in Puebla get the day off from school.

The day also isn't a federal holiday in the US, and schools don't close.

In America, many have started celebrating it as a drinking holiday.

Cinco de Mayo is reportedly one of the top five drinking holidays in America, with many celebrations including tequila, beer, and margaritas.

Parties might include Mariachi bands and even traditional Mexican dancing. But just like other holidays in the US, it's led to a lot of cultural appropriation, like wearing ponchos and sombreros to take tequila shots while totally ignoring their important role in Mexican culture.

In some parts of Mexico, it's seen more as a holiday around the military.

Military parades, recreations of the Battle of Puebla, and other festivities take place in the Mexican city.

The Cinco de Mayo Parade is one of the main events for that day in Puebla and usually boasts over 20,000 participants, featuring Mariachi bands, colorful costumes, dancing, and fireworks.

In Mexico, festivities sometimes intersect with the Mole Festival.

Alongside Cinco de Mayo celebrations, the city of Puebla has also held the International Mole Festival in late April and early May for several years.

The festival celebrates mole poblano - a dark, red-brown sauce typical in some Mexican cuisine - with culinary discussions; exhibitions; and tastings from international, national, and regional chefs.

More: Features Cinco de Mayo Holidays Travel

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9 ways Cinco de Mayo is celebrated differently in the US and Mexico

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Cinco de Mayo has roots in Mexico, but it's become more widely celebrated in the US. In Mexico, celebrations are smaller, and the day typically focuses on a military win. But in the US, the day's festivities have become commercialized and focus on drinking and eating. Visit Insider's homepage for more stories.

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Why don't people from mexico celebrate Cinco de mayo

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Why don't people from mexico celebrate Cinco de mayo

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Contrary to popular belief, Cinco de Mayo doesn't commemorate Mexico's Independence Day.

May 5 marks the Mexican army's victory over France at the Battle of Puebla during the Franco-Mexican War in 1862. Mexico's Independence Day is celebrated on September 16.

A 2018 survey by NationalToday.com showed only 10% of Americans knew the true reason behind the holiday, yet it has turned into a day where people can get cheap margaritas and wear sombreros.

"Most people drinking in the bars have no idea that it's celebrating the strength in the power and the resilience of Mexican people to overcome invaders who are trying to take their land," said Alexandro Gradilla, associate professor of Chicana and Chicano Studies at California State University, Fullerton.

The history of Cinco de Mayo

French Emperor Napoleon III wanted to claim Mexican territory for himself and sent his troops to force Mexico's President Benito Juárez and the government out of Veracruz.

On May 5, 1862, in Puebla de Los Angeles, a small town in east-central Mexico, 6,000 French troops faced 2,000 Mexican soldiers at daybreak. By the evening, Mexico had claimed victory.

Days later Juárez declared May 5 a national holiday.

Celebrating Cinco de Mayo

Celebrating Cinco de Mayo was not always like this, and in fact was something Mexican Americans celebrated in the mid-1800s as an act of resistance.

"They began to celebrate that holiday because they also wanted to commemorate their acts of resistance during the U.S.-Mexico war, but also holding their own after incorporation," Gradilla said. "After Mexican Americans who decided to stay after 1848 and become U.S. citizens, they realized that all the promises the U.S. had made to them were not going to come true. They were not going to be treated as equals.

"The fact that you had Mexican communities in the southwest celebrating Cinco de Mayo was very powerful and very symbolic because what that war was about was David vs. Goliath," he said.

Racquel Soto, 30, was born in Veracruz, Mexico, and immigrated to the U.S. when she was 15. Soto later became a U.S. citizen and said the American way of celebrating Cinco de Mayo still confuses her.

"I was born near the town where this historic battle took place. My Zapotec ancestors died there, and I came to the U.S. to find all these white Americans drinking margaritas and hitting piñatas," Soto said.

Across the country, restaurants will host Cinco de Mayo specials and cocktails for the holiday. Chili's is promoting $5 Margaritas all day while Barberitos is offering free cheese dip to customers. Chipotle brought back its popular trivia game with 250,000 buy-one-get-one-free coupon codes available and will offer five $500 gift cards on its Instagram page.

'Cinco de Mayo is not just an excuse to party'

The celebration of a holiday most Americans don't understand is what Soto said she finds offensive.

Advertising and decorations about the holiday focus on the "party" aspect rather than the cultural and historical significance, Soto said. Her biggest pet peeve when it comes to the holiday? When people call it "Cinco de Drinko."

Growing up in Mexico, Soto said her family celebrated the holiday by cooking with family, dancing the national "Jarabe Tapatio" or Mexican hat dance and praying over their ancestors. When she can, Soto said she educates her American friends about the Mexican battle and victory on May 5.

"I don't care how much Corona advertises their beers and parties. Cinco de Mayo is not just an excuse to party. People lost their lives on Mexico's soil," Soto said.

There is no exact point in time when deals on Corona's and carne asada were available at grocery stores, but in "Studies in Symbolic Interaction," José M. Alamillo points out how the beer companies Anheuser-Busch, Coors and Miller spent nearly $38 million in the 1980s in Hispanic advertising that contributed to the commercialization of the holiday.

Gradilla, whose expertise includes racialization, cultural competency and institutional racism, said the advertisements these companies made to market the holiday helped create a false sense of representation for Mexicans and turned the holiday into a Mexican St. Patrick's Day.

"What's sad is that most Mexican Americans and most Latinx people don't even realize that it was originally started as a political event about resistance and about fighting against the odds," he said. "That's kind of one of the downsides of multiculturalism and diversity is that when your holiday gets included, it gets reduced down to sales on tortillas, sales on beer, sales of all you can eat at El Torito. It doesn't talk about the community that has been here and survived.

"Cinco de Mayo isn't doing that, American racism is doing that," he added.

It's American commercialization that makes Gradilla worry Juneteenth will have the same fate Cinco de Mayo has, but holidays like that and Martin Luther King Day need to be remembered for their political intent, he said.

However, Gradilla said he believes the spirit of Cinco de Mayo is still alive in places like Arizona and Georgia, where Latinx voters played a significant role in the election of President Joe Biden.

For Mexican-American Diana Garcia, the holiday gives her a chance to celebrate her culture and identity. Garcia's parents immigrated from Jalisco, Mexico 20 years ago. Garcia is the first in her family to be born in the U.S.

She and her family take the day to reminisce about Mexico, host a Mariachi band in their backyard and enjoy Birria tacos for dinner. Birria, usually made from goat meat, is a staple meal in Jalisco.

"It's not like this is for everyone, but for me it's an extra day to celebrate Mexico without being there," Garcia said.
Follow Jordan Mendoza on Twitter: @jord_mendoza.

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Cinco de Mayo is a Mexican holiday. So why does the United States celebrate it more?

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Contrary to popular belief, Cinco de Mayo doesn't commemorate Mexico's Independence Day. May 5 marks the Mexican army's victory over France at the Battle of Puebla during the Franco-Mexican War in 1862. Mexico's Independence Day is celebrated on September 16.

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Updated May 2022: Mexico's culture is rich, colourful and vibrant, influenced by its ancient civilisations such as the Aztec and Maya as well as European colonisation. Mexico is unique and probably one of the most fascinating cultures in the world.

The traditions and customs of the Mexican people are varied and diverse. They are proud of their native heritage and each region has its own cultural practices and celebrations. Many of the ancient traditions of their ancestors have been preserved making it a fascinating destination to explore. There are several indigenous groups within Mexico including the Nahuas, Otomis, Mayas, Zapotecs, Tzeltales and Tzotziles. These have all influenced the Mexican culture in terms of cuisine, medicine, rituals and language.

Ancient Chichen Itza. Photo: shutterstock

Music and dance feature heavily in Mexican culture. Mariachi music dates back to the 18th century and is well-known and loved. Traditionally mariachi bands consist of 5 musicians wearing 'charro' suits. If you haven't already heard the song "La Cucaracha" (the cockroach!) then you probably will at some stage of your Mexico travels, as it is played by mariachi bands everywhere - on the street and in restaurants.

Folk dancing is also common throughout Mexico. The Jarabe Tapatio (Mexican Hat Dance) is one of the iconic dances of Mexico - probably the country's national dance. It celebrates courtship and the dancing is performed around a sombrero.

International Mariachi & Charros festival in Guadalajara, Mexico. Photo: Shutterstock

Festivals and fiestas are extremely important in Mexico and celebrated even in the smallest villages. Every community has its own patron saint who is honoured with celebrations and processions every year. From the most remote indigenous village to the most sophisticated suburb of Mexico City - everywhere devotes at least one day a year to a fiesta - often many more!

So if you want to experience the colour and vitality of a Mexican festival or fiesta, then you will need to plan your Mexico travels accordingly, and this is where Chimu can help.

Here is a selection of Mexico's National Days and festivals.

Independence Day (16th September)

This is Mexico's most important National Holiday that celebrates Mexico's liberation from Spanish rule in 1810. Mexico City is a great place to be for this festival with the Cry of Independence being recited in the Zocalo followed by fireworks, music and dancing.

Day of the Dead (1st & 2nd November)

During this festival, offerings are made to the souls of ancestors. Shrines are built in homes to honour departed relatives and there are often all-night vigils at graves. Market stalls sell pan de muertos and colourfully iced sugar skulls. At Lago de Pátzcuaro there is a beautiful torch-lighting ceremony, festive dances and a ceremony on Janitzio, an island in the middle of the lake.

Day of the Dead Parade, Mexico City. Photo: Shutterstock

Feast of Our Lady of Guadalupe (12th December)

This is a religious festival held in honour of Mary, the Virgin of Guadalupe. Catholics make a pilgrimage to the Basilica of Guadalupe in Mexico City to see an image of Mary. This is probably the most important religious holiday in Mexico.

Festival of the Virgin of Guadalupe. Photo: Shutterstock

Semana Santa (Holy Week)

This is Mexico's main holiday, a deeply religious festival that celebrates the resurrection of Christ. There are pilgrimages and processions. Head to Iztapalapa outside Mexico City where the festival is on a huge scale and involves buckets of fake blood!

Guelaguetza Festival (July)

Guelaguetza Festival, Oaxaca, Mexico. Photo: Shutterstock

If you are in Oaxaca in July, you may be able to witness this indigenous cultural event that celebrates the traditions and cultures of the region. Traditional clothing, folk dances and local foods are all part of this colourful event.

Fiesta de San Cristobal (16th to 25th July)

Also in July is the Fiesta de San Cristobal, held not surprisingly in San Cristobal de las Casas! Colourful and vibrant, this fiesta features fireworks, parades, marimba bands and parties and plenty of traditions of the Chiapas region.
Immerse yourself in the culture of Mexico and plan a tour to Mexico and Central America with the help of Chimu Adventures? Contact us today.
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The Culture and Customs of Mexico - National days and Festivals

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Updated May 2022: Mexico's culture is rich, colourful and vibrant, influenced by its ancient civilisations such as the Aztec and Maya as well as European colonisation. Mexico is unique and probably one of the most fascinating cultures in the world. The traditions and customs of the Mexican people are varied and diverse.

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Mexico is a country of rich culinary history, with food making up an important part of its culture and traditions.

Its cuisine reflects not just the diverse landscape and the countless crops produced there, but its links to cultures which span back thousands of years.

Authentic Mexican food is believed to have originated from the Mayan Indians, nomadic hunters whose diets mainly included wild game, tropical fruits and beans.

Salsa made from an early kind of tomato was first sold in Aztec market places, as were avocados and cashews, while enchiladas have also been linked to the Aztecs.

Cocoa was also highly prized in the Aztec Empire, where it was used by the upper classes to make a thick chocolate drink, as well as being used as a currency.

There is archaeological evidence that chilli peppers were in use since 5000 BC, but in the 1300s chillies found their way into staple diets, along with honey and salt.

Meanwhile, the Spanish invasion of 1521 saw the introduction of dairy products, garlic, wheat and livestock such as sheep, pigs and cows - as well the start of Mexican crops such as coca, tomatoes and chillies making their way to Europe.

Over the centuries cuisines including Caribbean, South American, French, West African and Portuguese have all had their influence on Mexican cooking, but it is one of the country's oldest crops - corn - which has continued to shape Mexican diets.

Corn is a native crop to Mexico, having first been grown there more than 7000 years ago. Cultivated from a wild grass called teosinte, today there are more than 60 different varieties grown across the country. Its versatility as a crop means that production has steadily increased over the years. Corn is used in more than 4000 products ranging from oil and paint to toothpaste and paper, and its production has risen to more than 25m tonnes to meet demand.

It is the grain's presence in Mexican food, however, which makes it especially significant to the country. Every day more than 300m corn-made tortillas are eaten by Mexican people, while corn is also a key ingredient in dishes including quesadillas, tacos, tamales, hopes and huaraches.

It is also at the heart of many meals which feature in national events, including the country's national month in September, which features a celebration of Mexico's independence.

Throughout the month restaurants prepare special menus which feature typical corn-based foods, as well as other national dishes such as pambazos, which consists of bread stuffed with potatoes and sausage; chillies in walnut sauce; and chicken with mole - a dish which includes cocoa, five types of chillies, tomatoes and spices.

Today Mexico's diverse food is eaten around the world, with its dishes - and the crops the nation's farmers produce - continuing to influence menus in other countries and cultures.

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Mexico's corn and chilli based cuisine takes its place at world table

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Mexico is a country of rich culinary history, with food making up an important part of its culture and traditions. Its cuisine reflects not just the diverse landscape and the countless crops produced there, but its links to cultures which span back thousands of years.

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Summary

The formation of the modern Italian state began in 1861 with the unification of most of the peninsula under the House of Savoy (Piedmont-Sardinia) into the Kingdom of Italy. Italy incorporated Venetia and the former Papal States (including Rome) by 1871 following the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71). Prior to Italian unification (also known as the Risorgimento), the United States had diplomatic relations with the main entities of the Italian peninsula: the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and the Papal States.

With the exception of the World War II years when Benito Mussolini's government declared war upon the United States (1941-43), the United States has had warm relations with the Kingdom of Italy and, after 1946, its successor, the Republic of Italy. Currently, the United States and Italy share strong bilateral relations. Italy is a member of NATO and is a founding member of the European Union.

Recognition

U.S. Recognition of Italian Independence, .

The United States officially recognized the Kingdom of Italy when it accepted the credentials of Chevalier Joseph Bertinatti as Minister Plenipotentiary of the Kingdom of Italy on April 11, 1861.

Consular Presence

U.S. Consulate Generals.

Prior to the Risorgimento of 1861, the Italian peninsula was fragmented into different kingdoms, city-states, duchies, etc. The U.S. established a presence at virtually every seaport because trade, shipping, and seamen protection were all major functions in protecting and enhancing American interests. This explains why there were numerous U.S. Consulates General, from the late eighteenth century through the mid-nineteenth century, scattered throughout the region. Below is a list of U.S. Consulate Generals that were located within what today would be the borders of Italy.

Leghorn (1794-1941)

Genoa (1797-1993)

Trieste (1797-1966)

Rome (1797-1965)

Venice (1797-1963)

Messina (1805-1934)

Palermo (1805-1994)

Florence (1823-current)

Ancona (1840-1907)

Ravenna (1844-1867)

Carrara (1852-1916)

Spezzia (1856-1876)

Otranto (1861-1867)

Taranto (1861-1872)

Civita Vecchia (1861-1907)

Porto D-Anzio (1862-?)

Capriano (1863-?)

Gallipoli (1864-1866)

Turin (1864-1967)

Ostia (1864-?)

Milan (1865-current)

Naples (1796-current)

Gioja (1868-?)

Castellamare (1869-1908)

Trapani (1869-1907)

Salerno (1871-?)

Pozzouli (1873-1884)

Girgenti (1875-1907)

Bari (1878-1953)

Rodi Garganico (1878-1907)

Verona (1880-?)

Milazzo (1880-1895)

Bologna (1881-1910)

Carini (1882-1907)

Catania (1883-1927)

San Remo (1883-1909)

Sorrento (1893-1908)

Reggio, Calabria (1895-1907)

Capri (1901-1914)

Aegean Sea Islands (1931-1938)

Brindisi (1864-1880)

The United States currently has Consulate Generals in Florence, Milan and Naples.

Diplomatic Relations

Elevation of American Legation to Embassy Status, .

The legation was elevated to an embassy when James J. Van Allen was appointed ambassador on October 23, 1893, though he declined the appointment. Wayne MacVeagh became the first official U.S. Ambassador to Italy when he presented his credentials in Rome on March 11, 1894.

American Embassy in Italy Re-opened, 1945.

Ambassador Alexander C. Kirk re-opened the U.S. Embassy in Rome when he presented his credentials on January 8, 1945.

Resources

Department of State Country Fact Sheet: Italy

Department of State Country Information: Italy

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Italy - Countries - Office of the Historian

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The formation of the modern Italian state began in 1861 with the unification of most of the peninsula under the House of Savoy (Piedmont-Sardinia) into the Kingdom of Italy. Italy incorporated Venetia and the former Papal States (including Rome) by 1871 following the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71).

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https://www.choctawnation.com/chief/1866-allen-wright

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Allen Wright

1866 - 1870

Allen Wright was born in Attla County, Mississippi in November 1826. Known as Kilihote in his native language he was orphaned at the age of 13. He went to live with Reverend Cyrus Kingsbury and attended Pine Ridge Mission School near Doaksville. After four years there he entered the major tribal school, Spencer Academy. Later he attended Delaware College, Union College in New York and Union Theological Seminary in New York City. After completion of his studies he was ordained by the Presbyterian Church. He was the principal instructor at Armstrong Academy during the 1855-1856 school term. He married Harriet Newell Mitchell of Ohio in 1857.

Allen Wright became a member of the Choctaw Council in 1856, was elected treasurer of the Choctaw Nation in 1859, and under a new constitution he became a member of the Choctaw Council in 1861. During the Civil War the Choctaws joined forces with the Confederate Army. Because of their allegiance with the South they renounced all of its previous treaties with the United States. At the close of the war the tribe was in poverty and it was Allen Wright's job as Principal Chief, to negotiate a new treaty with the United States and try to reorganize a badly split tribe.

He was elected Chief of the Choctaw Nation in 1866 and served until 1870. Some of his accomplishments included translating the laws of the Chickasaw Nation from English into their native language, compiling a Choctaw dictionary for use in tribal schools, translating the book of Psalms from Hebrew into Choctaw, was editor of the Indian Champion, and was a charter member of the first Masonic Lodge in Oklahoma. Chief Wright also helped name the state of Oklahoma. He passed away December 2, 1885 and was buried at Boggy Depot in Atoka County.

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Allen Wright 1866 - 1870 Allen Wright was born in Attla County, Mississippi in November 1826. Known as Kilihote in his native language he was orphaned at the age of 13. He went to live with Reverend Cyrus Kingsbury and attended Pine Ridge Mission School near Doaksville.

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Philippines Public Holidays and Festivals

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Philippines Public Holidays and Festivals

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Silent Gardens - Philippines Islands Vacation & Travel Advice

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MAY

VIVA VIGAN

1st Week - Features painting, product exhibits and the calesa parade.

TAPUSAN

Held throughout the month in Alitagtag, Batangas, to honor the Holy Cross.

BOHOL

Month long celebrations throughout the province, where sumptuous feasts are prepared. All Boholanos are expected to return home for the fiesta.

PISTA'Y DAYAT

May 1 - Held in Lingayen, Pangasinan to celebrate the rich harvest of seafood in the province.

ALINSANGAN "BOA-BOAHAN"

May1 - A fertility festival of pagan origin, held in Nabua, Camarines Sur.

CARABAO CARROZA RACE FESTIVAL

May 3 - Held in Pavia, lloilo. The race features the fastest water buffalos in the area pulling bamboo carts.

RODEO FILIPINO

May 6-9 - The highlight of Masbate's Livestock Week, it focuses on the importance of cattle raising to the island's economy.

PAHIYAS

May 15 - Honors San Isidro, the patron saint of farmers. Beautiful decorations, made of edible rice dough, are placed on the exteriors of houses in Lucban, Laguna, representing various agricultural proaucis.

TABANOG

3rd Sunday - A kite flying competition held in Cagayan De Oro City.

MAMMANGUI FESTIVAL

May 30 - Held in Ilagan, Isabela province in the North

SUBIRAN REGATTA

Held during the last week of May in Tacloban, the festival features sailboat races.

JUNE

BUKLOG

Held in Dipolog City, Mindanao, the festival features stationary dancing by native Subanens on three meter structures.

ARAW NG MAYNILA

June 24 - Celebrates the founding of Manila with parades, sports events and the Manila Film Festival.

JOHN'S DAY

June 24 - The feast of St. John the Baptist is celebrated in various parts of the nation, including San Juan, Manila; Balayan, Batangas and Camiguin Island. Part of the merry making is water dousing.

SUBLIAN SA BATANGAS

June 26 - Celebrates the Foundation Day of Batangas City.

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Philippines Public Holidays and Festivals

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VIVA VIGAN 1st Week - Features painting, product exhibits and the calesa parade. TAPUSAN Held throughout the month in Alitagtag, Batangas, to honor the Holy Cross. BOHOL Month long celebrations throughout the province, where sumptuous feasts are prepared. All Boholanos are expected to return home for the fiesta.

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Italian Americans - History, Early immigration, The emergence oflittle italies, Acculturation and Assimilation

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Italian Americans - History, Early immigration, The emergence oflittle italies, Acculturation and Assimilation Ha-La

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The Mexican flag has a background of three vertical sections; green on the left, white in the middle, and red on the right side. In the center of the flag, in the white section, the Mexican coat of arms is displayed. The three colors of the vertical stripes were chosen following the War of Independe…

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Italy's location on the Mediterranean linked it with the trade routes of the ancient civilizations that developed in the region. With the city of Rome's rise to power, the Italian peninsula became the center of a huge empire that lasted for centuries. ( Learn about Ancient Rome.)

Italy's first societies emerged around 1200 B.C. Around 800 B.C. Greeks settled in the south and Etruscans arose in central Italy. By the sixth century B.C., the Etruscans had created a group of states called Etruria. Meanwhile, Latin and Sabine people south of Etruria merged to form a strong city-state called Rome.

Etruscan kings ruled Rome for nearly a hundred years. But Romans tossed out the Etruscans in 510 B.C. and went on to conquer the whole peninsula. They then set out to build a vast empire. At its greatest extent, in A.D. 117, the Roman Empire stretched from Portugal to Syria to Britain to North Africa.

The first sole emperor of Rome, Octavian, took power in 27 B.C. and took the name Augustus Caesar. For more than 400 years, the empire flourished. But by the fourth century A.D., it was in decline. In 395, the empire was split in two, and in 476, Germanic tribes from the north toppled the last emperor.

In the 12th century, Italian city-states began to rise again and grow rich on trade. But Italy remained a patchwork of territories, some of which were controlled by foreign dynasties. Beginning in 1859, an uprising forced the foreigners out, and in 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed.

In 1914, Italy took the side of the United Kingdom and the U.S. in World War I, but was left in poverty at war's end. Benito Mussolini and his Fascist Party rose to power promising to restore the Roman Empire. He ruled as a dictator and entered World War II on the side of Germany and Japan. He was later captured and executed.

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Italy is a boot-shaped peninsula that juts out of southern Europe into the Adriatic Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, Mediterranean Sea, and other waters.

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50 facts and more about Italy - Italian Travel Bureau

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Not all people in Italy speak proper Italian, but one of its many Italian dialects. Some of the older people can neither speak Italian, but only the local dialect or will speak only German when living in the Northern Region of Alto Adige, or French dialect in the Valle d'Aosta

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Table of Contents

vertically striped green-white-red national flag. Its width-to-length ratio is 2 to 3.

A rich history of flags and coats of arms has existed in Italy since at least the 1200s, but the lack of national unification meant that there was no recognized flag representing all Italian-populated areas. The nationalism inspired by the French Revolution led to the formation of political and military groups throughout Italy dedicated to replacing the old autocratic regimes with new governments, but the seeds were also sown for a unified Italian state. The original green-white-red tricolour was presented to the National Guard of the Transpadane Republic (in Lombardy) on October 9, 1796. The colours were supposedly based on those found in the uniforms of the urban militia of Milan. The nearby Cispadane Republic chose the same colours in a horizontal layout-the first authentic Italian national flag, adopted on February 25, 1797. The Cisalpine Republic chose the vertical positioning on May 11, 1798, and thereafter that flag was considered by all Italian nationalists as the true flag of their homeland. Its success was guaranteed by the decree of March 23, 1848, signed by King Charles Albert of Sardinia, ordering Italian troops to carry the tricolour in their battles against the Austrian army. A month later the flag replaced the former national flag of Sardinia, and revolutionaries throughout the Italian peninsula likewise rallied to the green-white-red.

Italy was finally united in 1870. At that time its green-white-red tricolour bore a shield and cross (and, when used for official purposes, a royal crown) representing the ruling house of Savoy. After June 19, 1946, those symbols were removed from the tricolour following a referendum that ended the monarchy and established the Italian Republic.

Whitney Smith

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vertically striped green-white-red national flag. Its width-to-length ratio is 2 to 3.A rich history of flags and coats of arms has existed in Italy since at least the 1200s, but the lack of national unification meant that there was no recognized flag representing all Italian-populated areas.

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Table of Contents

vertically striped green-white-red national flag. Its width-to-length ratio is 2 to 3.

A rich history of flags and coats of arms has existed in Italy since at least the 1200s, but the lack of national unification meant that there was no recognized flag representing all Italian-populated areas. The nationalism inspired by the French Revolution led to the formation of political and military groups throughout Italy dedicated to replacing the old autocratic regimes with new governments, but the seeds were also sown for a unified Italian state. The original green-white-red tricolour was presented to the National Guard of the Transpadane Republic (in Lombardy) on October 9, 1796. The colours were supposedly based on those found in the uniforms of the urban militia of Milan. The nearby Cispadane Republic chose the same colours in a horizontal layout-the first authentic Italian national flag, adopted on February 25, 1797. The Cisalpine Republic chose the vertical positioning on May 11, 1798, and thereafter that flag was considered by all Italian nationalists as the true flag of their homeland. Its success was guaranteed by the decree of March 23, 1848, signed by King Charles Albert of Sardinia, ordering Italian troops to carry the tricolour in their battles against the Austrian army. A month later the flag replaced the former national flag of Sardinia, and revolutionaries throughout the Italian peninsula likewise rallied to the green-white-red.

Italy was finally united in 1870. At that time its green-white-red tricolour bore a shield and cross (and, when used for official purposes, a royal crown) representing the ruling house of Savoy. After June 19, 1946, those symbols were removed from the tricolour following a referendum that ended the monarchy and established the Italian Republic.

Whitney Smith

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vertically striped green-white-red national flag. Its width-to-length ratio is 2 to 3.A rich history of flags and coats of arms has existed in Italy since at least the 1200s, but the lack of national unification meant that there was no recognized flag representing all Italian-populated areas.

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The Day of the Dead (el Día de los Muertos), is a Mexican holiday where families welcome back the souls of their deceased relatives for a brief reunion that includes food, drink and celebration.

A blend of Mesoamerican ritual, European religion and Spanish culture, the holiday is celebrated each year from October 31-November 2. While October 31 is Halloween, November 1-2 is All Souls Day or the Day of the Dead. According to tradition, the gates of heaven are opened at midnight on October 31 and the spirits of children can rejoin their families for 24 hours. The spirits of adults can do the same on November 2.

Origins of Day of the Dead

The roots of the Day of the Dead, celebrated in contemporary Mexico and among those of Mexican heritage in the United States and around the world, go back some 3,000 years, to the rituals honoring the dead in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. The Aztecs and other Nahua people living in what is now central Mexico held a cyclical view of the universe, and saw death as an integral, ever-present part of life.

Upon dying, a person was believed to travel to Chicunamictlán, the Land of the Dead. Only after getting through nine challenging levels, a journey of several years, could the person's soul finally reach Mictlán, the final resting place. In Nahua rituals honoring the dead, traditionally held in August, family members provided food, water and tools to aid the deceased in this difficult journey. This inspired the contemporary Day of the Dead practice in which people leave food or other offerings on their loved ones' graves, or set them out on makeshift altars called ofrendasin their homes.

Day of the Dead vs. All Souls Day

In ancient Europe, pagan celebrations of the dead also took place in the fall, and consisted of bonfires, dancing and feasting. Some of these customs survived even after the rise of the Roman Catholic Church, which (unofficially) adopted them into their celebrations of two Catholic holidays, All Saints Day and All Souls Day, celebrated on the first two days of November.

In medieval Spain, people would bring bring wine and pan de ánimas (spirit bread) to the graves of their loved ones on All Souls Day; they would also cover graves with flowers and light candles to illuminate the dead souls' way back to their homes on Earth. In the 16th century, Spanish conquistadores brought such traditions with them to the New World, along with a darker view of death influenced by the devastation of the bubonic plague.

How Is the Day of the Dead Celebrated?

El Día de los Muertos is not, as is commonly thought, a Mexican version of Halloween, though the two holidays do share some traditions, including costumes and parades. On the Day of the Dead, it's believed that the border between the spirit world and the real world dissolves. During this brief period, the souls of the dead awaken and return to the living world to feast, drink, dance and play music with their loved ones. In turn, the living family members treat the deceased as honored guests in their celebrations, and leave the deceased's favorite foods and other offerings at gravesites or on the ofrendas built in their homes. Ofrendas can be decorated with candles, bright marigolds called cempasuchil and red cock's combs alongside food like stacks of tortillas and fruit.

The most prominent symbols related to the Day of the Dead are calacas (skeletons) and calaveras (skulls). In the early 20th century, the printer and cartoonist José Guadalupe Posada incorporated skeletal figures in his art mocking politicians and commenting on revolutionary politics. His most well-known work, La Calavera Catrina, or Elegant Skull, features a female skeleton adorned with makeup and dressed in fancy clothes. The 1910 etching was intended as a statement about Mexicans adopting European fashions over their own heritage and traditions. La Calavera Catrina was then adopted as one of the most recognizable Day of the Dead icons.

During contemporary Day of the Dead festivities, people commonly wear skull masks and eat sugar candy molded into the shape of skulls. The pan de ánimas of All Souls Day rituals in Spain is reflected in pan de muerto, the traditional sweet baked good of Day of the Dead celebrations today. Other food and drink associated with the holiday, but consumed year-round as well, include spicy dark chocolate and the corn-based drink called atole. You can wish someone a happy Day of the Dead by saying, "Feliz día de los Muertos."

Movies Featuring Day of the Dead

Traditionally, the Day of the Dead was celebrated largely in the more rural, indigenous areas of Mexico, but starting in the 1980s it began spreading into the cities. UNESCO reflected growing awareness of the holiday in 2008, when it added Mexico's "Indigenous festivity dedicated to the dead" to its list of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

In recent years, the tradition has developed even more due to its visibility in pop culture and its growing popularity in the United States, where more than 36 million people identified as being of partial or full Mexican ancestry as of 2016, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.

Inspired by the 2015 James Bond movie Spectre, which featured a large Day of the Dead parade, Mexico City held its first-ever parade for the holiday in 2016. In 2017, a number of major U.S. cities, including Chicago, Los Angeles, San Antonio and Fort Lauderdale, held Day of the Dead parades. That November, Disney and Pixar released the blockbuster animated hit Coco, a $175 million homage to the Mexican tradition in which a young boy is transported to the Land of the Dead and meets up with his long-lost ancestors.

Though the particular customs and scale of Day of the Dead celebrations continue to evolve, the heart of the holiday has remained the same over thousands of years. It's an occasion for remembering and celebrating those who have passed on from this world, while at the same time portraying death in a more positive light, as a natural part of the human experience.

Sources

Día de los Muertos: A Brief History, National Hispanic Cultural Center
Giardina, Carolyn, "'Coco': How Pixar Brought its 'Day of the Dead' Story to Life," Hollywood Reporter, December 12, 2017
Dobrin, Isabel, "Día de los Muertos Comes to Life Across the Mexican Diaspora," NPR, November 2, 2017
Scott, Chris. "Day of the Dead parade - Life imitates art," CNN, October 28, 2016
Mictlantecuhtli, Ancient History Encyclopedia

Fact Check

We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.

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Day of the Dead (Día de los Muertos) - Origins, Celebrations, Parade

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On the Mexican holiday known as the Day of the Dead, families welcome back the souls of their deceased relatives for a brief reunion that includes food, drink and celebration.

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https://jis.gov.jm/information/jamaican-history/

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History of Jamaica

The history of Jamaica is a rich and vibrant one, which inspires us to move forward as a nation. Our history speaks to experiences of hardships and prosperity; and the growth and determination of a people. Jamaica's history has been poetically composed by Howard Pyle, who states:

Jamaica, like many another of the West Indian Islands, is like a woman with a history. She has had her experiences and has lived her life rapidly. She has enjoyed a fever of prosperity founded upon those incalculable treasures poured into her lap by the old time buccaneer pirates. She has suffered earthquake, famine, pestilence, fire and death: and she has been the home of cruel merciless slavery, hardly second to that practised by the Spaniards themselves. Other countries have taken centuries to grow from their primitive life through the flower and fruit of prosperity into the seed time of picturesque decrepitude. Jamaica has lived through it all in a few years.

- Howard Pyle, "Jamaica New and Old" in Harper's New Monthly Magazine, January 1890

Original Inhabitants

The original inhabitants of Jamaica are believed to be the Arawaks, also called Tainos. They came from South America 2,500 years ago and named the island Xaymaca, which meant ""land of wood and water". The Arawaks were a mild and simple people by nature. Physically, they were light brown in colour, short and well-shaped with coarse, black hair. Their faces were broad and their noses flat.

They grew cassava, sweet potatoes, maize (corn), fruits, vegetables, cotton and tobacco. Tobacco was grown on a large scale as smoking was their most popular pastime.
They built their villages all over the island but most of them settled on the coasts and near rivers as they fished to get food. Fish was also a major part of their diet.

The Arawaks led quiet and peaceful lives until they were destroyed by the Spaniards some years after Christopher Columbus discovered the island in 1494.

The Discovery of Jamaica

On May 5, 1494 Christopher Columbus, the European explorer, who sailed west to get to the East Indies and came upon the region now called the West Indies, landed in Jamaica. This occurred on his second voyage to the West Indies. Columbus had heard about Jamaica, then called Xaymaca, from the Cubans who described it as "the land of blessed gold". Columbus was soon to find out that there was no gold in Jamaica.

On arrival at St Ann's Bay, Columbus found the Arawak Indians inhabiting the island. Initially, Columbus thought these Indians were hostile, as they attacked his men when they tried to land on the island. As he was determined to annex the island in the name of the king and queen of Spain, he was not deterred. Columbus also needed wood and water and a chance to repair his vessels. He sailed down the coast and docked at Discovery Bay. The Arawaks there were also hostile to the Spaniards. Their attitudes changed however, when they were attacked by a dog from one of the Spanish ships and Columbus' cross-bow men. Some of the Arawaks were killed and wounded in this attack. Columbus was then able to land and claim the island.

The Spaniards, when they came, tortured and killed the Arawaks to get their land. They were so overworked and ill-treated that within a short time they had all died. The process was aided by the introduction of European diseases to which the Arawaks had little or no resistance.

The island remained poor under Spanish rule as few Spaniards settled here. Jamaica served mainly as a supply base: food, men, arms and horse were shipped here to help in conquering the American mainland.

Fifteen years later in 1509, after their first visit to the island, the first Spanish colonists came here under the Spanish governor Juan de Esquivel. They first settled in the St. Ann's Bay area. The first town was called New Seville or Sevilla la Nueva.

Towns were little more than settlements. The only town that was developed was Spanish Town, the old capital of Jamaica, then called St. Jago de la Vega. It was the centre of government and trade and had many churches and convents.

The little attention the colony received from Spain soon led to a major reason for internal strife. This contributed to the weakening of the colony in the last years of Spanish occupation. The governors were not getting proper support from home and quarrels with church authorities undermined their control. Frequent attacks by pirates also contributed to the colony's woes.

The English Attack

On May 10, 1655, Admiral William Penn and General Robert Venables led a successful attack on Jamaica. The Spaniards surrendered to the English, freed their slaves and then fled to Cuba. It was this set of freed slaves and their descendants who became known as the Maroons.

The early period of English settlement in Jamaica, drew much attention to the buccaneers based at Port Royal. Buccaneering had begun on the islands of Tortuga and Hispaniola. They were a wild, rough and ruthless set of sea rovers. They took their loot of gold, silver and jewels to Port Royal.

Port Royal prior to this time was an insignificant town in Jamaica. Under the buccaneers' leadership the town, within a decade and a half, grew to become known as one of the "wealthiest and wickedest city in the world".

The greatest buccaneer captain of all was Henry Morgan. He started out as a pirate and later became a privateer. Morgan mercilessly raided Spanish fleet and colonies. He kept the Spaniards busy defending their coasts that they had little time to attack Jamaica. Morgan was knighted by king Charles II of England and was appointed Lieutenant governor of Jamaica in 1673. Morgan died in 1688.

A violent earthquake destroyed Port Royal on June 7, 1692. The survivors of the earthquake who re-settled in Kingston abandoned the Port. Port Royal became an important naval base in the eighteenth century.

The Slave Trade

The English settlers concerned themselves with growing crops that could easily be sold in England. Tobacco, indigo and cocoa soon gave way to sugar which became the main crop for the island.
The sugar industry grew so rapidly that the 57 sugar estates in the island in 1673 grew to nearly 430 by 1739.

Enslaved Africans filled the large labour force required for the industry. The colonists were impressed with the performance and endurance of the Africans, as well as the fact that African labour was cheaper and more promising. They continued to ship Africans to the West Indies to be sold to planters who forced them to work on sugar plantations.

The slave trade became a popular and profitable venture for the colonists. In fact the transportation of slaves became such a regular affair that the journey from Africa to the West Indies became known as the 'Middle Passage'. The voyage was so named because the journey of a British slaver was 3-sided, starting from England with trade goods, to Africa where these were exchanged for slaves. Afterwards, the journey continued to the West Indies where the slaves were landed and sugar, rum and molasses taken aboard for the final leg of the journey back to England.

The slaves, however, were unhappy with their status, so they rebelled whenever they could. Many of them were successful in running away from the plantations and joining the Maroons in the almost inaccessible mountains.

Several slave rebellions stand out in Jamaica's history for example, the Easter Rebellion of 1760 led by Tacky; and the Christmas Rebellion of 1831 which began on the Kensington Estate in St. James, led by Sam Sharpe. He has since been named a National Hero.

The Maroons also had several wars against the English. In 1739 and 1740 after two major Maroon Wars, treaties were signed with the British. In the treaty of 1740, they were given land and rights as free men. In return they were to stop fighting and help to recapture run-away slaves. This treaty resulted in a rift among the Maroons as they did not all agree that they should return run-away slaves to the plantations.

The frequent slave rebellions in the Caribbean was one factor that led to the abolition of the slave trade and slavery. Other factors included the work of humanitarians who were concerned about the slaves' well-being. Humanitarian groups such as the Quakers publicly protested against slavery and the slave trade. They formed an anti slavery committee which was joined by supporters such as Granville Sharp, James Ramsay, Thomas Clarkson and later on, William Wilberforce.

On January 1, 1808 the Abolition Bill was passed. Trading in African slaves was declared to be "utterly abolished, prohibited and declared to be unlawful". Emancipation and apprenticeship came into effect in 1834 and full freedom was granted in 1838.

The immediate post slavery days were very difficult for the poorer classes. Though most of the English planters had left the islands and new owners were running the plantations, the old oligarchic system still remained. The will of the masses was not deemed important and hence ignored. To add fuel to the already burning flame, the American Civil War resulted in supplies being cut off from the island. A severe drought was also in progress and most crops were ruined.

In October 1865, an uprising in St. Thomas, called the Morant Bay Rebellion, was led by Paul Bogle. Bogle and his men stormed the Morant Bay Courthouse while it was in session. A number of white people was killed including the custos of the parish. The rebellion was put down by the Governor, Edward John Eyre. More than 430 people were executed or shot, hundreds more flogged and 1,000 dwellings destroyed.

Paul Bogle and George William Gordon, now National Heroes, were hanged. George Gordon was a prominent coloured legislator who was sympathetic to the problems of the poor people and was blamed for the trouble caused by the masses.

Eyre was subsequently recalled to England but not before exchanging the ancient Constitution for the Crown Colony system. The succeeding years saw the island's recovery and development - social, constitutional and economic, and its evolution into a sovereign state.

Education, health, and social services were greatly improved. A proper island-wide savings back system was organised. Roads, bridges and railways (railways became government owned in 1845) were built and cable communication with Europe established (1859). The island's capital was moved from Spanish Town to Kingston (1872).

The 1930s saw Jamaica heading towards another crisis. The contributing factors were discontent at the slow pace of political advance. For example, the distress caused by a world-wide economic depression, the ruin of the banana industry by the Panama industry Disease, falling sugar prices, growing unemployment aggravated by the curtailment of migration opportunities and a steeply rising population growth rate. In 1938 things came to a head with widespread violence and rioting.

Out of these disturbances came the formation of the first labour unions and the formation of the two major political parties.
These were the Bustamante industrial Trade Union (BITU) named after the founder, Sir Alexander Bustamante. He was also the founder and leader of the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP), the political party affiliated with the BITU. Norman Manley was the founder of the National Workers' union and the political party the People's National Party (PNP).

Both Sir Alexander Bustamante and Norman Manley were instrumental in Jamaica's move towards self-government. The first general elections under Universal Adult Suffrage was held in December 1944.

In 1958, Jamaica and ten (10) other Caribbean countries formed the Federation of the West Indies. The concept of Caribbean unity was soon abandoned in 1961 when Jamaicans voted against the Federation of the West Indies.

On August 6, 1962, Jamaica was granted its independence from England. Jamaica now has its own constitution which sets out the laws by which the people are governed. The constitution provides for the freedom, equality and justice for all who dwell in the country.

The Jamaican Constitution

The Jamaican Constitution 1962 is the most fundamental legal document in the country, guaranteeing the freedom, rights and privileges of every Jamaican citizen. The Constitution reflects the country's independence as a nation state and, to this day, remains the cornerstone of the island's legal systems and institutions.

The Constitution took effect on August 6,1962 when Jamaica gained political independence from Britain, after more than 300 years of British colonial rule. While being the first constitution for the politically independent nation, it was not the first legal framework for the island...
Download The Architects of the Jamaican Constitution

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History of Jamaica The history of Jamaica is a rich and vibrant one, which inspires us to move forward as a nation. Our history speaks to experiences of hardships and prosperity; and the growth and determination of a people.

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The Swedish education system is ranked among the best in the world. With its emphasis on individual learning and the personal liberty to enroll children in a diverse selection of schools, many perceive Sweden as a country with a phenomenal educational infrastructure. However, Sweden still trails behind other Nordic countries, such as Finland and Norway, in global education rankings. These eight facts about education in Sweden provide an insight into the successes and shortcomings of a unique approach to maximizing the potential of Swedish youth.

8 Facts About Education in Sweden

1. The Swedish educational system is decentralized. The federal government grants localities autonomy in designing the course curriculum. However, the federal government sets standardized goals and objectives for Swedish localities to follow.

2. Education in Sweden is divided into four levels of schooling. Children may attend an optional preschool program (förskola) from 1-5 years of age. Children are then offered a place in kindergarten (förskoleklass) when they turn six years old. Following kindergarten is compulsory schooling, which is divided into three levels. Elementary school (lågstadiet) comprises the first three years of compulsory school, then middle school (mellanstadiet) for years 4-6 and finally junior high school (högstadiet) for years 7-9. After compulsory school, Swedish students may attend an optional senior high school (gymnasium) for three years.

3. Following an amendment to the law in the 1990s, the Swedish government permitted the development of publicly-funded charter schools (friskola) which act independently of the municipality. These schools are defined by an individualized approach to learning, an open-classroom layout, no uniform policy and unconventional teaching methods. Independent schooling is popular in Sweden; in 2010, approximately 12 percent of compulsory school students and 24 percent of senior high school students attended either tuition-based private schools or charter schools.

4. Sweden has a Sami population of 20,000-35,000 people. The Sami people are indigenous to Northern Sweden and other Nordic countries and specialize in the production of reindeer meat. Along with preserving their right to the development of the Sami language, traditions and crafts, the Swedish government allows Sami children to attend specialized Sami schools (Sameskolan) during the years of Swedish compulsory school.

5. Play and recess compose an integral part of the early years of education in Sweden. In accordance with the goals of the government, pre-school teachers incorporate the domains of STEM into the classroom curriculum by having the children participate in communal exercises rather than teaching the subjects at the chalkboard.

6. The Swedish government has been working hard to compete with the educational systems of other European countries. In 2014, Sweden invested a larger share of its GDP on education (6.8 percent) compared to other member countries of the OECD (5.6 percent).

7. As part of a new curriculum made for all Swedish schools, including Sami language schools, special schools and upper secondary schools, the grading system changed to the A-F scale that is commonly used in the United States. Prior to 2011, the Swedish grading system had four grades ranging from Pass with Special Distinction (MVG) down to Did Not Pass (IG).

8. According to the World Population Review, Sweden ranks tenth in the world in education, trailing behind its Nordic neighbors, Finland and Norway. Sweden's top university, the Karolinska Institute, is ranked 40th in the world.

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Eight Facts About Education in Sweden - The Borgen Project

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The Swedish education system is ranked among the best in the world. With its emphasis on individual learning and the personal liberty to enroll children in a diverse selection of schools, many perceive Sweden as a country with a phenomenal educational infrastructure.

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Table of Contents

1. Cinco de Mayo History

2. The Battle of Puebla

3. How Long Did the Battle of Puebla Last?

4. Cinco de Mayo in Mexico

5. Why Do We Celebrate Cinco de Mayo in the United States?

6. Confusion With Mexican Independence Day

Cinco de Mayo, or the fifth of May, is a holiday that celebrates the date of the Mexican army's May 5, 1862 victory over France at the Battle of Puebla during the Franco-Mexican War. The day, which falls on Friday, May 5 in 2023, is also known as Battle of Puebla Day. While it is a relatively minor holiday in Mexico, in the United States, Cinco de Mayo has evolved into a commemoration of Mexican culture and heritage, particularly in areas with large Mexican-American populations.

Cinco de Mayo History

Cinco de Mayo is not Mexican Independence Day, a popular misconception. Instead, it commemorates a single battle. In 1861, Benito Juárez-a lawyer and member of the Indigenous Zapotec tribe-was elected president of Mexico. At the time, the country was in financial ruin after years of internal strife, and the new president was forced to default on debt payments to European governments.

In response, France, Britain and Spain sent naval forces to Veracruz, Mexico, demanding repayment. Britain and Spain negotiated with Mexico and withdrew their forces.

France, however, ruled by Napoleon III, decided to use the opportunity to carve an empire out of Mexican territory. Late in 1861, a well-armed French fleet stormed Veracruz, landing a large force of troops and driving President Juárez and his government into retreat.

The Battle of Puebla

Certain that success would come swiftly, 6,000 French troops under General Charles Latrille de Lorencez set out to attack Puebla de Los Angeles, a small town in east-central Mexico. From his new headquarters in the north, Juárez rounded up a ragtag force of 2,000 loyal men-many of them either Indigenous Mexicans or of mixed ancestry-and sent them to Puebla.

The vastly outnumbered and poorly supplied Mexicans, led by Texas-born General Ignacio Zaragoza, fortified the town and prepared for the French assault. On May 5, 1862, Lorencez gathered his army-supported by heavy artillery-before the city of Puebla and led an assault.

How Long Did the Battle of Puebla Last?

The battle lasted from daybreak to early evening, and when the French finally retreated they had lost nearly 500 soldiers. Fewer than 100 Mexicans had been killed in the clash.

Although not a major strategic win in the overall war against the French, Zaragoza's success at the Battle of Puebla on May 5 represented a great symbolic victory for the Mexican government and bolstered the resistance movement. In 1867-thanks in part to military support and political pressure from the United States, which was finally in a position to aid its besieged neighbor after the end of the Civil War -France finally withdrew.

The same year, Austrian Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, who had been installed as emperor of Mexico in 1864 by Napoleon, was captured and executed by Juárez's forces. Puebla de Los Angeles was renamed for General Zaragoza, who died of typhoid fever months after his historic triumph there.

Cinco de Mayo in Mexico

Within Mexico, Cinco de Mayo is primarily observed in the state of Puebla, where Zaragoza's unlikely victory occurred, although other parts of the country also take part in the celebration.

Traditions include military parades, recreations of the Battle of Puebla and other festive events. For many Mexicans, however, May 5 is a day like any other: It is not a federal holiday, so offices, banks and stores remain open.

Why Do We Celebrate Cinco de Mayo in the United States?

In the United States, Cinco de Mayo is widely interpreted as a celebration of Mexican culture and heritage, particularly in areas with substantial Mexican-American populations.

Chicano activists raised awareness of the holiday in the 1960s, in part because they identified with the victory of Indigenous Mexicans (such as Juárez) over European invaders during the Battle of Puebla.

Today, revelers mark the occasion with parades, parties, mariachi music, Mexican folk dancing and traditional foods such as tacos and mole poblano. Some of the largest festivals are held in Los Angeles, Chicago and Houston.

Confusion With Mexican Independence Day

Many people outside Mexico mistakenly believe that Cinco de Mayo is a celebration of Mexican independence, which was declared more than 50 years before the Battle of Puebla.

Independence Day in Mexico (Día de la Independencia) is commemorated on September 16, the anniversary of the revolutionary priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla's famous " Grito de Dolores " ("Cry of Dolores," referring to the city of Dolores Hidalgo, Mexico), a call to arms that amounted to a declaration of war against the Spanish colonial government in 1810.

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Cinco de Mayo 2022: Facts, Meaning & Celebrations

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Cinco de Mayo, or the fifth of May, is a holiday that celebrates the date of the Mexican army's 1862 victory over France at the Battle of Puebla during the Franco-Mexican War.

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The Texas Hero of Cinco de Mayo: Ignacio Zaragoza, and the Origins of the Celebration

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Cinco de Mayo celebrations in the U.S., while broadly popular, are often divorced from the true origins of the holiday. Many mistakenly…

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https://accessgenealogy.com/native/choctaw-tribe.htm

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Choctaw Tribe - Choctaw Indians (possibly a corruption of the Spanish chato, 'flat' or 'flattened,' alluding to the custom of these Indians of flattening the head). An important tribe of the Muskhogean stock, formerly occupying middle and south Mississippi, their territory extending, in their most flourishing days, for some distance east of Tombigbee River, probably as far as Dallas County, Georgia. Ethnically they belong to the Choctaw branch of the Muskhogean family, which included the Choctaw, Chickasaw, Huma and their allies, and some small Indian tribes which formerly lived along Yazoo River. The dialects of the members of this branch are so closely related that they may be considered as practically identical .

Choctaw Tribe History and Ethnology

Choctaw Eagle Dance, George Catlin, 1845-8.
The Choctaw give the Eagle Dance once a year, to the War Eagle, the bird that conquers all other varieties of the Eagle species; and the tail feathers of the Eagles the Choctaw use to decorate the heads of the brave.

The earliest notice of the Choctaw Tribe is found in the De Soto narratives for 1540. The giant Tascalusa, whom he met in his march down Coosa Valley and carried to Mauvila, was a Choctaw chieftain; and the natives who fought the Spaniards so fiercely at this town belonged to a closely related tribe. When the French, about the beginning of the 18th century, began to settle colonies at Mobile, Biloxi, and New Orleans, the Choctaw came early into friendly relations with them and were their allies in their wars against other Indian tribes. In the French War on the Natchez, in 1730, a large body of Choctaw warriors served under a French officer. They continued this friendship until the English traders succeeded in drawing over to the English interest some of the east Choctaw towns. This brought on a war between them and the main body, who still adhered to the French, which continued until 1763. The Choctaw Tribe was constantly at war with the Creeks and Chickasaw. After the French had surrendered their American possessions to Great Britain, in 1763, and to some extent previously thereto, members of the tribe began to move across the Mississippi, where, in 1780, Milfort met some of their bands who were then at war with the Caddo. About 1809 a Choctaw village existed on Wichita River, and another on Bayou Chicot, Opelousas Parish, Louisiana. Morse (1820) says there were 1,200 of them on the Sabine and Neches Rivers, and about 140 on Red River, near Pecan point . It is stated by some historians that this tribe, or parties of it, participated in the Creek War; this, however, is emphatically denied by Halbert , who was informed in 1877 by some of the oldest members of the tribe that the Choctaw manifested no hostility toward the Americans during this conflict. A small band of perhaps 30 were probably the only Choctaw with the Creeks. The larger part of those in Mississippi began to migrate to Indian Territory in 1832, having ceded most of their lands to the United States in various treaties .

Choctaw Indians - Swanton

The Choctaw of Bayou Lacomb
This collection depicts the specific culture and history of the Choctaw tribe residing within Bayou Lacomb, Louisiana. Included are the geography, history, society, language, ethnology, and myths, legends and religion of the Choctaws who resided within the area of Bayou Lacomb. By the people of the tribe, or, more correctly, that portion of the tribe now under consideration, they themselves are called the Chata'ogla or the Chata' people or family. According to them, the first word can not be translated as it is merely a proper name.

History of the Choctaw, Chickasaw and Natchez Indians

1822 Congressional Report on Indian Affairs
Jedediah Morse's 1822 report to Congress of his travels through Indian Territory on behalf of the office of Secretary of War - Jedediah was tasked by a resolution of Congress to report of his travels amongst the tribes throughout the United States. Acknowledging that he did not visit all of the tribes, and that he relied on known facts and materials for the body of text he provided, Jedediah presented a large collection of tabular data and descriptive content. This data was then used by Congress to shape it's policies as it dealt with expansion further west, and specifically tribal relations.

Indian Missions of the Southern States

Choctaw Tribe Phratries

According to Morgan the Choctaw were divided into two phratries, each including 4 gentes, as follows:

A. Kushapokla (Divided people)

B. Watakihulata (Beloved people)

1. Chufaniksa (Beloved people)

2. Iskulani (Small people)

3. Chito (Large people)

4. Shakchukla (Crayfish people)

Besides these, mention is made of a gens named Urihesahe , which has not been identified. Morgan's list is probably far from complete.
Consult further:
Choctaw Tribe Culture and Life

The Choctaw were preeminently the agriculturists of the southern Indians. Though brave, their wars in most instances were defensive. No mention is made of the "great house," or "the square," in Choctaw towns, as they existed in the Creek communities, nor of the busk. The game of chunkey, as well as the ball play, was extensively practiced by them. It was their custom to clean the bones of the dead before depositing them in boxes or baskets in the bone-houses, the work being performed by "certain old gentlemen with very long nails," who allowed their nails to grow long for this purpose. The people of this tribe also followed the custom of setting up poles around the new graves, on which they hung hoops, wreaths, etc., to aid the spirit in its ascent. As their name seems to imply, they practiced artificial head flattening.

Choctaw Nation Schools in 1904

The Choctaw Freedmen and Oak Hill Industrial Academy
The aim of the Author in preparing this volume has been to put in a form, convenient for preservation and future reference, a brief historical sketch of the work and workers connected with the founding and development of Oak Hill Industrial Academy, established for the benefit of the Freedmen of the Choctaw Nation, Indian Territory, by the Presbyterian Church, U. S. A., in 1886, when Miss Eliza Hartford became the first white teacher, to the erection of Elliott Hall in 1910, and its dedication in 1912; when the name of the institution was changed to "The Alice Lee Elliott Memorial."

The MOWA Choctaws
Extinction by Reclassification: The MOWA Choctaws of South Alabama and Their Struggle for Federal Recognition - In the 1930s, Carl Carmer, a professor at the University of Alabama and author of Stars Fell on Alabama, traveled around Alabama collecting unusual stories. He said that he chose "to write of Alabama not as a state which is part of a nation, but as a strange country in which I once lived." One of his stories describes his efforts to determine the ancestry of the so-called Cajuns who lived around Citronelle in southwest Alabama. Carmer's story provoked a flurry of interest in the "Cajans," when in reality they were not Cajun at all. Instead, they were descendants of the indigenous Choctaw Indians of southwest Alabama. Originally appearing in The Alabama Review, Volume 59, July 2006, pages 163-204.

Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek
This section of our website is being created for those who have searched in vain for their Mississippi Choctaw Ancestors. Many knowledgeable people have contributed information to help you find these missing ancestors. Because of the controversy of the Article 14 Claimants it may not be possible to establish tribal affiliation, but with the help of so many it may be possible to prove that your family was indeed Native American.

The Indian Races of North and South America
The Indian Races of North and South America provides ethnographic information (manners, peculiarities and history) on the tribes of North and South America. We've added pictures to the mix, to provide some sort of visual reference for the reader. This is an important addition to AccessGenealogy's collection for it's inclusion of tribes in South America and Central America, as well as the Caribbean Islands.

The Five Civilized Tribes in Oklahoma
Five Civilized Tribes in Oklahoma - This manuscript has been extracted from Congressional records relating to relief of specific individuals of the Five Civilized Tribes in Oklahoma. If one of your ancestors was rejected or added to the rolls of any of the five civilized tribes in Oklahoma you should peruse the information here. It contains a lot of case work involving specific Native Americans and those that attempted to prove themselves as part of the tribes.

Life Among the Choctaw Indians
Henry Benson worked as a missionary amongst the Choctaw at the Fort Coffee Academy for Boys in the mid 1800's. In this manuscript he depicts the formation of the Academy and missionary amongst the Indians, providing valuable insight into the tribal customs of the Choctaw after they had been forcibly moved to the Indian Territory. He also provides glimpses into the lives of westerners before the Civil War in the south-west.

A Bill to Reopen the Rolls of the Choctaw-Chickasaw Tribe

Choctaw Mixed Bloods and the Advent of Removal
Choctaw Mixed Blood and the Advent of Removal: This dissertation by Samuel James Wells lists the names and families of the known mixed bloods and examines their role in tribal history, especially regarding land treaties during the Jeffersonian years preceding Removal. This dissertation includes a database of over three thousand names of known and probable mixed bloods drawn from a wide range of sources and therefore has genealogical as well as historical value.

Col. William Wards Register
Colonel William Ward was appointed United States agent to register Choctaw Indians according to Article 14 of the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, September 1830. The treaty was ratified February 24, 1831 and the six month time limit for those wishing to remain ended August 24, 1831. The registration procedure resulted in numerous "contingent claims" by members of the Choctaw Nation.

Choctaw Indians Chiefs and Leaders

Choctaw Indians Rolls and Census

Free US Indian Census Schedules 1885-1940

Choctaw Indian Agency (Mississippi)

Union Agency

Native American Rolls

Armstrong Rolls
Search and understand the Armstrong Rolls as they relate to your Choctaw ancestor. Each Choctaw head of a family being desirous to remain and become a citizen of the States, shall be permitted to do so, by signifying his intention to the Agent within six months from the ratification of this Treaty, and he or she shall thereupon be entitled to a reservation of one section of six hundred and forty acres of land, to be bounded by sectional lines of survey; in like manner shall be entitled to one half that quantity for each unmarried child which is living with him over ten years of age; and a quarter section to such child as may be under 10 years of age, to adjoin the location of the parent. If they reside upon said lands intending to become citizens of the States for five years after the ratification of this Treaty, in that case a grant in fee simple shall issue; said reservation shall include the present improvement of the head of the family, or a portion of it. Persons who claim under this article shall not lose the privilege of a Choctaw citizen, but if they ever remove are not to be entitled to any portion of the Choctaw annuity.

McKennon Roll
In 1896-1897 the Kern-Clifton Roll was created to fill in the omissions of the Wallace Roll. Proposed Legislation for the Full-blood and identified Choctaws of Mississippi, Louisiana, and Alabama: Memorial Evidence and Brief published I believe in 1913.

Report Relating to the Enrollment of Citizens and Freedmen of the Five Civilized Tribes

Index to Final Roll

Search the Final Rolls

Choctaw Military Rolls

Choctaw Language

There are, or at least were formerly, several dialects spoken in different sections; these, however, differed so little that they have not been considered worthy of special mention.

The Chahta Language

Chahta is a derivative for Choctaw, so the following information is referencing the Choctaw Language. The Chahta Language, the representative of the western group of Maskoki dialects, differs in its phonetics from the eastern dialects chiefly by the more general vocalic nasalization previously alluded to.

Choctaw Tribe Treaties

Treaty With The Choctaw, January 3, 1786

Treaty With The Choctaw, October 17, 1801

Treaty With The Choctaw, October 17, 1802

Treaty With The Choctaw, August 31, 1803

Treaty With The Choctaw, November 16, 1805

Treaty with the Choctaw, October 24, 1816

Treaty with the Choctaw, October 18, 1820

Treaty with the Choctaw, January 20, 1825

Treaty With The Choctaw, September 27, 1830

Treaty With The Comanche, Etc., August 24, 1835

Treaty With The Choctaw And Chickasaw, January 17, 1837

Treaty With The Choctaw And Chickasaw, November 4, 1854

Treaty With The Choctaw And Chickasaw, June 22, 1855

Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, September 27, 1870

Agreement With The Cherokee and other Tribes in The Indian Territory, September 13, 1865

Treaty With The Comanche And Kiowa, October 18, 1865

Treaty with the Choctaw and Chickasaw, April 28, 1866

Choctaw Tribe Land Claims

Choctaw Locations

The small Muskhogean tribes known as Mobilian, Tohome or Tomez, Tawasa, Mugulasha, Acolapissa, Huma, and Conshac, on the gulf coast of Mississippi and Alabama, are sometimes called Choctaw, but the Choctaw proper had their villages inland, on the upper courses of the Chickasawhay, Pearl, and Big Black Rivers, and the west affluent of the Tombigbee. At least in later times they were distinguished into three sections, each under its mingo or chief. The western division was called Oklafalaya, 'the long people,' and consisted of small, scattered villages; the northeastern, Ahepatokla (Oypatukla), 'potato-eating people,' and the southeastern district came to be called Oklahannali, 'Sixtowns,' from the name of the dominant subdivision. The people of these two latter districts lived in large towns for mutual defense against their constant enemies the Creeks. Gatschet gives Cobb Indians as the name of those Choctaw settled west of Pearl River.

The population of the Choctaw Tribe when it first came into relations with the French, about the year 1700, has been estimated at front 15,000 to 20,000. Their number in 1904 was 17,805, exclusive of 4,722 Choctaw freedmen (Negroes). These are all under the Union Agency, Indian Territory. To these must be added a small number in Mississippi and Louisiana.

Online Choctaw Tribe Resources

Choctaw Tribe Gallery of Photos

Citations:

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Choctaw Tribe - Choctaw Indians (possibly a corruption of the Spanish chato, 'flat' or 'flattened,' alluding to the custom of these Indians of flattening the head). An important tribe of the Muskhogean stock, formerly occupying middle and south Mississippi, their territory extending, in their most flourishing days, for some distance east of Tombigbee River, probably as far as Dallas County, Georgia.

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A Timeline of Important Events in Canadian History - dummies

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Dummies has always stood for taking on complex concepts and making them easy to understand. Dummies helps everyone be more knowledgeable and confident in applying what they know. Whether it's to pass that big test, qualify for that big promotion or even master that cooking technique; people who rely on dummies, rely on it to learn the critical skills and relevant information necessary for success.

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A Timeline of Important Events in Canadian History - dummies

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Canadian history is a lot of fun. There are heroes and villains, tragedies and triumphs, great battles and sudden betrayals, loyal refugees and long struggles for social justice. The interpretation of Canadian history may vary - radically, at times - but there are still core events from our past that every Canadian should know.

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Spanish:

Español

(Show more)

Spanish language, Romance language ( Indo-European family) spoken as a first language by some 360 million people worldwide. In the early 21st century, Mexico had the greatest number of speakers (more than 85 million), followed by Colombia (more than 40 million), Argentina (more than 35 million), the United States (more than 31 million), and Spain (more than 30 million).

Distribution

Spanish is the (or an) official language of 18 American countries (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela) as well as of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, along with Spain in Europe and Equatorial Guinea in Africa.

Although many South and Central Americans use native Indian languages as their first language, Spanish is continuing to spread there. Estimated numbers of speakers (both as a first language and as a second language) are as follows, in order of numerical importance: Mexico, 110 million; Colombia, 41 million; Argentina, about 40 million; Spain, more than 38 million; Venezuela, some 27 million; Peru, 26 million; Chile, more than 16 million; Ecuador, more than 14 million; Cuba, some 11 million; Guatemala, almost 10 million; Bolivia, more than 8 million; the Dominican Republic, more than 8 million; El Salvador, some 6 million; Honduras, 6 million; Nicaragua, almost 6 million; Paraguay, more than 4 million; Costa Rica, about 4 million; Puerto Rico, more than 3 million; Uruguay, more than 3 million; Panama, 3 million; Equatorial Guinea, 627,000 (mostly second language). There are 100,000 to 200,000 speakers of Judeo-Spanish ( Ladino), mostly in Israel.

History

Spanish is also known (particularly in Latin America, but increasingly in Spain itself) as Castilian, after the dialect from which modern standard Spanish developed. That dialect arose in Cantabria in the 9th century around the town of Burgos in north-central Spain ( Old Castile) and, as Spain was reconquered from the Moors, spread southward to central Spain ( New Castile) around Madrid and Toledo by the 11th century. In the late 15th century, the kingdoms of Castile and Leon merged with that of Aragon, and Castilian became the official language of all of Spain. The regional dialects of Aragon, Navarra, Leon, Asturias, and Santander were crowded out gradually and today survive only in secluded rural areas. Galician (a language with many similarities to Portuguese), spoken in northwestern Spain, and Catalan, spoken in eastern and northeastern Spain, were also much reduced but began a resurgence in the late 20th century.

The dialect of Spanish used in Arab-occupied Spain before the 12th century was called Mozarabic. A remarkably archaic form of Spanish with many borrowings from Arabic, it is known primarily from Mozarabic refrains (called kharjahs) added to Arabic and Hebrew poems.

Spanish dialects

Outside the Iberian Peninsula, Spanish is spoken in virtually all of Central and South America except Brazil (where Portuguese is spoken), as well as in the Canary Islands, parts of Morocco, and the Philippines. Latin American Spanish has a number of regional dialects; all are derived from Castilian but differ in several points of phonology from European Spanish. Typical of Latin American Spanish is the use of the /s/ sound where Castilian has the lisplike /th/ sound (for words spelled with a z or c before e or i) and replacement of the Castilian /ly/ sound (spelled ll) with a /y/ sound or even with the /zh/ sound of the z in English azure or the j in French jour.

In Spanish the case system of Latin has been completely lost except for subject and object forms for pronouns. Nouns are marked for masculine or feminine gender, and plurals are marked by the addition of -s or -es; adjectives change endings to agree with nouns. The verb system is complex but, by and large, regular: it uses indicative, imperative, and subjunctive moods; preterite, imperfect, present, future, conditional, and a variety of perfect and progressive tenses; and passive and reflexive constructions.

The dialect spoken by most Spanish speakers is basically Castilian, and indeed Castellano is still the name used for the language in several American countries. The other languages spoken in Spain include Aragonese, Asturian, Basque, Caló, Catalan-Valencian-Balear, Extremaduran, Fala, and Galician. The ascendancy of Castilian among Spanish dialects is the result of the particular circumstances of the Reconquista (the conquest of Moorish Spain by the Christian states of Spain, completed in 1492), with which the language spread to the south. Having established itself in Spain, the Castilian dialect, possibly in its southern, or Andalusian, form, was then exported to the New World during the Age of Discovery from the mid-15th to the mid-16th century.

Standard Castilian is no longer the language of Old Castile, which was regarded as rustic and archaic already in the 15th century, but a modified form developed in Toledo in the 16th and 17th centuries and, more recently, in Madrid. Spanish-language American countries have developed their own standards, differing mainly in phonology (in which they often agree with the southern Spanish dialects) and in vocabulary (in which loanwords from English are more frequent), but differentiation is comparatively slight, and some Americans still regard true Castilian as their model. On the whole, American forms of Spanish are more musical and suave than the Castilian of Madrid, but it is remarkable how little deformation, or creolization, of the language has occurred.

Judeo-Spanish is the continuation of an archaic form of Castilian, reflecting the state of the language before 16th-century standardization. The expulsion of the Jews from the Iberian Peninsula in 1492 affected mainly the humbler classes, with the rich preferring "conversion," but the latter often later chose voluntary exile to settle in England and the Netherlands, where their Sephardic tongue precariously survives as a religious language in a few communities. Earlier refugees fled to the Middle East and, once settled, continued to produce learned works in a literary archaic form of Castilian written in an adapted Hebrew script.

Written Spanish

The first texts in Spanish consist of scattered words glossing two Latin texts of the 10th century, one from Rioja and the other from Castile; the language in the two documents shows few dialect differences. Another document, written about 980, seems to be Leonese in character. The Mozarabic kharjahs are the next oldest surviving texts, but by the middle of the 12th century, the famous epic poem Cantar de mío Cid ("Song of My Cid") had appeared in a language that is basically Castilian. Literary works in Leonese appear until the 14th century and in a conventionalized Aragonese until the 15th century, but Castilian was destined from the first to gain the upper hand, even making an impact on Portuguese, especially during the 15th and early 16th centuries. For a full treatment of Spanish-language literature, see Spanish literature; Latin American literature.
Rebecca Posner Marius Sala The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

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Spanish language | History, Speakers, & Dialects

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Spanish language, Romance language (Indo-European family) spoken as a first language by some 360 million people worldwide. In the early 21st century, Mexico had the greatest number of speakers, followed by Colombia, Argentina, the United States, and Spain. It is an official language of more than 20 countries.

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Edited by Betty Birner
Download this document as a pdf.
Yes, and so is every other human language! Language is always changing, evolving, and adapting to the needs of its users. This isn't a bad thing; if English hadn't changed since, say, 1950, we wouldn't have words to refer to modems, fax machines, or cable TV. As long as the needs of language users continue to change, so will the language. The change is so slow that from year to year we hardly notice it, except to grumble every so often about the 'poor English' being used by the younger generation! However, reading Shakespeare's writings from the sixteenth century can be difficult. If you go back a couple more centuries, Chaucer's Canterbury Tales are very tough sledding, and if you went back another 500 years to try to read Beowulf, it would be like reading a different language.

Why does language change?

Language changes for several reasons. First, it changes because the needs of its speakers change. New technologies, new products, and new experiences require new words to refer to them clearly and efficiently. Consider texting: originally it was called text messaging, because it allowed one person to send another text rather than voice messages by phone. As that became more common, people began using the shorter form text to refer to both the message and the process, as in I just got a text or I'll text Sylvia right now.

Another reason for change is that no two people have had exactly the same language experience. We all know a slightly different set of words and constructions, depending on our age, job, education level, region of the country, and so on. We pick up new words and phrases from all the different people we talk with, and these combine to make something new and unlike any other person's particular way of speaking. At the same time, various groups in society use language as a way of marking their group identity; showing who is and isn't a member of the group.

Many of the changes that occur in language begin with teens and young adults. As young people interact with others their own age, their language grows to include words, phrases, and constructions that are different from those of the older generation. Some have a short life span (heard groovy lately?), but others stick around to affect the language as a whole.

We get new words from many different places. We borrow them from other languages ( sushi, chutzpah), we create them by shortening longer words ( gym from gymnasium) or by combining words ( brunch from breakfast and lunch), and we make them out of proper names ( Levis, fahrenheit). Sometimes we even create a new word by being wrong about the analysis of an existing word, like how the word pea was created. Four hundred years ago, the word pease was used to refer to either a single pea or a bunch of them, but over time, people assumed Excerpt from Beowulf

that pease was a plural form, for which pea must be the singular. Therefore, a new word, pea, was born. The same thing would happen if people began to think of the word cheese as referring to more than one chee.

Word order also changes, though this process is much slower. Old English word order was much more 'free' than that of Modern English, and even comparing the Early Modern English of the King James Bible with today's English shows differences in word order. For example, the King James Bible translates Matthew 6:28 as "Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow; they toil not." In a more recent translation, the last phrase is translated as "they do not toil," because English no longer places not after the verb in a sentence.

The sounds of a language change over time, too. About 500 years ago, English began to undergo a major change in the way its vowels were pronounced. Before that, geese would have rhymed with today's pronunciation of face, while mice would have rhymed with today's peace. However, a 'Great Vowel Shift' began to occur, during which the ay sound (as in pay) changed to ee (as in fee) in all the words containing it, while the ee sound changed to i (as in pie). Overall, seven different vowel sounds were affected. If you've ever wondered why most other European languages spell the sound ay with an 'e' (as in fiancé), and the sound ee with an 'i' (as in aria), it's because those languages didn't undergo the Great Vowel Shift, only English did.

Wasn't English more elegant in Shakespeare's day?

People tend to think that older forms of languages are more elegant, logical, or 'correct' than modern forms, but it's just not true. The fact that language is always changing doesn't mean it's getting worse; it's just becoming different.

In Old English, a small winged creature with feathers was known as a brid. Over time, the pronunciation changed to bird. Although it's not hard to imagine children in the 1400's being scolded for 'slurring' brid into bird, it's clear that bird won out. Nobody today would suggest that bird is an incorrect word or a sloppy pronunciation.

The speech patterns of young people tend to grate on the ears of adults because they're unfamiliar. Also, new words and phrases are used in spoken or informal language sooner than in formal, written language, so it's true that the phrases you may hear a teenager use may not yet be appropriate for business letters. But that doesn't mean they're worse - just newer. For years, English teachers and newspaper editors argued that the word hopefully shouldn't be used to mean 'I hope', as in hopefully it won't rain today, even though people frequently used it that way in informal speech. (Of course nobody complained about other 'sentence adverbs' such as frankly and actually.) The battle against hopefully is now all but lost, and it appears at the beginnings of sentences, even in formal documents.

If you listen carefully, you can hear language change in progress. For example, anymore is a word that used to only occur in negative sentences, such as I don't eat pizza anymore. Now, in many areas of the country, it's being used in positive sentences, like I've been eating a lot of pizza anymore. In this use, anymore means something like 'lately'. If that sounds odd to you now, keep listening; you may be hearing it in your neighborhood before long.

Why can't people just use correct English?

By 'correct English', people usually mean Standard English. Most languages have a standard form; it's the form of the language used in government, education, and other formal contexts. But Standard English is actually just one dialect of English.

What's important to realize is that there's no such thing as a 'sloppy' or 'lazy' dialect. Every dialect of every language has rules - not 'schoolroom' rules, like 'don't split your infinitives', but rather the sorts of rules that tell us that the cat slept is a sentence of English, but slept cat the isn't. These rules tell us what language islike rather than what it should be like.

Different dialects have different rules. For example:

(l) I didn't eat any dinner.

(2) I didn't eat no dinner.

Sentence (l) follows the rules of Standard English; sentence (2) follows a set of rules present in several other dialects. Neither is sloppier than the other, they just differ in the rule for making a negative sentence. In (l), dinner is marked as negative with any; in (2), it's marked as negative with no. The rules are different, but neither is more logical or elegant than the other. In fact, Old English regularly used 'double negatives', parallel to what we see in (2). Many modern languages, including Italian and Spanish, either allow or require more than one negative word in a sentence. Sentences like (2) only sound 'bad' if you didn't happen to grow up speaking a dialect that uses them.

You may have been taught to avoid 'split infinitives', as in (3):

(3) I was asked to thoroughly water the garden.

This is said to be 'ungrammatical' because thoroughly splits the infinitive to water. Why are split infinitives so bad? Here's why: seventeenth-century grammarians believed Latin was the ideal language, so they thought English should be as much like Latin as possible. In Latin, an infinitive like to water is a single word; it's impossible to split it up. So today, 300 years later, we're still being taught that sentences like (3) are wrong, all because someone in the 1600's thought English should be more like Latin.

Here's one last example. Over the past few decades, three new ways of reporting speech have appeared:

(4) So Karen goes, "Wow - I wish I'd been there!"

(5) So Karen is like, "Wow - I wish I'd been there!"

(6) So Karen is all, "Wow - I wish I'd been there!"

In (4), goes means pretty much the same thing as said; it's used for reporting Karen's actual words. In (5), is like means the speaker is telling us more or less what Karen said. If Karen had used different words for the same basic idea, (5) would be appropriate, but (4) would not. Finally, is all in (6) is a fairly new construction. In most of the areas where it's used, it means something similar to is like, but with extra emotion. If Karen had simply been reporting the time, it would be okay to say She's like, "It's five o'clock," but odd to say She's all, "It's five o'clock" unless there was something exciting about it being five o'clock.

Is it a lazy way of talking? Not at all; the younger generation has made a useful three-way distinction where we previously only had the word said. Language will never stop changing; it will continue to respond to the needs of the people who use it. So the next time you hear a new phrase that grates on your ears, remember that like everything else in nature, the English language is a work in progress.
For further information
Aitcheson, lean. 1991. Language Change: Progress or Decay? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Bryson, Bill. 1991. Mother Tongue: The English Language. New York: Penguin Books.

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Edited by Betty Birner Download this document as a pdf. Yes, and so is every other human language! Language is always changing, evolving, and adapting to the needs of its users. This isn't a bad thing; if English hadn't changed since, say, 1950, we wouldn't have words to refer to modems, fax machines, or cable TV.

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© 2021 American Association for the Advancement of Science. All rights reserved. AAAS is a partner of HINARI, AGORA, OARE, CHORUS, CLOCKSS, CrossRef and COUNTER.

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Nutrition and Fasting in Vietnamese Culture - EthnoMed

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Information about nutrition and commonly consumed foods in the Vietnamese community in Seattle.

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Nutrition and Fasting in Vietnamese Culture

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the hirstory of tainos and arwak indians

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the hirstory of tainos and arwak indians

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https://campcabarita.com/history-tainos-arawak

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Our eco resort helps preserve Jamaica's stunning natural beauty for tourists to enjoy. Jamaica's wonderful culture is also a great reason to visit the island. Understanding the history of Taínos and Arawak is important for travelers interested in learning about the cultural origins of Jamaican society. The Taínos and Arawak are indigenous tribes of Jamaica and "First People" making them and their history a significant part of Jamaica's history. The fingerprints of Taínos and Arawak culture, language, food and lifestyle still influence Jamaican today. The word 'Jamaica' has it's origin in the Arawak word 'xaymaca' which translates directly as the 'land of wood and water.'

Jamaica Before the Taínos and Arawak

Jamaica's prehistory consisted 3 separate waves of settlement by Amerindian people. The first people, known as Ciboney (Guanahatabey) inhabited the region between 5,000 BC - 4,000 BC. The Ciboney (stone people) were caves dwelling stone carvers that migrated from the Yucatan peninsula. The Taínos migrated from the same region and enslaved the native tribes when they arrived in Jamaica - that's right the Taínos subjugated their then modern day ancestors. When the Spanish arrived in 1492 they observed society was divided into two groups: the nobles (nitaínos) and the enslaved commoners (naborias).

Origins of Taínos & Arawak

Taínos also came from South America, which is why there are some close ties to their culture and that of the Mesoamericans. Taínos spread across the Greater Antilles and Caribbean islands including Puerto Rico and Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti today) The Western Taínos were the group that was settled in Jamaica, the Bahamas and Cuba.

Taínos Society

When Colón (Christopher Columbus) landed in 1492 there were estimated to be 200 tribal groups in Jamaica. The groups were ruled by male chiefs who were given advice by shaman priests. The women of the culture would tend to the agriculture while the men were primarily tasked with fishing and some hunting. Cassava and fish were the major component of the Taínos diet. Cassava was dried and ground into flour. Recently the Jamaican government in cooperation with the United Nations helped to encourage cassava production in Jamaica. Cassava flour is the key ingredient in Bammy, a traditional gluten free flatbread.

The Arawak Tribe

The Arawak tribe shares a lot of similarities with the Taino, especially since they both came from South America. Also known as the "Lokono", this group settled on the coastal areas of various islands including Jamaica. Arawaks eventually intermixed with the Taínos. The Arawak's language, Lokono Dian, became the dominant tongue, with Taínos culture remaining preeminent. Words like hammock, tobacco and barbecue are all derived from Lokono Dian, the now extinct language of the Arawak.

Taínos "Genocide"

The Spanish brutally enslaved the Taínos and also brought diseases like smallpox that ravaged the population. Close to 3 million Taínos people were killed or died of disease over a 20 year period. In the past it was thought that the Taínos population was completely annihilated by the Spanish Colonists. Anthropological finds discovered subsequently prove that some escaped doom. Some of the Tainos lived and cooperated with the Maroons. The Maroons were key figures in an insurgent resistance to English conquest, who colonized Jamaica after Spain.

Continued Research

The Jamaican National Trust has continued to task itself as they want to learn more history of Taínos and Arawak that played such a significant part of Jamaican prehistory. Documenting the history of the Central and South American people that were the dominant culture of the entire Caribbean region is an important endeavor. While these groups of people are not part of a distinct ethnic group these days, there are still people who identify with these tribes.

Our role as an eco lodge and eco resort is not only to safeguard the environment but also help to preserve Jamaican culture. Fortunately, you don't have to choose between enjoying Jamaica's natural wonders and immersing yourself in Jamaican culture - Camp Cabarita offers the best of both. Teaching our guests about the history of Taínos and Arawak lends critical perspective to how we understand modern culture and both the opportunities and challenges of modern times. If you are interested learning more about this place and time in history we recommend " 1491: New Revelations about the Americas Before Columbus " by Charles Mann. Hopefully sharing this piece of Jamaica's past will help you appreciate this breathtaking island and it's people today!

Did you enjoy reading this? Did we miss something that you think is important? Please take a moment tell us what you think below.

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The History of Taínos and Arawak: Jamaica's "First People"

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Our eco resort helps preserve Jamaica's stunning natural beauty for tourists to enjoy. Jamaica's wonderful culture is also a great reason to visit the island. Understanding the history of Taínos and Arawak is important for travelers interested in learning about the cultural origins of Jamaican society.

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Grace Tiao FAS Communications DateOctober 11, 2007

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Harvard scientists predict the future of the past tense

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Verbs evolve and homogenize at a rate inversely proportional to their prevalence in the English language, according to a formula developed by Harvard University mathematicians who’ve invoked evolutionary principles to study our language over the past 1,200 years, from “Beowulf” to “Canterbury Tales”…

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Harvard scientists predict the future of the past tense

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by May Herz

Cinco de Mayo Hero
When "Cinco de Mayo" is mentioned in Mexico, one of the most symbolic battles in the Mexican collective unconscious immediately comes to mind: the Battle of Puebla. General Ignacio Zaragoza, with only a small army, took on the powerful French forces of Napoleon III during the Second French Intervention.

Ignacio Zaragoza Seguin was born on March 24, 1829 in the city of Presidio de La Bahia de Espiritu Santo, now Goliad, in southern Texas, USA. He was the second son of the marriage between Miguel Zaragoza and Maria de Jesus Valdez Martinez Seguin.

When he was five years old, after the independence of Texas, his family moved to Matamoros in Tamaulipas state, where he began his studies and ten years later he moved to Monterrey, Nuevo Leon.

For several years he leaned toward the priesthood, but then left, perhaps to continue the example of his father, who was an infantryman.

During the United States intervention in Mexico between 1846 and 1848,young Zaragoza tried to enlist as a cadet, but was rejected.

He saw, however, from a distance, how Mexico lost more than half of its territory in an unequal war. It was not until 1853 that he managed to enter the Nuevo Leon army, first as a sergeant, then later as captain of his regiment. In 1854, he decided to join the Plan de Ayutla, a movement that attempted to overthrow the dictator Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna.

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General Ignacio Zaragoza: Cinco de Mayo Hero

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by May Herz Cinco de Mayo Hero When "Cinco de Mayo" is mentioned in Mexico, one of the most symbolic battles in the Mexican collective unconscious immediately comes to mind: the Battle of Puebla. General Ignacio Zaragoza, with only a small army, took on the powerful French forces of Napoleon III during the Second French Intervention.

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Sunday, October 04, 2015

IT was 3:30 in the afternoon. The time finally came. The time they had been waiting for all day. Clad in their khaki suits, the two boys boldly marched into the tattoo parlour in Half-Way-Tree and patiently waited for the artist to finish the "masterpiece" he was working on.

The buzz of the machine, like music to their ears, calmed any sense of nervousness they felt. Waiting to be inked, one student sat with one sleeve rolled up, anxiously anticipating his one-on-one time with the artist. The other, with curiosity masking the fear in his eyes, stood beside the door that led to the artist's small box of a workstation.

Trying to put on a brave face, he intently peered at the artist, scrutinising his every move as he tattooed his other client.

Intrigued by this, I asked the boys if they were there to be tattooed; they proudly admitted the only reason they sat in the parlour was to receive the tattoo they always imagined. The tattoo artist, though working on his client, insisted that I come into the station to ask whatever question I had.

"There is nothing to the procedure," he said when I asked what I would need to get a tattoo from his establishment. "All yuh haffi do ah come wid di idea fi di tattoo weh yuh want an mi do it."

Another tattoo artist in the area said he tattoos minors, but at his parlour he does not work on students in their uniforms. These minors are not the only ones being tattooed across the island daily. Though popular, tattooing minors in sections of the United States and other countries is illegal. In Jamaica, it is different as there is no existing law that explicitly speaks to the art of tattooing.

The Law of Reform (Age of Majority) states that a 16-year-old is allowed to approve any surgical procedure without permission from an adult guardian. According to section eight of the Act, the agreement between a 16-year-old and the medical practitioner is as effective as if the child were an adult (18 years).

Though there is no explicit law, tattoo parlours are often branded with the popular expression "18 years and older", as artists and most Jamaicans are of the notion that tattooing is only allowed on an individual who, by law, has reached adulthood.

Senior Superintendent of Police (SSP) Steve McGregor said this is the law that governs tattooing of minors. When asked why the law has the age of consent for a medical procedure as 16 and not 18, he said the age varies depending on the law. He explained that in this case, though the law states the age as 16, the permissible age to get a tattoo is, in fact, 18 years.

"Is there a law?" Courtney Buckley, tattoo artist and owner of Klymaxx Tattoos, sarcastically asked. "...Most tattoos are even older than the law books."

Patrick Ramdial, now 21-years old, who got a tattoo when he was 17, said it was easy for him.

"It was simple. You would come in, pick the tattoo you wanted, they would sketch it and then place it at the area you wanted it. They would then disinfect the area, their hands and also the needle then they put on surgical gloves [and] begin," he said nonchalantly.

The artist, he said, was not concerned about his age because they had known each other from before.

Ramdial now has four tattoos -- one on both arms, his chest, and his back.

The art of tattooing has gained popularity over the years in Jamaica. This, according to Buckley, "is a reflection of society with persons who have different stories to tell".

"A lot of the tattoos in Jamaica are related to communities and the idea of being a part of a community," Erin MacLeod, lecturer in the Department of Cultural Studies at the University of the West Indies (UWI), Mona said. "...I think of course, most famously, recently the dancehall DJ Vybz Kartel drew a lot of attention to tattooing in wanting to make his body, as he puts it, 'a colouring book' and expressing himself through the tattooing. But then, on top of it, ensuring that the tattoos were seen through bleaching, which complicated the whole issue of what the cultural basis of tattooing or the desire to tattoo stems from ... a lot of the basis of the dancehall culture, which is to be a part of the group but to stand out from the group."

The root of tattooing, according to a study conducted by the Kingston Paediatric and Perinatal HIV and AIDS Study Group in 2008, titled 'Tattooing and perinatal HIV and AIDS in Jamaica', lies in the fact that tattooing was once seen as a custom and sometimes used in rituals and as a symbol in certain cultures.

"Tattoos are coming from a spiritual time. The age of [the] tattoo govern[s] spirituality, religion and certain rituals that people still hold up to today," Buckley stated.

"When you look at the tattoos that people have, a lot of them have to do with memories of other people, connections to other people, whether it is loved ones, family, children, those who have passed [and] trying to capture those memories. There is also a level of trying to be an individual and having certain kinds of tattoos that set people apart, shock people [and] make people look," MacLeod explained.

The art of tattooing has become a fashion trend among young people in Jamaica. Though it is illegal for minors to be tattooed, some artists and youth are willing to take the risk, and be seen with, and known for the once spiritual and ritualistic practice.

"Every other youngster, when you see them on Saturdays or in the evenings when they wear the belly skin or what will show the back, you will see the tattoos and you wonder if the parents don't say anything to them. If it is an adult you can understand, but for a 15-year-old to have [a] tattoo on their belly..." SSP McGregor said in disbelief.

But Keisha Foster, a 24-year-old student at the University of Technology, Jamaica, who got her first tattoo on her 16th birthday, saw tattooing as a way to express her deepest emotions that she thinks people will not understand.

"Some people may judge and say why I have so many tattoos, but they really don't know. To me it's just expression -- like dance and art. I do it because it's just easier than explaining myself to people. Is me alone will understand what I'm going through anyway," she said as she held her upper arm, which bears a tattoo.

For Ramdial, tattooing was a "symbol of freedom" and when he saw them on his older sisters he liked them and decided to get one, despite not getting permission from his parents.

Cordelia Thomas, now 21 years old and a final year International Relations student at the UWI, got her first tattoo when she was in the ninth grade and said she did so to remember her sister.

"It was when my sister had just died and I was going through a hard time. I was depressed and wanted something to remember her by, so I did the tattoo," she said.

Thomas tattooed the first initial of her sister's name on the top of her left hand.

"Mi jus love how it mek mi skin look," said one 15-year-old boy who, like Ramdial, was inspired to get a tattoo after seeing them on people in his community.

The teenager, who proudly displayed the design on his arm, said he had no trouble getting it.

"Mi jus tell di artist weh mi did want an him deal wid it," he said with a grin. "No ID required, no questions asked. All him waan know is dat mi have mi money."

But the teen would have had a different experience had he gone to Klymaxx Tattoos as Buckley maintains that he does not tattoo minors, though he does not always ask for identification.

"If I do see someone coming in... looking younger than what I expect to be the average look, in terms of age, then I will ask for ID," he said. "I have asked for ID on many occasions and as the door says '18 years and older'. So you would get a consent form if you're under the age of 18, but I don't go under 17."

He said outside of this policy, the average age of people who get tattoos from his establishment ranges between 24 and 30 years.

The average cost to get a tattoo in Jamaica is $2,000. This, Buckley, said increases based on the size and features of the tattoo, as people sometimes require large tattoos or designs with colour. This same tattoo can cost an individual between $1,500 and $40,000 to be removed.

Nadine Gajraj, laser technician at Ripon Surgi-Centre: Face and Body Laser Centre, said people between the ages of 13 and 80 years are interested in tattoo removal.

For teenagers, she said, "[it is] because they can't go back to school [with the tattoo]. They got it in the summer and it's almost time for school so they come for removal [as] the principals won't let them in," Gajraj said.

"From 20 to 30 years, these persons are entering the police force, the army or some may want to be a prison guard and, you know, they can't enter these organisations having a tattoo. Persons between 30 and 40 years do it for professional reasons, they got the tattoo when they were younger and don't see the need for it now. Older persons got it when they were young and they don't want to die with it," she said.

I observed that most tattoo parlours in the Kingston area are operated in a small room within hairdressing salons which oftentimes indicate on a dingy paper that tattoos are done on the inside.

The 2008 Kingston Paediatric and Perinatal HIV and AIDS Study Group also found that there are also known tattoo artists who carry out their trade through home visits.

The study also found that most clients choose a tattoo parlour based on financial affordability, rather than the professionalism of the tattoo artist.

"When you find some of these locations, it is quite ugly and dirty... for someone who would be doing something like that, they don't have any sterilisation area. It is just filthy. I'm surprised, some have not yet died as a result of a dirty needle, or got some disease," a concerned SSP McGregor said.

But when being inked, minors are not considering these factors. "Health was the farthest from my mind," one tattooed teenager admitted. He said he saw the artist do something with the needle that looked like sterilisation, before he started giving him the tattoo.

The study outlined that the trend of tattooing in Jamaica is most popular among teenagers, especially those who are not knowledgeable about the correct sterile procedures to be used. It stated that tattooing poses a threat to a person's health, because during tattooing the transmission of diseases carried by the blood is likely, especially if the artist uses unethical, unsterile practices.

"Well, if persons are not careful, they may become infected if the environment is not hygienic and the instruments are not properly sterilised," Dr Sean Milton said. "It is not the tattoo that will make you ill, but the dirty instruments used to puncture the skin and expose the body to the bacteria and, in some cases, blood transmitted diseases."

Hepatitis, warts, rashes and abscesses around the tattooed area are some of the illnesses an individual can develop after unhealthy tattoo practices. The Centers for Disease Control in the United States has proven that the transmission of Hepatitis B and C has occurred through unhygienic tattoo practices.

Hepatitis, a virus that infects the liver, may seem like flu to the patient but if not treated in a timely fashion can cause extensive liver damage.

But the environment is not the only factor that determines whether a person is infected as Buckley pointed out that aftercare is most important.

"[They should] remove the bandage after nine hours, wash it with antibacterial soap. You can't expose the tattoo to extreme sunlight or go to the beach or soak the tattoo in any form of way for the next two weeks. Within this time, use an antibiotic ointment on the wound and afterwards use a moisturising lotion to heal the skin," Buckley said.

In Jamaica, where tattoo parlours are not closely regulated, the responsibility is on the client to ensure they protect their health. According to SSP McGregor, some of the illegally operated tattoo parlours are run by teenagers themselves, who are looking to make money.

"Because there is a ready clientele for it, these supposed tattoo artists make themselves available," SSP McGregor said. "...We have arrested a lot of them [and] we have put a couple of the juveniles through the courts. What we do is register them in our juvenile caution register, call in their parents and point it out to them, and if we find that the parents are not suitable we put them through the Family Court system, as they would fall under the realm of a child in need of care and protection."

For such an operation, he said, the artist would be charged with operating a business without the appropriate licence.

"They don't know that when you do operations like these, they should be registered, that you have a course of redress if something should happen. But they keep taking the risk and they do it, you know young people," McGregor said. "We try to alert them at the community meetings, we'll speak to the parents, but it is a challenge and it is one of our problems with these youngsters."

He said, a person who tattoos a minor without consent from the child's parent would be charged for doing business with a minor.

"We would put the charge together and then the DPP (Director of Public Prosecutions) would craft the proper wording and place them against the court," he said.

Though some high schools have rules against students displaying tattoos while in their uniforms, it is not a deterrent to some minors as they develop a mechanism to ensure the art is not seen while in school.

"My first tattoo was in my back, so my uniform would hide it. Unless I showed it to you, you wouldn't know I had one. Only my close friends knew and they didn't rat on me," Foster outlined.

She said once she knew her teachers could not see the tattoo, she would not get into any trouble.

Ramdial, like Foster, said he "...took care to place them where they were not visible", though he did not know whether his school's rule book prohibited tattoos.

But Thomas, who got the tattoo on her hand, initially used her uniform pocket, her jacket or her bag to hide her tattoo when at school.

"I would put my hands in my pocket or my bag whenever I was around someone who I thought would have a problem with it, to avoid getting into trouble or be suspended," she said.

Dinthill Technical High School teacher Sean Champagne said though the school has no written policy regarding tattoos, if a student is seen with one, the student would be told to cover it during school hours.

Despite countries such as the US implementing a law that explicitly speaks to the tattooing of minors, for Jamaica to implement such a law, according to SSP McGregor, "something bad has to happen".

"We normally make laws out of practice and customs, so you will find that if a lot of them start getting diseases or some die you know sadly, that's how you get things like these being crafted," McGregor explained. "But we [only] know that it is quite prevalent... and it is mainly among the young people."

For Thomas, tattooing facilitates freedom of expression and should not be prohibited, neither by law nor an organisation.

"If [minors] are seeing their favourite musicians [and] artistes... tattooing themselves -- everything from their bodies to their eyeballs for instance -- there can be an impact on minors in terms of the young people wanting to be tattooed," MacLeod said.

She said she does not think tattooing is wrong, but believes "...it makes sense to restrict something like tattooing [from minors] because young people don't necessarily have the same types of judgement as adults and also... are not legally able to be responsible for all of their choices.

"I mean, something like tattooing, much like other activities that young people get involved in, can potentially have lifelong consequences," MacLeod said.

It has been five years since Ramdial was in the 11th grade and got his first tattoo. Since then, he got three more and said he has never regretted getting any.

This article was first published in the 2015 edition of CARIMAC TIMES magazine as a final year project.

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Sunday, October 04, 2015 IT was 3:30 in the afternoon. The time finally came. The time they had been waiting for all day. Clad in their khaki suits, the two boys boldly marched into the tattoo parlour in Half-Way-Tree and patiently waited for the artist to finish the "masterpiece" he was working on.

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Cantonese Food Is The World’s Favourite Chinese Cruisine And Why

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Authentic Cantonese food is famous for its mild, fresh, and natural flavours, innovative ingredients, and exquisite cooking techniques and use of spices

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https://study.com/academy/lesson/arawak-tribe-history-language-symbols.html

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Mexico is one of the best countries in the world for street food, but just like the rest of Mexican food, street foods in Mexico vary according to the region. You'll find different specialties depending on the destination, but a few staples are found throughout the country, and some are worth traveling to try in their place of origin. Here are some street foods you should definitely sample on a trip to Mexico.

When we're talking about Mexican street food, tacos are the most important item on the list. To be honest, you could wrap almost anything in a tortilla and call it a taco, but generally, they're filled with meat, and adventurous eaters may select some of the more interesting animal parts including brains, eyes, tongue-Mexicans don't flinch. But vegetarians will also find some taco fillings to tempt them, be it mushroom, potato, beans, or cheese. Tacos al pastor are very popular: they're made with marinated pork cooked on a rotating spit. This cooking method was probably brought to Mexico by Lebanese immigrants, but in Mexico, these tacos take on their own flare, with a variety of spicy salsas, guacamole, and fresh onion and cilantro toppings.

A popular treat in the mornings or evenings, and often served at parties, tamales are a type of corn dough dumpling that comes in a corn husk or banana leaf wrapper. The word tamal (yes, the singular of tamales is tamal, not the oft-heard "tamale") comes from the Nahuatl (the language of the Aztecs) word meaning "wrapped." They usually have a filling which may be mole or salsa with chicken, or sometimes rajas, which is strips of poblano chiles along with some tomato and onion.

There are even sweet tamales, which instead of having a filling, will have sugar, cinnamon, raisins, and bits of pineapple mixed in with the dough. Remove the wrapping to eat the tamal inside. At street stands in Mexico City, they are sometimes served on a bolillo bun, as a "torta de tamal" sometimes referred to as a "guajolota".

A torta is a Mexican kind of sandwich made on a crusty bun called a bolillo. (Don't call it a sandwich in Mexico, though, because for Mexicans, a sandwich is made with sliced bread). A torta will usually have bean paste on one side of the bun and mayonnaise on the other, then the requested (usually meat) fillings and slices of tomato, avocado, and pickled jalapeños.

There are a few variations to the standard torta. On a trip to Puebla, be sure to try a cemita, which is made with a particular type of bread roll (itself called a cemita), and with the addition of a fragrant herb called pápalo. Pambazos, which are generally found in Mexico City, are filled with potato and the spicy sausage called chorizo, dipped in warm red guajillo chile sauce and fried. Pambazos are made with bread that is also called pambazo and lacks the crusty shell of bolillos. In Guadalajara, one of the most representative dishes is the torta ahogado, which is filled with meat and served drowned in spicy sauce.

Sopes and Gorditas

There is a wide variety of Mexican street foods that are corn-based and made with different fillings and toppings. They are freshly made and cooked on a comal, a big griddle, sometimes wood-fired, sometimes gas powered. A sope is a corn disk that is thicker than a regular tortilla, and usually topped with beans and cheese and possibly other ingredients, and, of course, salsa. In Oaxaca, the same thing is referred to as a "memela." Similarly, gorditas are also disks made of corn, but they have an ingredient, like beans, cheese or chicharron (pork rind) added in the center of the masa before it goes on the grill, or it is split open like a pita to add ingredients inside (sometimes both).

The tlacoyo is also very similar-it's made in Mexico City and will usually be made of blue corn. All of these corn treats can be found at street stalls throughout the country but the names and fillings/toppings may vary from place to place.

Tostadas are different from tacos because instead of a soft tortilla with fillings inside, it's a crisp tortilla base that is either fried or baked and then loaded up with a variety of toppings. You can get them with almost any meat, seafood, or cheese combination, or maybe with just some guacamole. Don't forget the salsa!

Quesadillas

The term quesadilla generally refers to a folded tortilla with melted cheese inside. Quesadillas can be made with either corn or wheat tortillas and may be either grilled or deep fried. They can be made with a variety of different cheeses, but one of the most popular is Oaxaca cheese, in Oaxaca called quesillo, a mild string cheese that is similar to mozzarella.

Quesadillas can also contain other fillings besides just cheese, sometimes they'll have mushrooms or squash blossoms, or other vegetables added. You can occasionally find huitlacoche quesadillas, which are made with a corn fungus sometimes called corn truffle in English. Deep fried quesadillas may come topped with guacamole or bean paste, and the salsa is usually put on the outside of the tortilla whereas for quesadillas toasted on the comal, it's more common to open it up and add salsa before eating.

Many of Mexico's street foods are corn-based, but usually, they're made out of masa, the nixtamalized corn dough from which tortillas, tamales, and other foods are made. Elotes and esquites, on the other hand, are made with plain corn, although usually not the sweet corn you may expect. Elotes are corn cobs covered in mayonnaise, crumbled queso fresco, chili powder, and lime juice, served on a wooden stick for easy handling. Esquites have all the same ingredients, but is served as a sort of soup, with the corn kernels cut off the cob and floating in the broth the corn was cooked in (with the addition of some herbs for added flavor), and all the toppings that would usually go on an elote mixed in when served.

Deep fried sweet dough that is sprinkled with sugar-what could be a better sweet treat? Churros were brought from Spain but Mexicans took to them readily, and you probably will too. Just make sure they're fresh: stale churros can be rubbery and disappointing as opposed to the glory that is a fresh churro.

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The Top 8 Mexican Street Foods You Need to Try

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Mexico is one of the best countries in the world for street food, but just like the rest of Mexican food, street foods in Mexico vary according to the region. You'll find different specialties depending on the destination, but a few staples are found throughout the country, and some are worth traveling to try in their place of origin.

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Empanada definition, a turnover or mold of pastry filled with chopped or ground meat, vegetables, fruit, etc., and usually baked or fried. See more.

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Hand painted mural showing the Cuban flag and Che Guevara, in neighborhood, Havana, Cuba

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The Library of Congress does not own rights to material in its collections. Therefore, it does not license or charge permission fees for use of such material and cannot grant or deny permission to publish or otherwise distribute the material.

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Ireland has always done things differently, we have our own Irish traditions and customs that make us unique to anywhere else in the world. From our language, music, arts, literature, folklore, cuisine and sports are all special to Irish people.

Much of Irish traditions have been influenced by Angelo- Norman, Scottish & English Culture. But of course, the biggest influence on Irish traditions and customs have been Gaelic and Celtic culture.

Influence of Irish Traditions

In the 12th century, the Anglo-Normans invaded Ireland, then further into the 16th/17th century saw the colonisation of Ireland with the arrival of Anglo-Irish and Scot-Irish (Ulster Scots.

In modern times there are many traditions that are different between the two communities Catholics and Protestants. As well as Irish traditions that differ between travellers and the settled population of Ireland.

However, due to the fact that many people of Ireland have emigrated to different parts of the world, Irish traditions and culture have reached a global audience. Festivals such as St. Patrick's Day and Halloween are celebrated around the globe.

Although there are many unique Irish traditions some aspect of Irish culture is shared with other counties. This includes Britain, some English-speaking counties and manly catholic European and Celtic nations.

Let's explore some of the interesting and unique Irish Traditions found here...

Traditional Irish Festival's

Saint Patricks Day Traditions

One of the most famous and popular Irish traditions is the feast of Ireland's Patron Saint, St.Patrick. The 17th of March is known and celebrated as St. Patrick's Day, not just in Ireland but all around the world. He is one of the most famous figures to ever come from Ireland.

Although St.Patrick wasn't Irish himself, as he was born in Roman-occupied Britain. When he was 16 years old he was kidnapped by Irish pirates and was forced into slavery in Ireland.

During his time as a slave, Patrick turned to God, praying often to him and his faith began to grow. Six years later he got a 'calling from God' telling him to head to a port over a hundred miles away and left Ireland. Although he returned to Ireland after a vision, convincing him to bring Christianity to the Irish people. From then onwards he became an iconic figure associated with Ireland.

Patrick passed away on the 17th of March 461 AD after a lifetime of preaching the word of Christ. The People of Ireland began to celebrate the day in remembrance of him. Also, during the 19th century when the Irish immigrated to American and other parts of the world, the celebration of St. Patrick followed. From that moment onwards, the patron Saint of Ireland became of a global celebration of Irish culture.

Irish traditions associated with Patrick's Day include wearing the colour green, wearing a Shamrock as well as a day full of festivals and parades.

Halloween Traditions

For those that don't know the popular festival of Halloween originates from the Celtic pagan festival called 'Samhain" (Ending of Summer) that took place in Celtic Ireland.

Over a thousand years ago, Irish Ancestors celebrated the beginning of winter with the Festival of Samhain on the 31st of October. They believed this was the best time to link between our world and the mortal world, allowing the dead to return to Ireland on this night.

Many of our Halloween traditions such as dressing up and pumpkin lights come from this Irish Celtic festival. During the festival of Samhain people would disguise themselves with animals to protect them from any evil spirits. They would also light fires to guide the good spirits during the Samhain. People would carve out scary faces on turnips and leave it their doors to ward of evil spirits.

Traditional Halloween customs in Ireland include - children disguised in many different costumes going from door to door in hopes of getting treats.

Many of these Irish traditions can still be seen in today's celebration of Halloween. Of course, Halloween became a huge festival with parades and events happening all around the globe like St.Patricks day. You can thank the Celtic Irish for that!

Christmas Irish Traditions

In Ireland, Christmas is a very important celebration, just like it is in the UK and the United States. Christmas in Ireland usual runs from the Christmas Eve (24th of December) until the Feast of Epiphany (6th January) and comes with it many Irish traditions. Irish People have their own unique traditions and customs when it comes to Christmas.

There was an old tradition in some Irish homes at Christmas, a tall thick candle would be placed on the still of windows after sunset on Christmas Eve. The candle would be left all night as a welcoming symbol for Mary and Joseph. There are still people in Ireland that practice this tradition.

In the Irish language, Christmas is referred to as 'Nollaig' and Santa Clause is referred to as 'San Nioclás'. Like most places, Irish children go to sleep on Christmas Eve and hope to wake up in the morning with presents left from Father Christmas.

Christmas Traditions

In Ireland, the day after Christmas is called St.Stephens Day also known as Boxing Day in parts of the UK. It's a day dedicated to Saint Stephen, the first Christian Martyr. However, the Irish celebration has very little to do with him. Historically it was a day about 'Going on the Wren' related to ancient Celtic Mythology that remembers the day after Christmas when the robin(representing the new year) killed the wren (presenting the old year).

In Modern Ireland, it's a day where most will spend it with friends and family. There is usually a variety of horse racing events taking place on this day in Ireland.

One of the popular traditions of putting a ring of Holly around your door was started in Ireland. Holly was a plant that flourished at Christmas time in Ireland and was given to the poor population to decorate their homes.

Other Irish traditions of Christmas include putting up festival decorations, although usually taken down on the 6th of January. It's considered bad luck to remove the decorations before this.

The Irish people have a whole day dedicated to James Joyce who is considered as one of the most famous literary masters from Ireland. Bloomsday takes place on the 16th of June, its reference to one of Joyce's novels "Ulysses" where the day takes place. Bloomsday was first celebrated in Ireland in 1954.

However, it has now turned into a global event with people celebrating the incredible writer far and wide. In Dublin, where James Joyce was from, they hold a variety of events leading up and on the day of Bloomsday at the James Joyce Centre.

Traditional Irish Music and Dance

Irish Traditions - Music

Traditional Irish Music is the most popular form of music to come from Ireland. Music has always played a huge part of Irish life. In past centuries when there was no electricity; music and storytelling was the main form of entertainment.

People would gather at the pubs to hear stories and play music from local musicians. Of course, people would also be dancing which is where Irish dancing traditions came from. Back all those centuries ago is when the popular Irish traditions of music became such a vital part of Irish life.

If you ever visit Ireland, an important experience you'll find in many of the pubs are sessions of traditional music being played. These music sessions usually include a variety of musicians playing folk songs on instruments such as the Fiddle, Tin Whistles, Flutes and more traditional Irish instruments. The style of music played would go on to be recognised around the world as distinctively Irish.

Check out the Ulster Fleadh video below that is a festival celebrating traditional Irish music, songs and dance.

The Main Instruments Associated with Traditional Irish Music Include:

The Bodhran - a simple handheld old drum used as a percussion instrument. It's always played vertically, sitting on the musician's knee. It's referred to as the heartbeat of traditional music providing the music with a great beat.

The Bodhrán is always played vertically, resting on the musician's knee. They will place their 'free' hand on various parts of the interior of the drum to control the pitch and timbre.

The Celtic Harp: This is one of the iconic instruments played in Irish music and even appears on the national flag of Ireland. In Ireland its a wire-string instrument that requires great skill and long practice.

Fiddle: The Irish fiddle is an essential Irish traditional instrument that looks very much like the violin. It offers a unique playing style and sound that sets it apart from the Violin. In traditional Irish music, the fiddle is usually heard above all other instruments.

Irish Traditions - Dance

One of the most famous Irish traditions is known as ' Irish Dancing' it's a phenomenon not just in Ireland, but around the world. Irish dancing is a variety of traditional dances that compromise of solo and group dances.

It's a huge part of Irish culture & heritage and over the last decade, the tradition has grown in popularity with new generations. The newfound revival can be related to the success of Riverdance.

However Irish dancing was around long before Riverdance was ever a thing. For many people in Ireland, they took up Irish dancing as a fun activity as children and continued to enjoy it as adults. Irish dance has always been a huge feature in Irish themed events such as St. Patrick's Day.

What makes Irish dance so special is it's completely different from modern dancing - it has its own unique form of dancing that's captivated people for decades. Even today, young and old are still learning the different steps involved in Irish dance routines. These dancing routines include jigs, reels, ceilis and step dancing.

Find out more about the Irish dancing traditions here.

Irish Traditions - Food

One of our favourite Irish traditions is all the amazing unique food that comes from Ireland. If you plan on visiting Ireland anytime soon make sure to try some of these traditional Irish foods.

Irish Stew

This is one of must loved classical Irish food dishes, thought of as the national dish of Ireland. It's also very popular to have Irish Stew on St. Patrick's Day. The most common ingredients you would find in Stew are Lamb, Mutton, Potatoes and Onions.

When the Irish started immigrating to American they brought their food traditions with them. It started to adapt and evolve over time to include local offerings. You'll find a lot of places around Ireland keep to the traditional style of stew, its a must try next time you're at a pub or restaurant.

This dish has been around for many centuries; the dish is more popular in winter as well. Irish stew is a warming dish and tastes more delicious when you add rosemary and thyme.

Soda Bread

A second much loved Irish food tradition is the Irish Soda Bread. A simple classic where nearly every family in Ireland have their own recipe.

The history of soda bread began more for practical purposes. The first people to actually use soda were the American Indians. Although the Irish were the once that replicated what they did and earned its worldwide reputation.

Irish Soda Bread was first created during the late 1830s when the first process of baking soda was introduced in the UK. Ireland was going through financial strife and had little access to ingredients, soda bread was considered a necessity as you didn't need expensive ingredients to make it.

These ingredients include wheat flour, baking soda, sourced milk and salt. To make soda bread soft wheat flour was the ideal method and the Irish climate was considered as the only place suitable for growing soft wheat.

From then onwards soda bread became a perfect Irish recipe that families could make at home as it was a simple and filling dish. Many of the lower class homes would cook the bread in Iron pots or on griddles over open hearths. This is how the bread got is signature texture; hard crust and a slight sourness that it's now famous for.

It's one of those Irish traditions that will never go away, soda bread is part of every Irish family life.

An Irish Breakfast

There's no denying that the Irish love their food, around the world many people would usually enjoy ready meals for breakfast. But there has been a long Irish tradition of having a fried breakfast also referred to as a 'Fry'. It's a meal that will fill you up and give you energy for the day ahead.

A traditional Irish breakfast includes a variety of meats; bacon, sausages, possibly pudding, as well as eggs and fried tomatoes. The hearty breakfast is also served with homemade Irish soda bread and potato bread and a strong cup of tea and a glass of orange juice.

It was originally a tradition to help prepare people for a full day of work on the farm but into today's modern world it's not possible to have most working mornings. However, the traditions of a full Irish breakfast serves a staple treat in many households in Ireland, usually prepared on a Saturday or Sunday morning. It's also a meal that you can have for your evening dinner, many Irish people enjoy doing this.

Shepherd's Pie

Shepherd's Pie is a staple of any Irish dinner table. The filling is rich with lamb, vegetables and gravy, and topped with, of course, mashed potatoes. The dish is considered a comfort food that Irish love to have especially during the winter months.

Shepherd pie was first introduced by housewives in the late 1700s and early 1800s who were looking for ways to incorporated leftover into their meals. Even though it was created out of leftovers it soon became a delicious and much loved Irish dish.

As time has gone on Irish people have loved to put there own spin on the dish with different seasonings and vegetables. Just like everyone makes their own version of mash potatoes, so depending on where you having it, it can be a very diverse experience.

You will find shepherds pie in most Irish pubs and you'll be sure to notice different tastes depending on what part of Ireland you're in.

Irish Traditions - Sports

Sports is a big thing in Ireland although we play the popular sports of soccer, rugby Ireland has its own sports that are unique to them. These sporting Irish traditions have been around for centuries and still an important part of life today in Ireland.

These sports unique to the Irish include Gaelic games that compromise of Gaelic Football, Hurling and Camogie. Its thought that every time the Irish go to a sporting event- one out of every two will attend a Gaelic game or hurling match. Which is pretty amazing considering both sports only have amateur status.

The national stadium, Croke Park would attract over 60,000 people to either a hurling or Gaelic game. This shows just how proud the Irish are of their own sports and watching their fellow Irish men and women play. The games are organised by the GAA (Gaelic Athletic Associations - one of the strongest communities in Ireland.

Gaelic football

Gaelic football in Ireland is often just referred to as 'Gaelic' which consists of 15 men playing against 15 men on a grass pitch. The unique thing about this Irish sport is that you can use your hands just as much as your feet.

The ball can be kicked, caught in your hands, hand-passed and punched. The only thing the players can't do is run with the ball in their hands for more than three steps.

However, they can move the ball up the pitch by 'soloing'. This is the skill of running and repeatedly kicking the ball with your hands and then dropping it to your feet. It sounds more complicated than it actually is. Watch the video below to see the sport in action.

Hurling

Another GAA game is Hurling that is considered a very skilful traditional Irish sports. The game of Hurling goes back thousands of years and has often featured heavily in Irish legends.

How you play the sport including the number of players, scoring and rules are very similar to Gaelic football. The biggest difference is that it's played with sticks known as a 'Hurley' and a small leather ball - similar to a tennis ball.

Camogie is considered the female version of hurling. Check out the video below of a game of hurling, hopefully, that will help you understand the sport better. Just like Gaelic, the aim is to score more than your opponent's team. Many Hurling players were a helmet as the sport can be very physical at times.

Other traditional Irish sports include horse-racing, handball, fishing and golf. Rugby and soccer would be considered as the most popular sports. Soccer in Ireland is played to a semi-professional whereas rugby is known as professional sports with players playing at national and international levels.

Irish Traditions - The History of GAA

GAA is celebrated as one of the greatest amateur sporting associations in the world that plays a huge part in Irish society. The sport was first founded in 1884 in County Tipperary by a ground of Irishmen who saw the importance of creating a national organisation to revive and nurture traditional sports. Also, a way for Irish athletics to become better seen by the masses.

Six months after the first GAA meeting, GAA clubs started being formed around Ireland and saw the beginning of people playing hurling and Gaelic Football. With pride, Irish people started taking part in GAA events around the country.

From its beginning, all the sports under GAA have remained as amateur sports. Even, players at the highest level don't get paid for playing. One of the most important aspects of GAA is its volunteer ethos.
The GAA organisation is usually based around the traditional parish and county structures of Ireland.
It has a strong emphasis on community and there are over 2,000 clubs around the 32 counties of Ireland. Every summer in Ireland there are inter-county All-Ireland Championships in hurling, Gaelic and camogie that draws out the Irish public.

With Irish Diaspora, the GAA sports continued to develop around the world, as they took their Irish sports to their new homes in the USA, Australia, Europe and many other places. There is believed to be over 400 GAA clubs around the world which is very impressive for an amateur sport.

Irish Traditions - Irish Language

Although English is the main language spoken in Ireland, Ireland also has its own unique language known as the 'Gaeilge'. The Irish language along with its sister languages Welsh and Breton are some of the oldest living languages in Europe.

However, it's only spoken as a first language in certain parts of the country such as areas in Galway, Kerry, Cork and Donegal. Moreso whether you learn the Irish language or not can come from your family traditions, as it's often passed down from generations.

The Gaeilge Language is recognised as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and a minority language in Northern Ireland. The Irish language is also one of the official languages of the European Union.

The Irish language is taught in schools across the country and has its own festivals in the Gaeltacht. If you visit Ireland you'll be introduced to the language on all road and street signs in the Republic of Ireland and certain areas of the North of Ireland.

Most people in Ireland will know how to speak a few Irish phrases and sayings, but over time there has been a huge decline in people learning and speaking the language. However, the Irish language will always be an important part of Irish traditions and culture.

Check out some of the most popular Irish phrases and sayings below:

1. Is fearr Gaeilge briste, ná Béarla clíste - 'Broken Irish is Better than broken English.'

2. Slainte - 'Cheers'

3. Dia Duit - 'Hello'

3. Failte -'Welcome'

3. Is Mise.... - 'My Name is'

4. Conas atá tú - 'How are you'

Irish Myths and Legends Tradition

Traditions of storytelling in Ireland has been around since the beginning of time, providing some of the richest mythology and legends in all of Western Europe. Some of these Irish myths and legends have become famous figures around the world.

Here are some of the most famous Irish Myths and Legends:

The Children of Lir is a very old Irish myth that goes back to the ancient tribes of Ireland. It has also been considered as the inspiration behind the world famous ballet Swan Lake. Check out our blog the Children on Lir to find out more about the fascinating story.

One of the most famous Irish legends in the mythological giant known as Finn Mac Cool that appears in many Irish stories. Finn MacCool has long been connected to the ' Giant's Causeway ' along the north coast of Ireland.

Irish legend states that a Scottish giant called Benandonner ripped up the causeway so he wouldn't have to fight the fierce Finn MacCool. So for many centuries, legend has it this is the reason why the Giant's Causeway exists but of course we know there is an actual geological explanation.

Another Irish tradition of legends is the mythical creatures known as Leprechaun, that has become iconic all around the world. The small mischievous spirit is the most widely known type of fairy suggested to live in Ireland. Irish legends suggest that they love to collect gold, which they would store in a pot and hide at the end of a rainbow.

The iconic three leaves of the Shamrock has undeniably become the unofficial symbol of Ireland. In Irish traditions, The Shamrock has played an important role in one of Ireland historic cultures.

The 'Druids' believed that the Shamrock was a very sacred plant that could chase away evil. The Celtic culture also believed that three was also a sacred number. Furthermore, Irish Christians believed The Shamrock has a special meaning - its three leaves represented the Holy Trinity.

Throughout much of mythology all around the world, faeries have always been heavily featured but they do hold an important meaning to the Irish. There is a fairy society in Ireland that even to this day still exists but its far from what you would imagine in fairytales.

It's believed that Irish fairies can take many forms but often choosing a human form. Faeries are said to be very powerful and beautiful however most fairies in Ireland are said to enjoy bringing misfortune and bad luck to people they are near.

Pub Culture - Irish Traditions

Another famous Irish tradition relates to pub culture which is a huge aspect in Irish society, across all cultural divides. It refers to the Irish habit of frequently spending time in pubs and bars.

Traditional in Ireland pub culture is more than just about drinking. Irish people love to head to the pub for social gatherings. It's suggested as an important meeting place where friends and family can meet in a relaxing atmosphere.

Each place you visit in Ireland will have their own pub that is popular among the locals in the area. Tourists visiting Ireland are a fan of the traditional pub with traditional Irish music and the welcoming atmosphere.

There are many Irish traditions and customs that are unique to Ireland, and these traditions are known all around the world. I hope you enjoyed the guide to some famous Irish traditions and their origins.

Do you have any favourite Irish traditions? Please share with us in the comments below 🙂

Check out some other blogs that might interest you:

Irish Wedding Traditions| Irish Food Traditions| Insight into an Irish Wake and Superstitious Associated with it| The Curious Case of Irish Curses| The Superstitious Fairy Trees in Ireland|

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Famous Irish Traditions: Music, Sports, Folklore & More | Connolly Cove

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Ireland has always done things differently, we have our own Irish traditions and customs that make us unique to anywhere else in the world. From our language, music, arts, literature, folklore, cuisine and sports are all special to Irish people. Much of Irish traditions have been influenced by Angelo- Norman, Scottish & English Culture.

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Within this web presentation, the Massachusetts Historical Society brings together historical manuscripts and rare published works that serve as a window upon the lives of African Americans in Massachusetts from the late seventeenth century through the abolition of slavery under the Massachusetts Constitution in the 1780s.

Although the complex role of African Americans, both enslaved and free, in colonial Massachusetts is an important part of our state and local history, the struggle for personal liberty in Massachusetts is central to a full understanding of our national history.

This website features 117 items from the collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society. This group of unique manuscripts and rare published materials includes handwritten documents and letters (Phillis Wheatley and members of the Hartford family), the earliest antislavery pamphlet published in Massachusetts ( The Selling of Joseph, printed in 1700), petitions of enslaved people requesting freedom, documents certifying the freedom of specific individuals, materials relating to two people involved in landmark legal cases that helped to bring an end to slavery in Massachusetts (Elizabeth Freeman and Quock Walker), warrants and depositions for freedom seekers, bills of sale and account books documenting enslavement transactions, and a series of letters written in 1795 in which some notable men share their perspective on the history and end of slavery in Massachusetts.

Funding for this website and digitization project was provided by the Institute of Museum and Library Services under the provisions of the Library Services and Technology Act grant as administered by the Massachusetts Board of Library Commissioners.

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African Americans and the End of Slavery in Massachusetts

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Within this web presentation, the Massachusetts Historical Society brings together historical manuscripts and rare published works that serve as a window upon the lives of African Americans in Massachusetts from the late seventeenth century through the abolition of slavery under the Massachusetts Constitution in the 1780s.

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is an epic poem composed in Old English consisting of 3,182 lines. It is written in the alliterative verse style, which is common for Old English poetry as well as works written in languages such as Old High German, Old Saxon, and Old Norse. is considered one of the oldest surviving poems in the English language. The author of the poem is unknown and is generally referred to simply as the " Beowulf Poet." The date of the poem's composition is also unknown. Arguments have been made for an origin as early as the 7th century CE. The poem concerns the legendary figure Beowulf, a hero of the Geats who were a North Germanic people inhabiting modern-day Gotaland in southern Sweden. Beowulf fights a series of monsters and also rules as King of the Geats for approximately 50 years.

Background & Historicity

The poem takes place in different parts of Scandinavia over the course of the 6th century CE. While the poem's protagonist and his deeds are legendary, historical figures and events are also described. Several characters mentioned in the poem also appear in other Old English or Scandinavian sources. For example, the raid by the Geatish king Hygelac into Frisia is mentioned by the 6th-century CE chronicler Gregory of Tours, who gives Hygelac's name as Chlochilaicus.

Descriptions in other sources have been used to date the events of Beowulf to the 6th century CE.

Many other figures, events, and places have parallels in Scandinavian sources. These include semi-legendary clans such as the Scyldings (Old Norse Skjoldungar) of Denmark and the Scylfings (also Ynglings or Old Norse Skilfingar) of Sweden, as well as several of their respective members. Characters such as Hrothgar, Eadgils, Hrothulf (Hrolf Kraki), and Othhere are all mentioned in other Scandinavian poetry and legend. Similarly, events such as the Battle of Finnsburg, the Battle on the Ice of Lake Vanern, and the aforementioned raid on Frisia by Hygelac are mentioned in other sources. Descriptions of these events in other sources have been used to date the events of the poem to the 6th century CE. Archaeological digs have also validated the descriptions of the burial sites of some of these semi-historical figures. Writers such as Snorri Sturluson (1179-1241 CE) described the locations of the burial mounds of kings such as Othhere and Eadgils. Several of these mounds have been excavated, revealing rich finds dating from the 6th century CE and seemingly validating these references in Beowulf and Norse Sagas.

The date of the poem's composition is unknown and is the subject of much debate. The surviving manuscript probably dates from either the late 10th century CE or the early 11th century CE. However, the poem itself may be much older. Arguments have been made for as early as the 7th century CE and as late as the 11th century CE. The poem was composed in England, though exactly where is uncertain. Some scholars have taken the poem's Scandinavian setting as evidence for an origin in the kingdom of East Anglia. The East Anglian royal house, the Wuffingas, seems to have had close ties to Sweden. This is evidenced by the Sutton Hoo ship burial. Arguments have also been made for an origin in the Kingdom of Wessex in the 9th century CE and for an origin in the early-11th-century CE court of Cnut, the Danish king who ruled Denmark, Norway, and England.

Plot Summary

Beowulf begins with a description of the life of Scyld Scefing (Old Norse Skjold), the legendary ancestor of the Scyldings or Danish royal family. The narrator then lists several descendants of Scyld before coming to Hrothgar, who rules from the hall of Heorot. Heorot may be identical to a 6th century CE hall excavated near Lejre in 2004-2005 CE. Beowulf and his thegns (retainers or soldiers) arrive at Heorot to assist Hrothgar against the monster Grendel. Grendel is described as a descendant of the biblical Cain and is an outsider among men. The narrator explains that the sounds of celebration and joy coming from Heorot actually agonize Grendel. Grendel begins attacking Heorot on a nightly basis, killing and devouring Hrothgar's warriors. Hrothgar and his people are depicted as helpless against the monster's attacks and Grendel ravages Hrothgar's hall for 12 years before Beowulf's arrival.

In off the moors, down through the mist bands God-cursed Grendel came greedily loping.The bane of the race of men roamed forth, hunting for prey in the high hall.( Beowulf, 710-13)

Beowulf hears about the plight of Hrothgar while at home in Geatland. He receives the permission of the Geatish king to travel with his warriors to Denmark and fight Grendel. Beowulf and his followers are welcomed by Hrothgar and his wife Wealtheow. Unferth, one of Hrothgar's warriors, is skeptical about Beowulf's abilities and the two fling insults at each other. On their first night in Heorot, Beowulf pretends to sleep while awaiting Grendel's inevitable arrival. When Grendel appears, Beowulf attacks him and they begin to grapple with each other but the swords of Beowulf's warriors are unable to pierce Grendel's skin. Finally, Beowulf is able to rip Grendel's right arm off and the monster flees the hall. The arm is hung up as a trophy and Beowulf's victory is celebrated.

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Hanging high from the rafters where Beowulf had hung it, was the monster's arm, claw, and shoulder and all. ( Beowulf, 833-836)

The following night, Heorot is again attacked. This time, it is Grendel's mother who has come, infuriated by the attack on her son. Grendel's mother drags Aeschere, Hrothgar's most trusted warrior, out of the hall and kills him. Aeschere's head is later found as Beowulf and the others are tracking Grendel's mother. Beowulf, Hrothgar, and the other warriors track Grendel's mother to her lair under a lake. The warrior Unferth presents Beowulf with his sword Hrunting and Beowulf makes preparations with Hrothgar should he be killed in the coming fight. Beowulf then plunges into the water and discovers a cave where Grendel and his mother have been living.

Beowulf: It is better for us all to avenge our friends, not mourn them forever. Each of us will come to the end of this life on earth. He who can earn it should fight for the glory of his name. Fame after death is the noblest of goals. Arise, guardian of this kingdom, let us go, as quickly as we can and have a look at this lady monster. ( Beowulf, 1384-1391)

In the cave, Beowulf finds Grendel's body as well as the bodies of the men whom he and his mother have killed. Beowulf fights with Grendel's mother, but Unferth's sword cannot pierce her skin. In turn, Beowulf is protected against her attacks by his armor. Beowulf eventually finds another, magic sword at the bottom of the lake and uses it to behead Grendel's mother. The blade of his new sword is dissolved by the apparently toxic blood of the two monsters. He then takes their heads back to Hrothgar. In reward, Hrothgar showers Beowulf in gifts, including his ancestral sword Naegling. What follows is a lengthy speech by Hrothgar, urging Beowulf to remain humble and to be generous to his thegns. In essence, Hrothgar is espousing the proper behavior of a successful king and warlord. This would have reflected the values of the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy as well as their counterparts in the other early Germanic kingdoms.

A brilliant light burned all around him, the lake itself like a fiery flame...he swung his sword...straight at her head. The iron sang its fierce song. ( Beowulf, 1512-1521)

Following this victory, Beowulf and his followers return to Geatland, where he becomes King of the Geats and rules for roughly 50 years. At the end of this period, an elderly Beowulf is forced to confront a rampaging dragon. The narrator explains that a slave stole a cup from the dragon's hoard at a place called Earnanaes. This prompts the furious beast to leave its lair and attack the countryside. The image of the dragon hoarding its treasure can be contrasted with generous kings and lords who properly reward their warriors and thegns for faithful military service. Beowulf and his soldiers arrive to fight the dragon but Beowulf demands to fight it alone and proceeds to battle with the monster. The dragon overpowers Beowulf and his men flee in terror. Only Wiglaf, described as a kinsman of Beowulf, remains to aid Beowulf. Together, Wiglaf and Beowulf kill the dragon, but Beowulf soon dies of his wounds.

Wiglaf: By almighty God, I'd rather burn than see flames swirling around my lord...I swear that nothing he ever did deserved an end like this, dying miserably and alone, butchered by this savage beast. ( Beowulf, 2650-2652, 2656-2659)

Wiglaf retrieves the dragon's treasure at Beowulf's request and condemns his other followers for fleeing. Wiglaf is described as a cousin to Beowulf and as the last of the Waegmundings, who were the tribe of Beowulf's father. Beowulf himself is burned on a funeral pyre and then buried in a barrow overlooking the sea. Beowulf's people mourn his loss and are thrown into a panic for fear that they will no longer be adequately protected against attacks from neighboring peoples. No doubt this reflects a very real concern for people living in Anglo-Saxon England at the time of the poem's transcription.

For ten long days they made his monument, sealed his ashes in walls as straight and high as wise and willing hands could raise them...And the treasures they'd taken were left there too...Ground back in the earth. ( Beowulf, 3159-3163, 3165-3167)

Themes

While the poem has a Christian veneer, the world of Beowulf and his contemporaries is decidedly pagan. The events of the poem take place long before the conversion of Scandinavia. The story takes place within the milieu of a decidedly Pre-Christian, Germanic warrior culture. Lords like Hrothgar and Beowulf hold lavish feasts, lead their respective warbands into battle, and reward their followers with treasure and gifts. These were the values of the ancient peoples of Scandinavia described in the poem, but they were also the values of the Anglo-Saxon nobility long after the arrival of Christianity.

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is an epic poem composed in Old English consisting of 3,182 lines. It is written in the alliterative verse style, which is common for Old English poetry as well as works written in languages such as Old High German, Old Saxon, and Old Norse. is considered one of the oldest surviving poems in the English language.

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La Société des Filles du roi et soldats du Carignan - King’s Daughters

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La Société des Filles du roi et soldats du Carignan is a heritage association dedicated to the King’s Daughters and Carignan soldiers of New France. We promote and share research on these pioneers.

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Though the holiday originated in Mexico, the celebrations known as Cinco de Mayo are now a favorite pastime for many Americans, too.

Common belief is that the fifth of May marks Mexico's independence. But that's celebrated on September 16. Cinco de Mayo is a holiday that commemorates the victory of the Mexican army over a far larger French force in the Battle of Puebla, on May 5, 1862.

The conflict began in 1861, when Benito Juarez, then the president of Mexico, stopped paying interest on the money he owed several countries, including France. In response, the French army invaded Mexico and tried to take over the country. The French's first attempt was successful: The city of Campeche was overtaken on February 27, 1862. But in an incredible comeback, the Mexican army, led by General Ignacio Zaragoza Seguín, with just 4,000 men, trounced the French army of 8,000. The French hadn't lost a battle in 50 years.

Today, celebrations in Mexico are most widespread in the state of Puebla itself. Those looking for an unusual way to celebrate here in the states can join in from any location beginning tonight at 8 p.m., when the ground-breaking Smithsonian Latino Virtual Museum in Second Life hosts a night of art and music. The online celebration features music by DJ Bambarito, and a live poetry reading by Nancy Lorenza Green, an Afro-Chicana artist from El Paso and Cd. Juarez. So dance your way over to you your computer for a mid-week fiesta. But make sure to keep that margarita away from the keyboard.

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Did You Know? Cinco de Mayo Celebrates the Battle of Puebla

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Though the holiday originated in Mexico, the celebrations known as Cinco de Mayo are now a favorite pastime for many Americans, too. Common belief is that the fifth of May marks Mexico's independence. But that's celebrated on September 16.

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21 Interesting and Fun Facts About Sweden

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Enjoy these interesting and fun facts about Sweden and learn more about this Nordic nation.

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From the stone cities of the Maya to the might of the Aztecs, from its conquest by Spain to its rise as a modern nation, Mexico boasts a rich history and cultural heritage spanning more than 10,000 years. This detailed timeline of Mexican history explores such themes as the early civilizations that left their mark on the region’s landscape and society, the 300-year period of colonial rule, the struggle for independence in the early 1800s and the country’s rebuilding in the 20th century.

From Ancient Mesoamerica to the Toltecs

c. 8000 B.C.
The first human experiments with plant cultivation begin in the New World during the early post-Pleistocene period. Squash is one of the earliest crops. This agricultural development process, which continues slowly over thousands of years, will form the basis of the first villages of Mesoamerica (including Mexico and Central America).

1500 B.C.
The first major Mesoamerican civilization–the Olmecs–grows out of the early villages, beginning in the southern region of what is now Mexico. This period is marked by the effective cultivation of crops such as corn (maize), beans, chile peppers and cotton; the emergence of pottery, fine art and graphic symbols used to record Olmec history, society and culture; and the establishment of larger cities such as San Lorenzo (about 1200-900 B.C.) and La Venta (about 900-400 B.C.).

600 B.C.
In the late Formative (or Pre-Classic) period, Olmec hegemony gives way to a number of other regional groups, including the Maya, Zapotec, Totonac, and Teotihuacán civilizations, all of which share a common Olmec heritage.

250
The Mayan civilization, centered in the Yucatán peninsula, becomes one of the most dominant of the area’s regional groups, reaching its peak around the sixth century A.D., during the Classic period of Mesoamerican history. The Mayas excelled at pottery, hieroglyph writing, calendar-making and mathematics, and left an astonishing amount of great architecture; the ruins can still be seen today. By 600 A.D., the Mayan alliance with the Teotihuacán, a commercially advanced society in north-central Mexico, had spread its influence over much of Mesoamerica.

600
With Teotihuacán and Mayan dominance beginning to wane, a number of upstart states begin to compete for power. The warlike Toltec, who migrated from north of Teotihuacán, become the most successful, establishing their empire in the central valley of Mexico by the 10th century. The rise of the Toltecs, who used their powerful armies to subjugate neighboring societies, is said to have marked the beginning of militarism in Mesoamerican society.

900
The early Post-Classic period begins with the dominant Toltecs headquartered in their capital of Tula (also known as Tollan). Over the next 300 years, internal conflict combined with the influx of new invaders from the north weaken Toltec civilization, until by 1200 (the late Post-Classic period) the Toltecs are vanquished by the Chichimecha, a collection of rugged tribes of undetermined origin (probably near Mexico’s northern frontier) who claim the great Toltec cities as their own.

Rise and Fall of the Aztecs

1325
The nomadic Chichimecha tribe of the Mexica, more commonly known as the Aztecs, arrive in Mexico’s central valley, then called the Valley of Anahuac, after a long migration from their northern homeland. Following the prophecy of one of their gods, Huitzilopochtli, they found a settlement, Tenochtitlán, on the marshy land near Lake Texcoco. By the early 15th century, the Aztecs and their first emperor, Itzcoatl, form a three-way alliance with the city-states of Texcoco and Tlatelóco (now Tacuba) and establish joint control over the region.

1428
The mighty Aztecs conquer their chief rivals in the city of Azcapotzalco and emerge as the dominant force in central Mexico. They develop an intricate social, political, religious and commercial organization, with an economy driven by bustling markets such as Tenochtitlán’s Tlatelolco, visited by some 50,000 people on major market days. Early forms of currency include cacao beans and lengths of woven cloth. The Aztec civilization is also highly developed socially, intellectually and artistically. Their language, Nahuatl, is the dominant language in central Mexico by mid-1350s, although numerous other languages are spoken. Distinctive examples of the Aztec artistic style include exquisitely feathered tapestries, headdresses and other attire; finely worked ceramics; gold, silver and copperware; and precious stones, particularly jade and turquoise. In the great cities of the Aztec empire, magnificent temples and palaces and imposing stone statues decorating most street corners, plazas and landmarks all embody the civilization’s unfailing devotion to its many gods.

February 1517
Francisco Hernández de Córdoba, the first European to visit Mexican territory, arrives in the Yucatán from Cuba with three ships and about 100 men. Members of the local native population clash with the Spanish explorers, killing some 50 of them and capturing several more. Córdoba’s reports on his return to Cuba prompt the Spanish governor there, Diego Velásquez, to send a larger force back to Mexico, under the command of Hernán Cortés. Like most of the first European visitors to the New World, Cortés is driven by the desire to find a route to Asia and its immense riches in spices and other resources.

February 1519
Cortés sets sail from Cuba with 11 ships, more than 450 soldiers and a large number of supplies, including 16 horses. Upon arriving in Yucatán, the Spaniards take control of the town of Tabasco, where they begin learning of the great Aztec civilization, now ruled by Moctezuma II. Defying the authority of Velasquéz, Cortés founds the city of Veracruz, on the Gulf of Mexico directly east of Mexico City. With an entourage of 400 (including several captive members of the native population, notably a woman known as Malinche, who serves as a translator and becomes Cortés’s mistress) Cortés begins his famous march inward into Mexico, using the strength of his forces to form an important alliance with the Tlascalans, enemies of the Aztecs.

November 1519
Cortés and his men arrive in Tenochtitlán; they are welcomed as honored guests by Moctezuma and his people due to the Spaniard’s resemblance to Quetzalcoatl, a legendary light-skinned god-king whose return was prophesied in Aztec legend. Taking Moctezuma hostage, Cortés is able to gain control of Tenochtitlán.

August 13, 1521
After a bloody series of conflicts–involving the Aztecs, the Tlascalans and other native allies of the Spaniards, and a Spanish force sent by Velásquez to contain Cortés–Cortés finally defeats the forces of Montezuma’s nephew, Cuauhtémoc (who became emperor after his uncle was killed in 1520) to complete his conquest of Tenochtitlán. His victory marks the fall of the once-mighty Aztec empire. Cortés razes the Aztec capital and builds Mexico City on its ruins; it quickly becomes the premier European center in the New World.

Hidalgo, Santa Anna and War

1808
Napoleon Bonaparte occupies Spain, deposes the monarchy, and installs his brother, Joseph, as head of state. The ensuing Peninsular War between Spain (backed by Britain) and France will lead almost directly to the Mexican war for independence, as the colonial government in New Spain falls into disarray and its opponents begin to gain momentum.

September 16, 1810
In the midst of factional struggles within the colonial government, Father Manuel Hidalgo, a priest in the small village of Dolores, issues his famous call for Mexican independence. El grito de Dolores set off a flurry of revolutionary action by thousands of natives and mestizos, who banded together to capture Guanajuato and other major cities west of Mexico City. Despite its initial success, the Hidalgo rebellion loses steam and is defeated quickly, and the priest is captured and killed at Chihuahua in 1811. His name lives on in the Mexican state of Hidalgo, however, and September 16, 1810, is still celebrated as Mexico’s Independence Day.

1814
Another priest, Jose Morelos, succeeds Hidalgo as leader of Mexico’s independence movement and proclaims a Mexican republic. He is defeated by the royalist forces of the mestizo general Agustín de Iturbide, and the revolutionary banner passes to Vicente Guerrero.

1821
After revolt in Spain ushers in a new era of liberal reforms there, conservative Mexican leaders begin plans to end the viceregal system and separate their country from the mother land on their own terms. On their behalf, Iturbide meets with Guerrero and issues the Plan of Iguala, by which Mexico would become an independent country ruled as a limited monarchy, with the Roman Catholic Church as the official state church and equal rights and upper-class status for the Spanish and mestizo populations, as opposed to the majority of the population, which was of Native American or African descent, or mulato (mixed). In August 1821, the last Spanish viceroy is forced to sign the Treaty of Córdoba, marking the official beginning of Mexican independence.

1823
Iturbide, who earlier declared himself emperor of the new Mexican state, is deposed by his former aide, General Antonio López de Santa Anna, who declares a Mexican republic. Guadalupe Victoria becomes Mexico’s first elected president, and during his tenure Iturbide is executed, and a bitter struggle begins between Centralist, or conservative, and Federalist, or liberal, elements of the Mexican government that will continue for the next several decades.

1833
Santa Anna himself becomes president after leading the successful resistance against Spain’s attempt to recapture Mexico in 1829. His strong Centralist policies encourage the increasing ire of residents of Texas, then still part of Mexico, who declare their independence in 1836. After attempting to quell the rebellion in Texas, Santa Anna’s forces are decisively defeated by those of rebel leader Sam Houston at the Battle of San Jacinto in April 1836. Humbled, he is forced to resign power by 1844.

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May 12, 1846
As a result of the continuing dispute over Texas, frictions between the U.S. and Mexican residents of the region, and a desire to acquire land in New Mexico and California, the U.S. declares war on Mexico. The U.S. quickly smother their enemy with superior force, launching an invasion of northern Mexico led by General Zachary Taylor while simultaneously invading New Mexico and California and blockading both of Mexico’s coasts. Despite a series of U.S. victories (including a hard-won victory over Santa Anna’s men at Buena Vista in February 1847) and the success of the blockade, Mexico refuses to admit defeat, and in the spring of 1847 the U.S. sends forces under General Winfield Scott to capture Mexico City. Scott’s men accomplish this on September 14, and a formal peace is reached in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848. By its terms, the Rio Grande becomes the southern boundary of Texas, and California and New Mexico are ceded to the U.S. The U.S. agrees to pay $15 million as compensation for the seized land, which amounts to half of Mexico’s territory.

1857
Defeat in the war against the United States serves as a catalyst for a new era of reform in Mexico. Regional resistance to the strict centralized regime of the aging Santa Anna leads to guerrilla warfare and eventually to the general’s forced exile and the rise to power of rebel leader Juan Álvarez. He and his liberal cabinet, including Benito Júarez, institute a series of reforms, culminating in 1857 in the form of a new constitution establishing a federal as opposed to centralized form of government and guaranteeing freedom of speech and universal male suffrage, among other civil liberties. Other reforms focus on curtailing the power and wealth of the Catholic Church. Conservative groups bitterly oppose the new constitution, and in 1858 a three-year-long civil war begins that will devastate an already weakened Mexico.

Road to Revolution

1861
Benito Júarez, a Zapotec Indian, emerges from the War of the Reform as the champion of the victorious liberals. One of Júarez’s first acts as president is to suspend payment on all of Mexico’s debts to foreign governments. In an operation spearheaded by France’s Napoleon III, France, Great Britain and Spain intervene to protect their investments in Mexico, occupying Veracruz. The British and Spanish soon withdraw, but Napoleon III sends his troops to occupy Mexico City, forcing Júarez and his government to flee in June 1863. Napoleon III installs Maximilian, archduke of Austria, on the throne of a Mexican Empire.

1867
Under pressure from the United States, which has continued to recognize Júarez as the legitimate leader of Mexico, France withdraws its troops from Mexico. After Mexican troops under General Porfirio Díaz occupy Mexico City, Maximilian is forced to surrender and is executed after a court-martial. Reinstated as president, Júarez immediately causes controversy by proposing further changes to the constitution that would strengthen executive power. In the 1871 elections, he narrowly wins reelection over a slate of candidates including Porfirio Díaz, who leads an unsuccessful revolt in protest. Júarez dies of a heart attack in 1872.

1877
After another revolt–this time successful–against Júarez’s successor Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada, Porfirio Díaz takes control of Mexico. Except for one four-year stretch from 1880 to 1884, Díaz will rule essentially as a dictator until 1911. During this period, Mexico undergoes tremendous commercial and economic development, based largely on Díaz’s encouragement of foreign investment in the country. By 1910, most of the largest businesses in Mexico are owned by foreign nationals, mostly American or British. The modernizing reforms made by the Díaz government turn Mexico City into a bustling metropolis, but they largely benefit the country’s upper classes, not its poor majority. The fundamental inequality of Mexico’s political and economic system breeds growing discontent, which will lead to revolution.

1910
Francisco Madero, a landowning lawyer and a member of Mexico’s liberal, educated class, unsuccessfully opposes Díaz in the year’s presidential elections. He also publishes a book calling for free and democratic elections and an end to the Díaz regime. Although fully 90 percent of the Mexican population at the time is illiterate, Madero’s message spreads throughout the country, sparking increasing calls for change, and Madero himself becomes the acknowledged leader of a popular revolution.

November 20, 1910
The Mexican Revolution begins when Madero issues the Plan of San Luis Potosí, promising democracy, federalism, agrarian reform and worker’s rights and declaring war on the Díaz regime. By 1911, Díaz is forced to step aside and Madero is elected president, but conflict and violence continue for the better part of the next decade. Popular leaders like Emiliano Zapata in southern Mexico and Pancho Villa in the north emerge as the champions of the peasant and working class, refusing to submit to presidential authority.

1913
In the wake of a series of bloody riots in the streets of Mexico City in February 1913, Madero is overthrown by a coup led by his own military chief, General Victoriano Huerta. Huerta declares himself dictator and has Madero murdered, but opposition from the supporters of Villa, Zapata and the former Díaz ally (but political moderate) Venustiano Carranza drive Huerta to resign by 1914. Carranza takes power, and Zapata and Villa continue waging war against him. Various invasions by the United States–nervous about their unruly neighbor–further complicates matters, as Carranza struggles to hold power. Government forces led by General Álvaro Obregón finally defeat Villa’s northern guerrilla forces, leaving the rebel leader wounded but alive.

1917
Mexico remains neutral throughout World War I, despite efforts by Germany to enlist the country as an ally. Despite the warring factions in Mexico, Carranza is able to oversee the creation of a new liberal Mexican constitution in 1917. In his efforts to maintain power, however, Carranza grows increasingly reactionary, ordering the ambush and murder of Zapata in 1919. Some of Zapata’s followers refuse to believe their hero is dead, and his legend lives on to inspire many generations of social reformers. The following year, Carranza is overthrown and killed by a group of his more radical generals. They are led by Obregón, who is elected president and faces the task of reforming Mexico after ten years of devastating revolution. By this time, nearly 900,000 Mexicans have emigrated to the United States since 1910, both to escape the violence and to find greater opportunities for work.

1923
After three years, the U.S. recognizes the Obregón government, only after the Mexican leader promises not to seize the holdings of American oil companies in Mexico. In domestic affairs, Obregón puts into place a serious of agrarian reforms, and gave official sanction to organizations of peasants and laborers. He also institutes a sweeping educational reform led by Jose Vasconcelos, enabling the Mexican cultural revolution that begins during this period–including astonishing work by such artists as Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo, the photographer Tina Modotti, the composer Carlos Chávez and the writers Martín Luis Guzmán and Juan Rulfo–to extend from the richest to the poorest segments of the population. After stepping down in 1924 to make way for another former general, Plutarco Calles, Obregón is reelected in 1928, but is killed this same year by a religious fanatic.

Rebuilding the Nation

1934
Lázaro Cárdenas, another former revolutionary general, is elected president. He revives the revolutionary-era social revolution and carries out an extensive series of agrarian reforms, distributing nearly twice as much land to peasants as had all of his predecessors combined. In 1938, Cárdenas nationalizes the country’s oil industry, expropriating the extensive properties of foreign-own companies and creating a government agency to administer the oil industry. He remains an influential figure in government throughout the next three decades.

1940
Elected in 1940, Cárdenas’ more conservative successor, Manual Ávila Camacho, forges a friendlier relationship with the U.S., which leads Mexico to declare war on the Axis powers after the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor. During World War II, Mexican pilots fight against Japanese forces in the Philippines, serving alongside the U.S. Air Force. In 1944, Mexico agrees to pay U.S. oil companies $24 million, plus interest, for properties expropriated in 1938. The following year, Mexico joins the newly created United Nations.

1946
Miguel Alemán becomes the first civilian president of Mexico since Francisco Madero in 1911. In the post-World War II years, Mexico undergoes great industrial and economic growth, even as the gap continues to grow between the richest and poorest segments of the population. The ruling government party, founded in 1929, is renamed the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI), and will continue its dominance for the next 50 years.

PRI in Power

1968
As a symbol of its growing international status, Mexico City is chosen to host the Olympic Games. Over the course of the year, student protesters stage a number of demonstrations in an attempt to draw international attention to what they see as a lack of social justice and democracy in Mexico under the PRI government and its current president, Gustavo Díaz Ordaz. On October 2, ten days before the Games were to open, Mexican security forces and military troops surround a demonstration at the historic Tlatelolco Plaza and open fire. Though the resulting death and injury toll is concealed by the Mexican government (and their allies in Washington), at least 100 people are killed and many others wounded. The Games go ahead as planned.

1976
Huge oil reserves are discovered in the Bay of Campeche, off the shores of the states of Campeche, Tabasco and Veracruz, at the southernmost end of the Gulf of Mexico. The Cantarell oil field established there becomes one of the largest in the world, producing more than 1 million barrels per day by 1981. Jose López Portillo, elected in 1976, promises to use the oil money to fund a campaign of industrial expansion, social welfare and high-yield agriculture. To do this, his government borrows huge sums of foreign money at high interest rates, only to discover that the oil is generally of low grade. These policies leave Mexico with the world’s largest foreign debt.

1985
By the mid-1980s, Mexico is in financial crisis. On September 19, 1985, an earthquake in Mexico City kills nearly 10,000 people and causes heavy damage. The displaced residents, dissatisfied with the government’s response to their situation, form grassroots organizations that will blossom into a full-fledged human rights and civic action movement during the late 1980s and 1990s. The country’s problems are exacerbated by continuing accusations of electoral fraud against the PRI and the devastation caused in the Yucatán by a massive hurricane in 1988.

December 17, 1992
President Carlos Salinas joins George H.W. Bush of the U.S. and Prime Minister Brian Mulroney of Canada in signing the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which goes into effect January 1, 1994. The agreement calls for a phasing out of the longstanding trade barriers between the three nations. Salinas pushes it through over the opposition of the media and the academic communities and of the leftist Partido Revolucionario Democrático (PRD), which begins to win growing support among the electorate. Salinas’ government is plagued by accusations of corruption, and in 1995 the former president is forced into exile.

1994
The latest PRI candidate, Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Leon, is elected president and immediately faces a banking crisis when the value of the Mexican peso plunges on international markets. The United States loans Mexico $20 billion, which, along with a plan of economic austerity, helps stabilize its currency.

Mexico Today

1997
The corruption-plagued PRI suffers a shocking defeat, losing the mayoralty of Mexico City (also known as the Distrito Federal, or DF) to PRD candidate Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, son of former president Lázaro Cárdenas, by an overwhelming margin.

2000
Vicente Fox, of the opposition Partido de Acción Nacional (PAN) wins election to the Mexican presidency, ending more than 70 years of PRI rule. Parliamentary elections also see the PAN emerge victorious, beating the PRI by a slight margin. A former Coca-Cola executive, Fox enters office as a conservative reformer, focusing his early efforts on improving trade relations with the United States, calming civil unrest in areas such as Chiapas and reducing corruption, crime and drug trafficking. Fox also strives to improve the status of millions of illegal Mexican immigrants living in the United States, but his efforts stall after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. With reforms slowing and his opponents gaining ground, Fox also faces large-scale protests by farmers frustrated with the inequalities of the NAFTA system.

2006
In the July presidential election, the PAN’s Felipe Calderón apparently wins by less than one percentage point over the PRD’s Andrés Manual López Obrador, with the PRI in third place. With the country strongly divided along class lines–López Obrador aims to represent Mexico’s poor, while Calderón promises to continue the country’s business and technological development–López Obrador and his supporters reject the results as fraudulent and stage mass protests. On September 5, a federal elections board officially declares Calderón the winner. He is inaugurated in December, as more than 100,000 protesters in Mexico City–in addition to PRD legislators–rally around López Obrador, who refuses to concede defeat. In his first months in office, Calderón moves away from the pro-business, free-trade promises of his campaign, expressing his desire to address some of the issues of poverty and social injustice championed by the PRD.

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From the stone cities of the Maya to the might of the Aztecs, from its conquest by Spain to its rise as a modern nation, Mexico boasts a rich history and

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How Hernán Cortés Conquered the Aztec Empire | HISTORY

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The year 2021 marks the 500-year anniversary of the fall of Tenochtitlán, the fabled capital of the Aztec Empire.

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The image of the horse goes back thousands of years. The magic and mystique surrounding the horse inspired people to recreate their image in cave and rock paintings. Horses were highly valued and became a symbol of strength and courage. They arrived in Sweden 4000 years ago and were tamed and domesticated around that time.

In the 17th century little wooden horses were sold at markets in small towns and villages in Dalarna, in central Sweden. A hundred years later wooden horses were carved by men working in the forests during long winter evenings and brought back to the village for the children to play with. This is how the little wooden horse from Dalarna became a treasured object. These simple wooden horses were later painted in bright colours inspired by the flower patterns painted on furniture and walls in the region. During this time travelling salesmen selling traditional household items would also bring Dalahastar to use as payment for board and lodgings. They also became an important source of income for poorer families. Even young children had to learn to carve wooden horses after returning home from school. The children of one such family started a small business at the ages of13 and 15 in 1928. Their children and grand children are still producing the Dala horses to this day in a little village called Nusnas in Dalarna. Their Dalahast has now become an authentic symbol of Sweden.

It wasn't until the World Exhibition in New York in 1939 that the Dala wooden horse became famous around the world. A giant painted Dala horse was placed outside the Swedish pavilion and caused a sensation among the visitors. During the year after the exhibition 20 000 Dala horses were shipped over to New York and so the Swedish Dala horse became a symbol for Sweden.

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Dala Horse History | Dalarna | The Swedish Wooden Horse Company

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The image of the horse goes back thousands of years. The magic and mystique surrounding the horse inspired people to recreate their image in cave and rock paintings. Horses were highly valued and became a symbol of strength and courage. They arrived in Sweden 4000 years ago and were tamed and domesticated around that time.

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Photo: Fine Art Images/Heritage Images/Getty Images

Quick Facts
"I love to travel, but hate to arrive.""He travels safest in the dark night who travels lightest.""Better to die with honor than live dishonored."

Castilleja de la Cuesta, Spain

Who Was Hernán Cortés?

Born around 1485, Hernán Cortés was a Spanish conquistador and explorer who defeated the Aztecs and claimed Mexico for Spain.

He first set sail to the New World at the age of 19. Cortés later joined an expedition to Cuba. In 1518, he set off to explore Mexico.

Cortés strategically aligned some Indigenous peoples against others and eventually overthrew the vast and powerful Aztec empire. As a reward, King Charles I appointed him governor of New Spain in 1522.

Early Life

Cortés, marqués del Valle de Oaxaca, was born around 1485 in Medellín, Spain. He came from a lesser noble family in Spain. Some reports indicate that he studied at the University of Salamanca for a time.

In 1504, Cortés left Spain to seek his fortune in New World. He traveled to the island of Santo Domingo, or Hispaniola. Settling in the new town of Azúa, Cortés served as a notary for several years.

He joined an expedition of Cuba led by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar in 1511. There, Cortés worked in the civil government and served as the mayor of Santiago for a time.

Aztec Empire

In 1518, Cortés was to command his own expedition to Mexico, but Velázquez canceled it. In a mutinous act of defiance, Cortés ignored the order, setting sail for Mexico with more than 500 men and 11 ships that year.

In February 1519, the expedition reached the Mexican coast. By some accounts, Cortés then had all his ships destroyed except one, which he sent back to Spain. This brazen decision eliminated the possibility of any retreat.

Cortés became allies with some of the Indigenous peoples he encountered, but with others, he used deadly force to conquer Mexico. He fought Tlaxacan and Cholula warriors and then set his sights on taking over the Aztec empire.

He marched to Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital and home to ruler Montezuma II. After being invited into the royal palace, Cortés took Montezuma hostage and his soldiers plundered the city.

But shortly thereafter, Cortés hurriedly left the city after learning that Spanish troops were coming to arrest him for disobeying orders from Velázquez.

After fending off the Spanish forces, Cortés returned to Tenochtitlán to find a rebellion in progress, during which Montezuma was killed. The Aztecs eventually drove the Spanish from the city, but Cortés returned again to defeat them and take the city in 1521, effectively ending the Aztec empire.

In their bloody battles for domination over the Aztecs, Cortés and his men are estimated to have killed as many as 100,000 Indigenous peoples. King Charles I of Spain (also known as Holy Roman Emperor Charles V) appointed him the governor of New Spain in 1522.

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Later Years and Death

Despite his decisive victory over the Aztecs, Cortés faced numerous challenges to his authority and position, both from Spain and his rivals in the New World. He traveled to Honduras in 1524 to stop a rebellion against him in the area.

In 1536, Cortés led an expedition to the northwestern part of Mexico, in the process exploring Baja California and Mexico's Pacific coast. This was to be his last major expedition.

Back in the capital city, Cortés found himself unceremoniously removed from power. He traveled to Spain to plead his case to the king, but he was not reappointed to his governorship.

In 1541, Cortés retired to Spain. He spent much of his later years desperately seeking recognition for his achievements and support from the Spanish royal court. Wealthy but embittered from his lack of support and acclaim, Cortés died in Spain in 1547.

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"I love to travel, but hate to arrive." "He travels safest in the dark night who travels lightest." "Better to die with honor than live dishonored." Castilleja de la Cuesta, Spain Born around 1485, Hernán Cortés was a Spanish conquistador and explorer who defeated the Aztecs and claimed Mexico for Spain.

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The history of Mexican food is a long and diverse one. It is believed that authentic Mexican food might have been derived from the Mayan Indians. They were traditionally nomadic hunters and gatherers. Corn tortillas with bean paste were a common food item; but they also ate wild game, tropic fruits, and fish.

In the mid 1300's, The Aztec Empire was thriving, and though the Mayan food staples were still in use, chili peppers, honey, salt and chocolate found its way into their cooking. Some of the wild game, such as turkey and duck, had now become domesticated.

In 1521 Spain invaded Mexico. Spanish foods had the most influence on the Mexican cuisine. They introduced new livestock, such as sheep, pigs and cows. They brought with them dairy products, and garlic as well as many different herbs, wheat and spices. It was at this time that the Mexican people saw the assimilation of many other cuisines including Caribbean, South American, French, West African and Portuguese. Because of this Mexican foods today are diverse, yet dishes to vary from region to region.

Cooking methods, past and present

The early natives of Mexico did not have ovens, instead they heated food over and open fire, using cast iron skillets and ceramic ware. Another method was steaming. They would suspend meat wrapped in cactus or banana leaves, over boiling water in a deep pit. Frying was also a popular method.

They used a metate y mano, which is a large tool made of lava rock or stone that they would use as a grinding stone or the molcajete, which was smaller, to grind and smash ingredients. The molcajete, or mortar and pestle, is a small bowl shaped container that can be made of stone, pottery, hard wood or marble, and the pestle is baseball bat shaped.

A Brief History on Some of Our Favorite Foods

Salsa was sold in the Aztec market places. Salsa, the Spanish word for sauce, is uncooked and sometimes pureed until chunky, smooth, or chopped. Large red tomatoes, tomatillo, chipotle {a staple in the Aztec diet} and the avocado are found in the modern salsa, and are the same core ingredients used in the past. We can thank the Aztecs for Chocolate. It was through them that the Spaniards brought the product to Europe in 1657.

The term enchilada is first referenced in the US in 1885. Yet the concept of tortillas being used as a wrap can be clearly linked to the Aztecs. The word enchilada means "in chile."

The tomatillo is a fruit that dates back to at least 800 BC, the word meaning round and plump. The Aztecs domesticated it, and when the Europeans came to Mexico, they documented the local foods and often confused the names by shortening the words. Though never popular with Europeans, it thrived in Italy. Today a relative of the fruit is common in the US. Tomatillo, a member of the night shade family, provides tart flavor in many different green sauces.

The Portuguese aided the spread of the chili pepper plants. Thought the earliest mention was in 1542 when a German herbalist, Leonhart Fuchs, described and illustrated several types of peppers. Though for people of Europe, the history of the pepper began in the late 15th century, when Colombus brought the peppers home. There is archaeological evidence that peppers were in use since 5000 BC.

Pre-Columbus is how far back the Tamale can be traced. The Friar Bernardino de Sahagun documented that the Spaniards were served tamales by the Aztecs in the 1550's.

Other foods that we associate with Mexican cuisine, are not traditionally so. The Flan was discovered in Medieval Europe. And ceviche is an Inca discovery, eating their catch of the day raw with only a few seasonings. It wasn't until the late 15th century when Native American chefs of Ecuador and Peru began to add the citrus fruits with the South American fish, and creating the dish that we know today.

Flavors from around the world have influenced Mexican dishes. The same can be said about Mexican traditional favorites affecting other countries menus. In just about every culture you look at, you can find a hint of Mexico.

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The history of Mexican food is a long and diverse one. It is believed that authentic Mexican food might have been derived from the Mayan Indians. They were traditionally nomadic hunters and gatherers. Corn tortillas with bean paste were a common food item; but they also ate wild game, tropic fruits, and fish.

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Japanese art | History, Characteristics, & Facts

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Japanese art, the painting, calligraphy, architecture, pottery, sculpture, bronzes, jade carving, and other fine or decorative visual arts produced in Japan over the centuries. Learn more about the history of Japanese art, its main characteristics, and significant artists.

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6 Events That Laid the Groundwork for the Vietnam War

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6 Events That Laid the Groundwork for the Vietnam War

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The Vietnam War (1955-1975) was fought between communist North Vietnam, backed by the Soviet Union and China, and South Vietnam, supported by the United States. The bloody conflict had its roots in French colonial rule and an independence movement driven by communist leader Ho Chi Minh.

Vietnam was a battleground in the Cold War, when the United States and Soviet Union grappled for world domination. By war's end, North and South Vietnam would be reunited, but at great cost. Here are six events that led to the Vietnam War.

1. The Collapse of French Indochina and Rise of Ho Chi Minh

Vietnam became a French colony in 1877 with the founding of French Indochina, which included Tonkin, Annam, Cochin China and Cambodia. ( Laos was added in 1893.) The French lost control of their colony briefly during World War II, when Japanese troops occupied Vietnam.

As Japan and France fought over Vietnam, an independence movement was forming under Ho Chi Minh, a revolutionary leader inspired by Lenin's Bolshevik Revolution. He established the League for the Independence of Vietnam, better known as the Viet Minh, in May of 1941.

Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnam's independence from France on September 2, 1945, just hours after Japan's surrender in World War II. When the French rejected his plan, the Viet Minh resorted to guerilla warfare to fight for an independent Vietnam.
WATCH: The Vietnam War on HISTORY Vault

Did you know? Ho Chi Minh used the U.S. Declaration of Independence as a model for his Proclamation of the Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, writing: "All men are born equal: the Creator has given us inviolable rights, life, liberty, and happiness!"

2. Battle of Dien Bien Phu

The conflict between the French and the Viet Minh came to a head at the decisive Battle of Dien Bien Phu, when, after a four-month siege, the French lost to the Viet Minh under commander Vo Nguyen Giap, marking the end of French rule in Vietnam. The question of who would rule Vietnam and how drew the interest of world superpowers, who watched the situation in Vietnam with growing unease.

3. The 1954 Geneva Accords Divide Vietnam

The Geneva Accords were signed in July of 1954 and split Vietnam at the 17th parallel. North Vietnam would be ruled by Ho Chi Minh's communist government and South Vietnam would be led by emperor Bao Dai. An election was scheduled in two years' time to unify Vietnam, but the U.S., fearful that a national election would lead to communist rule, ensured it never took place.

"The 'temporary' division of the country at the seventeenth parallel into two ideologically-opposed states meant that the civil conflict in Vietnam would collide full-scale with the East-West rivalry," says Lien-Hang T. Nguyen, Dorothy Borg Associate Professor in the History of the United States and East Asia at Columbia University.

4. The Cold War

Vietnam was divided during the Cold War, when tensions between the U.S. and The Soviet Union were at an all-time high. Mao Zedong had proclaimed the creation of the People's Republic of China in 1949, and in January of 1950, China joined with the Soviet Union to formally recognize the communist Democratic Republic of Vietnam.

During the Cold War, the U.S. practiced a policy of containment. President Harry S. Truman's Truman Doctrine pledged political, military, and economic assistance to democratic nations facing threats from communist forces. His successor, President Dwight D. Eisenhower, put forth the Domino Theory that a communist victory in Vietnam would create a domino effect in Southeast Asia... and therefore must be prevented at all costs.

"The Vietnam War was at once a war to reconcile issues of European imperialism in a new postcolonial space, a war between Marxism-Leninism and Democratic-Capitalism, and a war between Vietnamese parties," says Nguyen.

5. The Overthrow of Ngo Dinh Diem

Emperor Bao Dai was succeeded by Catholic nationalist Ngo Dinh Diem. His strong anti-communist stance was popular with the Americans who helped him rise to power. But Diem's preferential treatment of the Catholic minority led to protests throughout South Vietnam. In May 1963, eight Buddhist protestors were killed by government officials in Hue.

In response, Buddhist monk Thích Quang Duc set himself on fire in the middle of a busy Saigon intersection. Other monks began to immolate themselves in what became known as the "Buddhist crisis." The United States lost confidence in Diem's ability to lead.

That November, the United States backed a military coup in which Diem and his brother, Ngo Dinh Nhu, were murdered. (U.S. President John F. Kennedy would be assassinated less than three weeks later.) The coup was followed by a chaotic succession of 12 different governments in South Vietnam between 1963 and 1965.

6. Gulf of Tonkin Incident

The Gulf of Tonkin Incident, also known as the U.S.S. Maddox incident, marked the formal entry of the United States into the Vietnam War.

"In the summer of 1964 the Johnson administration was laying secret plans for an expansion of U.S. military involvement in Vietnam. Any such wider action should have congressional support, officials determined, and the Gulf of Tonkin incident provided the opportunity to secure this authorization," says Fredrik Logevall, Laurence D. Belfer Professor of International Affairs at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University.

On August 2, 1964 the U.S.S. Maddox encountered three Soviet-built North Vietnamese torpedo boats in the Gulf of Tonkin. The Maddox fired what it described as warning shots and was met by torpedo and machine gun fire. On August 4, the U.S. destroyer Turner Joy and the U.S.S. Maddox reported that they had been ambushed, though the Turner Joy's account has since been called into question by historians.

On August 7, the House and Senate passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution almost unanimously to grant President Lyndon B. Johnson the power "to take all necessary measures to repeal any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent any further aggression."

America's war in Vietnam had officially begun.
READ MORE: Vietnam War Timeline

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6 Events That Laid the Groundwork for the Vietnam War | HISTORY

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The conflict in Vietnam took root during an independence movement against French colonial rule and evolved into a Cold War confrontation.

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Vietnam War - French rule ended, Vietnam divided

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Vietnam War - French rule ended, Vietnam divided

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The Vietnam War had its origins in the broader Indochina wars of the 1940s and '50s, when nationalist groups such as Ho Chi Minh's Viet Minh, inspired by Chinese and Soviet communism, fought the colonial rule first of Japan and then of France. The French Indochina War broke out in 1946 and went on for eight years, with France's war effort largely funded and supplied by the United States. Finally, with their shattering defeat by the Viet Minh at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in May 1954, the French came to the end of their rule in Indochina. The battle prodded negotiators at the Geneva Conference to produce the final Geneva Accords in July 1954. The accords established the 17th parallel (latitude 17° N) as a temporary demarcation line separating the military forces of the French and the Viet Minh. North of the line was the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, or North Vietnam, which had waged a successful eight-year struggle against the French. The North was under the full control of the Worker's Party, or Vietnamese Communist Party, led by Ho Chi Minh; its capital was Hanoi. In the South the French transferred most of their authority to the State of Vietnam, which had its capital at Saigon and was nominally under the authority of the former Vietnamese emperor, Bao Dai. Within 300 days of the signing of the accords, a demilitarized zone, or DMZ, was to be created by mutual withdrawal of forces north and south of the 17th parallel, and the transfer of any civilians who wished to leave either side was to be completed. Nationwide elections to decide the future of Vietnam, North and South, were to be held in 1956.

Accepting the de facto partition of Vietnam as unavoidable but still pledging to halt the spread of communism in Asia, U.S. Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower began a crash program of assistance to the State of Vietnam-or South Vietnam, as it was invariably called. The Saigon Military Mission, a covert operation to conduct psychological warfare and paramilitary activities in South Vietnam, was launched on June 1, 1954, under the command of U.S. Air Force Col. Edward Lansdale. At the same time, Viet Minh leaders, confidently expecting political disarray and unrest in the South, retained many of their political operatives and propagandists below the 17th parallel even as they withdrew their military forces to the North. Ngo Dinh Diem, the newly installed premier of South Vietnam, thus faced opposition not only from the communist regime in the North but also from the Viet Minh's stay-behind political agents, armed religious sects in the South, and even subversive elements in his own army. Yet Diem had the full support of U.S. military advisers, who trained and reequipped his army along American lines and foiled coup plots by dissident officers. Operatives of the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) bought off or intimidated Diem's domestic opposition, and U.S. aid agencies helped him to keep his economy afloat and to resettle some 900,000 refugees who had fled the communist North.

By late 1955 Diem had consolidated his power in the South, defeating the remaining sect forces and arresting communist operatives who had surfaced in considerable numbers to prepare for the anticipated elections. Publicly opposed to the elections, Diem called for a referendum only in the South, and in October 1955 he declared himself president of the Republic of Vietnam. The North, not ready to start a new war and unable to induce its Chinese or Russian allies to act, could do little.

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Vietnam War - French Rule, Division, Conflict

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Vietnam War - French Rule, Division, Conflict: The Vietnam War had its origins in the broader Indochina wars of the 1940s and '50s, when nationalist groups such as Ho Chi Minh's Viet Minh, inspired by Chinese and Soviet communism, fought the colonial rule first of Japan and then of France.

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Hunting in Sweden - Everything You Need to Know

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This ultimate guide has everything you need to know about hunting in Sweden. Learn more on how you can get a hunting license and what you can legally hunt.

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The history of Mexican food is a long and diverse one. It is believed that authentic Mexican food might have been derived from the Mayan Indians. They were traditionally nomadic hunters and gatherers. Corn tortillas with bean paste were a common food item; but they also ate wild game, tropic fruits, and fish.

In the mid 1300's, The Aztec Empire was thriving, and though the Mayan food staples were still in use, chili peppers, honey, salt and chocolate found its way into their cooking. Some of the wild game, such as turkey and duck, had now become domesticated.

In 1521 Spain invaded Mexico. Spanish foods had the most influence on the Mexican cuisine. They introduced new livestock, such as sheep, pigs and cows. They brought with them dairy products, and garlic as well as many different herbs, wheat and spices. It was at this time that the Mexican people saw the assimilation of many other cuisines including Caribbean, South American, French, West African and Portuguese. Because of this Mexican foods today are diverse, yet dishes to vary from region to region.

Cooking methods, past and present

The early natives of Mexico did not have ovens, instead they heated food over and open fire, using cast iron skillets and ceramic ware. Another method was steaming. They would suspend meat wrapped in cactus or banana leaves, over boiling water in a deep pit. Frying was also a popular method.

They used a metate y mano, which is a large tool made of lava rock or stone that they would use as a grinding stone or the molcajete, which was smaller, to grind and smash ingredients. The molcajete, or mortar and pestle, is a small bowl shaped container that can be made of stone, pottery, hard wood or marble, and the pestle is baseball bat shaped.

A Brief History on Some of Our Favorite Foods

Salsa was sold in the Aztec market places. Salsa, the Spanish word for sauce, is uncooked and sometimes pureed until chunky, smooth, or chopped. Large red tomatoes, tomatillo, chipotle {a staple in the Aztec diet} and the avocado are found in the modern salsa, and are the same core ingredients used in the past. We can thank the Aztecs for Chocolate. It was through them that the Spaniards brought the product to Europe in 1657.

The term enchilada is first referenced in the US in 1885. Yet the concept of tortillas being used as a wrap can be clearly linked to the Aztecs. The word enchilada means "in chile."

The tomatillo is a fruit that dates back to at least 800 BC, the word meaning round and plump. The Aztecs domesticated it, and when the Europeans came to Mexico, they documented the local foods and often confused the names by shortening the words. Though never popular with Europeans, it thrived in Italy. Today a relative of the fruit is common in the US. Tomatillo, a member of the night shade family, provides tart flavor in many different green sauces.

The Portuguese aided the spread of the chili pepper plants. Thought the earliest mention was in 1542 when a German herbalist, Leonhart Fuchs, described and illustrated several types of peppers. Though for people of Europe, the history of the pepper began in the late 15th century, when Colombus brought the peppers home. There is archaeological evidence that peppers were in use since 5000 BC.

Pre-Columbus is how far back the Tamale can be traced. The Friar Bernardino de Sahagun documented that the Spaniards were served tamales by the Aztecs in the 1550's.

Other foods that we associate with Mexican cuisine, are not traditionally so. The Flan was discovered in Medieval Europe. And ceviche is an Inca discovery, eating their catch of the day raw with only a few seasonings. It wasn't until the late 15th century when Native American chefs of Ecuador and Peru began to add the citrus fruits with the South American fish, and creating the dish that we know today.

Flavors from around the world have influenced Mexican dishes. The same can be said about Mexican traditional favorites affecting other countries menus. In just about every culture you look at, you can find a hint of Mexico.

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The history of Mexican food is a long and diverse one. It is believed that authentic Mexican food might have been derived from the Mayan Indians. They were traditionally nomadic hunters and gatherers. Corn tortillas with bean paste were a common food item; but they also ate wild game, tropic fruits, and fish.

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Welcome to the University of Michigan Library's Brown v. Board of Education Digital Archive. This archive contains documents and images which chronicle events surrounding this historically significant case up to the present.

The archive is divided into four main areas of interest: Supreme Court cases; busing and school integration efforts in northern urban areas; school integration in the Ann Arbor Public School District; and recent resegregation trends in American schools.

Donovan School (Ann Arbor, Mich.) Miss Lily E. Goodhew teacher, Feb. 1911. Part of Bentley Image Bank Collection, Bentley Historical Library at the University of Michigan.

Court Cases
Ann Arbor P.S. Integration
Ann Arbor and Michigan Statistics
Resegregation Issues
Image Gallery
Bibliography
Oral Arguments of Brown
Oral Histories
Virginia's Brown v Board Scholarships 2005

About the Archive
Copyright Information
Contact Us

Little Rock H.S. 40th Anniv.
The Civil Rights Project
Brown @50 Howard Univ.
NPR: Looking Back:
'Brown v. Board of Education'
. . . more

LSA Brown Commemoration
Ann Arbor Reads

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Brown v. Board of Education Online Archive

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Welcome to the University of Michigan Library's Brown v. Board of Education Digital Archive. This archive contains documents and images which chronicle events surrounding this historically significant case up to the present.

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Welcome to the Civil Rights Digital Library

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Welcome to the Civil Rights Digital Library

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The struggle for racial equality in the 1950s and 1960s is among the most far-reaching social movements in the nation's history, and it represents a crucial step in the evolution of American democracy. The Civil Rights Digital Library promotes an enhanced understanding of the Movement by helping users discover primary sources and other educational materials from libraries, archives, museums, public broadcasters, and others on a national scale. The CRDL features a collection of unedited news film from the WSB (Atlanta) and WALB (Albany, Ga.) television archives held by the Walter J. Brown Media Archives and Peabody Awards Collection at the University of Georgia Libraries. The CRDL provides educator resources and contextual materials, including Freedom on Film, relating instructive stories and discussion questions from the Civil Rights Movement in Georgia, and the New Georgia Encyclopedia, delivering engaging online articles and multimedia.

CRDL is a partnership among librarians, technologists, archivists, educators, scholars, academic publishers, and public broadcasters. The initiative receives support through a National Leadership Grant for Libraries awarded to the University of Georgia by the Institute of Museum and Library Services.

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Welcome to the Civil Rights Digital Library

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The struggle for racial equality in the 1950s and 1960s is among the most far-reaching social movements in the nation's history, and it represents a crucial step in the evolution of American democracy. The Civil Rights Digital Library promotes an enhanced understanding of the Movement by helping users discover primary sources and other educational materials from libraries, archives, museums, public broadcasters, and others on a national scale.

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Basic information on Japan - Kids Web Japan Explore Japan | Web Japan

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The land area of Japan is 378,000 square kilometers, which is one twenty-fifth that of the United States (a little smaller than California). Three-quarters of the country is mountainous, with plains and basins covering the remaining area. Japan consists of a long series of islands stretching for 3,0…

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5 Important Facts about the History of Kenya

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5 Important Facts about the History of Kenya

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5 Important Facts about the History of Kenya

Kenya is one of the 54 countries of Africa. It is located on the Eastern part of the continent, bordering Ethiopia, Somalia, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, and the Indian Ocean.

The country is further divided into 47 counties which are governed by elected governors. As at the beginning of 2019, the country's population stood at 52.2 million people.

The country's capital and largest city is Nairobi. The next largest city is the coastal town of Mombasa, followed by Kisumu city.

As with many countries in Africa and around the world, Kenya has a rich and long history. We will not go through all the details, but there are some important facts that are good to know about the country's history...

The Colonial History

The Berlin Conference of 1885 formed the roots of the colonial history of the country when East Africa was first divided into territories of influence by the European powers, from the United Kingdom.

The British Government founded the East African Protectorate in 1895 and then opened the fertile highlands to white settlers soon after.

The country was declared a British colony in 1920.

It was not until 1944 that Kenyans and some Asians that were in the country were allowed direct political participation.

It is also around this time that a big number of Indians were brought into the country to build the famous Kenya-Uganda Railway Line. They subsequently settled in the country, inviting their relatives over to join them.

The "Mau Mau" Uprising

Between 1952 and 1960, the country experienced the "Mau Mau" uprising, also referred to as the "Mau Mau Rebellion".

This was a movement comprised of members from the Kikuyu, Embu, and Meru tribes who took an oath of unity and secrecy to fight for the country's freedom from the British rule. The group also consisted of some Kamba and Maasai peoples.
The oath was the beginning of the movement, which only ended in October 1956 when their rebel leader, Field Marshal Dedan Kimathi was captured and hanged by the colonialists. A street in Nairobi would later be named after him and other freem fighters.

Another freedom fighter and the man that eventually became Kenya's first president- Jomo Kenyatta -was also charged with directing the "Mau Mau" and was sentenced to 7 years imprisonment.

Kenya was then put under a state of emergency from October 1952 to December 1959 because of this "Mau Mau" rebellion against the British colonial rule, which saw thousands of Kenyans being incarcerated in detention camps.

It is at this time that African participation in the political process increased and in 1954, the Africans, Europeans, and Asians were admitted into the Kenya Legislative Council on a representative basis.

Kenya's Independence

The first direct elections for Africans to the Legislative Council took place in 1957.
Those that were elected increased the people's agitation for Jomo Kenyatta's release from detention.

Kenyatta was eventually released in 1962.

On December 12, 1963, Kenya finally gained independence with Kenyatta as her Prime Minister.

The following year, Kenya became a Republic with the man now referred to as Mzee Jomo Kenyatta as her first President. It was also in the same year that Kenya joined the British Commonwealth.

Mzee Kenyatta would then go on to lead the country until his death in August 1978.

The Moi Era

Following the death of Kenya's first president in 1978, the then Vice President Daniel Toroitich Arap Moi succeeded him as Kenya's second President. At this point, Kenya was a "de facto" single party state.

In June 1982, the country was officially declared a one party State by the National Assembly and the Constitution was amended accordingly.

The Parliamentary elections were held in September 1983 under a single party for the first time and the 1988 elections reinforced the one party system.

In December 1991 however, Parliament annulled the one party section of the constitution seeing a diversity of new parties formed in early 1992 and by December of the same year, multiparty democracy was restored and elections held with several parties participating.

Moi was re-elected for another 5 year term because of divisions in the opposition, with his KANU party retaining a majority in the legislature.

Moi would go on to again win re-election as President in the December 1997 elections because of a divided opposition.

It is important to mention that the 1990s were a difficult time for many Kenyans. During this time, Kenya floundered economically, there were numerous ethnic conflicts between the Kalenjins and the Kikuyus, and there was also evidence of widespread corruption.

It is also in the same period where the international community pressed unsuccessfully for constitutional reform to give the opposition parties a fair chance against KANU, the ruling party.

Of key importance is Moi's achievements during his reign. He is remembered for having maintained national and political stability, and he also presided over the expansion of the education sector at all levels.

The President finally retired in 2002, having completed 2 terms in office.

The Grand Coalition

In 2002, Kenya got a new President, Mr. Mwai Kibaki. Kibaki was until this time the official leader of the Opposition, and at one time Moi's former Vice President.
He was coming from a coalition of opposition parties that had joined forces with a faction that broke away from KANU to form the National Rainbow Coalition (NARC).

Kibaki was the party's elected candidate, receiving 62% of the total votes in the 2002 elections, and 59% of the total parliamentary seats.

His and his party's tasks in the new administration included restoring the country's economic growth, generating employment opportunities that would absorb the high number of the unemployed especially the youth, and reduction of high levels of poverty in the country.

President Kibaki would go on to serve his second term in the Grand Coalition Government that was formed after the explosion of the 2007/2008 post-election violence that occurred after Kenyans went to the general election on December 2007.

During Kibaki's second term, Kenya got a Prime Minister, Hon. Raila Odinga. Kibaki and Raila would both serve until March 2013 when Hon. Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta was elected as the country's fourth President with Hon. William Samoei Ruto as his Deputy.

The two were re-elected in 2017 to serve a second term in office, and are still in office today.

There is a lot to learn about Kenya's history. Books have been written about the history of the country, and there are even museums that showcase the same. But the above is just a basic picture of where the country has come from, and where it is at.

Let us know if you have any fun facts to add about the history of Kenya!

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5 Important Facts about the History of Kenya

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5 Important Facts about the History of Kenya Kenya is one of the 54 countries of Africa. It is located on the Eastern part of the continent, bordering Ethiopia, Somalia, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, and the Indian Ocean. The country is further divided into 47 counties which are governed by elected governors.

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In the agricultural industry, where bigger is better, the Kingdom of Sweden is cutting against the global grain. Although Sweden is blessed with one of the largest land masses in the European Union, its agricultural sector has to make do with less than 7 percent of the country's land, or arable land as percentage of total area.

Ecological and economic sustainability have become watchwords of Sweden's agricultural community, due, in part, to its entry into the European Union in 1995. The country has also crafted a progressive agricultural framework supporting global food security in developing economies. This approach hasn't always led to the cheapest outcomes for the country's consumers. Yet the Swedes have made a bet that investing in domestic sustainability and global security is worth the near-term cost.

In cultivating this new agricultural landscape, Sweden's farm sector has had to consolidate and specialize. The number of farms has dropped by nearly 30 percent since 1990, but agricultural production per capita fell by only about 20 percent over the same period. In response to a sparser reality for agriculture in the country, Sweden's farmers have also gravitated to specialized areas of livestock and agriculture production, while gearing up for a more sustainable approach to agriculture.
Jump to: Background
Necessity is the mother of specialization
The greater pursuit of sustainability
Conclusion
Background

In the Great North, a story of resourcefulness is playing out that would make even Swedish hero Gustavus Adolphus proud. While King Gustavus is considered to be one of the "fathers of modern warfare," some historians argue that the ingenuity of his domestic reforms actually overshadow his military feats in determining the future independence of Sweden. These reforms positioned the country for further modernization in other areas, including agriculture.

Sweden had adopted a strip farming policy in the 1300s known as Solskifte, or sun division, assigning parcels of land to farmers within a village community. Each farm had, in theory, equal access to the sun along with land that may be well-suited for crop growth and other land that might lead to poor yields. This land tenure system lasted for about three centuries before being slowly phased out over two centuries after 1600. The reform known as Enskiftet, starting in 1803, reoriented land ownership away from the traditional village system to private farms. Further land reforms later in the 19th century would complete the transition of Sweden's farmlands to private ownership.

Another set of government reforms in the late 20th century could be considered just as much of a sea change for the country. After becoming a member of the EU, farmers were required to gradually adopt the framework of the EU's Common Agriculture Policy (CAP), including a push towards a more market-oriented and eco-friendly approach to agricultural production.

However, that was not the case after the Second World War. Sweden pursued an agriculture policy of oversupply-including a system of tariffs and subsidies-largely in response to the devastation of the Great Depression and a need for domestic food security during the war. This has all changed as reforms within the CAP during the past decade have pushed the country further toward specialization and sustainability.

Geography plays a major role in Swedish farming. Roughly 15 percent of the country's land mass is located north of the Arctic Circle, and the western part of the country is hilly or mountainous, which naturally limits the amount of arable land. Despite those topographical constraints, Sweden still has a considerable amount of suitable area, particularly in the south, for the large-scale cultivation of cereals and other crops.

Yields vary greatly across Sweden, as the growing season in the southern province of Skåne are 100 days longer than in the northern province of Norrland. As such, the country's climate extremes have greatly determined where the primary crops are cultivated along 1,500 kilometres of North-South distance. Barley, oats, and forage are mainly grown in the north. Wheat and rye tend to be planted in the plains districts of south and central Sweden, along with rapeseed, colza, and other oilseeds. Sugarbeets are cultivated only in the very southernmost areas. Potatoes and livestock production are spread relatively uniformly across the country. Hence, nature has nudged the Swedes towards managing for efficiency from the start.

Necessity is the mother of specialization

Swedish agriculture has been able to maintain and increase its economic value-added despite a declining percentage of the country's population focusing on agriculture. These productivity gains have mainly been achieved by merging small unprofitable farms into larger units.

A clear example of the country's ingenuity is in the dairy sector. Averaging 9,500 kg of milk per cow per year, Swedish dairies have the highest milk yields in Europe. What's more, 70 percent of the country's milk is produced in the "milk belt," which is just 20 percent of the total land in Sweden.

Sweden's participation in the CAP has incentivized farmers to focus on their comparative advantages. In response to new trade winds, farmers expanded grain and sugarbeet production by 10 percent between 1994 and 2000, while reducing oilseed production by 60 percent during the same period. The country's farmers have also allocated more land to organic forage, grains, and vegetable production, while increasingly investing in specialized dairy, meat, and food production. In turn, consumers have boosted their annual consumption of organic foods (177 euros per capita) to the third-highest level in the European Union, trailing only Denmark and first-place Switzerland.

When Sweden joined the CAP, there was an initial drop in producer prices and an increase in consumer prices. Since then, the price inflation has slowed and food exports as a percent of merchandise exports are on the rise again. Notwithstanding a higher price for imported products in many cases, Sweden's consumers have steadily increased food imports since the turn of the century.

The greater pursuit of sustainability

There are three main objectives for agriculture within Sweden's national environmental policy. They are: "A Varied Agricultural Landscape, Zero Eutrophication (excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water), and A Non-Toxic Environment," according to the UN. To achieve the first part of the framework, the country has allocated significant resources to protecting its forests (accounting for 68.9% of land mass), coastland, and waterways since the 1990s.

In order to achieve the rest of its vision, the country has adopted sustainable agricultural practices with almost universal support from farmers and politicians. Yet, this wasn't always the case. When farmers in Sweden were striving for output rather than prioritizing resource management, artificial fertilizer use jumped several fold between 1950 and 1980. In order to address the excess use of synthetic fertilizers, the Swedish government implemented an environmental tax on certain fertilizers, including many nitrogen fertilizers, in 1984.

Nitrogen fertilizers, in particular, are notorious for causing environmental problems, including the pollution of water, eutrophication of surface waters, and acidification of natural landscapes. As a result of the government's forward thinking, the gross nitrogen nutrient balance per hectare is now well below that of many of its counterparts in the EU. The use of nitrogen fertilizers declined by roughly 14 percent between 1995 and 2014.

Sweden also adopted a goal of converting 10 percent of the country's agriculture area to organic agricultural production as part of its environmental policy in 1994. Since then, the percent of agriculture area dedicated to organic production has soared from 5.9 percent in 2000 to 15.4 percent in 2015. At the same time, Sweden's agricultural area has barely moved. Given the initial progress, Sweden has reiterated its support for organic agriculture production by setting a new goal of 20 percent.

Due to the credits available under the CAP, grasslands and fodder can make up a sizable amount of certified organic production among countries in the EU. While Sweden is no exception, the country has had increasing success in also growing organic cereal, meat, fruit, and vegetable production. In fact, organic wheat production has nearly doubled between 2010 and 2015.

Conclusion

Sweden's commitment to sustainability extends beyond its borders. In partnership with the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization, the country has supported a climate-smart agriculture policy that could lead to a "CSA Certified" classification for consumer goods. Sweden has also funded agricultural and emergency programs in Somalia, Mali, Chad, Ethiopia, and Kenya. Yet, the country could do far more for global food security, including pushing for greater access of African food imports within the EU.

In light of its limited role within global agriculture, it may be more proper to showcase Sweden as an alternative path rather than the yardstick by which all other countries are measured. The dedication to sustainable agricultural practices and organic food production, along with the willingness to incur higher food imports at a greater cost burden for its consumers, is laudable. However, Sweden's specific policies may not make sense for countries with large populations, lower per capita income levels, and/or a comparative advantage in large-scale agricultural production.

Nevertheless, the country's example should challenge the basic assumption that the only way to feed the world in 2050 is to expand production at all costs. Sweden's daily food intake per capita was nearly 10 percent lower than the French and Germans, and roughly 15 percent lower than the Americans in 2013. Lower food consumption and the adoption of the virtual water concept in developed regions could be another tool in ensuring long-term food security, but ones that would likely face considerable resistance.

Furthermore, agricultural producers would likely argue that, excess consumption leads to the generation of demand support. Without consumption, they would be unable to keep investment in research and development and, in turn, production on an upward trajectory. Then when daily food consumption in developing economies caught up, supply would be inadequate. If there is one lesson, though, that all countries should take away from Sweden, it is this: not only is sustainable agricultural production within reach, but it's also worth the long-term investment.

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Sweden Cultivates a Sustainable Future | Gro Intelligence

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In the agricultural industry, where bigger is better, the Kingdom of Sweden is cutting against the global grain. Although Sweden is blessed with one of the largest land masses in the European Union, its agricultural sector has to make do with less than 7 percent of the country's land, or arable land as percentage of total area.

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Kenya Facts for Kids

Learn some interesting information about Kenya while enjoying a range of fun facts and trivia that's perfect for kids!

Read about Kenyan national parks, agriculture, the tallest mountain in Kenya, its languages, population, natural resources and much more.

Kenya is located in East Africa, on the equator.

In 2012, the population of Kenya was estimated to be around 43 million.

Kenya is officially known as the Republic of Kenya.

The capital and largest city is Nairobi. Mombasa is the second largest city.

The two official languages in Kenya are English and Swahili, although there are dozens of other languages spoken in various parts of the country.

Kenya shares Lake Victoria, the world's second largest fresh water lake, with Tanzania and Uganda.

Kenya features many national parks and wildlife reserves, with safaris being a popular activity for visitors.

Agriculture is important to Kenya's economy, especially tea, coffee and flowers.

Large animals such as lions, buffalo, leopards, elephants and rhinoceros are present in Kenya.

In Kenya they drive on the left-hand side of the road.

Kenya is named after Mt Kenya, the tallest mountain in the country (5,199 metres, 17,057 feet).

Kenya gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1963.

Hydroelectricity is the largest contributor to Kenya's electricity supply.

Kenya is a developing country and half of the population live in poverty.

In terms of sports, Kenya is perhaps best known for its middle distance and long distance runners, with the country frequently producing Olympic champions.

For more information, check out maps of Kenya or take a closer look at the Kenyan flag.

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Fun Kenya Facts for Kids - Interesting Information about Kenya

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Kenya Facts for Kids Learn some interesting information about Kenya while enjoying a range of fun facts and trivia that's perfect for kids! Read about Kenyan national parks, agriculture, the tallest mountain in Kenya, its languages, population, natural resources and much more. Kenya is located in East Africa, on the equator.

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The Aztec Empire was the last of the great Mesoamerican cultures. Between A.D. 1345 and 1521, the Aztecs forged an empire over much of the central Mexican highlands.

At its height, the Aztecs ruled over 80,000 square miles throughout central Mexico, from the Gulf Coast to the Pacific Ocean, and south to what is now Guatemala. Millions of people in 38 provinces paid tribute to the Aztec ruler, Montezuma II, prior to the Spanish Conquest in 1521.

Click here to see more posts in this category. Scroll down to see articles about the government, religion, military, and agricultural system of the Aztec Empire.
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Aztec Empire: An Overview Of When and How They Lived?

(See Main Article: Aztec Empire: An Overview Of When and How They Lived?)

The Aztecs didn't start out as a powerful people. The Nahuatl speaking peoples began as poor hunter-gatherers in northern Mexico, in a place known to them as Aztlan. Sometime around A.D. 1111, they left Aztlan, told by their war god Huitzilopochtli that they would have to find a new home. The god would send them a sign when they reached their new homeland.

Scholars believe the Aztecs wandered for generations, heading ever southward. Backward and poor, other more settled people didn't want the Aztecs to settle near them and drove them on. Finally, around A.D. 1325, they saw the god's sign-the eagle perched on a cactus eating a serpent on an island in Lake Texcoco, or so the legend has it. The city established by the Aztecs, Tenochtitlan, grew to become the capital of their empire.

Fortunately, the site was a strong, strategic area with good sources of food and clean water. The Aztecs began to build the canals and dikes necessary for their form of agriculture and to control water levels. They build causeways linking the island to the shore. Because of the island location, commerce with other cities around the lakes was easily be carried out via canoes and boats.

Through marriage alliances with ruling families in other city states, the Aztecs began to build their political base. They became fierce warriors and skillful diplomats. Throughout the late 1300s and early 1400s, the Aztecs began to grow in political power. In 1428, the Aztec ruler Itzcoatl formed alliances with the nearby cities of Tlacopan and Texcoco, creating the Triple Alliance that ruled until the coming of the Spanish in 1519.

The last half of the 15th century saw the Aztec Triple Alliance dominating the surrounding areas, reaping a rich bounty in tribute. Eventually, the Aztecs controlled much of central and southern Mexico. Thirty-eight provinces sent tribute regularly in the form of rich textiles, warrior costumes, cacao beans, maize, cotton, honey, salt and slaves for human sacrifice. Gems, gold and jewelry came to Tenochtitlan as tribute for the emperor. Wars for tribute and captives became a way of life as the empire grew in power and strength. While the Aztecs successfully conquered many, some city states resisted. Tlaxcalla, Cholula and Huexotzinco all refused Aztec dominance and were never fully conquered.

The Aztec Empire was powerful, wealthy and rich in culture, architecture and the arts. The Spanish entered the scene in 1519 when Hernan Cortes landed an exploratory vessel on the coast. Cortes was first welcomed by Montezuma II, but Cortes soon took the emperor and his advisors hostage. Though the Aztecs managed to throw the conquistadors out of Tenochtitlan, the Spanish regrouped and made alliances with the Aztec's greatest enemy, the Tlaxcalans. They returned in 1521 and conquered Tenochtitlan, razing the city to the ground and destroying the Aztec empire in the process.
"Who Were Worse-The Spanish Conquistadors or the Aztecs?" For the full "History Unplugged" podcast, click here!
Governance of the Aztec Empire

(See Main Article: Governance of the Aztec Empire)

The Aztec Empire had a hierarchical government with power and responsibility running from the top down. The empire's rule was indirect over its provinces. That is, as long as the province or territory paid the tribute it owed the empire in full and on time, the empire left the local leaders alone.

The foundation of the empire's hierarchical structure was the family. A group of interrelated families then formed a calpulli, a sort of neighborhood or guild. The calpullis organized local schools and shrines and took care of the group as a whole. Each calpulli elected a headman to oversee the calpulli's responsibilities. Most Aztec cities contained many calpulli.

The headman of each calpulli was a member of the city council. The city councils had a good deal of power; they made sure the city ran smoothly. Each council had an executive council of four members. These four members were nobles and usually a member of a military society.

One of the four executive council members would be elected the leader of the city, the tlatcani, who oversaw not only the city but the surrounding countryside as well. These city councils and leaders formed the provincial network of the empire.

At the center of the empire were the main Aztec altepetls, or city states, of Texcoco, Tlacopan and Tenochtitlan. Of the three, Tenochtitlan gradually muscled its way to dominate over the others.

The pinnacle of power centered in the Huey Tlatoani, the Reverend Speaker or emperor. The emperor had absolute power and was worshipped as a god. By the emperor's side was his Snake Woman or Cihuacoatl, who functioned as a grand vizier or prime minister. Although Snake Woman was the title of this position, it was always held by a man, usually the emperor's brother or cousin. While the Huey Tlatoani dealt with issues of diplomacy, tribute, war and expansion of the empire, the Snake Woman's responsibility was Tenochtitlan itself.

Directly under the emperor were his advisors, the Council of Four. These advisors were generals from the military societies. If something were to happen to the emperor, one of these four men would be the next Huey Tlatoani. The council advised the emperor in his decisions.

The empire required a host of other government offices, which were filled by a city's noble families. Each city had a court system with Special Courts, Appellate Courts and a Supreme Court. The city's merchant class, the pochteca, had their own court to consider matters of trade.

Managing the constant incoming tribute goods from far-flung provinces required another power structure, both central and provincial. Government officials also oversaw the markets, from the central markets of the cities to the smaller markets of town and country.

All of the priesthood and government officials reported to the emperor and his Council of Four. All supported the emperor. Although the Aztec Empire's grip on its provinces was light, the tribute flowed into the central coffers.

Weapons of the Aztec Empire

(See Main Article: Aztec Warriors: Weapons and Armor; What Did They Use?)

As Aztec warriors showed their courage and craftiness in battle and skill at capturing enemy soldiers for sacrifice, they gained in military rank. The Aztec emperors honored the higher ranks with weapons and distinctive garb that reflected their status in the military.

Aztecs warriors carried projectile weapons such as bow and arrows to attack the enemy from afar. They also carried weapons for the melee when armies came together. The lowest ranks of warriors carried a club and shield. Higher ranks were awarded finer weapons. Each rank in the army wore special clothing that denoted the honors they had won.

Projectile Weapons of Aztec Warriors

Atlatl

The atlatl was a spear thrower, which produced greater force from a greater distance. Only the highest ranks were allowed these weapons as they were in the front lines of the battle. Each warrior carrying the atlatl also carried many tlacochtli, 5.9 foot long spears tipped with obsidian.

War Bow and Arrows

The tlahhuitolli was a five foot long war bow strung with animal sinew. Warriors carried their arrows, barbed with obsidian, flint or chert and fletched with turkey feathers in a micomitl or quiver. Quivers could hold about 20 arrows.

Slings

Aztec warriors and hunters carried slings made of maguey cactus fiber. The warriors collected rocks as they marched. They also made clay balls spiked with obsidian and full of obsidian flakes. Even well armored enemies could be wounded by these.

Blowguns

Blowguns and poisoned darts were more often used in hunting, but Aztec warriors trained in ambush would bring along their tlacalhuazcuahuitl and darts tipped with poisonous tree frog secretions.

Melee Weapons

Clubs

Aztec warriors carried different types of clubs. The macuahuitl club was edged with obsidian blades. While the obsidian shattered easily, it was razor sharp. A macuahuitl could easily decapitate a man. A macuauitzoctli was a long club made of hardwood with a knob on each side. A huitzauhqui was a baseball bat type club, although some of these were studded with obsidian or flint. A cuahuitl was a club shaped like a baton, made of oak. A cuauololli was basically a mace, a club topped with a rock or copper sphere.

Tepoztopilli were spears with obsidian points.

Itztopilli were axes shaped like a tomahawk with a head of either copper or stone. One edge was sharpened, the other blunt.

Tecaptl were daggers with handles seven to nine inches long. They had a double sided blade made of flint. Aztec warriors drew their tecaptl for hand-to-hand combat.

Armor

Aztec warriors carried round shield made of wood that was either plain or decorated with their military insignia called a chimalli. The higher rank warriors had special chimalli with a mosaic of feathers denoting their society or rank.

Basic Aztec armor was quilted cotton of two to three thicknesses. The cotton was soaked in salt brine then hung to dry. The salt crystallized in the material, which gave it the ability to resist obsidian blades and spears. An extra layer of armor, a tunic, was worn by noble Aztec warriors. Warrior societies also wore a helmet made of hardwood, carved to represent their society or different animals like birds or coyotes.

Tlahuiztli were special suits awarded to various ranks of the military. Each rank wore different colored and decorated tlahuiztli to make them easily distinguished on the battlefield. Each rank also wore pamitl or military emblems.

Warriors of the Aztec Empire

(See Main Article: The Aztec Warrior: Rank and Warrior Societies)

The Aztec warrior was highly honored in society if he was successful. Success depended on bravery in battle, tactical skill, heroic deeds and most of all, in capturing enemy warriors. Since every boy and man received military training, all were called for battle when war was in the offing. Both commoners and nobles who captured enemy warriors moved up in military rank or became members of military orders. Many nobles joined the army professionally and functioned as the command core of the army.

While the Aztec economy depended on trade, tribute and agriculture, the real business of the empire was war. Through war, the Aztec Empire gained tribute from conquered enemies. People captured during war became slaves or sacrifices in the Aztec's religious ceremonies. Expanding the empire through further conquests strengthened the empire and brought more riches in tribute. For this reason, the emperor rewarded successful warriors of both classes with honors, the right to wear certain garments in distinctive colors, nobility for the commoners and higher status for nobles and land. Every Aztec warrior could, if he captured enemy warriors, advance far in society.

Aztec Warrior Societies

Rank in the military required bravery and skill on the battlefield and capture of enemy soldiers. With each rank, came special clothing and weapons from the emperor, which conveyed high honor. Warrior clothing, costumes and weaponry was instantly recognizable in Aztec society.

Tlamani: One captive warriors. Received an undecorated obsidian-edged club and shield, two distinctive capes and a bright red loincloth.

Cuextecatl: Two captive warriors. This rank enabled the warrior to wear the distinguishing black and red suit called a tlahuiztli, sandals and a conical hat.

Papalotl: Three captive warriors. Papalotl (butterfly) were awarded with a butterfly banner to wear on his back, conferring special honor.

Cuauhocelotl: Four or more captive warriors. These Aztec warriors reached the high rank of Eagle and Jaguar knights.

Eagle and Jaguar Knights

Eagle and Jaguar warriors were the two main military societies, the highest rank open to commoners. In battle they carried atlatls, bows, spears and daggers. They received special battle costumes, representing eagles and jaguars with feathers and jaguar pelts. They became full-time warriors and commanders in the army. Great physical strength, battlefield bravery and captured enemy soldiers were necessary to obtain this rank.

Commoners who reached the vaunted Eagle or Jaguar rank were awarded the rank of noble along with certain privileges: they were given land, could drink alcohol (pulque), wear expensive jewelry denied to commoners, were asked to dine at the palace and could keep concubines. They also wore their hair tied with a red cord with green and blue feathers. Eagle and jaguar knights traveled with the pochteca, protecting them, and guarded their city. While these two ranks were equal, the Eagle knights worshipped Huitzilopochtli, the war god and the Jaguars worshipped Tezcatlipocha.

Otomies and the Shorn Ones

The two highest military societies were the Otomies and the Shorn Ones. Otomies took their name from fierce tribe of fighters. The Shorn Ones was the most prestigious rank. They shaved their heads except for a long braid of hair on the left side and wore yellow tlahuiztli. These two ranks were the shock troops of the empire, the special forces of the Aztec army, and were open only to the nobility. These warriors were greatly feared and went first into battle.

Religion of the Aztec Empire

(See Main Article: Aztec Empire: Art, Myth and Religion Entwined in Stone)

While many other Aztec art works were destroyed, either by the Spanish or by the degradations of time, Aztec stone carvings remain to give us a glimpse into the worldview of this supreme Mesoamerican culture. These masterpieces were discovered in Mexico City in the buried ruins of the former Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan and its grand pyramid, Templo Mayor.

Statue of Coatlicue

Coatlicue was the Aztec's earth mother goddess, although a fearsome one. Goddess of the earth, childbirth, fertility and agriculture, she represented the feminine power of both creation and destruction. A massive stone statue of Coatlicue was discovered in Mexico City in 1790. Almost 12 feet tall and 5 feet broad, the statue shows the goddess as much a goddess of death as of birth. With two facing serpents as her head, claws on her hands and feet, a skirt of serpents and a necklace of skulls, hands and hearts, she reveals the Aztec's terrifying view of their gods.

The myth of Coatlicue tells of the birth of Huitzilopochtli, the Aztec god of war and the sun. The myth of Coatlicue tells of a priestess sweeping the sacred temple on Mount Coatepec when she was impregnated by a ball of feathers. Her son Huitzilopochtli is born full grown when Coatlicue is attacked by her daughter, the moon goddess. The newborn warrior kills his sister and cuts her into pieces, symbolizing the victory of the sun over the moon. The statue was so horrifying that each time it was dug up, it was reburied. The statue now resides at the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.

Stone of Tizoc

The Stone of Tizoc is a carved disk showing the victory of the emperor Tizoc over the Matlatzinca tribe. The emperor had it carved to celebrate his victory and reveal the martial power of the Aztecs. The large, circular disk has an eight-pointed sun carved on the top, which was used for sacrificial battles. A warrior captured in battle was tied to the stone, and armed with a feather lined club. Aztec warriors, armed with obsidian lined clubs, fought the tied warrior and naturally defeated him. The side of the eight-foot diameter disk depicts Tizoc's victory. The Matlatzincas are shown as despised barbarians, while Tizoc and his warriors are represented as noble Toltec warriors. The Stone of Tizoc artfully mixes sun worship, mythology and Aztec power. Today this masterful carved stone is at the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.

Sun Stone

Another massive stone disk, the carvings on the Sun Stone, also known as the Calendar Stone, show the four consecutive worlds of the Aztecs, each one created by the gods only to end in destruction. This basalt stone, 12 feet in diameter and three feet thick, was discovered near the cathedral in Mexico City in the 18th century. At the center is the sun god Tonatiuh. Around Tonatiuh are the four other suns which met destruction as the gods Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca fought for control. After the destruction of a sun and the epoch it represents, the gods had to recreate the world and humans until finally the fifth sun held. At either side of the center, jaguar heads and paws hold hearts, representing earth. Fire serpents are at the bottom of the stone, as their bodies snake around the edge. The Sun Stone carving is probably the most recognized artwork of the Aztec world.

Aztec Art

(See Main Article: Aztec Art: A Way of Life)

The Aztecs created a rich variety of art works from massive stone sculptures to miniature, exquisitely carved gemstone insects. They made stylized hand crafted pottery, fine gold and silver jewelry and breathtaking feather work garments. The Aztecs were as intimately involved with art as they were with their religion and the two were tightly interwoven. Our knowledge of the Aztec culture mostly comes from their pictogram codices and their art.

Aztec craftsmen worked images of their gods into much of their artwork. In another article we'll describe the great stone carvings: the Stone of Tizoc, the massive statue of Coatlicue and the Sun or Calendar Stone, as they are masterpieces of Aztec art. Of gold and silver jewelry, much of it was lost to the conquering Spanish who melted it down for currency. Feather works, unfortunately, don't last for ages, although some samples remain. Textiles too, are destroyed by time, and pottery is fragile. Energetic stone carvings, however, remain to show us the great artistry of the Aztecs.

While much of the Aztec population worked in agriculture to keep the empire fed and others were involved in the great trading networks, many others devoted themselves to producing the artworks that noble Aztecs loved. Thus, samples of artistic creativity in precious metal jewelry, decorated with jade, obsidian, turquoise, greenstone and coral still exist, mainly in smaller pieces such as earrings or labrets for lips. Pottery from Tenochtitlan and surrounding areas still reveal the fine abstract symbolism of the Aztecs. Feather workers made colorful tilmas for the emperor and nobles, and produced ceremonial costumes for the highest warrior castes, creating intricately decorated shields and headdresses.

Many Aztec families and even villages were devoted to providing artwork for Aztec nobles. Every art had its own calpulli or guild. The nobles in the calpulli provided the raw materials and the artists created the finished works-the magnificent stone carvings, jewelry, elaborate ritual costumes for the great religious ceremonies and feather shirts, cloaks and headdresses. The Aztec emperors received art works as tribute or the artists sold them in the great marketplace at Tlatelolco.

The walls of the great Tenochtitlan Templo Mayor are covered with carvings of Aztec symbolism. Stone carvers created sculptures of the Aztec gods to be used in the monthly religious ceremonies. Very common was the chacmool, a reclining figure which received the extracted hearts and blood of sacrificial victims. Aztecs in the rural regions carved the agricultural gods in both stone and wood, especially Xipe Totec, the god of spring and vegetation. Other carvers worked in miniature, creating tiny shells, insects and plants out of jade, pearl, onyx and obsidian. Artists created mosaic masks used in religious ceremonies with pieces of turquoise, shell and coral. These masks are highly representative of the Aztec devotion to their gods.

Although much Aztec was destroyed during the Spanish conquest, many fine samples of each distinct art form remains to outline for viewers the great talent and technique of Aztec artists. Check the Aztec Resource Page on Aztec art for links to further information.

Aztec Symbols

(See Main Article: Aztec Symbols, the Language of Culture)

Aztec symbols were a component of material culture in which the ancient society expressed understanding of the corporeal and immaterial world. The members of that culture absorb the symbols and their meanings as they grow up. They see the symbols all around them, on the walls of their temples, in jewelry, in weaving and in their language and religion. The Aztecs also used symbols to express perceptions and experiences of reality.

The Aztecs, like the other Mesoamerican cultures surrounding them, loved symbols of their gods, animals and common items around them. Each day in the ritual 260-day calendar, for example, is represented by a number and a symbol. The tonalppohualli or sacred calendar, consists of two interlocking cycles, one of 13 days, represented by a number called a coefficient and one of 20 days represented by a day glyph or symbol. The day symbols include animals such as crocodiles, dogs or jaguars; abstract subjects such as death and motion; and natural things that the Aztecs saw around them every day like houses, reeds, water and rain. See the Ancient Scripts section on Aztecs to see good, colorful example of the day glyphs.

All Mesoamerican cultures used body paint, especially warriors going into battle. Different ranks of warriors wore specific colors and used those same colors in painting their bodies. The most prestigious warrior society, the Shorn Ones, shaved their heads and painted half their head blue and half yellow. Other warriors striped their faces with black and other colors. Aztecs also decorated their bodies permanently in the form of piercing and tattoos, although there is not as much evidence for Aztec tattooing as for the cultures around them.

The Aztecs centered their lives on their religion. For that reason, many statues and carvings exist of the Aztec gods, as hideous as they may be to modern eyes. Symbols of the sun, the eagle, the feathered serpent and cactus were used in the Aztec writing system, in dates and time and in titles and names. The magnificent Sun or Calendar Stone contains both the 365 day solar calendar and the sacred 260-day tonalpohualli, all of which are represented by the rich symbolism of the Aztec culture.

Most Aztec symbols had layers of meaning. A butterfly symbol, for instance, represented transformation while frogs symbolized joy. When symbols were combined as in Aztec pictograms, entire stories could be told through the multiple layers of an Aztec symbol's meaning. The day signs and coefficients corresponded to one of the Aztec gods, which means the 260-day calendar could be used for divination. An order of the Aztec priesthood were diviners. When a child was born, they were called to find a name for the baby based on the day of the birth and the god corresponding to that day. From these symbols, it was believed these priests could tell the baby's fortune and fate.

Today, because of the growing interest in body art, more people are learning about Aztec symbols and designs.

Aztec Pictograms

(See Main Article: Aztec System of Writing: Pictograms)

Codex painter was an honored and necessary profession in the Aztec world. They were highly trained in the calmecacs, the advanced schools of the noble class. Some calmecacs invited commoner children to train as scribes if they were highly talented, but most scribes were nobles. After the Spanish conquest, codex painters worked with the priests recording the details of Aztec life. These codices are the richest source of information we have about the Aztecs.

The Aztec Empire, as with many empires, required a great deal of paperwork: keeping track of taxes and tribute paid, recording the events of the year both great and small, genealogies of the ruling class, divinations and prophecies, temple business, lawsuits and court proceedings and property lists with maps, ownership, borders, rivers and fields noted. Merchants needed scribes to keep accounts of all their trades and profits. All of this official work required the scribes of the Aztecs-the codex painters.

The Aztecs didn't have a writing system as we know it, instead they used pictograms, little pictures that convey meaning to the reader. Pictography combines pictograms and ideograms-graphic symbols or pictures that represent an idea, much like cuneiform or hieroglyphic or Japanese or Chinese characters.

To understand pictography, one must either understand the cultural conventions or the graphic symbol must resemble a physical object. For instance, the idea of death in Aztec pictography was conveyed by a drawing of a corpse wrapped in a bundle for burial; night was conveyed by a black sky and a closed eye, and the idea of walking by a footprint trail.

The codices were made of Aztec paper, deer skin or maguey cloth. Strips of these materials up to 13 yards by 7 inches high were cut, and the ends pasted onto thin pieces of wood as the cover. The strip was folded like a concertina or a map. Writing in the form of pictograms covered both sides of the strip.

Only 15 pre-Columbian Mesoamerican codices survive today-none of them Aztec, but from other cultures of about the same time. However, hundreds of colonial-era codices survive-those that carry the art of the tlacuilo (codex painters) but with Nahuatl and Spanish written commentary or description.

The Aztec number system was vigesimal or based on twenty. Numbers up to twenty were represented by dots. A flag represented twenty, which could be repeated as often as needed. One hundred, for instance, was five flags. Four hundred was depicted by the symbol of a feather or fir tree. The next number was eight thousand, shown as a bag of copal incense. With these simple symbols, the Aztecs counted all their tribute and trade. For example, one tribute page might show 15 dots and a feather, followed by a pictogram of a shield, which meant that the province sent 415 shields to the emperor.

Religion in the Aztec Empire

(See Main Article: Aztec Empire: The Importance of Religion)

To understand the Aztecs, it is necessary to understand, as best we can, their religious beliefs and how those beliefs manifested in their culture. To that end, we will look at their religion in general, the gods, sacred calendar and temples here. Other articles will cover religious ceremonies and rituals and the practice of human sacrifice.

Religion Ruled All of Life

Aztecs were a devoutly religious people, to the extent that no Aztec made a decision about any aspect of his or her life without considering its religious significance. The timing of any event large or small required consulting the religious calendar. No child was named before a special priest, a diviner, could consider what name might best fit the child's tonali or fate. Religion permeated every aspect of Aztec life, no matter what one's station, from the highest born emperor to the lowliest slave. The Aztecs worshipped hundreds of deities and honored them all in a variety of rituals and ceremonies, some featuring human sacrifice. In the Aztec creation myths, all the gods had sacrificed themselves repeatedly to bring the world and humans into being. Thus, human sacrifice and blood offerings were necessary to pay the gods their due and to keep the natural world in balance.

The Gods

The main Aztec gods can be classified in this way:

Primordial Creators and Celestial Gods

Ometecuhtli (Two Lord) and Omecihuatl (Two Lady)-the divine male/female creative force permeating everything on earth

Xiuhtecuhtli (Turquoise Lord)

Tezcatlipoca (Smoking Mirror-Fate and Destiny)

Quetzalcoatl (Feathered Serpent-Creator, Wind and Storm)

Gods of Agriculture, Fertility and Sacred Elements

Tlaloc (Rain)

Centeotl (Maize, Corn)

Xipe Totec (Our Flayed Lord-vegetation god)

Huehueteotl (Old, Old Deity-fire)

Chalchiutlicue (She of the Jade Skirt-deity of rivers, lakes, springs and the sea)

Mayahuel (Maguey cactus goddess)

Gods of Sacrifice and War

Huitzilopochtli (War and Warrior god)

Tonatiuh (Sun god)

Tlaltecuhtli (Earth god)

The Sacred Calendar

The Aztecs used two systems for counting time. The Xiuhpohualli was the natural solar 365-day calendar used to count the years; it followed the agricultural seasons. The year was separated into 18 months of 20 days each. The 5 extra days at the end of the year were set aside as a period of mourning and waiting. The second system was the ritual calendar, a 260-day cycle used for divination. Every 52 years the two calendars would align, giving occasion for the great New Fire Ceremony before a new cycle started.

Aztec Temples

The Aztecs built temples at the top of sacred mountains as well as in the center of their cities. The temple we know most about is the Templo Mayor in the heart of what was Tenochtitlan, now Mexico City. At the top of this 197 foot tall pyramid stood two shrines, one to Tlaloc, the god of rain and one to Huitzilopochtli, the god of war. Templo Mayor was in the center of a great plaza, one of 75 or 80 buildings which constituted the religious center of the city. Sacrificial victims walked up the numerous steps to the top of the pyramid. After their hearts were extracted and given to the gods, their bodies were thrown down into the plaza.

1440: Montezuma I Becomes The Fifth Leader Of The Aztecs

(See Main Article: Aztec Warriors: The Flower Wars)

Montezuma I reigned during the great famine. His brother Tlacaelel was Montezuma's Snake Woman or first adviser, a general in the Aztec army and of the highest warrior order, the Shorn Ones.

When bad weather continued the famine, Tlacaelel suggested a ritual or ceremonial war to provide captives for sacrifice for the Aztecs and their enemies. The nearby Tlaxcala were the Triple Alliance's main enemy. They had also experienced the famine. Through human sacrifice, the gods would be assuaged for both sides.

Though there were undoubtedly more reasons for Flower wars, such as further terrorizing the surrounding areas, they began during the great famine. Tenochtitlan reached an agreement with its enemies the Tlaxcala, Cholula and Huejotzingo, to war for captives. Their warriors would be told not to kill enemy warriors, but to capture them. Once each side had enough captives, the battle would end. The captured warriors would then be taken for sacrifice by both sides in the battle.

Thus, from time to time, Aztecs would arrange a Flower war when the need for human captives arose. In essence, these were ceremonial in nature, with all the details arranged beforehand by the leaders involved. Nevertheless, they were still a matter of life and death for the warriors; to be captured meant being sacrificed. While a sacrifice was considered an honorable death, no doubt most warriors would prefer to avoid it.

Whether a Flower war was arranged simply to satisfy religious demands for sacrificial victims, to train young warriors and to ensure social advancement for warriors or if it had underlying purposes of wearing down the enemy and terrorizing neighboring lands is still debated by scholars.

Some scholars maintain that the Flower wars were more like tournaments, with no more political purpose than to satisfy warriors in vying for advancement and provide ritual bloodletting and sacrifices. Other scholars see darker political aspects to these ritual wars: to demonstrate Aztec might, to wear down the enemy through attrition and to allow Aztec leaders to subjugate their own people through fear of losing loved ones.

1502: Montezuma II Becomes Ruler Of The Aztec Empire

(See Main Article: Overview of the Aztec Empire)

At its height, the Aztecs ruled over 80,000 square miles throughout central Mexico, from the Gulf Coast to the Pacific Ocean, and south to what is now Guatemala. Millions of people in 38 provinces paid tribute to the Aztec ruler, Montezuma II, before the Spanish Conquest in 1521.

The Aztecs didn't start out as a powerful people, however. The Nahuatl speaking peoples began as poor hunter-gatherers in northern Mexico, in a place known to them as Aztlan. Sometime around A.D. 1111, they left Aztlan, told by their war god Huitzilopochtli that they would have to find a new home. The god would send them a sign when they reached their new homeland.

Scholars believe the Aztecs wandered for generations, heading ever southward. Backward and poor, other more settled people didn't want the Aztecs to settle near them and drove them on. Finally, around A.D. 1325, they saw the god's sign-the eagle perched on a cactus eating a serpent on an island in Lake Texcoco, or so the legend has it. The city established by the Aztecs, Tenochtitlan, grew to become the capital of their empire.

Fortunately, the site was a strong, strategic area with good sources of food and clean water. The Aztecs began to build the canals and dikes necessary for their form of agriculture and to control water levels. They build causeways linking the island to the shore. Because of the island location, commerce with other cities around the lakes was easily be carried out via canoes and boats.

Human Sacrifice

(See Main Article: Human Sacrifices: How Many were Killed In Aztec Culture?)

Human sacrifices Aztecs were a part of their religious ceremony that they believed properly appeased their gods to spare them from suffering. The numbers of people sacrificed by the Aztecs is a mystery today and will probably remain a mystery, unless more archeological evidence is uncovered. Whether only a few thousand of victims were sacrificed each year, or 250,000 as some scholars say, few human remains such as bones have been found at Templo Mayor or other Aztec temples. A couple of dozen skeletons and a few thousand loose bones and skulls do not add up to 250,000 or 20,000 or whatever number is cited.

Evidence of human sacrifice comes from both the Aztecs themselves, their art and codices containing their writings, and from the Spanish conquerors. However, it is safe to say that the Spanish could easily have exaggerated the numbers killed to make the Aztecs seem more savage and brutal than they actually were.

In 1487, the great Templo Mayor was dedicated in the main Aztec city of Tenochtitlan with a four-day celebration. How many were sacrificed during that time is a subject of scholarly speculation: some put the figure as low as 10,000 or 20,000, several others put it as high as 80,400 people sacrificed during those four days. Scholars think the Aztec priests used four sacrificial altars for the dedication ceremonies. However, if that's the case and 80,400 people were killed, then the priests would have had to sacrifice 14 people every minute, which is a physical impossibility.

Spanish missionaries sent to convert the Aztecs to Christianity learned the Nahuatl language spoken by the Aztecs. These priests and friars spoke to old Aztecs to learn their history. These Aztecs put the number of sacrificial victims at the time of the temple's dedication at 4,000, a much lower total than 80,400.

With scant archeological evidence, it is hard to know how many Aztecs died under the sacrificial knife. Many reputable scholars today put the number between 20,000 and 250,000 per year for the whole Aztec Empire. All Aztecs cities contained temples dedicated to their gods and all of them saw human sacrifices. Whatever the total was, we know from both the Aztecs and the Spanish that many human beings lost their lives to human sacrifice. We will probably never know exactly how many.

The first thing to understand about the Mesoamerican cultures and the Aztecs' use of human sacrifice is that they were not horrified by it. Instead, it was a natural part of life to them, necessary to keep the world balanced and going forward. Blood and sacrifice helped the sun to rise and move across the sky. Without it, their world would end.

That's not to say that all Aztecs and other Mesoamericans went to the sacrifice willingly. No doubt many did not want to be sacrificed or to die. Others, however, agreed to give of themselves for the greater good. When we picture victims being led to sacrifice, we see them as weeping, moaning and fighting to get free. For the most part, that simply didn't happen.

To die as a sacrifice was the most honorable death the Aztecs knew. When an Aztec warrior died in battle or an Aztec woman in childbirth, those were also good, honorable deaths. People who died as a sacrifice, as a warrior or in childbirth went to a paradise to be with the gods after death. In contrast, a person who died of disease went to the lowest level of the underworld, Mictlan.

Many scholars have devised theories to explain this "darkness" of the Aztecs, their love of human sacrifice. Some posited that Aztecs were savages and amoral, less than human. Others have said the Aztec leaders used human sacrifice to terrorize their population and the nearby cultures. Some stated that an essential protein was missing from the Aztec diet and they needed the "meat" from human sacrifices to feed themselves, using cannibalism to do so. None of these theories, however, have held up.

From its earliest inception, Mesoamerican cultures featured human sacrifice so it was plainly not "invented" by Aztec rulers to terrorize the people, nor was it a betrayal by the priesthood of Aztec spirituality. Studies of the Aztec's mainly vegetarian diet flavored with occasional turkey or dog revealed all necessary ingredients to sustain life. The Aztecs had laws against murder and injury, just as we do, so it wasn't that they were depraved savages.

Rather, it was a central part of their religion and spirituality, to give up their blood and lives in devotion and dedication to the gods who had sacrificed themselves to create the world and keep it going. Most religions contain an element of sacrifice-giving up meat in Lent, for example-and giving your life for a friend is a great act of love. The Aztecs accepted this as a necessary part of life. By dying as a sacrifice, they honored the gods. Still, we can't help but think that many didn't wish to die, but accepted it as inevitable.

After the Spanish Conquest, many Spanish priests and friars learned enough of the Aztec's language to talk with Aztec survivors of the battles and diseases. From them, the Spanish learned that many of the sacrificial victims were friends of the Royal House, or high-ranking nobility and priests. Every class of Aztec occasionally were sacrificed, and all ages as well. Children were sacrificed to the god of rain. Often enough, however, it was nobles and captured warriors whose hearts fed the gods. Remember, however, that being sacrificed was most prestigious way to die. While this shocks us today, we must nevertheless give the Aztecs their due-they found human sacrifice not only acceptable, but necessary and honorable.

Trade in the Aztec Empire

(See Main Article: Aztec Trade: Regional Markets and Long Distance Trading)

The Aztec economy was based on three things: agricultural goods, tribute, and trade. Aztec trade was crucially important to the empire; there could be no empire without it as many goods used by the Aztecs were not produced locally. Prized white cotton could not grow at the altitude of the Valley of Mexico and had to be imported from conquered semi-tropical regions further south, as were cacao beans, from which chocolate is made.

Two types of trading were important to the Aztecs: the local, regional markets where the goods that sustain daily life were traded and long-distance luxury trades. Each were vital to the empire, but served different purposes in the larger scheme of Aztec trade.

Aztec Trade and Regional Markets

Every Aztec city and village had its own market located near the city center. Tlatelolco, sister city to Tenochtitlan, had the grandest market, drawing 60,000 people to it daily. As with most regional markets, all kinds of utilitarian goods were sold, such as cloth, garden produce, food animals, obsidian knives and tools, medicines, wood, leather, furs and animal skins, precious metals, gems and pottery. If an Aztec housewife needed some tomatoes, bone needles and a headache remedy, she'd go to the market for them. While there, she could buy something to eat and drink if she had a cacao bean or two to trade. Many Aztec people went to the market not only to shop, but to socialize, another important aspect of the teeming regional markets. There Aztecs from every walk of life could meet and swap news and gossip.

The regional markets were overseen by government trade officials who made sure the goods and the prices asked for them were fair. Four levels of regional markets existed: the grand, daily Tlatelolco market, the markets at Xochimilco and Texcoco, the every-five-day markets at many other Aztec cities and the small village markets. Officials collected tribute and taxes for the emperor from each of these interlocking markets. Some of the regional markets also contained specialized goods, fine ceramics for example, or turkeys for food or feathers from tropical birds

Pochteca, Far Distance Traders

Pochteca were professional merchants, traveling long distances to obtain the luxury goods desired by the nobility: feathers from tropical birds, rare gems or jewelry and pottery created by other Mesoamerican cultures. The pochteca obtained anything rare and special, as well as the white cotton and cacao beans, earning them a special place in the Aztec society. They had their own capulli, laws and section of the city, even their own god, who watched over traders.

They often had dual or even triple roles in the empire, besides being simple traders. They often communicated crucial information from one area of the empire to another. And some served as spies for the emperor, often going disguised as something other than trader. This last group, the naualoztomeca, traded in rare, easily carried goods such as gems, rare feathers or secrets. Some pochteca were the importers, others dealt in wholesale goods and others still were retailers.

Aztec Agriculture: Floating Farms Fed the People

(See Main Article: Aztec Agriculture: Floating Farms Fed the People)

Agriculture, along with trade and tribute, formed the basis of the Aztec Empire. As such, growing enough food to feed the urban populations of the Aztec cities was of major importance. Many inhabitants of all of the Aztec cities were involved in planting, cultivating and harvesting the empire's food.

Three crops formed the staples of the Aztec diet: maize, or corn, beans and squash. Each of these three plants assists the others when they are grown together. For example, corn takes nitrogen from the soil, which beans then replace. Bean plants need firm support on which to grow; corn stalks provide that support. Luxurious squash leaves shade the soil, which keeps moisture in and keeps weeds out. These three plants are called the Three Sisters and planted together, provide a rich harvest of all three.

Besides maize, beans and squash, the Aztecs farmed a host of other vegetables: tomatoes, avocados, chili peppers, limes, onions, amaranth, peanuts, sweet potatoes and jimacas. While most cacti grew wild, the Aztecs also cultivated those they found most useful, including the remarkable maguey cactus, also known as the Mexican aloe, which provided the Aztecs with paper, thatching for roofs, cloth, rope, needles, food from the roots of the plant, and a popular alcoholic beverage fermented from its sap.

To grow all this food, the Aztecs used two main farming methods: the chinampas and terracing. Chinampas were essentially man-made islands, raised bed gardens on the surface of Lake Texcoco's shallow waters. The Aztecs centered their empire in the Valley of Mexico, with its central basin leading up into the mountains surrounding the valley. To use the hilly land for farming, the Aztecs terraced the hills by cutting into them. They then built a restraining wall to form a step in the hillside so that the land on the step can be used for crops.

The chinampas farms were man-made plots of land built up from the sedimentation from the bottom of the lake. The Aztecs created large reed mats, which they floated in the shallows, the edges of which were built of woven twigs and branches attached to posts anchored in the lakebed. On the mats, they put soil from the lake bottom, rotting vegetation and dirt from nearby areas. Aztec farmers built up the soil until it was above the surface of the lake. They planted fast-growing willow trees at the corners of the plots to attach the chinampa to the bottom of the lake by the trees' roots. At the height of the Aztec Empire, thousands of these fertile and productive chinampas surrounded Tenochtitlan and other Aztec cities.

Terraced, irrigated fields added another layer of farmland for the hungry Aztecs. To bring water to these fields, Aztecs farmers dug irrigation canals in the soil. The terraces also grew the Aztecs major crops, providing an extra layer of protection for its vital agricultural production, on which the empire depended.

Around the chinampas, the Aztecs could also catch fish, frogs, turtles and waterfowl such as ducks and geese. Lake Texcoco also produced one other favorite Aztec crop-algae from the lake, which we know today as spirulina.

Education in the Aztec Empire

(See Main Article: Aztec Education: Learning at Home and School)

Aztec education was quite sophisticated compared to contemporary empires in the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. The Aztec Empire is one of the few older civilizations that featured mandatory education at home and in schools. Every child was educated, no matter his or her social status, whether noble, commoner or slave. Two different schools taught the young-one for the noble class and one for commoners, although bright, talented commoners might be chosen for advanced learning at the noble school. Children's Aztec education, however, started at home with their parents. From age four or five, boys learned and worked with their fathers at a trade or craft, farming, hunting and fishing. Girls learned from their mothers all the tasks they would need in running a household.

All children were taught a large collection of sayings called the huehuetlatolli, which incorporated Aztec ideas and teachings. The Aztec culture expected well-behaved people so children were taught to be humble, obedient and hardworking. The huehuetlatolli included many sayings on all aspects of life, from welcoming newborn infants to the family to what to say at the death of a relative. Every few years, the children were called to the temple and tested on how much they had learned of this inherited cultural knowledge.

For the first 14 years of life, boys and girls were taught at home by their parents. After that, the boys attended either the noble school, called a calmecac, or the commoners' school, the telpochcalli. Girls went to a separate school, where they learned household skills, religious rituals, singing and dancing or craftwork. Some talented girls were chosen to be midwives and received the full training of a healer. Other athletically talented girls might be sent to the house of dancing and singing for special training.

Much of Aztec society was divided into calpullis, a group of interrelated families, somewhat like a neighborhood or clan. Each calpulli had its own schools, both calmecac and telpochcalli. Boys and girls attended the schools run by their calpulli.

Aztec Education: Calmecac

Calmecacs were schools for the sons of nobles, where they learned to be leaders, priests, scholars or teachers, healers or codex painters. They learned literacy, history, religious rituals, calendrics, geometry, songs and the military arts. These advanced studies in astronomy, theology and statesmen ship prepared the nobles' sons for work in the government and temples.

Aztec Education: Telpochcalli

Telpochcalli taught boys history and religion, agricultural skills, military fighting techniques and a craft or trade, preparing them for a life as a farmer, metal worker, feather worker, potter or soldier. Athletically talented boys might then be sent on to the army for further military training. The other students would, after graduation, be sent back to their families to begin their working life.

Housing in the Aztec Empire

(See Main Article: Aztec Housing from Grand to Primitive)

Aztec homes ranged from one-room huts to large, spacious palaces. As in their clothing and diet, the size and style of Aztec homes depended on the family's social status. Wealthy nobles lived in many roomed elaborate houses, usually built around an inner courtyard. Poorer Aztecs and commoners usually lived in one-room homes, built of adobe brick and thatched roofs. Nobles could lavishly decorate their homes; as commoners were not allowed to do. Many Aztecs whitewashed their homes with lime so the houses would reflect light and stay cool.

Commoners

Many, or perhaps most Macehualtin or commoners were engaged in agriculture, taking care of the Tenochtitlan's chinampas, or garden beds raised on the shallow shores of Lake Texcoco outside the city. They built simple, one room houses, usually with a few other smaller buildings and a garden in the lot. The family lived, slept, worked, ate and prayed in the big room, which had a small family shrine built in one wall. Most Aztec homes also had a separate building for a steam bath, as the Aztecs were very clean people. The kitchen area might also be in a smaller room built onto the house.

Most simple Aztec homes were built of adobe bricks, which are made using mud, sand, water and straw, then dried in the sun. There were no windows generally, and one open door. Wood for door jambs and support beams could be found outside the cities. Furniture was also simple: comfortable reed mats for sleeping, wood or leather chests for storing clothes and low tables were in most homes, as well as clay pots and bowls, stone metates for grinding corn, a griddle, water jugs and buckets.

Most work took place outside the home during the day. Men went off to tend the fields, taking the older boys with them. Women ground corn, cooked, spun yarn, wove cloth and watched the younger children, teaching their daughters what they would need to know when they married. Commoners' homes were often built outside the city, nearer to the fields and chinampas where the men worked.

Often, an interrelated group of families lived together in a unit called a calpulli. They would build their houses in a square with a common, central courtyard. The calpulli, which included both nobles and commoners, provided mutual aid for its members, functioning as a sort of clan. The nobles owned the arable land, which the commoners worked. The nobles provided the occupations, often craftwork, and the commoners paid tribute to the nobles.

Nobles

Nobles or pipiltin as they were known, lived in larger, finer homes often built of stone, although some were also built of adobe. Noble homes were often built around a central courtyard, where flower and vegetable gardens and a fountain would be found. These homes were often made of carved stone, and contained finer furniture than a commoner would have.

Noble homes could have a peaked roof, or the roof could be flat and even terraced with a garden. As nobles were often involved in making laws and government, they tended to live nearer the city centers, around the central plaza and marketplace. At the top of society, the emperor lived in a luxurious palace, complete with botanical gardens and a zoo.

Cite This Article

"The Aztec Empire: Society, Politics, Religion, and Agriculture" History on the Net
© 2000-2023, Salem Media.
November 25, 2023 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/aztec-empire-society-politics-religion-agriculture>
More Citation Information.

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The Aztec Empire: Society, Politics, Religion, and Agriculture - History

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The Aztec Empire was the last of the great Mesoamerican cultures. Between A.D. 1345 and 1521, the Aztecs extended over the central Mexican highlands.

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Overview of Vietnam

Overview of Vietnam

Curving along the eastern edge of the Indochina Peninsula, Vietnam shares long stretches of its borders with Cambodia, Laos and the South China Sea. Occupied by the French until 1954, a communist state emerged in 1975 after the People's Army of the north and Viet Cong guerilla fighters defeated the anti-communist south. The bitter war garnered international attention and participation, especially from the United States, at a critical juncture in the Cold War era in which communism was gaining ground on the global stage.

More on Vietnam

"Doi moi" economic policy reforms beginning in 1986 have helped The Socialist Republic of Vietnam transition to a more modern, competitive nation. State-owned enterprises and agriculture, which once monopolized the economy, are losing prominence as the nation works to achieve sustainable development through more open trade and industry, including food processing, garment manufacturing, machine-building and mining. The United States is now the nation's most prominent trade partner, a position reinforced by former President Obama's visit to the country in 2016.

Similar advancements have not been made in human rights. Political and religious expression are tightly controlled, and dissenting views are met with harsh punishments. Ethnic minorities are especially vulnerable. Though poverty levels overall have declined, stark economic disparity exists between urban and rural areas.

Vietnam is densely populated and growing quickly, with about a third of the population living in bustling cities. Ho Chi Minh City, named after the Communist-era nationalist leader, is the most populous city in the country. War ravaged much of Vietnam's landscape, but fantastic caves, imperial landmarks and emerald island coves remain. Pho, a brothy noodle soup, and a growing culinary arts scene have garnered global attention.

Vietnam's continued efforts to lessen international isolation are evidenced by its membership in the World Trade Organization in 2007 and participation in free trade negotiations with the Trans-Pacific Partnership in 2010. It is also a member of the United Nations, the ASEAN Regional Forum and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum, among other international organizations.

Vietnam's continued efforts to lessen international isolation are evidenced by its membership in the World Trade Organization in 2007 and participation in free trade negotiations with the Trans-Pacific Partnership in 2010. It is also a member of the United Nations, the ASEAN Regional Forum and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum, among other international organizations.

More on Vietnam

Vietnam in Photos

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Vietnam Ranks Among the World's Best Countries

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Overview of Vietnam Overview of Vietnam Curving along the eastern edge of the Indochina Peninsula, Vietnam shares long stretches of its borders with Cambodia, Laos and the South China Sea. Occupied by the French until 1954, a communist state emerged in 1975 after the People's Army of the north and Viet Cong guerilla fighters defeated the anti-communist south.

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Vietnamese (tiếng Việt), formerly known as Annamese, is a member of the Mon-Khmer branch of the Austro-Asiatic language family. With 76 million speakers, it is the 16th largest language of the world. It is spoken by 75 million people in Vietnam . It is also spoken in Australia, Cambodia, Canada, China, Côte d'Ivoire, Finland, France, Germany, Laos, Martinique, Netherlands, New Caledonia, Norway, Philippines, Senegal, Thailand, United Kingdom, USA, and Vanuatu.

It is thought that the ancestor of Vietnamese originated in the area of the Red River in what is now northern Vietnam and that it eventually spread into central and southern portions of the area.

Click on the Modern Language Association Interactive Language Map to see where Vietnamese is spoken in the United States.

Status

After the revolution that ended the French colonial rule, Vietnamese became the national and official language of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam where it is spoken by the majority of the country's population. It is used in Vietnam throughout all levels of the educational system, including higher education, for all official and non-official communication, in the media, and in publishing.

Dialects

There are three mutually intelligible dialects of Vietnamese ( Ethnologue):

Northern, Hanoi dialect accepted as the standard

Central, Huế dialect, or High Annamese

Southern, Saigon (Ho Chi Minh City) dialect, or Cochinchinese

Structure

Sound system

Vietnamese is a tonal language with a large number of vowels. There are no consonant clusters. The syllable structure is generally Consonant-Vowel-Consonant with no consonant clusters, there is a good deal of variation in the sound system across different dialects. The description of the sound system below is based on the Hanoi dialect which is considered to be the standard.

Vowels

Vietnamese is a vowel-rich language with 11 simple vowels and a variety of diphthongs and triphthongs. The correspondence between pronunciation and writing is quite complicated as far as vowels are concerned. The same letter can represent either two different monophthongs, or both a monophthong and a diphthong, or different letters can represent the same monophthong.

Consonants

There are 19-21 consonant phonemes in Vietnamese, depending on the dialect. The consonant phonemes of the Northern (Hanoi) dialect are given below.

/p/ occurs only in words borrowed from French

/ɓ/ and /ɗ/ are pronounced with the vocal cords pressed together resulting in an implosive sound when the closure is released

/ʈ, ʂ, ʐ/ are retroflex consonants pronounced with the tip of the tongue curled so that its underside comes in contact with the roof of the mouth

/tʰ/ is pronounced with strong burst of air that accompanies its release

/c, ɟ/ have no equivalents in English

/x, ɣ/ have no equivalents in English

Tones

Vietnamese is a tonal language, i.e., the meaning of words is affected by the tone with which the vowels are pronounced. Vietnamese tones are quite complex because vowels can be pronounced with variations in pitch, length, contour, intensity, and degree of vocal cord constriction. There are six tones in Vietnamese. Their pronunciation varies from dialect to dialect.
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Grammar

Like other Austro-Asiatic languages, Vietnamese is an analytic, i.e., it does not use inflections to express grammatical relations. Instead, grammatical relations are signaled by word order and by various particles.
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Nouns

Vietnamese nouns are not marked for number, gender, or case. However, they make extensive use of classifiers that indicate which class a noun belongs to, e.g., animate objects, inanimate objects, books, sharp objects, buildings, stick-like objects, flat objects, etc. The Vietnamese system of classifiers is similar to that of Chinese.

Verbs

Verbs are not marked for person or number. Tense, aspect and mood are marked by various particles.

Forms of address and reference

Speakers must use strictly prescribed terms of address and reference. Normally, one must express an attitude of humility, addressing others in honoric terms to show respect for age, knowledge, and social rank. For instance, the term ong 'grandfather' is used in polite formal conversations with strangers. The term anh 'older brother' is used between friends in informal conversations.

Word order

Word order in Vietnamese is strictly Subject-Verb-Object.

Vocabulary

Borrowings
It is estimated that over half of Vietnamese vocabulary is borrowed from Chinese as a result of thousands of years of Chinese domination, In addition, there are many compounds consisting of native Vietnamese words combined with Chinese borrowings. When France invaded Vietnam in the late 19th century, French gradually replaced Chinese as the official written language of education and government. As a result, Vietnamese adopted many French words, e.g., bia 'beer' from the French bierre, so co la 'chocolate' from the French chocolat, ca phé 'coffee' from the French café. Today, the language is being constantly updated through introduction of new scientific and technical vocabulary.

CompoundingAnother common way of forming words is compounding, i.e., combining two lexical items into one, e.g., bàn ghé 'furniture' (literally, table chair'). This is very similar to compounding in Chinese.

Reduplication
Reduplication, or repeating a word or a portion of a word, is a regular part of the language. Reduplication can be total or partial, e.g., ba-ba 'river turtle.' It can also denote intensity. Names of birds, insects, and plants are also often reduplicated.There are many onomatopoeic words, e.g.,lám-bám 'mumble.'

Below are a few common Vietnamese words and phrases.

Below are Vietnamese numerals 1-10.

Writing

Vietnamese was written with modified Chinese characters, known as Chu-nom (chữ nôm, 字喃) during 2nd-10th centuries BC, when Vietnam was a province of China. Chu-nom was a mixture of standard Chinese characters and characters specially designed to represent Vietnamese words. Present-day Vietnamese is written with a Latin-based alphabet developed in the 17th century by a French Jesuit missionary Alexandre de Rhodes (1591-1660) who based it on the work of earlier Portuguese missionaries. The script was used mainly for religious texts, but was eventually extended to other types of writing. When the French occupied Vietnam in the 19th century, the script became a requirement for all public writing. It became predominant by the beginning of the 20th century when education in Vietnam became more widespread.

Below is the Latin-based Vietnamese alphabet.

The letters f, j, w, z are not part of the Vietnamese alphabet. They are used only in foreign names and loanwords.

Marking of tones is obligatory which results in double diacritics for most vowel letters.

mid-level: unmarked

low-falling: grave accent, e.g., à

high-rising: acute accent, e.g., á

dipping: hook, e.g., ả

glottalized rising: tilde, e.g., ã

glottalized falling: dot under the vowel, e.g., ạ

Take a look at Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Vietnamese.

Điều 1:
Tất cả mọi người sinh ra đều được tự do và bình đẳng về nhân phẩm và quyền. Mọi con người đều được tạo hoá ban cho lý trí và lương tâm và cần phải đối xử với nhau trong tình bằng hữu.

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Difficulty

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Vietnamese Language - Dialects & Structure - MustGo

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Vietnamese (tiếng Việt), formerly known as Annamese, is a member of the Mon-Khmer branch of the Austro-Asiatic language family. With 76 million speakers, it is the 16th largest language of the world. It is spoken by 75 million people in Vietnam .

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Sunday, January 21
Cuba expelled from the Organization of the American States (OAS).
October 15-28
Castro indicates Cuba will soon have new defenses against the US.

Castro allows Union of Soviet Socialist Republics(USSR) nuclear missiles on Cuba.

Wednesday, August 29
U-2 spy plane photos verify service-to-air missile (SAM) site under construction in La Coloma, Cuba.

Sunday, October 14
U-2 photos show medium-range ballistic missile (MRBM) and intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM) launch pads under construction.

Friday, October 19
Ex-Comm, group of American political leaders, discuss Cuban quarantine.

Saturday, October 20
Ex-Comm recommends quarantine.

Sunday, October 21
President John F. Kennedy orders a naval blockade of Cuba. Operation is reviewed and approved.

Monday, October 22
President John F. Kennedy addresses the public and announces a naval blockade of Cuba. US Military issues DEFCON 3.

Tuesday, October 23
Khrushchev orders Soviet ships to stop 750 miles from Cuba.

Wednesday, October 24
Soviet Union Premier Nikita Khrushchev responds to Kennedy's message that the US blockade was an "act of aggression." Refuses to remove missiles from Cuba. US Military issue DEFCON 2.

Thursday, October 25
Kennedy orders flights over Cuba to increase from once to twice per day.

Friday, October 26
Ex-Comm discusses plans to invade Cuba.

Soviets offer to withdraw missiles in return for a US guarantee to not invade Cuba.

Saturday, October 27
Khrushchev sends message to Kennedy that deal must include removal of US Jupiter missiles from Turkey.

US U-2F shot down with surface-to-air missile near Banes, Cuba.

Kennedy ignores first message and responds to second message.

Kennedy proposes removal of Soviet missiles from Cuba under United Nations supervision and guarantee that US would not attack Cuba.

Sunday, October 28
Khrushchev agrees to remove Soviet missiles. He accepts Kennedy's pledge not to invade Cuba. Kennedy agrees to remove missiles from Turkey.

US announces removal of the last Soviet missiles from Cuba.

Operation Peter Pan brings Cuban children to the US.

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Timeline of Cuba History - Cuba on the Horizon

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Sunday, January 21 Cuba expelled from the Organization of the American States (OAS). October 15-28 Castro indicates Cuba will soon have new defenses against the US. Castro allows Union of Soviet Socialist Republics(USSR) nuclear missiles on Cuba. Wednesday, August 29 U-2 spy plane photos verify service-to-air missile (SAM) site under construction in La Coloma, Cuba.

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Key West is famously only 90 miles from Cuba, and the two islands share more than just geographical proximity. Cuban exiles have found a safe haven in Key West since the late 1800s when they first fought for independence from Spain. The San Carlos Institute on Duval Street, founded in 1871 and visited by beloved poet and revolutionary Jose Martí, still stands today as a cultural center and reminder of Key West's relationship with the Cuban diaspora.

Of course, one of the best ways to get to the heart of a culture is through its cuisine. And this is especially easy (and enjoyable) with rich and flavorful Cuban food whose influence is felt in the most subtle ways throughout Key West. Whether it's a café con leche with Cuban cheese toast for breakfast or a mojito at happy hour, Cuban food is engrained in the daily culture of island life.

At El Meson de Pepe, Chef Pepe Diaz has been honoring the unique Cuban-Conch heritage through his food since 1985. To understand the roots, flavors and heritage of this delicious cuisine, read on for an explanation of some of the most popular ingredients and dishes on our menu.

Rice, Beans & Plantains
Like the origins of most native cuisine, ingredients are often determined by what's abundant and available. In Cuba, rice and beans offer sustenance and comfort as a side dish to almost every meal. It's typically prepared as black beans and white rice in hearty portions. Some dishes require other ingredients, like arroz con pollo or rice with chicken. Plantains are another Cuban staple. Similar in texture and taste to a banana, they can be prepared fried and salty, called tostones, or stewed and sweet. A popular starter is tostones rellenos, which are fried plantains stuffed with anything from garlic shrimp to spicy beef.

Mojo Criollo
Cuban cuisine also represents the melding pot of the island's Spanish to African influences. This is no more apparent than in its sauces and spices. Mojo criollo is a popular sauce prepared with anything from chicken to pork, typically made with garlic, oil and sour orange juice.

Ropa Vieja
One of the most popular entrees in Cuban cuisine is ropa vieja. This stewed shredded beef dish is slow cooked in fresh tomatoes, onions, peppers, garlic and wine to create a mouthwatering meal. And following its origins, the dish is accompanied by white rice, black beans and sweet plantains.

Pescado, Gambas y Camarones
With both Cuba and Key West surrounded by the sea, it's only natural that seafood is a staple of Cuban food here. Whether it's a mahi-mahi filet marinated in Cuban criollo sauce or shrimp drowning in a garlic and wine sauce, fresh fish is definitely on the menu.

For your reference when perusing menus, pescado means fish, camarones is shrimp and gambas refers to jumbo shrimp typically served in their shells.

Cuban Mix Sandwich, Cuban Toast & Pork
Talk about a true Cuban classic. The Cuban mix sandwich is a staple of this cuisine. Made with roast pork, ham, Swiss cheese, pickles and mustard pressed on crispy Cuban bread, it's a satisfying sandwich loved by many.

The two most important ingredients of the Cuban sandwich are the pork, which is a staple of the Cuban diet, and the crusty Cuban bread. Similar to a French baguette, yet more light and fluffy, this style of bread is made with a small amount of lard for texture.

Cuban Coffee
If you haven't tried Cuban coffee yet, you don't know what you're missing. This strong, sweet coffee is consumed with milk (con leche) or on its own as a bucci or colada.

Rum
Made from the sugar cane that grows abundantly in Cuba, rum is a tradition deep seated in Cuban culture. From mojitos prepared with muddled mint leaves and sugar to rum punch with a combination of tropical fruit juices and the daiquiris that Hemingway famously guzzled at the Floridita Bar in Havana, these libations are enjoyed in abundance in Key West today.

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The Flavors and Heritage of Traditional Cuban Cuisine

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Located in the popular Old Town neighborhood of Key West and next to Mallory Square, El Meson de Pepe has been crafting authentic cuban food and drinks for more than 30 years. A passion that started in Cuba, now thrives as a staple in the Key West restaurant scene.

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Mugshot of Charles "Lucky" Luciano

Giuseppe Esposito was the first known Sicilian Mafia member to emigrate to the U.S. He and six other Sicilians fled to New York after murdering the chancellor and a vice chancellor of a Sicilian province and 11 wealthy landowners. He was arrested in New Orleans in 1881 and extradited to Italy.

New Orleans was also the site of the first major Mafia incident in this country. On October 15, 1890, New Orleans Police Superintendent David Hennessey was murdered execution-style. Hundreds of Sicilians were arrested, and 19 were eventually indicted for the murder. An acquittal generated rumors of widespread bribery and intimidated witnesses. Outraged citizens of New Orleans organized a lynch mob and killed 11 of the 19 defendants. Two were hanged, nine were shot, and the remaining eight escaped.

The American Mafia has evolved over the years as various gangs assumed, and lost, dominance over the years-for example, the Black Hand gangs around 1900, the Five Points Gang in the 1910s and '20s in New York City, and Al Capone's Syndicate in Chicago in the 1920s. It was not until 1951 that a U.S. Senate committee led by Democrat Estes Kefauver of Tennessee determined that a "sinister criminal organization," later known as La Cosa Nostra, operated in this nation. Six years later, The New York State Police uncovered a meeting of major La Cosa Nostra figures from around the country in the small upstate New York town of Apalachin. Many of the attendees were arrested. The event was the catalyst that changed the way law enforcement battles organized crime.

Early History-Masseria and Maranzano

By the end of the '20s, two primary factions had emerged in the Italian criminal groups in New York. Joseph Masseria, who controlled the groups, sparked the so-called "Castellammarese War" in 1928 when he tried to gain control of organized crime across the country. The war ended in 1931 when Salvatore Maranzano conspired with Masseria's top soldier, Charles "Lucky" Luciano, to have Masseria killed. Maranzano emerged as the most powerful Mafia boss in the nation, setting up five separate criminal groups in New York and calling himself "Boss of Bosses."

Maranzano was the first leader of the organization now dubbed "La Cosa Nostra." He established its code of conduct, set up the "family" divisions and structure, and enacted procedures for resolving disputes. Two of the most powerful La Cosa Nostra families-known today as the Genovese and Gambino families-emerged from Maranzano's restructuring efforts. He named Luciano the first boss of what would later be known as the Genovese family. Luciano showed his appreciation less than five months later by sending five men dressed as police officers to Maranzano's office to murder him.

Luciano, Costello, and Genovese

With Maranzano out of the way, Luciano become the most powerful Mafia boss in America and used his position to run La Cosa Nostra like a major corporation. Luciano set up the "Commission" to rule all La Cosa Nostra activities. The Commission included bosses from seven families and divided the different rackets among the families.

In 1936, Luciano was sentenced to 30 to 50 years in prison for operating a prostitution ring. Ten years later, he was released from prison and deported to Italy, never to return. There, he became a liaison between the Sicilian Mafia and La Cosa Nostra. When he was convicted, Frank Costello became acting boss because underboss Vito Genovese had fled to Italy to avoid a murder charge. Genovese's return to the states was cleared when a key witness against him was poisoned and the charges were dropped.

Costello led the family for approximately 20 years until May of 1957, when Genovese took control by sending soldier Vincent "the Chin" Gigante to murder him. Costello survived the attack but relinquished control of the family to Genovese, who named it after himself. Attempted murder charges against Gigante were dismissed when Costello refused to identify him as the shooter. In 1959, it was Genovese's turn to go to prison following a conviction of conspiracy to violate narcotics laws. He received a 15-year sentence but continued to run the family through his underlings from his prison cell in Atlanta, Georgia.

Valachi Sings-and Lombardo Leads

About this time, Joseph Valachi (pictured right), a "made man," was sent to the same prison as Genovese on a narcotics conviction. Labeled an informer, Valachi survived three attempts on his life behind bars. Still in prison in 1962, he killed a man he thought Genovese had sent to kill him. He was sentenced to life for the murder.

The sentencing was a turning point for Valachi, who decided to cooperate with the U.S. government. Recruited by FBI agents, he appeared before the U.S. Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations on September 27, 1963 and testified that he was a member of a secret criminal society in the U.S. known as La Cosa Nostra. He revealed to the committee numerous secrets of the organization, including its name, structure, power bases, codes, swearing-in ceremony, and members.

In 1969, several years after Valachi began cooperating with the FBI, Vito Genovese died in his prison cell. By then the Genovese family was under the control of Philip "Benny Squint" Lombardo. Unlike the bosses before him, Lombardo preferred to rule behind his underboss. His first, Thomas Eboli, was murdered in 1972. Lombardo then promoted Frank "Funzi" Tieri as his front man.

Throughout the 1980s, the Genovese family hierarchy went through several changes. Tieri, recognized on the street as the Genovese family boss in the late 1970s, was convicted for operating a criminal organization through a pattern of racketeering that included murder and extortion. Anthony "Fat Tony" Salerno then fronted as boss until 1985, when he and the bosses of the other four New York families were convicted for operating a criminal enterprise-the LCN Commission. Lombardo, his two captains in prison and his health failing, turned full control of the Genovese family over to Gigante-the man who tried to kill Costello 30 years earlier.

Fish on the Hook

In 1986, a second member turned against the Genovese family when Vincent "Fish" Cafaro, a soldier and right-hand-man to Anthony Salerno, decided to cooperate with the FBI and testify. According to Cafaro's sworn statement, Gigante ran the family from behind the scenes while pretending to be mentally ill. Cafaro said this behavior helped further insulate Gigante from authorities while he ran the Genovese family's criminal activities.

Gigante's odd behavior and mumbling while he walked around New York's East Village in a bathrobe earned him the nickname "the Odd Father." After an FBI investigation, Gigante was convicted of racketeering and murder conspiracy in December 1997 and sentenced to 12 years. Another FBI investigation led to his indictment on January 17, 2002, accusing him of continuing to run the Genovese family from prison. He pled guilty to obstruction of justice in 2003. Gigante died in prison in December 2005 in the same federal hospital where Gambino family leader John Gotti had died three years earlier.

The Genovese crime family was once considered the most powerful organized crime family in the nation. Members and their numerous associates engaged in drug trafficking, murder, assault, gambling, extortion, loansharking, labor racketeering, money laundering, arson, gasoline bootlegging, and infiltration of legitimate businesses. Genovese family members also were involved in stock market manipulation and other illegal frauds and schemes, as evidenced in the FBI's "Mobstocks" investigation.

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History of La Cosa Nostra | Federal Bureau of Investigation

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Mugshot of Charles "Lucky" Luciano Giuseppe Esposito was the first known Sicilian Mafia member to emigrate to the U.S. He and six other Sicilians fled to New York after murdering the chancellor and a vice chancellor of a Sicilian province and 11 wealthy landowners. He was arrested in New Orleans in 1881 and extradited to Italy.

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Audio File: National anthem of Cuba

head of government:

Prime Minister: Manuel Marrero Cruz

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population:

(2023 est.) 11,012,000

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form of government:

unitary socialist republic with one legislative house (National Assembly of the People's Power [612])

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Cuba, country of the West Indies, the largest single island of the archipelago, and one of the more-influential states of the Caribbean region.

The domain of the Arawakan-speaking Taino, who had displaced even earlier inhabitants, Cuba was claimed by Christopher Columbus for Spain in 1492. It became the Spanish empire's most-important source of raw sugar in the 18th century and later earned the sobriquet "Pearl of the Antilles." Though Spain had to fight several difficult and costly campaigns against independence movements, it retained rule of Cuba until 1898, when it was defeated by the United States and Cuban forces in the Spanish-American War. Cuba soon gained formal independence, though it remained overshadowed by the nearby United States.

On New Year's Day, 1959, revolutionary forces led by Fidel Castro overthrew the government of dictator Fulgencio Batista. Two years later Castro proclaimed the Marxist-Leninist nature of the revolution. Cuba became economically isolated from its northern neighbour as it developed close links to the Soviet Union. However, the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s isolated Cuba still further, bringing on what Cubans euphemistically call the período especial ("special period"), a time of widespread shortages and financial uncertainty. By the early 21st century, Cuba had loosened some of its more-restrictive economic and social policies, but the United States continued its decades-long economic embargo against the Castro regime, though the December 2014 announcement of the resumption of diplomatic relations between the two countries held promise of the embargo's removal.

Life in contemporary Cuba is thus challenging, given the limited access to food, transportation, electrical power, and other necessities. Even so, many Cubans show a fierce pride in their revolutionary society, the only one of its kind in Latin America. The protagonist of anthropologist Miguel Barnet's novel Canción de Rachel (1969; Rachel's Song, 1991) describes it thus:

Which Country Is Larger By Area? Quiz

This island is something special. The strangest, most tragic things have happened here. And it will always be that way. The earth, like humankind, has its destiny. And Cuba's is a mysterious destiny.

Cuba is a multicultural, largely urban nation, although it has only one major city: Havana (La Habana), the capital and commercial hub of the country, on the northwestern coast. Handsome if rather run-down, Havana has a scenic waterfront and is surrounded by fine beaches, an attraction for increasing numbers of visitors from abroad. Cuba's other cities-including Santiago, Camagüey, Holguín, and, especially, Trinidad-offer a rich legacy of colonial Spanish architecture to complement contemporary buildings.

Land

Cuba is situated just south of the Tropic of Cancer at the intersection of the Atlantic Ocean (north and east), the Gulf of Mexico (west), and the Caribbean Sea (south). Haiti, the nearest neighbouring country, is 48 miles (77 km) to the east, across the Windward Passage; Jamaica is 87 miles (140 km) to the south; the Bahamas archipelago extends to within 50 miles (80 km) of the northern coast; and the United States is about 90 miles (150 km) to the north across the Straits of Florida.

The country comprises an archipelago of about 1,600 islands, islets, and cays with a combined area three-fourths as large as the U.S. state of Florida. The islands form an important segment of the Antilles ( West Indies) island chain, which continues east and then south in a great arc enclosing the Caribbean Sea. The island of Cuba itself is by far the largest in the chain and constitutes one of the four islands of the Greater Antilles. In general, the island runs from northwest to southeast and is long and narrow-777 miles (1,250 km) long and 119 miles (191 km) across at its widest and 19 miles (31 km) at its narrowest point.

Relief

Groups of mountains and hills cover about one-fourth of the island of Cuba. The most rugged range is the Sierra Maestra, which stretches approximately 150 miles (240 km) along the southeastern coast and reaches the island's highest elevations-6,476 feet (1,974 metres) at Turquino Peak and 5,676 feet (1,730 metres) at Bayamesa Peak. Near the centre of the island are the Santa Clara Highlands, the Sierra de Escambray (Guamuhaya), and the Sierra de Trinidad. The Cordillera de Guaniguanico in the far west stretches from southwest to northeast for 110 miles (180 km) and comprises the Sierra de los Órganos and the Sierra del Rosario, the latter attaining 2,270 feet (692 metres) at Guajaibón Peak. Much of central-western Cuba is punctuated by spectacularly shaped, vegetation-clad hillocks called mogotes. Serpentine highlands distinguish northern and central La Habana and Matanzas provinces, as well as the central parts of Camagüey and Las Tunas.

The plains covering about two-thirds of the main island have been used extensively for sugarcane and tobacco cultivation and livestock raising. The coastal basins of Santiago de Cuba and Guantánamo and the extensive Cauto River valley lie in the southeast. The Cauto lowland adjoins a series of coastal plains that continue across the island from east to west, including the Southern Plain, Júcaro-Morón Plain, Zapata Peninsula (Zapata Swamp), Southern Karst and Colón Plain, and Southern Alluvial Plain. Cuba's most extensive swamps cover the Zapata Peninsula and surround the Bay of Pigs (Bahía de Cochinos). The Las Villas Plain of the North, Las Villas Plain of the Northeast, and Northern Plain stretch across much of the opposite coast.

Cuba's approximately 3,570 miles (5,745 km) of irregular, picturesque coastline are characterized by many bays, sandy beaches, mangrove swamps, coral reefs, and rugged cliffs. There are also some spectacular caverns in the interior, notably the 16-mile- (26-km-) long Cave of Santo Tomás in the Sierra Quemado of western Cuba. The main island is surrounded by a submerged platform covering an additional 30,000 square miles (78,000 square km).

Among the extensive cays and archipelagoes ringing the main island are Los Colorados, to the northwest; Sabana and Camagüey, both off the north-central coast; the Jardines de la Reina ("Queen's Gardens"), near the south-central coast; and Canarreos, near the southwest coast. Juventud Island (Isla de la Juventud; "Isle of Youth"), formerly called Pinos Island (Isla de los Pinos; "Isle of Pines"), is the second largest of the Cuban islands, covering 850 square miles (2,200 square km). It is technically a part of the Canarreos Archipelago. Hills, dotted with groves of pine and palm, characterize much of the island's northwest and southeast. Sand and clay plains cover parts of the north, a gravel bed takes up most of the southern part of the island, and bogs dominate the coasts and sparsely inhabited interior.

Drainage

Cuban rivers are generally short, with meagre flow; of the nearly 600 rivers and streams, two-fifths discharge to the north, the remainder to the south. The Zapata Peninsula is the most extensive of Cuba's many coastal wetlands.

The main island's heaviest precipitation and largest rivers are in the southeast, where the Cauto, at 230 miles (370 km) the country's longest river, lies between the Sierra Maestra and the smaller Sierra del Cristal. The Cauto and its tributaries, notably the Salado, drain the Sierra Maestra and lesser uplands in the provinces of Holguín and Las Tunas. Other rivers in this region include the Guantánamo, Sagua de Tánamo, Toa, and Mayarí. To the west the most important southward-flowing rivers are the Sevilla, Najasa, San Pedro, Jatibonico del Sur, Zaza, Agabama, Arimao, Hondo, and Cuyaguateje. Northward-flowing rivers include the Saramaguacán, Caonao, Sagua la Grande, and La Palma.

Cuban lakes are small and more properly classified as freshwater or saltwater lagoons. The latter include Leche ("Milk") Lagoon, which has a surface area of 26 square miles (67 square km). It is technically a sound because several natural channels connect it to the Atlantic Ocean. Sea movements generate disturbances in the calcium carbonate deposits at the bottom of the lake to produce the milky appearance of its waters.

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Cuba | Government, Flag, Capital, Population, & Language

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Cuba, country of the West Indies, the largest island of the archipelago, and one of the more-influential states of the Caribbean region. A multicultural, largely urban nation, it has been ruled as a single-party communist state since shortly after the successful revolution (1959) led by Fidel Castro.

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IT IS the fashion in Italy to abuse the political parties -- those genuinely anti-Fascist groupings which, in spite of their widely differing aims, combined in 1943 to form the national and regional Committees of National Liberation (in Italian, Comitati di Liberazione Nazionale, always referred to as CLNs). These Committees made a great contribution to the defeat of Nazi-Fascism; but its magnitude was not appreciated outside Italy at the time and is now being forgotten at home. For reasons peculiar to Italy, the disillusionment which followed the end of the fighting has been even more devastating in that country than elsewhere, and Italians have found it easy to throw the blame for present conditions upon the CLN parties which are governing the nation until a Constituent Assembly can be elected. This irritation with politics and parties is exceedingly dangerous, for it is pregnant with a totalitarian mentality.

In Italy today the most urgent economic questions must be politically determined. Poverty is so great that social peace is impossible without a radical redistribution of the little wealth that, more than ever, is concentrated in the hands of a few; and this necessitates action by the state. One may be Socialist or anti-Socialist in theory in Italy today, but it is difficult not to be temporarily Socialistic in practice. This is the basis on which CLN plans for the future were worked out. The Action Party, in some ways the most interesting of the CLN groups, has evolved a program synthesizing guaranteed liberty for the individual with socialism in industry and, to some extent, in agriculture. The program is close to the line of British Labor, though more particularly to the conceptions of Beveridge. The Action Party is, however, a small one, born out of the anti-Fascist Giustizia e Libertà group; it appeals to intellectuals and has many distinguished sympathizers of the caliber of Count Sforza.

The CLN parties which have hitherto represented large masses of the population are the Christian Democrats, the Socialists and the Communists. Of these the Christian Democrats tend to be passive because, while their rank and file is probably Socialistic, their leaders -- with the notable exception of Don Sturzo -- are predominantly conservative. The Socialists and Communists have similar aims and represent a certain homogeneous body of opinion, but in Italy as in so many other countries their rivalry makes coöperation difficult.

Some of the worst enemies of Communism will agree that the Italian Communists played a magnificent part in the resistance offered to the Germans and neo-Fascists; the record of the Fiat workers in Turin -- mainly Communists -- is, for example, a particularly fine one, at least since the strike in March 1943. The Communists suffered heavy casualties in the Resistance and emerged with high prestige. The success of Russian armies added to their popularity. They were, as usual, the best organized party; and naturally they advocated a Socialist-Communist fusion, which was likely to work out to their own advantage.

There was no little logic in the policy. Italian large-scale industry is young and half its existence has been spent under the shadow of Fascism. Yet the factory hands of Milan and Turin and the dockers of Genoa are politically conscious to a relatively high degree. They have long suffered from a low standard of living and from the effects of the overpopulation of Italy. (Overpopulation in Italy is a painful actuality, not a matter of specious propaganda as it was in Germany.) They believe, not without considerable justification, that most of their employers subsidized Fascism in order to enjoy monopolistic privileges, and they therefore desire not only a redistribution of the huge fortunes but also a reorganization of industry which gives them some degree of control. But they desire no less to be free to say and read what they like. To these north Italians, this spells the expulsion, not only of the Fascists, but also of the monarchy which countenanced Mussolini, and which, both before and after the Fascist period, is felt to have shown extreme distrust of its people and a lack of understanding of their needs. In other words, the Italian working people favor a democratic republic. Most Italian workmen are probably Marxist only in so far as their leaders may insist upon using Marxist terminology: Mazzini still competes with Marx for their allegiance. The older generation habitually regards itself as Socialist, though this may mean nothing more than a gentle reformism in the Bissolati tradition. The younger people are likely to call themselves Communist, precisely because they are young and have known only conditions conducive to extremism. All of the above groups get on well enough together in the Confederazione Generale Italiano Lavoro (CGIL), which corresponds to the British TUC.

The Socialist leader, Pietro Nenni, favored the fusion which the Communists suggested: it seemed to him deplorable that this great body of common political opinion should be divided in so critical a period. As far back as 1934, a pact of unity had been made between the two working-class parties in exile. Yet, in the interval between the Italian armistice and the final liberation, the party leaders were estranged by the question of monarchy versus republic. One of the strongest impulses in the CLN (quite independently of social class) was that of revolt against the monarchy. The Risorgimento of Mazzini and Garibaldi had been hostile to the church as the enemy of national unity and friendly to the House of Savoy, which was the instrument for unity. This second and more national uprising of the Italian people -- more national because more general -- reversed the old allegiance. It was more hostile to the monarchy than to the church, for it looked upon the monarchy as the ally of Fascism, against which the Vatican had reacted slowly but with a rising determination. The growth of this spirit also helps explain why the Christian Democrat Party was integrated with the CLN.

In September 1943, the King and his son fled and the question seemed to have settled itself. Great irritation was felt, therefore, especially by the Socialist and Action Parties, when the Communists, presumably obeying orders from Moscow, accepted the monarchist Badoglio Government without protest. Then at the time of the Sforza crisis, December 1944, the Communist Party broke a pledge to Socialists and Actionists overnight and entered the second Bonomi Cabinet; irritation developed into a bitter resentment, which has never been completely effaced. The members of Bonomi's first Government had sworn allegiance to the nation alone. Henceforward ministers swore allegiance to the Prince of Piedmont, who had been nominated by his father as provisional Regent with the title of Luogotenente del Regno. All republican ministers felt humiliated by the action of the Allies in thus forcing them to violate their convictions, and republicans tended to describe the Communist share in the compromise in phrases suggestive of the Russo-German Treaty of 1939.

Liberation came at last, and the political solidarity of the north made itself felt. A government was formed from all six CLN parties under an Action Party republican, Professor Ferruccio Parri, as Premier. All six had shared the Partisan mystique and were determined that their sacrifices were not to be vain. The second Risorgimento seemed to have been achieved and the majority of the nation looked forward to the early election of a Constituent Assembly which should establish the republic and provide the legislative machinery for social reform.

Unfortunately, the CLN leaders displayed political immaturity. To the consternation of some of his Socialist colleagues, Pietro Nenni, at a National Council of the Party in July 1945, rushed through a motion in favor of fusion with the Communist Party. The Socialist Party has never ceased to regret the move. The Communists in Italy, as elsewhere, are rigidly disciplined, but the Italian Socialists allow their leading personalities to jostle one another in anarchistic fashion. They do so partly because they have a wealth of leaders and partly because they believe in the value of discussion and controversy, but it results in so many definitions of policy that the party program is never clear, even on points of cardinal importance.

Nenni himself appears to be without tact or tactics; it would be foolish to question his honesty, but he seems unreliable in the sense that he often seems to make statements and propose motions without pausing to reflect. Under Parri, he undertook to be high commissioner for the purge of Fascists and minister responsible for preparing the election of the Constituent Assembly -- all this in addition to his party activities. The tasks were too great for a man whose political experience consisted of little more than journalism in exile, and the slow execution of them brought him much unpopularity -- more, indeed, than he deserved. A new anti-Red scare came at this time and the CLN was said to be nothing but the tool of the Communist Party, which was charged with distorting the alliance into a Communist National Front. The high-handed action of Russia in eastern Europe added fuel to the flames and the Jugoslav menace to Trieste and Istria shook the Italian Communists themselves.

Toward the end of October 1945 the Socialist Central Committee met in Rome. Urged on by its right-wing leaders, notably the Italian Ambassador in Paris, Giuseppe Saragat, and his friend the writer Ignazio Silone, it took measures to rectify the situation. Fusionism was renounced, and though the Committee said that it intended to reinforce the pact with the Communists calling for unity of action, it also declared that the Socialist Party sought agreement with the other mass parties. At the same time the Party said that it intended to strengthen its own unity and independence. Various public statements were made by Socialist leaders (including Nenni) to the effect that the Socialist Party was a champion of individual liberty and had long ceased to be anticlerical. These advances to the Christian Democrat Party prefaced a curious reorganization of the Cabinet. The campaign organized from the Right by those who feared the spirit of the CLN drove Parri from office at the end of November, and after long-drawn-out negotiations, Parri's Christian Democrat Foreign Minister, Alcide de Gasperi, succeeded him. Nenni was made sole Vice Premier. A right-wing Socialist, Giuseppe Romita, took the key position of Minister of the Interior. The CLN six-party alliance was somehow preserved on paper; but before taking office de Gasperi had expressed sympathy with those who attacked the CLN regional committees and had accepted the advice of the provisional Regent, Prince Humbert.

The Socialist Party was demoralized by the compromise with de Gasperi. During this period, toward the close of 1945, the Socialists were, moreover, faced with big Communist successes in various trade-union elections: for example, in the tram and busman's union in Rome, 2,256 voted Communist, 1,251 Socialist, 858 Christian Democrat and 500 voted for candidates of other parties. It was evident that a superior party organization gave the Communists a great advantage in elections.

Both local elections and elections for the Constituent Assembly were imminent. The resignation at Christmas of the party Secretary, Sandro Pertini, made it plain that the Socialists were faced with a crisis. Pertini's place among the most influential leaders of the Italian Socialist Party is unchallenged. It has never been said of him, as of most of his colleagues, that he is motivated by personal ambition; and his splendid Resistance record had endeared him especially to the Socialist Youth Groups. Led by men like Matteotti's son, Matteo, these groups were in a state of revolt; they disliked the new government and they regretted the Saragat-Silone attitude as destructive of their party's revolutionary working-class character; at the same time, they wished the Party to emphasize its independence of Communism.

The sympathetic outsider who attempts to analyse the situation in which the Italian Socialist Party found itself cannot but conclude that the attitude of Pertini and young Matteotti, and the October declarations of the Socialist Central Committee, created an almost hopeless dilemma for the rank and file of the Socialists. The situation jeopardizes the political future of Italy. It seems clear that the Italian Socialists should either act as Marxists, and in that case fuse with the Communists in order to work for the dictatorship of the proletariat, or they should abandon the notion that they are "proletarians" striving for "dictatorship." They might then at last make room for the politically neglected middle classes and become a non-Marxist party like British Labor, which aims at social justice without the sacrifice of individual liberty and the constitutional procedure which protects it. To insist, as the Italian Socialists are trying to do, upon revolutionary Marxism and also on love of constitutional liberty is a contradiction in terms, and it divides rather than reconciles opposing wings of the Party. On the one hand it is dismissed as a mere imitation-Communist opportunism, while on the other it risks losing the working people en bloc to the Communist Party, whose objectives are easier to comprehend.

The Italian Socialist Party has never been so foolish as to think only in terms of the industrial working class in a country where the peasantry is at least twice as numerous. There is a Socialist tradition which cannot be ignored among the peasants of Emilia, Romagna and southern Lombardy. There are, of course, many other influences in the countryside. That of the Catholic clergy is strong, especially in the Veneto. And in southern Italy and Sicily the influence of the big landowners, on whose estates the laborers work under shocking conditions, is considerable. But the unsolved problem, par excellence, is that of the political orientation of the middle class.

The middle class in Italy is very numerous, probably almost as large as the industrial working class. It includes large "blackcoated" worker and professional groups -- office clerks and shopkeepers, doctors and lawyers -- and it contains a veritable army of major and minor state officials, including university and school teachers. This Italian middle class need not be dismissed as potbellied and docilely Fascist, that is to say, as "German," for it descends directly from Mazzini and the other idealists of the nineteenth-century Risorgimento, and it has provided nearly all the Socialist and even Communist leaders, from Turati to Togliatti. It has given birth to an academic tradition which survived 23 years of Fascist oppression with credit. The Giustizia e Libertà group, from the Rosselli brothers to the founders of the Action Party, is middle-class in origin: this class supplied many true martyrs of the Resistance, like young Gasparotto or Beltrami. The middle class Action Party worked enthusiastically with Socialists and Communists during the Resistance, and it published its own clandestine papers for workmen and peasants; in so doing it expressed the aspirations of Carlo Rosselli and the enlightened middle class of which Parri is typical.

The Christian Democrat Party is predominantly peasant, but its middle-class element is not inconsiderable. The CLN spirit, which ruled the times, drew the Christian Democrat Party to the Left, toward the Action Party, which was abandoning its traditional anticlericalism. The growth of republicanism among Christian Democrats, especially in the north, helped strengthen the affinity. Both parties also advocated government decentralization.

Two small parties were coöperating with these larger groups. The first was the old Republican Party, a small intransigent group gathered from all classes of society, and led by the eloquent Randolfo Pacciardi, who believes that the Allies excluded him from a share in the liberation because of his hatred of the monarchy. Although, unlike other twentieth century politicians, Republicans have kept their politics innocent of economic content, they are Socialists and internationalists in Mazzinian fashion. Though they dislike Marxism, they feel real sympathy for the practical aims of the Socialist Party and are intimately associated with the Action Party. Another small party is Democratic Labor. This group is essentially middle-class, corresponding to the French Radicals before 1940; its main support comes from southern Italy and it is closely associated with the former Socialist, Ivanoe Bonomi. One of its leading members is the staunch democrat, Meuccio Ruini, a founder of the CLN in Rome in 1943 and Minister of Reconstruction under Parri; significantly, he followed Parri out of office when de Gasperi came in.

All these middle-class elements might have been united with the working class by a non-Marxist Italian Socialist Party in 1945; the long series of disasters which has reduced most of the middle class to proletarian poverty might have been used to emphasize a community of interest. Instead, almost the opposite result seems to have been brought about. The catastrophic disappointment which followed liberation, plus the inflationary rise in prices, created fear which degenerated into panic and swept the rank and file of the middle class off its feet. A reaction against the idealism of the Resistance period was inevitable, and it was nourished by the indifference of the Allies (who had also been idealized) toward social questions and by their inability to understand the case against the monarchy. But the reaction was far more violent than it need have been. Marxist members of the CLN, especially in the north, contributed to it by talking as if they intended to use these committees as soviets. The Action Party also was responsible for costly follies, such as allowing its more exuberant members to indulge in childish Jacobinism.

A number of persons, groups and even institutions were waiting eagerly to reap the harvest of disillusionment. A fantastic number of "Liberty Fronts" sprang up, each making use of the name of some known anti-Fascist or military man, each exhorting the Italians to forget all disputes and rally around its particular leader. A Socialist, Zeniboni, made confusion worse confounded by forming a separate "Social-Democratic Union" without, however, resigning from the Socialist Party. Following the insidious example of the Nazis and Fascists, these Fronts (or whatever else they chose to call themselves) began to buy supporters by organizing social relief for the starving population. The most skilful and therefore most dangerous of these affairs is the Fronte del'Uomo Qualunque, organized by a former Fascist, Guglielmo Giannini, who brought out a popular weekly paper, L'Uomo Qualunque ( The Ordinary Man), and is now also publishing a daily, Il Buonsenso ( Common Sense). His slogan is, "The Fascists deprived the Italians of their liberty but no one has yet restored it to them." With this he entices all sorts of well-meaning people into his ranks. Giannini's papers pour out torrents of abuse against all kinds of people and against "politics" and "parties" -- as if a Front of this kind were not itself a bastard political party. His most extreme tirades are directed toward everything related to the CLNs, which are equated with Communism. These papers say nothing against Fascists of any kind nor against the monarchy; they frequently speak favorably of the marines and the repatriated prisoners-of-war who habitually raid Socialist and Communist centers in much the same way their fathers did when Mussolini was coming to power. The prisoners-of-war, indeed, present a most difficult problem. They returned to find their country in ruins, and it is not surprising that their Fascist education asserts itself. There is no lack of secret neo-Fascist organizations -- usually with a monarchist orientation -- angling for them, and the general feeling that the Allies have trifled with CLN governments makes it difficult for the Socialists to compete with their propaganda. The unpopularity of the Socialist head of the British Foreign Office does not help the Italian Socialists in this regard.

The problems of the parties on the Left cannot be adequately stated without a brief examination of that anomaly, the Italian Liberal Party. This party is ultra-conservative; it would like to turn the clock back at least twenty-five years. Many of its members -- men like Luigi Einaudi, Governor of the Bank of Italy, and Benedetto Croce, whose philosophy had developed a liberalism of its own -- were consistent opponents of Fascism, but they believe in liberty in terms of Adam Smith or Jeremy Bentham. Thus from the first the position of this sixth party in the CLN was an uneasy one. Many Liberals, especially in the north, became republican, most of them fearing the redistribution of wealth which was generally felt necessary. Some were motivated by a genuine devotion to the idea of liberty: they did not understand that no starving man is free. But the most powerful members of the Party were northern industrialists, or owners of the big landed estates in the south where reform was long overdue -- people who had bought Fascist protection when it was useful to them between 1922 and 1943. In the name of liberty, the Liberals constantly accused the CLNs (on which they did not cease to be represented) of high-handed action, and their right wing drove Parri out of office. Yet they tended to champion only the liberty of Fascists and those who sympathized with them, and the effect of their action was to impede the punishment of Fascist criminals and to delay the election of the Constituent Assembly which alone could provide a legal basis for the government of liberated Italy. They maintained that legal government could be found only in the discredited monarchy, advancing the questionable theory that the Constitution of Charles Albert had never been abrogated. It would be inaccurate to label all monarchist Liberals as Fascist, but they persistently advocated a return to pre-Fascist conditions -- for instance, backing the octogenarian Orlando, or Francesco Nitti, as Prime Minister instead of Parri. They likewise pressed for the restoration of prefects appointed by the Crown in the place of those provisionally chosen by the CLNs. It is true, however, that there were dissidents among them; some republican Liberals who disliked the manœuvres which forced Parri out of office seemed prepared to join forces with the Action Party or the Socialists.

But now it is almost certainly too late for the Socialists to create the big anti-Fascist bloc which once seemed possible. The Communist Congress held in Rome at the turn of the year skilfully stole what should have been the Socialist thunder. This Congress made a greater impression upon both its friends and its enemies than either had expected. In the first place, Palmiro Togliatti, whose discourses were masterly, was able to announce that his party at the end of 1945 had around two million registered members, a tremendous figure for Italy. Secondly, he and Luigi Longo now offered federation to the Socialists on a basis of equal representation, although the Socialist Party was obviously the weaker. Thirdly, Longo made an able appeal to all true democrats to continue CLN coöperation, and to work closely with non-party organizations such as the CGIL or the UDI (Union of Italian Women). In other words he suggested a democratic republican bloc of exactly the kind which the Socialists might have created on a non-Marxist basis. Longo, naturally, wishes to harness this bloc to the Communist Party. In reply to the "minions-of-Moscow" reproach which is often made by Saragat and his friends, Longo replies that the Communists are as independent of Molotov as the Socialists are of Bevin.

The upshot is that the divisions in the Socialist Party seem more likely to deepen than to heal. The opponents of the proposed anti-Fascist union will label it "Communist" more ardently than ever. Indeed, if such a union is formed, and if it endures at least until the Constituent Assembly has been elected, thanks will be due the Communist Congress. Leadership in the union is bound to be mainly supplied by the Communists.

Out of this whole situation three general conclusions emerge. The first is that the Fascist mentality has by no means disappeared in Italy and that neo-Fascism is plainly in evidence. The second is that the Communist Party has shown marked political ability and has taken the leadership of the anti-Fascist forces. The third is that Britain and the United States analyzed the Italian situation crudely when they failed to perceive that republicanism represents the dynamic "middle-class" force in Italy.

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IT IS the fashion in Italy to abuse the political parties -- those genuinely anti-Fascist groupings which, in spite of their widely differing aims, combined in 1943 to form the national and regional Committees of National Liberation (in Italian, Comitati di Liberazione Nazionale, always referred to as CLNs).

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Are These Dishes You Love Authentically Mexican?

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Are These Dishes You Love Authentically Mexican?

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Everyone loves to eat Mexican food every once in a while, but are you actually eating authentic Mexican food or just the equally delicious, but definitively not Mexican, Tex-Mex hybrid? If you're not sure what the difference is, don't worry, as many 'Mexican' restaurants seem to play fast and loose with the truth when it comes to their definition of ' Mexican' cuisine anyway. With that in mind, here's a quick rundown on those dishes you know and love and whether they're genuinely from south of the border.

Before we get into the specific dishes themselves, it's worth defining what constitutes Tex-Mex cuisine and why it's different from Mexican dishes. The history of Tex-Mex is rich and delicious, but relatively short, with the term Tex-Mex only coming into a more widely used existence in the 70s after being used as a term in an influential cookbook.

Immigration from Mexico to the U.S. was a hugely influential factor in the creation of Tex-Mex cuisine because, as the name implies, it's a hybrid of predominantly northern Mexican cuisine and Texan specialities that have come together to form a fusion genre of dining that has since captured the hearts and stomaches of the masses worldwide.

However, the ingredients used in Mexican and Tex-Mex food are what distinguish the two. First of all, ground beef is one of the most common Tex-Mex components, given that the cuisine was refined in areas with many Texan ranchers and an abundance of cows. Mexican dishes tend to use pork and chicken instead of beef.

Cheese is another factor; yellow cheese is barely used in Mexico (where white cheeses such as queso cotija, queso Oaxaca, queso panela, etc. are far more common). Tex-Mex cuisine, on the other hand, douses its dishes in Velveeta cheese and gives it an extra handful of cheddar for good measure. Long story short, Tex-Mex is yellower and cheesier.

Spices and flavoring are all important, too, when it comes to distinguishing between Mexican and Tex-Mex. Mexican favors spice, while Tex-Mex relies more on spices, notably cumin, which is rarely an element in Mexican cuisine proper. Jalapeños are also far more heavily used as a key component, rather than an optional addition, in Tex-Mex cooking.

And finally, sour cream is not the same as Mexican crema; the latter is runnier and, funnily enough, not as sour.

Overall, due to the use of far more fresh ingredients, corn rather than wheat tortillas, and significantly less cheese, Mexican cuisine is also actually much healthier than Tex-Mex.

Burritos are one of the dishes most associated with Mexican cuisine in countries such as the U.S. and the UK. However, we're sorry to disappoint, but the burritos you probably enjoyed today (filled with rice, beans, cheese, lettuce, pico de gallo and meat) are distinctly Tex-Mex. While burritos do exist in Mexico, they're very different. For a start, they're far more loosely wrapped - only in northern states will you find the tightly packed and wrapped burrito of your Taco Bell dreams.

Delicious? Yes. Mexican? No. There is nothing quite as Tex-Mex as a plate of nachos piled high and topped with runny, yellow cheese sauce, jalapeños, ground beef and black beans. It is quintessentially fusion and incorporates practically all of the ingredients that sets Tex-Mex apart from Mexican cuisine. As an aside, the name for what many would consider to be 'nachos' in Mexico (triangular and crispy chips) is actually totopos.

Enchiladas straddle between being Tex-Mex and Mexican. In origin, they're Mexican and the versions of enchiladas you'll find south of the border and far lighter and healthier than their northern counterparts. They use corn tortillas bathed in sauce and loosely rolled or folded around the typical chicken filling before they're topped with lettuce and crema. Tex-Mex enchiladas, on the other hand, are far cheesier and use ground beef and a dark red sauce topping.
Verdict: Both Tex-Mex and Mexican, depending how they're served
Mole fans can breathe a sigh of relief, as this is one dish that's 100% Mexican. Originating in the south of the country from the states of Oaxaca and Puebla most prominently, there are many variations of mole but the classic is the chili-chocolate flavor combo found in the dark brown mole poblano. Served with rice and chicken, it's popular in the U.S., too, but doesn't fall under the Tex-Mex title.

Nothing says Christmas, Easter, or, hell, even just breakfast like a warming tamale, sometimes sweet and sometimes savory. The good news? This is also an entirely Mexican dish, and again, while popular in Mexican-American families north of the border, tamales are not Tex-Mex. However, several variations on the Mexican tamale can be found in countries across the Caribbean and Latin America. Check out this article for more information.

As with enchiladas, tacos come in many forms, shapes and sizes, some of which are Tex-Mex through and through and others that have got your friendly street-side taquero written all over them. The Tex-Mex iterations are those hard-shelled, crispy abominations that are often filled with beef, cheddar and lettuce. We're sorry Tex-Mex fans, but Mexican tacos are superior in so many ways; the lightly greasy corn tortilla topped with hot meats like al Pastor and accompanied by onion, cilantro and salsas just can't be beaten.
Verdict: Tex-Mex lays claim to hard shell tacos, but soft tacos are Mexican
Chili con carne is another dish whose Spanish name leads many to believe that it must be Mexican; however, the fact of the matter is that a warming bowl of chili con carne, complete with ground beef, kidney beans, tinned tomatoes and cumin flavoring is classic, signature Tex-Mex. Sometimes topped with cheese or accompanied by rice, chili con carne actually has its roots in Native American dishes.

Tex-Mex quesadillas generally use two flour tortillas on top of one another with a gooey cheese and meat filling, plus lettuce and other vegetables. The Mexican quesadilla is simply a corn tortilla doubled over around a white cheese filling, with very little else added. However, they would never have lettuce or sour cream. That's not to say that the definition of a quesadilla is fixed even in Mexico - in Mexico City, they don't even include cheese as standard!
Verdict: Tex-Mex if accompanied by numerous added extras, Mexican if not
Ah, the humble chimichanga. It's a staple of many Mexican restaurant menus and yet it is distinctly Tex-Mex. While you can find versions in northern states such as Sonora or Sinaloa, this burrito-esque dish is baked or deep fried before serving, and uses a large flour tortilla and is sometimes topped with melted cheese, guac and sour cream before serving.

Finally, the much-loved fajita is the one dish that rather than having roots in Mexico before becoming a classic of Tex-Mex, is actually entirely a U.S. invention. A boiling hot skillet is the final resting place of sliced strips of pepper, onion and meat (typically skirt steak), which are then served with flour tortillas. Sour cream and guac are usually included as optional condiments.

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Are These Dishes You Love Authentically Mexican?

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Everyone loves to eat Mexican food every once in a while, but are you actually eating authentic Mexican food or just the equally delicious, but definitively not Mexican, Tex-Mex hybrid? If you're not sure what the difference is, don't worry, as many 'Mexican' restaurants seem to play fast and loose with the truth when it comes to their definition of ' Mexican' cuisine anyway.

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Famous Filipino Food: 15 Must-Eat Dishes in the Philippines!

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Famous Filipino Food: 15 Must-Eat Dishes in the Philippines!

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The food culture of the Philippines is sometimes overshadowed by it's northwestern neighbors - Thailand and Vietnam. But the Philippines can easily hold its own on the global culinary stage and even came in second in a 2015 CNN poll asking readers what country was their favorite food destination.

From the ubiquitous adobo to the cringe-worthy balut, Filipino cuisine is varied and delicious (though not always particularly healthy). In fact, Anthony Bourdain claimed the best pork he ever ate was in the Philippines.

We spent 2 months traveling around the islands and trying all of the amazing Filipino food we could find. We have compiled 15 of the best dishes in the Philippines for your sampling pleasure - make sure you try them all!
Don't forget to check out our web story: The Best Food to Try in the Philippines!
Disclaimer: This post may contain affiliate links. If you make a purchase or booking through one of our links we may earn a small commission (don't worry, it's at no extra cost to you).

1. Tocino

Tocino is the Filipino version of bacon. It is pork belly cured in sugar, salt, and various other spices then fried - yum! It is served as part of a common Filipino breakfast called tosilog. The name is a combination of its 3 parts: tocino, sinangag (garlic fried rice), and pritong itlog (fried egg).

There are lots of different versions of the silog breakfast trio that simply replace the Tocino with another meat options. Tapsilog features marinated beef ( 'tapa'), bansilog has fried fish ( 'bangus'), and maybe the least adventurous choice is hotsilog which simply includes a hot dog.

Our favorite food to eat in the Philippines was tosilog by a landslide because who doesn't love bacon?

2. Kinilaw

Kinilaw is a delicious seafood dish served up all over the Philippines. It consists of slices of raw fish marinated in vinegar along with other ingredients like calamansi juice, salt, pepper, and chili peppers. The name kinilaw literally means "eaten raw". Very similar to ceviche, the main difference is that Kinilaw relies on vinegar rather than lime juice to "cook" the fish.

Filipino food can be pretty heavy so if you're feeling like you need a healthy alternative, kinilaw makes a great appetizer or light lunch.

3. Sinigang

Sinigang is a sour soup that is typically made with pork and tamarind though sometimes other sour fruits like guava, green mango, or calamansi are used instead. Tomatoes, garlic, onion, and various other vegetables complete the stew.

It's a delicious Filipino comfort food and makes for a hearty hangover breakfast if you had a few to many Pilsens the night before.

4. Kare-Kare

Kare-kare is a thick stew made from oxtail, vegetables, and a peanut sauce. It reminded us a bit of massaman curry from Thailand which makes sense as the word 'kare' is derived from the Filipino word for curry. Supposedly the best kare-kare comes from Pampanga which is just north of Manila, but you'll find this dish served all over the Philippines.

Try ordering kare-kare along with lechon kawali (deep fried pork belly) and then use the thick kare-kare sauce for dipping the lechon. It's a delicious Filipino meal that will have you won't soon forget, but best to plan on taking a nap afterwards.

5. Sisig

You'll know someone has ordered sisig when you hear the sizzling and see the steam rising off of the cast-iron skillet. It's like Filipino fajitas and is an extremely popular dish in the Philippines!

Pork sisig is most common and it consists of chopped up pig ears, jowls and liver, onion, and chili peppers delivered on a sizzling hot skillet with a raw egg on top. You'll need to mix in the egg to cook it before the skillet cools down. It usually comes with a couple calamansi halves so you can squeeze the juice over the top.

Other versions of sisig include pork belly, chicken, tuna, eggplant, and pretty much anything else you can put on a sizzling hot plate.

6. Adobo

Adobo is often called the national dish of the Philippines and it's certainly the most famous Filipino dish. The flavor is created using vinegar, soy sauce, garlic, bay leaves, and black pepper. Also chili peppers are sometimes added to give it a little spice.

The most typical adobo dishes are chicken and pork but you'll find every restaurant in the Philippines has their own take. The meat can either be cooked into a stew or marinated in the adobo sauce and then pan fried.

If there is one dish you should try before you leave the Philippines it's pork adobo!

7. Humba

Humba is very similar to adobo, but also includes banana blossoms and tausi (fermented black bean paste). This gives humba a sweeter taste than adobo and results in an amazing spicy/salty/sweet flavor. Whereas you can find the adobo flavor applied to all types of meat and vegetable dishes, humba is almost always made with pork.

You'll encounter humba in the southern islands of the Philippines and it's even sometimes referred to as Cebu's version of adobo. Make sure you try both these famous Filipino dishes and see which you prefer!

8. Lechon

Lechon is a broad term that refers to a suckling pig that has been seasoned, skewered on a bamboo pole, and roasted whole over charcoal. It is particularly famous on the island of Cebu and you'll see lots of shops along the roads with whole roast pigs in the window. On his trip to the Philippines Anthony Boudain asserted that the lechon on Cebu Island was "the best pig ever!"

Just as there are many ways to prepare pork (and many different cuts of meat) there are plenty of ways to prepare and serve lechon after it has finished roasting. It can be eaten right off of the carcass with a side of sinangag (garlic fried rice) or the leftovers can be added to dishes like sinigang or paksiw na lechon.

Our favorite was lechon kawali which is crispy fried pork belly served with two dipping sauces: toyomansî (a spicy sweet combination of soy sauce, calamansi juice, and diced chili peppers) and mang tomas (made from ground up pork liver).

9. Pancit Guisado

Another famous Filipino food, Pancit guisado is basically just fried noodles and you'll see this dish offered at almost every restaurant you visit. They typically come in three varieties: pancit canton, pancit bihon, and bam-i.

Pancit canton has thick noodles

Pancit sotanghon has thin vermicelli noodles

Bam-i is a combination of the two

Pancit guisado is a delicious side dish to add to your meal but be aware that the portions are often huge so it's best to plan on eating family style with several other people when ordering.

10. Sinangag (Garlic Fried Rice)

Sinangag is pretty simple and straightforward - it's just garlic fried rice. It's made by frying white rice in a wok or pan with lots of garlic. Other ingredients like egg or vegetables can be added in a similar way to Chinese-style fried rice. But in the Philippines it is typically prepared with just garlic so it doesn't overpower the flavor of the meat it is being served with.

Basically every Filipino restaurant will offer garlic rice as an alternative to plain old white rice, but you may have to pay a little more for it with your meal. In our experience it was always worth it!

11. Balut

Balut is probably the most infamous street food in the Philippines and the most likely to be a part of a drunken dare involving tourists. It is basically just a boiled duck egg. However, the duck eggs used for Balut have been fertilized and allowed to incubate anywhere from 14 to 18 days. Ihe ideal incubation period for the perfect balut is 17 days.

The result of this fertilization and incubation is an embryo that is well on its way to becoming a duck. This means you'll be gobbling down partially formed bones, feathers, and even a tiny crunchy duck beak and squishy eyeballs, yum!

To eat balut, first break a hole in the top of the boiled egg and add the mix of vinegar, salt, and chili that you'll be given to the liquid surrounding the embryo. Slurp this broth from the hole in the top. Then you'll consume the embryo either with a spoon or just crack the entire egg open and eat it in the same way you would eat a boiled egg.

If you're a bit shy about trying this dish then go for the 14-day version as the embryo won't be as developed and you won't have to chew your way through as many bones and feathers.

12. Buko

Spend a single day in the Philippines and you see the word 'buko' everywhere - on roadside stands, restaurant menus, and on half the drink labels at the convenience store. It can be a bit confusing at first until you realize that buko is just the Filipino word for "fresh young green coconuts".

The Philippines grows over 15 million tons of coconuts a year, the second most in the world right behind Indonesia, so it's no wonder that you'll find them for sale everywhere.

Be sure to order an ice cold buko while lounging on the white sand beaches of the Philippines!

13. Calamansi

Calamansi are small green and yellow fruits that taste like a mix of an orange and a lime.

If you have actually read this post up to this point you're probably starting to see just how important calamansi juice is in Filipino cuisine. It's used in just about every dish as a marinade or sauce.

While many of the dishes you'll be eating in the Philippines will already be flavored by calamansi, you can also order a glass of the juice at most restaurants. The juice by itself is quite sour so you'll usually be asked if you would like to have sugar added. Some restaurants also add honey or ginger as both are excellent compliments for the citrus flavor of calamansi juice.

14. Ice Candy

Ice candy is an incredibly popular dessert in the Philippines. Many enterprising locals hover around popular tourist attractions carrying coolers filled with these delicious, refreshing treats.

Ice candy is made by mixing fruit juice with sugar and milk, then pouring it into slender plastic bags that are tied shut and frozen. Ice candy is eaten just like a homemade push-pop. Tear or bite off the top of the plastic and squeeze from the bottom.

You'll encounter all kinds of flavors of ice candy such as mango, chocolate, ube (purple yam), buko salad (which includes lots of little bits of chopped up fruit mixed), buko pandan (pandan tastes a bit like vanilla), melon, and avocado.

Ice candy is also amazingly cheap. No matter where we were in the Philippines it always cost just 10 pisos (~ $0.20). We recommend that you buy one every chance you get!

15. Halo Halo

Literally meaning "mix mix" the name halo-halo is a pretty apt description for this traditional Filipino dessert that includes every sweet treat the restaurant has in their refrigerator and freezer.

The main ingredients of halo-halo are shaved ice, ice cream, and condensed milk. It could also include fruits such as lychee or mango, sweetened red beans, jellies, corn flakes, and coconut strings, just to name a few.

It's served in a clear glass so you can see all of the layered ingredients, and it's up to you to mix it all up into a sugary delicious mess. Enjoy!

Did we miss anything? Add your favorite Filipino dish in the comments below.
Planning a trip to the Philippines? Check out our favorite travel guides and books!
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Nick took his first solo trip abroad to Ireland and Scotland when he was just 19. Since then he has visited 63 countries and counting

He coupled his passion for travel photography with Val's passion for writing and thus Wandering Wheatleys was born.

Besides photography, Nick loves eating the weirdest food he can find in a country (sheep's brain currently sits in first place) and making Val get up an hour before sunrise to make sure he gets "the good light".

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Famous Filipino Food: 15 Must-Eat Dishes in the Philippines! - Wandering Wheatleys

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The food culture of the Philippines is sometimes overshadowed by it's northwestern neighbors - Thailand and Vietnam. But the Philippines can easily hold its own on the global culinary stage and even came in second in a 2015 CNN poll asking readers what country was their favorite food destination.

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Audio File: National anthem of Cuba

head of government:

Prime Minister: Manuel Marrero Cruz

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population:

(2023 est.) 11,012,000

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form of government:

unitary socialist republic with one legislative house (National Assembly of the People's Power [612])

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Cuba, country of the West Indies, the largest single island of the archipelago, and one of the more-influential states of the Caribbean region.

The domain of the Arawakan-speaking Taino, who had displaced even earlier inhabitants, Cuba was claimed by Christopher Columbus for Spain in 1492. It became the Spanish empire's most-important source of raw sugar in the 18th century and later earned the sobriquet "Pearl of the Antilles." Though Spain had to fight several difficult and costly campaigns against independence movements, it retained rule of Cuba until 1898, when it was defeated by the United States and Cuban forces in the Spanish-American War. Cuba soon gained formal independence, though it remained overshadowed by the nearby United States.

On New Year's Day, 1959, revolutionary forces led by Fidel Castro overthrew the government of dictator Fulgencio Batista. Two years later Castro proclaimed the Marxist-Leninist nature of the revolution. Cuba became economically isolated from its northern neighbour as it developed close links to the Soviet Union. However, the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s isolated Cuba still further, bringing on what Cubans euphemistically call the período especial ("special period"), a time of widespread shortages and financial uncertainty. By the early 21st century, Cuba had loosened some of its more-restrictive economic and social policies, but the United States continued its decades-long economic embargo against the Castro regime, though the December 2014 announcement of the resumption of diplomatic relations between the two countries held promise of the embargo's removal.

Life in contemporary Cuba is thus challenging, given the limited access to food, transportation, electrical power, and other necessities. Even so, many Cubans show a fierce pride in their revolutionary society, the only one of its kind in Latin America. The protagonist of anthropologist Miguel Barnet's novel Canción de Rachel (1969; Rachel's Song, 1991) describes it thus:

Which Country Is Larger By Area? Quiz

This island is something special. The strangest, most tragic things have happened here. And it will always be that way. The earth, like humankind, has its destiny. And Cuba's is a mysterious destiny.

Cuba is a multicultural, largely urban nation, although it has only one major city: Havana (La Habana), the capital and commercial hub of the country, on the northwestern coast. Handsome if rather run-down, Havana has a scenic waterfront and is surrounded by fine beaches, an attraction for increasing numbers of visitors from abroad. Cuba's other cities-including Santiago, Camagüey, Holguín, and, especially, Trinidad-offer a rich legacy of colonial Spanish architecture to complement contemporary buildings.

Land

Cuba is situated just south of the Tropic of Cancer at the intersection of the Atlantic Ocean (north and east), the Gulf of Mexico (west), and the Caribbean Sea (south). Haiti, the nearest neighbouring country, is 48 miles (77 km) to the east, across the Windward Passage; Jamaica is 87 miles (140 km) to the south; the Bahamas archipelago extends to within 50 miles (80 km) of the northern coast; and the United States is about 90 miles (150 km) to the north across the Straits of Florida.

The country comprises an archipelago of about 1,600 islands, islets, and cays with a combined area three-fourths as large as the U.S. state of Florida. The islands form an important segment of the Antilles ( West Indies) island chain, which continues east and then south in a great arc enclosing the Caribbean Sea. The island of Cuba itself is by far the largest in the chain and constitutes one of the four islands of the Greater Antilles. In general, the island runs from northwest to southeast and is long and narrow-777 miles (1,250 km) long and 119 miles (191 km) across at its widest and 19 miles (31 km) at its narrowest point.

Relief

Groups of mountains and hills cover about one-fourth of the island of Cuba. The most rugged range is the Sierra Maestra, which stretches approximately 150 miles (240 km) along the southeastern coast and reaches the island's highest elevations-6,476 feet (1,974 metres) at Turquino Peak and 5,676 feet (1,730 metres) at Bayamesa Peak. Near the centre of the island are the Santa Clara Highlands, the Sierra de Escambray (Guamuhaya), and the Sierra de Trinidad. The Cordillera de Guaniguanico in the far west stretches from southwest to northeast for 110 miles (180 km) and comprises the Sierra de los Órganos and the Sierra del Rosario, the latter attaining 2,270 feet (692 metres) at Guajaibón Peak. Much of central-western Cuba is punctuated by spectacularly shaped, vegetation-clad hillocks called mogotes. Serpentine highlands distinguish northern and central La Habana and Matanzas provinces, as well as the central parts of Camagüey and Las Tunas.

The plains covering about two-thirds of the main island have been used extensively for sugarcane and tobacco cultivation and livestock raising. The coastal basins of Santiago de Cuba and Guantánamo and the extensive Cauto River valley lie in the southeast. The Cauto lowland adjoins a series of coastal plains that continue across the island from east to west, including the Southern Plain, Júcaro-Morón Plain, Zapata Peninsula (Zapata Swamp), Southern Karst and Colón Plain, and Southern Alluvial Plain. Cuba's most extensive swamps cover the Zapata Peninsula and surround the Bay of Pigs (Bahía de Cochinos). The Las Villas Plain of the North, Las Villas Plain of the Northeast, and Northern Plain stretch across much of the opposite coast.

Cuba's approximately 3,570 miles (5,745 km) of irregular, picturesque coastline are characterized by many bays, sandy beaches, mangrove swamps, coral reefs, and rugged cliffs. There are also some spectacular caverns in the interior, notably the 16-mile- (26-km-) long Cave of Santo Tomás in the Sierra Quemado of western Cuba. The main island is surrounded by a submerged platform covering an additional 30,000 square miles (78,000 square km).

Among the extensive cays and archipelagoes ringing the main island are Los Colorados, to the northwest; Sabana and Camagüey, both off the north-central coast; the Jardines de la Reina ("Queen's Gardens"), near the south-central coast; and Canarreos, near the southwest coast. Juventud Island (Isla de la Juventud; "Isle of Youth"), formerly called Pinos Island (Isla de los Pinos; "Isle of Pines"), is the second largest of the Cuban islands, covering 850 square miles (2,200 square km). It is technically a part of the Canarreos Archipelago. Hills, dotted with groves of pine and palm, characterize much of the island's northwest and southeast. Sand and clay plains cover parts of the north, a gravel bed takes up most of the southern part of the island, and bogs dominate the coasts and sparsely inhabited interior.

Drainage

Cuban rivers are generally short, with meagre flow; of the nearly 600 rivers and streams, two-fifths discharge to the north, the remainder to the south. The Zapata Peninsula is the most extensive of Cuba's many coastal wetlands.

The main island's heaviest precipitation and largest rivers are in the southeast, where the Cauto, at 230 miles (370 km) the country's longest river, lies between the Sierra Maestra and the smaller Sierra del Cristal. The Cauto and its tributaries, notably the Salado, drain the Sierra Maestra and lesser uplands in the provinces of Holguín and Las Tunas. Other rivers in this region include the Guantánamo, Sagua de Tánamo, Toa, and Mayarí. To the west the most important southward-flowing rivers are the Sevilla, Najasa, San Pedro, Jatibonico del Sur, Zaza, Agabama, Arimao, Hondo, and Cuyaguateje. Northward-flowing rivers include the Saramaguacán, Caonao, Sagua la Grande, and La Palma.

Cuban lakes are small and more properly classified as freshwater or saltwater lagoons. The latter include Leche ("Milk") Lagoon, which has a surface area of 26 square miles (67 square km). It is technically a sound because several natural channels connect it to the Atlantic Ocean. Sea movements generate disturbances in the calcium carbonate deposits at the bottom of the lake to produce the milky appearance of its waters.

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Cuba | Government, Flag, Capital, Population, & Language

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Cuba, country of the West Indies, the largest island of the archipelago, and one of the more-influential states of the Caribbean region. A multicultural, largely urban nation, it has been ruled as a single-party communist state since shortly after the successful revolution (1959) led by Fidel Castro.

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Credit: Armed Forces History, Division of History of Technology, National Museum of American History

Dimensions / Weight

Dimensions: 46" H x 72" W

Physical Description

Green, white and red strips.

Specific History

Mexican flag is full of national symbolism. The green strip represents the Independence Movement. The white stripe represents the purity of the Catholic faith. The red stripe represents the Spaniards that joined in the quest for Independence and the blood of the national heroes. The emblem-shield symbolizes the Aztec heritage. According to legend, the gods had advised the Aztecs that the place where they should establish their city was to be identified when they saw an eagle, perched on a prickly pear tree, devouring a serpent. They saw this mythical eagle on a marshy lake that is now the main plaza in Mexico City. This flag was created in 1821, when the Independence movement had ended victoriously.

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Credit: Armed Forces History, Division of History of Technology, National Museum of American History Dimensions: 46" H x 72" W Green, white and red strips. Mexican flag is full of national symbolism. The green strip represents the Independence Movement. The white stripe represents the purity of the Catholic faith.

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No doubt you're probably familiar with Sweden's world-famous meatballs, but there's so much more to Swedish food than that.

From soft, crisp breads to tender, melt-in-mouth fish and meat from the mountains and forests, there's a whirlwind of freshness and flavor in this unique Scandinavian cuisine.

So, under the guidance of a native writer, let's take a culinary journey through the awe and beauty of Sweden, discovering 15 of its most delicious and traditional foods.

Popular & Traditional Swedish Food

1 - Köttbullar - Meatballs

Sweden's national dish made worldwide famous in IKEA restaurants is a classic!

The recipe is simple and goes way back: minced pork or beef, onion, egg, milk, and breadcrumbs.

Mixed and fried in a generous amount of butter, it's traditionally served with mashed potato, lingonberry jam, and brown cream sauce.

As with most Swedish food the meatballs are only lightly seasoned. Salt and pepper are generally considered enough.

The traditional meatball has a very important role in Swedish cuisine. It's served both as an everyday meal and as special meals during the holidays. Christmas, Easter, Midsummer - the meatball will be there along with some other things on this list.

2 - Räkmacka - Shrimp Sandwich

Seafood is very popular in Sweden, especially on the west coast where fishing has a long tradition and history.

For many generations, fishing was the main occupation, and fish and seafood were an important part of the local diet. Today local fish and seafood are considered a delicacy.

Räkmacka is an open-faced sandwich, generally served on rye bread. It's topped with lettuce, mayonnaise, egg, dill, caviar, and a generous amount of shrimp.

The sandwich serves both as an appetizer or as a main dish. Generally, the amount of shrimp on the sandwich tells quite a bit about the standard of the restaurant.

3 - Smulpaj - Crumble

Many Swedes enjoy gardening and during summer when we can finally harvest the fruit and berries from our hard work.

We love to use the fruit and berries for cooking and baking. Smulpaj is a summer favorite, and it's made with whatever berries or fruits are in season.

The fruit or berries are placed on the bottom of the pie dish and are covered with a crumble made from butter, sugar, wheat flour, and oatmeal.

That makes a sweet crumble dough, which goes perfectly with the sourness from fruit and berries like rhubarb, raspberries, strawberries, or blueberries.

Later during the fall season, it's also popular to make apple pie this way. The pie is preferably served warm with whipped cream or custard.

4 - Semla - Sweet Roll

Semla is so beloved it has its own day, called "fettisdagen" and celebrated every year in February.

This pastry consists of a simple wheat bun, flavored with cardamom. The top is cut off, and it's filled with almond paste and whipped cream.

The history goes back to the middle ages when the original recipe was just the bun. Back then, it was a symbol of wealth (due to the high content of wheat flour).

The whipped cream has been a given part of the recipe since at least the 16th century, and the almond paste was added to the recipe approximately 300 years later in the 1850s.

It's supposed to only be eaten on "fettisdagen", but nowadays it's so popular it's available in bakeries from the end of Christmas throughout March.

Bakeries have in the past years also begun to make new interpretations of this classic, adding chocolate or nuts or serving them as wraps.

5 - Falukorv - Falu Sausage

Falukorv is a local sausage from the district of Dalarna, located in the middle of Sweden. It's been served for a few centuries.

The reason it was produced in the first place brings us back to the 16 th century and the Copper Mine in Falun.

Ox hide was used to make ropes and to make use of all the remaining meat they made sausages out of it. Today, the sausage consists of a mix of pork and veal, potato flour, onion, and salt.

It's not considered to be a very fancy dish. People generally don't serve it to their guests, and you rarely find it in restaurants.

Instead, it's popular to serve it as an everyday meal. It's generally baked in the oven or fried and served with macaroni or in a cream tomato sauce with rice.

6 - Ärtsoppa & Pannkakor - Pea Soup & Pancakes

Pea Soup

Thursday for Swedes means Ärtsoppa & Pannkakor (Pea Soup and Pancakes) is served, and it's been like this for as long as Swedes can remember.

There are various legends as to why Pea Soup and Pancakes are always served on Thursdays.

One theory is that Catholics in the middle ages made this dish on a Thursday to eat a filling meal before the Friday fast.

Another theory is that, given that maids used to have Thursday afternoons off, they would make it on Thursdays to save time as the soup was easy to prepare.

Regardless, the tradition lives on and pea soup is served on Thursdays in the military, in restaurants, and in schools.

The pea soup is made from dried yellow peas and pork broth, seasoned with thyme, and topped with salty pieces of pork and mustard. This is often served with a warm punsch drink.

For dessert, Pannkakor (pancakes) with jam are served.

7 - Sill - Pickled Herring

The herring is another historical dish with long traditions. Fish and seafood have always been an important part of Swedish cuisine.

Herring has been fished in southern Sweden for as long as we can remember. We have a history of conserving it in barrels with great amounts of salt or dry it so that it can either be sold and transported or saved for the winter.

Today the most popular way to prepare and serve the herring is to pickle it. After the pickling process, the fish is flavored before serving.

Various flavors are added, such as mustard, garlic, onion, herbs, and others.

Families and restaurants often have their own recipes and put a lot of pride in preparing and serving it.

It's eaten all year round with potatoes, egg, sour cream, and crisp bread. And during holidays like Christmas, Easter, and Midsummer, the pickled herring will always have a special place.

8 - Smörgåstårta - Swedish Sandwich Cake

Smörgåstårta is Sweden's number one feast meal. This is where we put everything we like on bread, in layers, and serve it as a cake.

There aren't really any rules on what goes in the cake - you pick whatever you like or have available.

There are two classics: Smörgåstårta with salmon and seafood and Smörgåstårta with roast beef, ham, and cheese.

To avoid the cake being too dry, it's filled with different things such as mayonnaise, egg, pate or creamy mixtures, and then decorated with meat and vegetables.

It might sound a bit weird, but it's really good. It's mainly served on festive occasions when many people are present and eager to eat, like parties, conferences, weddings, or graduation ceremonies.

You will also find it in cafés or in grocery stores where they are sold in smaller pieces.

9 - Blodpudding - Black Pudding

The Swedish name of this dish basically means "Blood Pudding". It's close to what it sounds like.

It's made from pork blood, but it also contains milk, beer, rye flour, lard, syrup, and, often, raisins or apple pieces.

The old dish has been served for centuries and it's still served in schools and restaurants. But due to its name, many are hesitant before eating it, and it's not very that popular amongst children.

Truth be told, it tastes nothing like blood or even meat. It has a very sweet and spicy taste of clove, pepper, and marjoram. It's served with bacon, lingonberry jam or syrup, and a glass of milk.

10 - Pytt i Panna - Pyttipanna Swedish Hash

This is a mix of ingredients that comes together well as a tasty and filling dish. It generally consists of potatoes, onion, and pork or beef. Other vegetables and meat can also be added if available; the rules aren't that strict.

Everything is cut in small pieces and fried together in a big pan and served with fried egg, pickled beetroots and ketchup.

Traditionally, the dish is made from leftovers to make sure nothing's going to waste. Today it's more often made from fresh ingredients, especially when served in restaurants. However, you can also buy it frozen in the grocery store and fry it yourself.

Biff à la Rydberg

Biff à la Rydberg is the more luxurious version of the dish. The ingredients are cut in bigger pieces, fried, and served separately with raw egg yolk on the top. This was served as a delicacy in one of the classiest hotels in Stockholm, Hotel Rydberg, for a while, over a hundred years ago.

11 - Kräftor - Crayfish

Ever heard of crayfish parties? Well, if you ever find yourself in Sweden during August, make sure to attend one.

The freshly-caught crayfish are boiled and seasoned with dill. The crayfish is then served whole and you must take the meat out of the tails and claws by yourself before you can eat. But that's the whole appeal of crayfish parties - to sit down, relax and enjoy a long meal.

The crayfish is the centerpiece at these parties, but shrimp are also commonly served, as well as quiche and bread.

In the past, the crayfish was more commonly used as an ingredient in other dishes. It still is partially, but they are considered a delicacy, and now they are most commonly enjoyed as a main dish in itself.

12 - Surströmming - Sour Herring

This is by far the smelliest food you'll ever try. We save it for the summer when we can serve it outside; that's how bad the smell is. The tin must be opened outside or underwater to handle the smell. It gets its characteristic smell from fermentation as a part of the preserving process.

Despite being smelly, it's a very traditional and popular dish, especially in northern Sweden. It even has its own day, which is the third Thursday in August.

Just like with other herring, we serve it with potatoes, sour cream, and crisp bread. You might find it in a few restaurants while in season, but you can buy a tin yourself in the grocery store.

13 - Ostkaka - Cheesecake

Not to be mistaken with the American cheesecake, the Swedish cheesecake is very different. The cake itself is sweet but very plain and therefore served lukewarm with whipped cream and jam.

There are two different kinds of Swedish cheesecakes with local heritage, one from Småland in the south and the other from Hälsingland in the north.

Both recipes contain milk, wheat flour, and rennet. But in the southern version, almonds, egg, cream, and sugar are added, leading to a slightly different texture.

Historically, the cheesecake used to be baked in copper pots, which left traces of copper in the cake. Therefore, guests were encouraged to begin to eat from the center of the cake. The edges with copper traces were left for the servants and the children.

This has led to the tradition of eating the cheesecake from the middle, even though they are no longer baked in copper pots.

14 - Kladdkaka - Mud Cake

This chocolate cake has gone from practically non-existent in Swedish cuisine to massive popularity in just a few decades.

Its quick popularity is likely due to its creamy texture and ease of making it. The goal is to preserve the batter, making it creamy, with a crispy exterior.

The main difference between the Mud Cake and other sponge cakes with similar ingredients is that baking soda is not used, which makes it creamier.

There's a wide variety of recipes and you can find it anywhere in five-star restaurants, homemade and served with afternoon coffee, or on the go at your nearest 7/11.

The cake is good in itself, but if you want to make it even better, try it with some whipped cream. We'll give the cake some extra love on its own day, which is on November 7.

15 - Frukost: Knäckebröd och Filmjölk - Breakfast: Crisp Bread and Filmjölk

Swedes prefer a light, quick breakfast like a sandwich, yogurt, or cereals. Some Swedish specialties are crisp bread and "filmjölk".

Knäckebröd is a thin, crispy, hard bread baked with rye and was originally baked to last for a long time without going bad.

They are traditionally baked as large circles with a hole in the middle so it could be stored, hanging on long poles from the ceiling. It doesn't have much flavor, so it's eaten as an open-faced sandwich with toppings like cheese, ham, avocado, or maybe most significant, eggs and tube caviar.

Filmjölk, which is often combined with the crisp bread, is fermented milk that leaves it with a bit of sour taste. The texture is like yogurt, but a little less creamy. Because of its sourness, we top it with fruit, berries, cinnamon, jam, or cereals. The bacteria in filmjölk are very healthy and good for the stomach and digestion.

Swedish Food Summary

As with all the Scandanavian and Baltic cuisines, the innovation and resourcefulness of the people when it comes to food is humbling.

Pre-globalization, facing months of bleak, snowy winters, food was always far more than heritage and culture: it was a matter of survival.

In such circumstances, how so many fascinating and wholesome foods were prepared, fit to last for months, is truly mind-boggling.

Swedish food is packed with textures and fresh flavors. The fish from the lakes and the meat from the forests are so succulent and full of nutrients.

Then, you have a range of European influences, from French to Russian, that have made their way into the country's foods since the Ottoman era.

All of these factors come together to create a cuisine that's diverse, fresh, and truly delicious.

Whether you're traveling to Sweden or bringing Swedish cooking into your own cooking, be sure to try as many of these dishes as possible.

Before we leave Sweden, there's one final thing to do: take one final look at all the foods discovered in this article.

Be sure to keep this list of Swedish foods handy, so that you can find recipes or ask for them in Swedish bakeries and restaurants.

1. Köttbullar - Meatballs

2. Räkmacka - Shrimp Sandwich

3. Smulpaj - Crumble

4. Semla - Sweet Roll

5. Falukorv - Falu Sausage

6. Ärtsoppa & Pannkakor - Pea Soup & Pancakes

7. Sill - Pickled Herring

8. Smörgåstårta - Swedish Sandwich Cake

9. Blodpudding - Black Pudding

10. Pytt i Panna - Pyttipanna Swedish Hash

11. Kräftor - Crayfish

12. Surströmming - Sour Herring

13. Ostkaka - Cheesecake

14. Kladdkaka - Mud Cake

15. Frukost: Knäckebröd och Filmjölk - Breakfast: Crisp Bread and Filmjölk

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Contributor: Carolina Fridh is a communications consultant and creative writer, hailing from Goteborg. She writes on a number of Swedish topics, including culture and cuisine.
Images licensed via Shutterstock

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Swedish Food: 15 Most Popular Dishes to Try in Sweden - Nomad Paradise

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This post may contain affiliate links, meaning if you book or buy something through one of these links, we may earn an affiliate commission at no additional cost to you. Learn more No doubt you're probably familiar with Sweden's world-famous meatballs, but there's so much more to Swedish food than that.

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Tuscany is a wealth of historic treasures considered one-of-a-kind worldwide: the region is full of art cities and little picturesque villages with a huge cultural heritage, but is also extraordinary because of its fascinating landscape, with its bucolic countryside and rolling hills. Not to mention its amazing islands and coastal areas, its protected parks and, last but not least, its food, simple with authentic flavors, and its wines, ranked among the best in the world: to put it simply, there are really many reasons to visit Tuscany.

What shouldn't you miss when visiting Tuscany? To begin with, these 10 spots:

1. Florence: cradle of the Renaissance and the Italian language, a real outdoor museum full of invaluable works

2. Siena: one of Italy's most charming medieval cities, renowned all over the world for its historic "Palio"

3. Pisa: with its treasures of Romanesque and Gothic art, an unmissable stop-over for those who want to tour Tuscany's art cities

4. San Gimignano: with its tall towers and evocative alleys, a small jewel that preserves the medieval atmosphere intact

5. Val d'Orcia: large and characterized by winding slopes dotted with cypresses and vineyards, the ideal place where to immerse yourself into beauty

6. Chianti: among small villages and solitary abbeys, the hills of Chianti are an invitation to relax and enjoy good food and good wine

7. Maremma: a mix of wild countryside, thermal baths, beaches and relics of the Etruscan age, the Maremma area offers many interesting spots

8. Garfagnana: just before the Apuan Alps, set amongst medieval fortresses and characteristic villages, the greenest and purest area in Tuscany

9. Baratti Gulf: on the coastal area between Livorno and Grosseto, immersed in a pristine pine grove, and home to many beautiful beaches

10. Elba Island: with its amazing beaches and clear water, Elba, and the other islands of the Tuscan Archipelago, are a must-see spot for those who love the sea

A trip to Tuscany allows to see with your own eyes invaluable landmarks and attractions, like Florence's most symbolic places - Brunelleschi's Dome, Giotto's Campanile, Ponte Vecchio, Piazza della Signoria and Palazzo Vecchio -, the famous Leaning Tower, in Pisa, and the scenic Piazza del Campo, in downtown Siena, where the well-known Palio di Siena event is staged every year, attracting tourists from all over the world. A short distance from Siena, you can find some of the region's most characteristic locations, like the ancient village of Monteriggioni, on top of a hill, entirely surrounded by medieval walls and, in Chiusdino, the Abbey of San Galgano, an abandoned retreat that preserves a mysterious sword in the stone.

Tuscany offers endless entertainment options, to meet all tastes and needs: it caters for those seeking a relaxing holiday, but also for those who want to enjoy a stay devoted to sports and outdoor activities, or those looking for food & wine tours.

The area offers many activities set in natural surroundings: from the Apuan Alps to the Maremma Park, from Garfagnana to Casentino, it is possible to go trekking along many different trails for both experts and beginners. Those who love hiking can retrace the journey of the pilgrims on their way to Rome along the Via Francigena, with its fair share of monasteries, panoramic views and picturesque hamlets. If you want to experience something different, you can go along the geological trails of the Parco Archeo-Minerario di San Silvestro or follow the footprints of quarry workers on the Sentiero del Marmo (Marble Trail), in the Apuan Alps.

Those who love cycling will be spoilt for choice: here there are many itineraries suitable for racing bikes and mountain-bikes on roads with little traffic, twisting and turning in magnificent landscapes. Those seeking an out of the ordinary experience can opt for a hot air balloon flight above Val D'Orcia, discover Tuscany slowly, aboard old steam trains with tours in Mugello, Val D'Orcia and Garfagnana or take a tour on a Vespa motorbike or an exclusive Ferrari.

By the sea, there are plenty of opportunities for water sports: along the Tuscan coast it's possible to go sailing, diving or surfing; you can also enjoy rafting along the Arno and along the Serchia river, in the province of Lucca; those with a more adventurous spirit can launch themselves into exciting hydro-speed tours along the Lima river, on the Pistoia Apennines and in Bagni di Lucca, in Garfagnana. Tuscany is also a favorite destination for golfers: here, golfing enthusiasts can play on exciting golf courses in the countryside, close to Florence, Prato, Pisa and Montecatini, as well as along the coast, in Punta Ala, Maremma, Argentario and Versilia.

Those who favor relaxation and well-being can choose one of the many thermal resorts in Tuscany: like Saturnia, in the Maremma area, which hosts a well-known thermal park and the Cascate del Mulino, outdoor, naturally warm thermal waters flowing in a wonderful setting; Montecatini, a memorable holiday resort for thermal tourism, but also Rapolano, Sorano, Chianciano, San Casciano dei Bagni and the natural hot springs of Bagni San Filippo.

Tuscany is the perfect destination for all foodies and wine lovers: you can follow the food and wine itineraries of the many " Wine Routes ", which meander throughout in the region, from the hills surrounding Florence to the Chianti area, passing through the Etruscan Coast. Along the Wine Routes, you can stop in a local winery or agriturismo to taste the local food and wine. And in Tuscany, you can discover the local tasty cuisine and its traditional recipes by taking part in one of the cooking classes held throughout the region.

As for the calendar of events that take place throughout the year, don't miss the famous historical reenactment of the Palio di Siena (every year on 2 July and 16 August), the Carnival of Viareggio with its well-known papier-mâché floats, the Eroica, a non-competitive cycling event with vintage racing bicycles staged in Chianti on the first Sunday of October, the Explosion of the Cart, a folk tradition reenacted every year on Easter Sunday in Florence. Between October and November, the town of Lucca hosts Lucca Comics & Games, an international comic book and gaming convention; twice a year (in June and September) the Saracen Joust, an equestrian tournament of medieval origin, takes place in in Arezzo, while on every first weekend of the month Piazza Grande and the streets of the historic town host the Antique Fair of Arezzo, the oldest and biggest in Italy.

Tuscany boasts a strong culinary tradition featuring simple recipes and authentic flavors with many specialties that differ from one area to the next: in fact every corner of Tuscany is full of surprises when it comes to food!

Bistecca alla fiorentina (beefsteak Florentine style)

Tuscany offers a very large choice of first courses: pici (thick handmade spaghetti typical of southern Tuscany) are, of course, one of the favorites, to be savored with cacio cheese and pepper or all'aglione, with Aglione garlic from Val di Chiana, as well as pappardelle with wild boar sauce, a strong, tasty dish typical of the Maremma area. Instead ribollita, a savory soup made with stale bread, vegetables and legumes, is a typical dish from the area of Florence, and pappa al pomodoro is a humble dish prepared with stale Tuscan bread, tomatoes and herbs.

The range of second courses on offer is just as rich: a quintessential symbol of Tuscan cooking is the bistecca alla fiorentina (beefsteak Florentine style), an appetizing steak veal or heifer steak barbecued or grilled, if possibly of the Chianina bovine breed from Val di Chiana. Instead, peposo dell'Impruneta is another characteristically Florentine dish, a beef stew cooked for a long time with Chianti wine and seasoned with pepper. On the other hand, fish fans will appreciate cacciucco, a traditional dish from the coast between Livorno and Viareggio: this is a soup made with different varieties of fish, crustaceans and mollusks, prepared with tomato sauce and served over slices of toasted bread. Be careful not to be fooled by tonno del Chianti (Chianti tuna): notwithstanding its name, this is actually an ancient Tuscan recipe made with pork meat, aromatic herbs and olive oil (it may not be fish but it is just as delicious).

BY AIR

You can reach Tuscany by air using the airports of Florence and Pisa.

The region's main airport is Pisa International Airport, with connections to and from all major European cities. The airport is only a few kilometers away from the city center, which you can easily reach by taking the Pisa Mover, the shuttle that connects the airport to Pisa Centrale railway station. From Pisa Airport you can catch connections by bus to Florence (via Montecatini - Pistoia - Prato), and to Lucca and Viareggio/Pietrasanta with Vaibus.

Florence International Airport offers connections to and from many European cities. From here, you can reach downtown Florence in a few minutes using the T2 tramway line and by bus with Vola in Bus. The FlyBus service connects the airport to Prato, Montecatini Terme, and to Pisa Airport (via Prato-Pistoia-Montecatini).

TRAIN

Trenitalia and Italo Treno chigh-speed trains connect the Firenze-Santa Maria Novella railway station (Florence's main station) to Milan, Turin, Rome, Verona, Bologna, Naples, Venice, Salerno. From Florence, with Trenitalia direct regional trains, you can reach Pisa, Siena, Lucca, Arezzo, Livorno, Viareggio, Montecatini Terme. The company Trasporto Ferroviario Toscano operates rail connections in the province of Arezzo.

BUS

There are many bus companies operating across Tuscany. Most companies operates from the "Firenze Santa Maria Novella" railway station and the airports of Florence and Pisa:

BusItalia: operates the Vola in bus connections between Florence airport and the city center, as well as local public transport services in the Florence, Arezzo, Siena, Mugello, Valdisieve, Casentino and Valdarno areas.

ACV Bus: connects 20 districts of the province of Florence (Bagno a Ripoli, Barberino Val d'Elsa, Calenzano, Campi Bisenzio, Certaldo, Fiesole, Figline e Incisa Valdarno, Firenze, Greve in Chianti, Impruneta, Lastra a Signa, Montespertoli, Pelago, Pontassieve, Reggello, Rignano sull'Arno, S. Casciano Val di Pesa, Scandicci, Sesto Fiorentino, Tavarnelle Val di Pesa), Poggibonsi (in the province of Siena), and five districts in the province of Arezzo (Montevarchi, S. Giovanni Valdarno, Terranuova Bracciolini, Bucine, Pian di Scò).

FlyBus: operates connections between Florence Airport and Prato, Montecatini Terme and Pisa Airport (via Prato-Pistoia-Montecatini) and five districts in the province of Siena (Montevarchi, S. Giovanni Valdarno, Terranuova Bracciolini, Bucine, Pian di Scò).

AMV: operates connections in the Mugello and Valdisieve areas, serving Florence, Prato and Barberino del Mugello.

CAP: operates connections between Prato, Mugello, Siena and Chianti.

COPIT/BluBus: operates connections between Pistoia, Pescia and Collodi.

CPT Bus: operates connections between Pisa, Pontedera and Volterra.

Vai Bus: operates connections between Lucca and Versilia.

PiùBus: operates connections serving Empoli, Montespertoli, Fucecchio, Certaldo, Castelfiorentino, Montaione, Vinci, Cerreto Guidi

Tiemme: operates connections between Siena, San Gimignano, Grosseto, Arezzo

ATL: manages the transport system in Livorno, Rosignano, Cecina and on the Elba Island

Etruria: operates connections serving Arezzo, some districts of Casentino and Val di Chiana

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Tuscany is a wealth of historic treasures considered one-of-a-kind worldwide: the region is full of art cities and little picturesque villages with a huge cultural heritage, but is also extraordinary because of its fascinating landscape, with its bucolic countryside and rolling hills.

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Japan is a very different, very rapidly changing nation-especially in terms of its food. Even sushi in its original form used to be very different from what it is today.

Outside Influences of Japanese Cuisine

Put out of your minds several preconceived notions about what Japanese cuisine is. Don't think about a Japanese steakhouse at all-beef was really only introduced in the last two centuries or so. The Japanese are crazy about it today and you can buy that wonderfully expensive Kobe or wagyū where they feed the animals beer and give them daily massages to evenly distribute the fat, but that's really a modern and Western thing.

Even tempura: The word itself is Portuguese. It refers to the time or rather quatuor tempora or ember days, which was the fast when you couldn't eat meat so they ate fish, and the Portuguese typically would fry their fish in batter.

The Portuguese introduced it in the 16th century, and tempora remained even long after they were kicked out, along with a whole slew of other foods introduced by the Portuguese: kasutera, which is a Castilla, a kind of yellow sponge cake from Spain (Castile); or konpeito, which are confections (candies); karumera, or caramels.

This is a transcript from the video series A Cultural Culinary History. Watch it now, on The Great Courses Plus.

Even soy sauce was only introduced in the last century or so. It is a Chinese invention that the Japanese seem to have perfected-as they do many things nowadays-but it is one example of the many things that came over in the past few hundred years.

Sapporo's a great beer, but it is influenced by German people. And influences go both ways. You may be surprised to learn the Japanese are now the nation on earth with the highest per capita consumption of mayonnaise. Japan's culture is a very different, very rapidly changing place today, especially in terms of food.

Traditional Japan, during the era of the Shoguns; the Edo Period, from 1603-1867. But first, some background so you don't get the impression that Japan was always so isolated.

Many of Japan's cultural and even culinary traditions came from China and from Korea especially. The most important of these is rice, which only arrived in Japan at the end of the Neolithic Period, about 2,400 years ago, with immigrants that came from the mainland.

Before that, in the Jomon Era, the Japanese were still hunters and gatherers. The original inhabitants (Ainu) were Caucasian; they had long beards and very light-colored hair. Their descendants actually still exist in very small numbers, and probably most of them are of mixed descent, but some Ainu still live in the mountains and they're said to eat bears.

Asiatic peoples came later from the continent and they brought with them rice and metal tools; and then suddenly, like everywhere else, the population rose.

Learn more about the transition to agriculture

Rice and Noodles in Japanese Cuisine

The variety of rice introduced was short-grained, sticky, and it is relatively sweet. To this day, the Japanese don't really eat long-grain rice. Much of their cuisine is based on the tactile quality of the rice that they use and the fact that it sticks together-you can pick it up with a chopstick.

The respect and reverence afforded to rice is so great that it is not flavored or seasoned with spices or sauces, it is always white and boiled. Other foods may be added on top of rice, but the rice should be pure and bland to start with. This is a kind of respect for the natural flavor and aroma that the rice has on its own, as nature made it.

Pounding mochi

The only traditional preparation that really alters the rice dramatically is Mochi, little rice cakes that are made by pounding steamed glutinous rice with these huge hammers. The idea here is you're concentrating the pure spirit of the rice and actually making it purer, it is an intensification, and Mochi is one of those things that you consume on New Year's, it is a very important festival.

Much the same can be said about sake. Even though it is thought of as a corruption of rice, it is considered raising to a finer and more spiritual level. Sake plays a very important role in religious festivals: It is the food of the gods in the Shinto religion-it is essential in the coronation of the emperor.

Rice is, indisputably, the central staple, even made into noodles which is another technology introduced from China in the 8th century. Later noodles made from flour were introduced (the udon-popular in Western Japan), and then buckwheat (soba) was introduced in the 14th and 15th century. They were especially popular in the 17th century, the Edo Period in Eastern Japan (or now Tokyo). Ramen are of course a much more recent invention (proper, fresh ramen noodles, not the instant noodles you may be familiar with). Starch was usually rice or noodles, which form the substructure of Japanese cuisine.

Learn more about the traditions of vegetarianism in Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism

Fish Dishes in Japan

What else was eaten? This entire cuisine was based on fish. Only strict Buddhist monks avoided fish. Here, the topography works perfectly to their advantage.

Bowl of sushi painted by Ichiyusai Hiroshige

Japan's surrounded by water; you're never very far from the sea. The ideal became fish as fresh as could possibly be found-unlike Europe where most of the fish was salted, pickled, or preserved in some way.

In Europe, only the very wealthy could afford fresh fish. In Japan, even far from the coast, people wanted fresh fish, no matter if it had to be freshwater fish. The simpler the better; there's a saying:

"Eat it raw first, then grill it, and boil it as a last resort." The idea is you don't want to ruin the flavor of the fish. The raw fish, of course, was cut in thin slices ( namasu); that's always been eaten in Japan.

The practice of dipping what we now call sashimi in soy sauce with wasabi is really only a 17th-century invention; and the act serves to mask the pure flavors of the fish, especially if you're talking about something very delicate.

Sushi, in its original form, started as a way to preserve the fish for several years. Click To Tweet

Sushi, in its original form Nare-Zushi, was very different from what it is today. It started out as actually a way to preserve the fish for several years.

A bite-sized piece, or sometimes what looks like a little goldfish, was salted and then rolled in rice flavored with vinegar, and then it is left to cure.After it is preserved, the soured bacterially-attacked decomposed rice was wiped off and then the fish was preserved and you could eat it.

Learn more about how the Italian Renaissance brought a new aesthetic approach to cookery

In the 15th century, there a developed a much quicker way to ferment the fish, and then you could actually eat the rice, too; and after that, unfermented sushi with raw fish came in the Edo Period.

In the 18th century, you started getting people competing with these very interesting, novel ways of doing things. You started getting hand-rolled Nigiri sushi and it is basically served at a kind of restaurant as a kind of fast food.

Staples of Japanese Cuisine

There are also a slew of vegetables: Daikon radish is probably the one most familiar to you, cut into impossibly thin sticks. If you've seen someone do this, it is absolutely amazing.

The Daikon is sliced with a long knife and as it is sliced, it is turned, and so you get this long, thin ribbon cut from the root with this very narrow blade, and then that's sliced and cut into tiny little sticks. Daikon can also be pickled yellow.

Pickling is really popular in traditional Japanese cooking, but it is usually very simple salt fermentation; it is not vinegar cured with dill and garlic like we'd do a cucumber pickle. The pickles come at the end of a Japanese meal, and they contrast with the blander flavor of rice.

Start with mild flavors and you build up to stronger ones. The practice in Japanese restaurants in the U.S. is to start with miso soup because Americans want to drink soup at the beginning. That really makes no sense in Japanese cuisine; in Japan, soup always comes at the end because it has a very, very strong flavor.

Our practice of starting with sour pickles as an appetizer also makes little sense. Other important vegetables are gourds, dried and cut into long strips; mushrooms, like the shiitake (a unique Japanese cultivar) and matsutake.

Learn more about the traditional Japanese reverence for nature as reflected in their respect for the natural flavors

Soybeans are also clearly central. They're eaten boiled and cold as edamame. They're made into tofu, which was introduced from China from about the 11th century and, for Buddhist monks, serve as a wonderful source of protein.

Soy's also made into miso paste, which is a fermented, storable seasoning for boiled dishes, for soup, and it is really kind of a universal flavoring also. It is made by boiling and mashing the beans and then introducing a fungus that grows on rice grains (it is Aspergillus oryzae, called koji in Japanese) and salt, and you just leave it and let it mature for about a year or so.

There are dozens of different types, some of them really, really expensive, some only made by some local craftsmen in one locality. The Japanese appreciate the subtle differences in miso-between yellow and white miso, and red miso-sort of the way Europeans obsess over wine.

Some Miso are considered very bland and good for children, and then there are these really dark, pungent, salty ones. The Japanese have been making miso since the 8th century.

The Japanese have a theory of five basic flavors: salty, sour, sweet, bitter, AND umami. Click To Tweet

Of course, there's also shoyu (as we call it, soy sauce). That's a relative newcomer; it began to be made on a commercial level in the 16th century. Obviously, today it is the most important seasoning; it goes into about 70 percent of all Japanese dishes. Along with that, there's mirin-a sweetened kind of sake, and then all sorts of sauces made with soy, vinegar, citrus (like ponzu).

The Japanese have a theory of five basic flavors: There's not just salty, sour, sweet, and bitter, but there's another one called umami that might be translated as "meaty" or "savory" or "mushroom flavor." Glutamates is what causes it; but you find it in a whole range of foods, especially soy sauce.

Common Questions About Japanese Cuisine

Q: What are some traditional Japanese foods?

The Japanese love sushi and sashimi, of course. Ramen is hugely traditional and popular, as well as miso soup.

Q: Do the Japanese leave food on the plate as a sign of hunger like the Chinese?

No. In Japan it is largely considered rude to the chef or host to leave food behind on the plate.

Q: Does Japan have a national dish?

Two dishes are considered the national foods of Japan: sushi and rice with curry.

Q: What is a traditional Japanese breakfast?

A traditional Japanese breakfast always consists of rice and miso soup. Generally there will be some type of protein and perhaps a few side dishes.

This article was updated on 9/6/2019

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The Story of Japanese Cuisine - Learn About Japanese Food and Cooking

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Put out of your minds several preconceived notions about what Japanese cuisine is. Don't think about a Japanese steakhouse at all-beef was really only introduced in the last two centuries or so.

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Section

The samurai were an elite military class of soldiers and officials. They were retained by feudal lords called daimyo from whose ranks rose many of the leaders, known as Shoguns, who effectively ruled Japan between 1192 and 1868.

Made from

Metal, papier-mache, lacquer, gold, silk

Museum reference
A.1905.184

Did you know?

The Japanese word samurai means 'one who serves'.

The way of the warrior

Samurai means 'one who serves', and members of the samurai caste followed a strict code of conduct known as bushido, or 'the way of the warrior'.

Wearing the correct armour and carrying the right weapons were vital aspects of being a samurai.

This splendid suit of armour dates from the early 19th century. By this time, Japan was a relatively peaceful country and armour was worn more for show than for practical reasons.

Made from black-lacquered iron plates tied together, the armour was flexible, allowing its wearer to move freely. The armoured skirt, called a kusazuri, shields the thighs, while the arm coverings combine protective chain mail with fine blue silk. The helmet, or kabuto, with its bristling moustache, was designed to strike fear into the enemy.

The samurai warrior typically carried two swords. Different styles were popular at different times, but during the Edo period (1600-1868) the long katana sword and shorter companion sword known as a wakizashi were most commonly worn. For formal ceremonial occasions, these were replaced with a slung sword or tachi and a dagger.

When the Emperor regained power in the Meiji Restoration of 1868, he began to issue laws to reduce the power and status of the samurai class. Samurai were no longer permitted to carry swords in public and a national army was established which conscripted men from across society.

A fascinating treasure

In this short film, students Alex, Gavin, Daniel and the pupils of Hermitage Park School tell us why they like this spectacular suit of Japanese armour. They think it looks like Darth Vader - do you?

More like this

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Section The samurai were an elite military class of soldiers and officials. They were retained by feudal lords called daimyo from whose ranks rose many of the leaders, known as Shoguns, who effectively ruled Japan between 1192 and 1868. Made from Metal, papier-mache, lacquer, gold, silk Museum reference A.1905.184 Did you know?

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Fortunately for Spanish-speaking English language learners (ELLs), there are many similarities between English and Spanish.

First of all, both languages use the Roman alphabet. That knowledge helps build a phonemic and phonological foundation.

Secondly, 30% to 40% of all words in English have a related word in Spanish. With similar sound, appearance, and meaning, these cognates help students transfer that word knowledge into their second language.

Thirdly, except for a couple of word order exceptions (adjective before noun in English and noun before adjective in Spanish), sentences in both languages have the same basic structures (as compared to English and Chinese or other non-Latin derived languages).

And fourth, learning to read and write uses the same basic processes (phonemic awareness, decoding, fluency, comprehension, writing mechanics).

When teachers and students know these basic similarities between the two languages, it saves time and guess work as students transfer their knowledge of Spanish literacy into English literacy.

Phonemic and phonological differences between Spanish and English

There are also some differences between the two languages that may interfere with English pronunciation (phonemic differences) and with decoding or spelling (phonological differences).

Perhaps the greatest difference between English and Spanish is that Spanish has only five vowel sounds while English has more than 14, depending on regional dialects. This is the reason Spanish speakers have difficulty differentiating between vowel phonemes in words like seat and sit. Both phonemes are pronounced differently from the Spanish sí ( yes), which is pronounced somewhere between those two English phonemes. These differences also affect students' spelling. Here are some other examples of possible interference from Spanish:

Here are a few differences between Spanish and English:

Combinations in Spanish that are pronounced differently: que, qui, güe, güi. For example: the u is not pronounced unless it is written as ü; therefore, students may not be sure how to pronounce words like queen, quiet, or quick

Quotation marks vs. dashes: "Come here," he said. -Ven aquí-le dijo.

Spanish does not have the following sounds (listed by category):

Strategies for Spanish-speaking ELLs

Point out differences when you introduce phonemic awareness activities (distinguishing sounds) by showing students how to make those sounds.

Say to students, for example:

To make the sound for /sh/ in ship, pronounce it like the Spanish /sh/ by letting air out between your teeth. Notice how you can stretch the /sh/ sound until you run out of air. But, to make the sound /ch/ in chip, you touch the top of your mouth with your tongue and let the air out with a little explosion. Notice how you cannot stretch that sound.

Spanish speakers have difficulty distinguishing the ways to pronounce the final -s in plurals and third person.

Give students examples for each as follows:

Spanish speakers have difficulty distinguishing the ways to pronounce the -ed in past-tense verbs.

Give students examples for each as follows:

"We pronounce it /d/ when the word ends with..."

"We pronounce it /t/ when the word ends with..."

"When the word ends with t, it sounds like /tid/ as in patted."

"When the word ends with d, it sounds like /did/ as in added."

Spanish speakers may leave out word endings when saying or spelling a word.

For example: restauran instead of restaurant; end instead of ended. They may also have problems spelling words that contain the consonant blends, initial sounds, and final sounds listed in the box above.

Additionally, students might substitute:

ll for y (because ll is the nearest sound in Spanish. For example: llelow instead of yellow.)

j for h (because h is silent in Spanish, they might use j. For example: jope instead of hope.)

There are also some differences in question and sentence structures between both languages.

Question markers

Do you want to go to the movies tonight?
¿Quieres ir al cine esta noche?
(Spanish speakers will likely leave out do)

Adjective-Nouns

white horse
caballo blanco (horse white)
(Spanish speakers will often use the adjective after the noun)

With these similarities and differences in mind, pay close attention to your Spanish-speaking ELLs' written and spoken "errors." When you recognize a student saying horse white, for example, point out that in English the noun and adjective are reversed: white horse, brown cow, etc. Once ELLs understand these patterns, they will begin to apply them on their own to new situations.

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Capitalizing on Similarities and Differences between Spanish and English

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Fortunately for Spanish-speaking English language learners (ELLs), there are many similarities between English and Spanish. First of all, both languages use the Roman alphabet. That knowledge helps build a phonemic and phonological foundation. Secondly, 30% to 40% of all words in English have a related word in Spanish.

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Mariachi and it's Roots

The roots of the Mariachi go back hundreds of years. It was the music of country people; music that celebrated the joys, the struggles, and the triumphs of the Mexican people. The Mariachi was a version of Spanish theatrical orchestra containing violins, guitars, and a harp. Groups were small and not generally known outside of the region from which they came.

The musical form and ensemble of the Mariachi developed differently from region to region. The ensemble that is familiar today began to take shape in the the nineteenth century in the state of Jalisco. In other areas such as Veracruz and Huasteca, the northeast region of the country, the ensemble evolved differently. By the end of the nineteenth century, the cocula or the vihuela, two violins, and the guitarron were the instruments of the Mariachi.

By the 1950's the Mariachi ensemble was becoming more flexible and orchestral without losing it's traditional base. The classical guitar, two trumpets and more violins were added to make the ensemble more adaptable and able to play different styles other than the son (a type of traditional folk song that is an essential element to the mariachi repetoire).

The Mariachi at Special Occasions

The Mariachi has continued to be a huge part in the celebration of the moments of the lives of the Mexican people. In a society where young people of the opposite sex are kept separated, the serenata is a means of communication from a young man to a woman that he is courting. The serenata is a musical message of love delivered by the Mariachi on his behalf.

It is common to be woken up with the sounds of Las Mananitas in the early morning. This is a traditional song used to celebrate saint's days and birthdays. Mariachis are commonly one form of entertainment at baptisms, weddings, holidays, and funerals.

Mariachi music has been incorporated into the Roman Catholic Church as the music to accompany the ceremony. La Misa Panamericana is a Mariachi folk Mass that uses the Mariachi ensemble to create the group's interpretation of traditional Mass music.

The Mariachi continues to be a common and essential source of entertainment in Mexico and now more and more in the Southwest region of the United States.

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Mariachi and it's Roots The roots of the Mariachi go back hundreds of years. It was the music of country people; music that celebrated the joys, the struggles, and the triumphs of the Mexican people. The Mariachi was a version of Spanish theatrical orchestra containing violins, guitars, and a harp.

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Hakka cuisine is created by Hakka people, which is a group of immigrated Han people. The cuisine is mainly popular in Hakka's concentrated areas, including China's southeastern mountainous areas like Guangdong, Jiangxi, Guangxi, and Fujian as well as Southeast Asian and south Asian countries like India, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam. The main flavors are salty, original and thick and the main ingredients are meat. The famous dishes are Hakka Stuffed Tofu (Yong Tau Foo), Salt Baked Chicken, Steamed Pork Belly with Preserved Greens, Poon Choi.

Chinese Name: 客家菜
English Names: Hakka cuisine
Popular in: Guangdong, Jiangxi, Fujian, Guangxi, Taiwan, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam...
Time of Origin: Song Dynasty (960 - 1279 AD)
Flavors: original, salty, thick
Famous Hakka Dishes: Stuffed Tofu, Dongjiang Salt Baked Chicken Steamed Pork Belly with Preserved Greens, Poon Choi...
Famous Snacks: Ground Tea, Sesame Seed Ball, Hakka Ciba...

Origin & Development of Hakka Cuisine

Hakka means "guests and newcomers", which indicates the immigration of Hakka people. Historically, Hakka experienced five major migrations from south to north to escape the natural disasters and wars. Although they were far from turmoil and war, they faced a new living environment. In order to survive, they draw on the long-term dietary experience of local residents to adapt to the local climate and geographical environment, made full use of all edible animal and plant resources in the mountains, and gradually form their own new diet habit and cooking techniques. By the end of the Song Dynasty, Hakka dishes began to take shape. During the Ming (1368 - 1644 AD) and Qing Dynasties (1644 - 1911 AD), Hakka cuisine gradually developed into a more mature cooking system.

Features of Hakka Cuisine: Original, Salty, and Thick

In order to keep physical strength on their way to the South, Hakka people often cooked dishes with high calories and high protein content which are heavily flavored and salty but with the original taste of the ingredients.

Since they always live in mountains, domestic livestock, wild animals and wild vegetables and fruits in mountains are their main food materials, while seafood is seldom used.

Compared with other cuisines like Jiangsu cuisine, Hakka food doesn't look that exquisite for that many dishes were created on their way to escape from war and their life were hard as newcomers in the south. Compared with the appearance, Hakka people cares more about the "content".

Special Cooking Techniques

"Niang": Niang means stuffing in English. Hakka people like stuffing the fillings made of pork and other vegetables into other food materials. There are many stuffed dishes in Hakka cuisine such as stuffed bitter gourd, stuffed tofu and so on.

"Ban": Ban, literally mixing with rice, is a cooking method of Hakka staple food. Hakka people also call this staple food made this way as Ban. The rice powder, glutinous rice powder or tapioca flour all can be cooked into Ban food with other seasonal vegetables. There are over 200 kinds ban food in Hakka cuisine, and the common Bans are wormwood ban, fried Chinese bulbous onion ban, stuffed ban, Mesona chinensis Benth ban, etc.

"Dry": On Hakka people's way to the south, the meat and vegetable they took would easily got rotted, so they exposed them under sunlight and dry them to preserve. Eight dry foods in Hakka cuisine are famous: dry bean curd, dry carrot, dry sweet potato, dry vegetables, dry pig gall, dry field mouse, dry meat and dry bamboo shoots.

Other common methods are stewing, roasting, braising which hardly destroy the nutrition and fiber of food. In addition, there are many old and traditional cooking techniques in today's Hakka recipes. For example, the cooking method of Ground Tea can be traced back to more than 2,000 years ago.

Notable Dishes in Sichuan Cuisine

Read more about: Top 10 Hakka Foods You Have to Try

Hakka Cuisine Menu

English

Chinese

Pinyin

Best Hakka Cuisine Restaurants in China

Liao Kunyu Hakka Restaurant
Chinese name: 客家人廖昆玉 kè jiā rén liào kūn yù
Address: Longkou West Road No. 138, Tianhe District, Guangzhou

Weilong House Hakka Restaurant
Chinese name: 围龙屋客家食府 wéi lóng wū kè jiā shí fǔ
Address: No.129, Baomin Second Road, Baoan District, Shenzhen

Lu Dao Xin Quan Hakka Restaurant
Chinese name: 鹭岛新泉客家菜 lù dǎo xīnquán kèjiā cài
Address: No.163, Lianqian West Road, Xiamen

Yi He Yuan Hakka Restaurant
Chinese name: 夷和源客家菜 yí hé yuán kè iā cài
Address: No.66, Yincheng Road, Pudong New Area, Shanghai

Hakka Restaurant
Chinese name: 客家菜馆 kè jiā cài guǎn
Address: No.103 -1, Nanheyan Street, Dongcheng District, Beijing

Further Reading:
Hakka Museum of China
Earthen Buildings of Hakkas
Fujian Tulou

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Hakka Cuisine - Cooking Style of Hakka People in Asia

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Hakka cuisine is created by Hakka people, which is a group of immigrated Han people. The cuisine is mainly popular in Hakka's concentrated areas, including China's southeastern mountainous areas like Guangdong, Jiangxi, Guangxi, and Fujian as well as Southeast Asian and south Asian countries like India, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam.

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Mexico City is founded on the ruins of Tenochtitlan. If you could go back in time, what would you see?

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Canadian History Primary Sources, Databases & Resources | Gale

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Canadian History Primary Sources, Databases & Resources | Gale

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Gale helps libraries connect to researchers who are in search of credible, timely content. Our wide range of online databases offers faculty, researchers, students, and adult learners open access to scholarly, peer-reviewed content they would not otherwise have access to. From full-text journal articles and newspapers to archives and eBooks, there is a resource to meet every need.

Explore student favorites like the Gale In Context resources, discover newly designed databases like Gale Presents: Peterson's Career Prep, or find out more about database bundles like the Gale Access Program.

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Gale's academic databases provide access to scholarly journals and articles, as well as primary sources. Click to explore our research and education databases.

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1861-1896

José Rizal, son of a Filipino father and a Chinese mother, came from a wealthy family. Despite his family's wealth, they suffered discrimination because neither parent was born in the peninsula. Rizal studied at the Ateneo, a private high school, and then to the University of St. Thomas in Manila. He did his post graduate work at the University of Madrid in 1882. For the next five years, he wandered through Europe discussing politics wherever he went. In 1886, he studied medicine at the University of Heidelberg and wrote his classic novel Noli me Tangere, which condemned the Catholic Church in the Philippines for its promotion of Spanish colonialism. Immediately upon its publication, he became a target for the police who even shadowed him when he returned to the Philippines in 1887. He left his country shortly thereafter to return to Spain where he wrote a second novel, El Filibusterismo (1891), and many articles in his support of Filipino nationalism and his crusade to include representatives from his homeland in the Spanish Cortes.

He returned to Manila in 1892 and created the Liga Filipina, a political group that called for peace change for the islands. Nevertheless, Spanish officials were displeased and exiled Rizal to the island of Mindanao. During his four years there, he practiced medicine, taught students, and collected local examples of flora and fauna while recording his discoveries. Even though he lost touched with others who were working for Filipino independence, he quickly denounced the movement when it became violent and revolutionary. After Andrés Bonifacio issued the Grito de Balintawak in 1896, Rizal was arrested, convicted of sedition, and executed by firing squad on December 30, 1896.

Following the revolution, Rizal was made a saint by many religious cults while the United States authorities seized on his non-violent stance and emphasized his views on Filipino nationalism rather than those of the more action-oriented Emilio Aguinaldo and Andrés Bonifacio.
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World of 1898 Home | Introduction | Chronology | Index | Bibliography | Literature | Maps | American Memory

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José Rizal, son of a Filipino father and a Chinese mother, came from a wealthy family. Despite his family's wealth, they suffered discrimination because neither parent was born in the peninsula. Rizal studied at the Ateneo, a private high school, and then to the University of St. Thomas in Manila.

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Canada | History, Population, Immigration, Capital, & Currency

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Canada | History, Population, Immigration, Capital, & Currency

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Canada | History, Population, Immigration, Capital, & Currency

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Canada, the second largest country in the world in area, occupying roughly the northern two-fifths of the continent of North America. Despite Canada’s great size, it is one of the world’s most sparsely populated countries. It has crafted what many consider to be a model multicultural society.

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Research Guides: Primary Documents for History: African American History

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History of Jamaica

The history of Jamaica is a rich and vibrant one, which inspires us to move forward as a nation. Our history speaks to experiences of hardships and prosperity; and the growth and determination of a people. Jamaica's history has been poetically composed by Howard Pyle, who states:

Jamaica, like many another of the West Indian Islands, is like a woman with a history. She has had her experiences and has lived her life rapidly. She has enjoyed a fever of prosperity founded upon those incalculable treasures poured into her lap by the old time buccaneer pirates. She has suffered earthquake, famine, pestilence, fire and death: and she has been the home of cruel merciless slavery, hardly second to that practised by the Spaniards themselves. Other countries have taken centuries to grow from their primitive life through the flower and fruit of prosperity into the seed time of picturesque decrepitude. Jamaica has lived through it all in a few years.

- Howard Pyle, "Jamaica New and Old" in Harper's New Monthly Magazine, January 1890

Original Inhabitants

The original inhabitants of Jamaica are believed to be the Arawaks, also called Tainos. They came from South America 2,500 years ago and named the island Xaymaca, which meant ""land of wood and water". The Arawaks were a mild and simple people by nature. Physically, they were light brown in colour, short and well-shaped with coarse, black hair. Their faces were broad and their noses flat.

They grew cassava, sweet potatoes, maize (corn), fruits, vegetables, cotton and tobacco. Tobacco was grown on a large scale as smoking was their most popular pastime.
They built their villages all over the island but most of them settled on the coasts and near rivers as they fished to get food. Fish was also a major part of their diet.

The Arawaks led quiet and peaceful lives until they were destroyed by the Spaniards some years after Christopher Columbus discovered the island in 1494.

The Discovery of Jamaica

On May 5, 1494 Christopher Columbus, the European explorer, who sailed west to get to the East Indies and came upon the region now called the West Indies, landed in Jamaica. This occurred on his second voyage to the West Indies. Columbus had heard about Jamaica, then called Xaymaca, from the Cubans who described it as "the land of blessed gold". Columbus was soon to find out that there was no gold in Jamaica.

On arrival at St Ann's Bay, Columbus found the Arawak Indians inhabiting the island. Initially, Columbus thought these Indians were hostile, as they attacked his men when they tried to land on the island. As he was determined to annex the island in the name of the king and queen of Spain, he was not deterred. Columbus also needed wood and water and a chance to repair his vessels. He sailed down the coast and docked at Discovery Bay. The Arawaks there were also hostile to the Spaniards. Their attitudes changed however, when they were attacked by a dog from one of the Spanish ships and Columbus' cross-bow men. Some of the Arawaks were killed and wounded in this attack. Columbus was then able to land and claim the island.

The Spaniards, when they came, tortured and killed the Arawaks to get their land. They were so overworked and ill-treated that within a short time they had all died. The process was aided by the introduction of European diseases to which the Arawaks had little or no resistance.

The island remained poor under Spanish rule as few Spaniards settled here. Jamaica served mainly as a supply base: food, men, arms and horse were shipped here to help in conquering the American mainland.

Fifteen years later in 1509, after their first visit to the island, the first Spanish colonists came here under the Spanish governor Juan de Esquivel. They first settled in the St. Ann's Bay area. The first town was called New Seville or Sevilla la Nueva.

Towns were little more than settlements. The only town that was developed was Spanish Town, the old capital of Jamaica, then called St. Jago de la Vega. It was the centre of government and trade and had many churches and convents.

The little attention the colony received from Spain soon led to a major reason for internal strife. This contributed to the weakening of the colony in the last years of Spanish occupation. The governors were not getting proper support from home and quarrels with church authorities undermined their control. Frequent attacks by pirates also contributed to the colony's woes.

The English Attack

On May 10, 1655, Admiral William Penn and General Robert Venables led a successful attack on Jamaica. The Spaniards surrendered to the English, freed their slaves and then fled to Cuba. It was this set of freed slaves and their descendants who became known as the Maroons.

The early period of English settlement in Jamaica, drew much attention to the buccaneers based at Port Royal. Buccaneering had begun on the islands of Tortuga and Hispaniola. They were a wild, rough and ruthless set of sea rovers. They took their loot of gold, silver and jewels to Port Royal.

Port Royal prior to this time was an insignificant town in Jamaica. Under the buccaneers' leadership the town, within a decade and a half, grew to become known as one of the "wealthiest and wickedest city in the world".

The greatest buccaneer captain of all was Henry Morgan. He started out as a pirate and later became a privateer. Morgan mercilessly raided Spanish fleet and colonies. He kept the Spaniards busy defending their coasts that they had little time to attack Jamaica. Morgan was knighted by king Charles II of England and was appointed Lieutenant governor of Jamaica in 1673. Morgan died in 1688.

A violent earthquake destroyed Port Royal on June 7, 1692. The survivors of the earthquake who re-settled in Kingston abandoned the Port. Port Royal became an important naval base in the eighteenth century.

The Slave Trade

The English settlers concerned themselves with growing crops that could easily be sold in England. Tobacco, indigo and cocoa soon gave way to sugar which became the main crop for the island.
The sugar industry grew so rapidly that the 57 sugar estates in the island in 1673 grew to nearly 430 by 1739.

Enslaved Africans filled the large labour force required for the industry. The colonists were impressed with the performance and endurance of the Africans, as well as the fact that African labour was cheaper and more promising. They continued to ship Africans to the West Indies to be sold to planters who forced them to work on sugar plantations.

The slave trade became a popular and profitable venture for the colonists. In fact the transportation of slaves became such a regular affair that the journey from Africa to the West Indies became known as the 'Middle Passage'. The voyage was so named because the journey of a British slaver was 3-sided, starting from England with trade goods, to Africa where these were exchanged for slaves. Afterwards, the journey continued to the West Indies where the slaves were landed and sugar, rum and molasses taken aboard for the final leg of the journey back to England.

The slaves, however, were unhappy with their status, so they rebelled whenever they could. Many of them were successful in running away from the plantations and joining the Maroons in the almost inaccessible mountains.

Several slave rebellions stand out in Jamaica's history for example, the Easter Rebellion of 1760 led by Tacky; and the Christmas Rebellion of 1831 which began on the Kensington Estate in St. James, led by Sam Sharpe. He has since been named a National Hero.

The Maroons also had several wars against the English. In 1739 and 1740 after two major Maroon Wars, treaties were signed with the British. In the treaty of 1740, they were given land and rights as free men. In return they were to stop fighting and help to recapture run-away slaves. This treaty resulted in a rift among the Maroons as they did not all agree that they should return run-away slaves to the plantations.

The frequent slave rebellions in the Caribbean was one factor that led to the abolition of the slave trade and slavery. Other factors included the work of humanitarians who were concerned about the slaves' well-being. Humanitarian groups such as the Quakers publicly protested against slavery and the slave trade. They formed an anti slavery committee which was joined by supporters such as Granville Sharp, James Ramsay, Thomas Clarkson and later on, William Wilberforce.

On January 1, 1808 the Abolition Bill was passed. Trading in African slaves was declared to be "utterly abolished, prohibited and declared to be unlawful". Emancipation and apprenticeship came into effect in 1834 and full freedom was granted in 1838.

The immediate post slavery days were very difficult for the poorer classes. Though most of the English planters had left the islands and new owners were running the plantations, the old oligarchic system still remained. The will of the masses was not deemed important and hence ignored. To add fuel to the already burning flame, the American Civil War resulted in supplies being cut off from the island. A severe drought was also in progress and most crops were ruined.

In October 1865, an uprising in St. Thomas, called the Morant Bay Rebellion, was led by Paul Bogle. Bogle and his men stormed the Morant Bay Courthouse while it was in session. A number of white people was killed including the custos of the parish. The rebellion was put down by the Governor, Edward John Eyre. More than 430 people were executed or shot, hundreds more flogged and 1,000 dwellings destroyed.

Paul Bogle and George William Gordon, now National Heroes, were hanged. George Gordon was a prominent coloured legislator who was sympathetic to the problems of the poor people and was blamed for the trouble caused by the masses.

Eyre was subsequently recalled to England but not before exchanging the ancient Constitution for the Crown Colony system. The succeeding years saw the island's recovery and development - social, constitutional and economic, and its evolution into a sovereign state.

Education, health, and social services were greatly improved. A proper island-wide savings back system was organised. Roads, bridges and railways (railways became government owned in 1845) were built and cable communication with Europe established (1859). The island's capital was moved from Spanish Town to Kingston (1872).

The 1930s saw Jamaica heading towards another crisis. The contributing factors were discontent at the slow pace of political advance. For example, the distress caused by a world-wide economic depression, the ruin of the banana industry by the Panama industry Disease, falling sugar prices, growing unemployment aggravated by the curtailment of migration opportunities and a steeply rising population growth rate. In 1938 things came to a head with widespread violence and rioting.

Out of these disturbances came the formation of the first labour unions and the formation of the two major political parties.
These were the Bustamante industrial Trade Union (BITU) named after the founder, Sir Alexander Bustamante. He was also the founder and leader of the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP), the political party affiliated with the BITU. Norman Manley was the founder of the National Workers' union and the political party the People's National Party (PNP).

Both Sir Alexander Bustamante and Norman Manley were instrumental in Jamaica's move towards self-government. The first general elections under Universal Adult Suffrage was held in December 1944.

In 1958, Jamaica and ten (10) other Caribbean countries formed the Federation of the West Indies. The concept of Caribbean unity was soon abandoned in 1961 when Jamaicans voted against the Federation of the West Indies.

On August 6, 1962, Jamaica was granted its independence from England. Jamaica now has its own constitution which sets out the laws by which the people are governed. The constitution provides for the freedom, equality and justice for all who dwell in the country.

The Jamaican Constitution

The Jamaican Constitution 1962 is the most fundamental legal document in the country, guaranteeing the freedom, rights and privileges of every Jamaican citizen. The Constitution reflects the country's independence as a nation state and, to this day, remains the cornerstone of the island's legal systems and institutions.

The Constitution took effect on August 6,1962 when Jamaica gained political independence from Britain, after more than 300 years of British colonial rule. While being the first constitution for the politically independent nation, it was not the first legal framework for the island...
Download The Architects of the Jamaican Constitution

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History of Jamaica The history of Jamaica is a rich and vibrant one, which inspires us to move forward as a nation. Our history speaks to experiences of hardships and prosperity; and the growth and determination of a people.

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Mexico | History, Geography, Facts, & Points of Interest

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Mexico | History, Geography, Facts, & Points of Interest

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Mexico | History, Map, Flag, Population, & Facts

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Mexico, country of southern North America and the third largest country in Latin America. It is one of the chief economic and political forces in Latin America, with a dynamic industrial base, vast mineral resources, a wide-ranging service sector, and the world’s largest population of Spanish speakers.

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Mario Draghi, (born September 3, 1947, Rome, Italy), Italian economist who served from 2011 to 2019 as president of the European Central Bank (ECB), the financial institution responsible for making monetary decisions within the eurozone, that portion of the European Union whose members have adopted the European common currency. Draghi's appointment came at a critical time, when stability within the eurozone was being challenged by the European sovereign debt crisis. In February 2021 he became prime minister of Italy at the head of a technocratic government.

Draghi was raised in Rome, where his father worked for the Bank of Italy (Italy's central bank). After receiving a Jesuit secondary education and then graduating from the University of Rome, he studied economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the United States under Franco Modigliani, who later won the Nobel Prize for Economics, and Stanley Fischer, future head of the central bank of Israel. He received a Ph.D. from MIT in 1976, the first Italian to earn a doctorate at that institution. During the 1980s he taught economics at the University of Florence and worked for the World Bank in Washington, D.C.

From 1991 to 2001 Draghi was director general of the Italian treasury. In that position, and as chairman of a national committee for privatization, he played a central role in reducing Italy's public debt and annual budget deficits and in stabilizing interest rates and currency exchange rates. Those actions succeeded in allowing Italy to qualify for participation in the European monetary union of 1999.

Draghi's reform of Italy's notoriously lax economic institutions earned him the nickname " Super Mario," after the indomitable hero of the Nintendo video game. He also began to attract international notice. From 2002 to 2005 he was a vice-chairman and managing director at London-based Goldman Sachs International, a subsidiary of the American investment bank. In 2006 he took over the governorship of the Bank of Italy, and for the next five years he worked at introducing responsible management and strict monetary policy in that institution as well.

As governor of Italy's central bank, Draghi was a member of the ECB's governing council, which sets interest rates in the eurozone. He also became chairman of the Financial Stability Forum, an advisory body for the Group of 20 economically advanced countries. Following the worldwide financial crisis of 2008, that forum became the Financial Stability Board, and it acquired a mandate to devise regulatory standards that would prevent another near collapse of the banking system.

In June 2011 the European Council, made up of the heads of all the European Union countries, met to appoint a successor to the outgoing president of the ECB, Frenchman Jean-Claude Trichet. The leading contender was Draghi, but by that time the European debt crisis had resurrected old doubts about the wisdom and staying power of Italy's economic managers-particularly in Germany, where the ECB was headquartered. In the end, Draghi's long-standing reputation as a financial reformer and strict conservative on monetary policy reassured the Germans. After France received word that another Italian member of the ECB's governing council would resign early to make way for a French member, the presidency of the world's second most important central bank (after the U.S. Federal Reserve System) went to Draghi.

Mario Draghi© World Economic Forum-swiss-image.ch/Monika Flueckiger

Draghi took office at a time when the very future of the euro seemed in doubt, but he moved quickly to reassure global markets about the stability of the EU's shared currency. In July 2012 he stated that "the ECB is ready to do whatever it takes to preserve the euro," and this bold assertion came to be seen as the turning point of the crisis. Under Draghi the ECB adopted interventionist monetary policies that were aimed not just at calming the panic that had gripped the eurozone but at ensuring that Europe's economies would be better positioned to weather future crises. Especially notable were Draghi's introduction of negative interest rates-essentially, a penalty on banks that opted to hold large reserves of cash rather than lending it-and his use of quantitative easing to increase liquidity. Critics argued that the latter policy could trigger runaway inflation, but Draghi navigated the risks inherent in such a move and guided the eurozone toward economic recovery. His eight-year term at the ECB ended in 2019, and he was succeeded by Christine Lagarde.

In January 2021 the government of Italian Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte collapsed when a key coalition partner withdrew during a dispute over the allocation of EU-provided COVID-19 relief funds. Conte was unsuccessful in his attempts to rebuild his coalition, and it seemed possible that Italy was headed toward a snap election in the middle of a pandemic. It was at this point that Italian Pres. Sergio Mattarella called upon Draghi to serve as prime minister at the head of a unity government. Over the following days Draghi assembled a cabinet that drew representation from a broad spectrum of Italy's mainstream political parties, thus ensuring that he would have sufficient parliamentary support to advance his agenda. He was officially sworn in as prime minister of Italy on February 13, 2021.

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Mario Draghi | Biography, Prime Minister, & Facts

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Mario Draghi, Italian economist who served from 2011 to 2019 as president of the European Central Bank, the financial institution responsible for making monetary decisions within the eurozone, that portion of the European Union whose members have adopted the euro. In 2021 he became prime minister of Italy.

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Background

Mexico is an ancient land that, long before the arrival of the Europeans, had already seen the rise and fall of great Indian empires. The Olmec were the first, followed by the Maya, Toltec, Zapotec, Mixtec, and the Maya again. The Indian civilizations made important breakthroughs in agriculture and science. They built great cities and created remarkable works of art. At the time of the Spanish conquest, the most powerful Indian empire was that of the Aztecs.

The Spanish Conquest

The first Spaniards to reach Mexico landed on the coast of YucatÃ¡n in 1517, but they were soon driven off. In 1518 a second expedition explored part of the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. This time Indians and Spaniards exchanged gifts. A third expedition, led by Hernando CortÃ©s, landed on the Gulf coast in 1519 and founded the city of Veracruz. From this point, within less than three years, CortÃ©s would conquer all of Mexico.

Several factors helped CortÃ©s in his conquest. His army, although small (it numbered about 500 or 600 men), was disciplined and equipped with some horses and a few cannons, both of which the Indians had never seen before. CortÃ©s also had the military assistance of Indian opponents of the Aztecs. In addition, many Aztecs were killed by an epidemic of smallpox, a disease new to them, brought by the Spaniards. There is also the familiar legend that the Aztec emperor Montezuma II welcomed CortÃ©s because he believed him to be the Indian god QuetzalcÃ³atl. In 1521 the Aztec capital TenochtitlÃ¡n (the site of present-day Mexico City) fell to the Spaniards, and the rest of Mexico followed soon after.

The Colonial Period

For 300 years, Mexico, then known as New Spain, was ruled as a Spanish colony. The colony's wealth lay in its silver mines and agriculture. The Indians taught the Spanish how to cultivate corn, tomatoes, and cacao (from which chocolate is made), crops unknown in Europe. The Spanish, in turn, introduced sugarcane, wheat and rice, and large-scale cattle and sheep raising.

But only a relative few enjoyed the colony's prosperity. The ruling minority was composed of colonists born in Spain. They were the great landowners, who controlled all important government posts and dominated commercial enterprises. The criollos, or Spaniards born in the colony, were next in importance. Although often wealthy, they were allowed only minor government offices. Next came the mestizos, who frequently worked as supervisors or storekeepers or served as soldiers or parish priests. At the bottom were the Indians, who labored in the mines or on the large estates under conditions of virtual slavery.

Wars of Independence

In 1808 the French emperor Napoleon I invaded Spain and placed his brother Joseph on the throne. The resulting conflict sparked the Mexican independence movement, whose first leader was a priest, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla.

On the evening of September 16 (the date commemorated by Mexicans), 1810, Hidalgo summoned his parishioners to revolt. His army, composed mainly of mestizos and Indians, grew rapidly and won a number of victories, but they were eventually defeated by royalist troops in 1811. Hidalgo was captured and executed.

The struggle was kept alive by another priest, JosÃ© MarÃa Morelos y PavÃ³n, Hidalgo's former student. After two years of fighting and several victories, in 1813, Morelos called together a congress, which declared Mexican independence and drafted a constitution.

But Morelos was defeated in battle soon after. In 1815 he, too, was executed, leadership of the movement passing to Vicente Guerrero. The final victory was achieved after a royalist officer, Colonel AgustÃn de Iturbide, who had earlier been defeated by Guerrero, switched sides. Spain eventually was forced to sign the Treaty of CÃ³rdoba in 1821, acknowledging Mexico's independence.

The Struggle to Build a Nation

Although independent, Mexico had as yet no real government. Iturbide seized power in 1822, declaring himself emperor. Once again Guerrero rose to fight him, along with Antonio LÃ³pez de Santa Anna, an army officer. Their successful revolt overthrew Iturbide and, in 1824, made Mexico a republic. For a short period the country enjoyed constitutional rule under Guadalupe Victoria, its first president, and Guerrero, its second.

Mexico's progress to nationhood, however, was to be slow and difficult. Conflicts between conservatives and liberals weakened and divided the country. The conservatives supported a strong national government and sought to maintain their traditional privileges; the liberals advocated decentralized rule, sharply diminished church influence, and broad social reforms.

The Era of Santa Anna

In l833 the presidency passed to Santa Anna, who dominated the country's life for more than twenty years. It was a time of political turmoil, with numerous governments succeeding one another. Foreign wars also sapped the country's strength. A dispute with France over Mexican debts brought French troops to Veracruz in 1838. The French were repulsed, but in a war with the United States (1846-48), Mexico lost nearly half of its territory.

War of the Reform: JuÃ¡rez

The liberals exiled Santa Anna in 1855 and began to lead the country out of chaos. Among their leaders was Benito JuÃ¡rez, a Zapotec Indian, who became one of Mexico's greatest statesmen. JuÃ¡rez played a leading role in framing the Constitution of 1857, which limited the power of the army and the church, recognized civil marriage, and called for freedom of religion, press, and assembly.

Conservatives violently opposed the constitution, and Mexico was plunged into a three-year civil war known as the War of the Reform (1857-61). With a liberal victory in 1861, JuÃ¡rez became provisional president. But the conflict had bankrupted the country. When JuÃ¡rez suspended payment on debts owed to France, Spain, and Britain, troops of the three countries occupied Veracruz.

French Aims: Maximillian

The British and Spanish soon departed, but France's emperor Napoleon III, urged on by the conservatives, seized the opportunity to establish a monarchy in Mexico. French troops invaded the country in 1862 and captured Mexico City the following year. JuÃ¡rez'government, forced to flee the capital, began a campaign of guerrilla warfare. Meanwhile, Napoleon III and the conservatives had chosen as emperor of Mexico the archduke Maximilian of Austria, who arrived in 1864 with his wife, the empress Carlota, to assume the throne.

Maximilian was a well-meaning but weak ruler who tried to govern benevolently. His moderate policies and acceptance of the reforms that had deprived the church of much of its land cost him the support of the church hierarchy and conservative political leaders, however. When Napoleon III, under pressure from the United States, withdrew the support of French troops in 1866, Maximilian was left isolated in the nation he supposedly ruled. In 1867 he was captured by republican forces and executed.

The Republic Restored

Once again free to govern as president, JuÃ¡rez laid the foundation for Mexico's industry as well as its transportation and communications system. Most important, he introduced a program of free public education that reached out to the great mass of Indians and mestizos who could neither read nor write. When he died in office in 1872, Mexico had become a nation.

The Long Rule of Porfirio DÃaz

Porfirio DÃaz, one of JuÃ¡rez' generals, seized power in 1876 and served several terms as president. Known as Don Porfirio, he ruled Mexico with an iron hand for nearly 35 years. He brought stability to the country, built railroads, improved harbors, and increased agricultural output. He established the country's oil industry, promoted good relations with other countries, and encouraged foreign investment in Mexico.

At the same time, under DÃaz, the church, the aristocracy, and the army regained their old privileges. The Indians found themselves with less land than ever, city and rural workers were impoverished, and political opposition was suppressed.

The Revolution of 1910

DÃaz' dictatorial rule brought about a revolution in 1910. Pancho Villa, a former bandit and guerrilla fighter, led the uprising in the north. In the south, Emiliano Zapata, a tough peasant leader, took up the cause of the landless Indians. DÃaz was forced to resign, and Francisco I. Madero, the liberal son of a wealthy landowner and a champion of political reform, was elected president in 1911.

In the years that followed, Mexico was torn by almost continuous violence in the struggle among rival revolutionary leaders. Victoriano Huerta, a general supported by the conservatives, had Madero assassinated in 1913 and seized power. Villa and Zapata rebelled against Huerta, as did Venustiano Carranza, the governor of Coahuila state. Huerta was deposed and Carranza became president in 1914.

By 1915, however, Carranza was at war with both Villa and Zapata, particularly over the slow pace of land reform. U.S. president Woodrow Wilson twice intervened on behalf of Carranza, and in 1915 he dispatched a cavalry force against Villa, who had raided a U.S. border town. In 1916 the victorious Carranza called for a convention to draft a new constitution.

The Constitution of 1917

The 1917 Constitution revived JuÃ¡rez' ideal of free public education and government control of church property and wealth. It regulated hours and wages for workers and upheld their right to unionize and strike. It also affirmed the government's right to reclaim ownership of all land, as well as the resources beneath the surface, in the name of the nation. Although socially progressive, many provisions of the new constitution were not carried out because of a lack of funds and political will.

The Post-Constiutional Era

Carranza was himself deposed in 1920 (and later killed), when he tried to prevent Alvaro ObregÃ³n from becoming president. ObregÃ³n was a cautious man who achieved some results in land distribution, education, and labor reform. His successor, in 1924, was Plutarco ElÃas Calles, who expanded the distribution of land. He also enforced the constitutional provisions against the church, which led to the bloody but unsuccessful Cristero revolt (1926-28) by militant Catholics.

Under Calles' successors, however, the pace of reform slowed down. He was succeeded in the presidency by Emilio Portes Gil, Pascual Ortiz Rubio, and Abelardo RodrÃguez. The three held office between 1928 and 1934.

A New Political Party

Although he retired as president in 1928, Calles remained for some six years thereafter the most powerful figure in Mexican political life. In 1929, in order to stabilize the country's fragmented political system, he created a new party, the National Revolutionary Party, to include the various revolutionary factions. It was the predecessor of the Institutional Revolutionary Party, or PRI, which remains the dominant political party today.

LÃ¡zaro CÃ¡rdenas, elected president in 1934, restored the revolutionary fervor of an earlier time. He recast the party, making it national in scope and bringing it under presidential control, and he undertook a number of bold economic and social changes. He nationalized the oil industry (much of which was foreign-owned) and the railroads, distributed more land to the poor than any previous president, and greatly increased the number of schools.

A New Direction

The presidents after CÃ¡rdenas stressed Mexico's industrial development, placing less emphasis on social and economic reforms. This policy began during the administration of Manuel Ãvila Camacho (1940-46), who also made peace with the church and took Mexico into World War II on the side of the Allies. It continued under his successors--Miguel AlemÃ¡n ValdÃ©s (1946-52), Adolfo Ruiz Cortines (1952-58), and Adolfo LÃ³pez Mateos (1958-64).

While Mexico did achieve rapid industrialization, it was accompanied by the great migration of people to the cities, high unemployment, and inflation. Criticism of the government intensified during the presidencies of Gustavo DÃaz Ordaz (1964-70) and Luis EcheverrÃa Ãlvarez (1970-76). It was under EcheverrÃa that a national family-planning program was launched to combat the enormous population growth.

The Prosperity to Crisis

The discovery of new oil resources ushered in a period of prosperity during the presidency of JosÃ© LÃ³pez Portillo (1976-82). But his free-spending policies and falling prices for oil led to an economic crisis in 1982. His successor, Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado (1982-88), sought to curb wasteful programs and bring the country's enormous foreign debt under control. He also linked Mexico economically to the international community through the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).

Efforts to improve the economy continued under Carlos Salinas de Gortari (1988-94), who returned the nationalized banking system to private ownership and sold off state-owned steel mills, copper mines, and airlines. Even more important was his negotiation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) with the United States and Canada. But the Salinas years also saw an increase in drug trafficking, official corruption (particularly within the country's police forces), and a revolt in poverty-stricken Chiapas state by the Zapatista National Liberation Army, a peasant guerrilla group.

Recent Events

The 1994 presidential election was marred by the assassination of the PRI candidate, Luis Donaldo Colosio. Soon after winning election, his successor, Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de LeÃ³n, faced an even more severe economic crisis. To prevent a default on Mexican government bonds, the United States loaned Mexico $12.5 billion in 1995. Additional funds were provided by the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

To restore the reputation of the PRI, which had come under increasing attack because of its single-party rule and entrenched corruption, Zedillo introduced political reforms intended to make Mexico a true multiparty democracy. He promised fair and honest elections, consultations with the opposition on key issues, a strengthened judiciary, and political democratization. He also negotiated with the Zapatista rebels, although violence in Chiapas continued. Zedillo's reforms contributed in 1997 to the PRI's loss of control of the lower house of the legislature for the first time in the party's history.

In early 1998, opposition candidates won six gubernatorial races, but by the end of the year, the PRI appeared to be regaining strength. Nevertheless, in 2000 an opposition candidate, Vicente Fox Quesada of the National Action Party, was elected president, ending 71 years of PRI presidential rule.

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Mexico is an ancient land that, long before the arrival of the Europeans, had already seen the rise and fall of great Indian empires. The Olmec were the first, followed by the Maya, Toltec, Zapotec, Mixtec, and the Maya again. The Indian civilizations made important breakthroughs in agriculture and science.

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Italian Culture: Facts, Customs & Traditions

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Italian culture traces its roots back to the ancient world and has influenced art, fashion and food around the world.

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History of Sports Home
Soccer / Football History, Changes and Important Milestones including Players, Teams, Football Association (FA), worldwide appeal, spread and growth

Football League

League Two Divisions and 20 teams From the formation of the Football League up through World War I (1914), the League was the pinnacle of football in the country. Teams petitioned the League to join; various competitor leagues, including the Football Combination and the Football Alliance, sprung up among teams who had been denied admission. However, no other league would ever truly challenge the League; over time, the League expanded into two divisions, and by 1914, there were 20 teams in each division.
Game Attracts Bigger Crowds As the league grew, so did football's popularity. The crowd at the FA Cup final in 1888 was 17,000; in 1913, it had swelled to over 120,000. The total attendance in the first year of the League was 600,000, which climbed to 5 million by the 1905-06 season, and was 9 million in Division I matches alone in 1914. Admittance in 1890 was generally around 6d, which in today's money would be £1.50, or around $2.30. The players themselves were earning around £3 a week, about £179 (or $285) today. By the early 20th century, footballers were being used to sell products, anything from cigarettes to lotions. Football had become big business, years ahead of many of its sporting counterparts.

The Global Game:

The British Empire Effect Football's global spread was both encouraged and hampered by Britain's empire. Places where the game took hold (Central America, South America and Europe) were far more often locations where Britain's influence was through trade, and not conquering. In countries of acute British imperial muscle (India, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand), Britain's despised might was inextricably tied to British football. In those countries, football never really took hold as a truly popular sport; cricket and rugby became the sports of the people.
Football and Class It is interesting to note, however, that while football in England was shared by all the classes, receiving a large portion of its players from the lower classes, the sport was spread worldwide by the upper classes. One of the few studies on the matter examined the Dutch national team. From 1894 to 1905, 96% of the team came from the upper class, and only 1% from the lower class. By 1918, that 1% had only risen to 4%, though the middle class rose from 3% to 18%.
Kjobenhavn Boldklub The first European football club outside of Britain and Ireland was Kjobenhavn Boldklub, a Danish squad formed in 1876. Denmark also gave continental Europe its first football association in 1889. The Danes, in fact, had a leg up on every other continental European country in football all the way to World War I, winning the silver medal at both the 1908 and 1912 Olympics (losing both times to England). Denmark was not the only country to embrace football, however; the Netherlands was a decade behind their northern neighbors in establishing football, with Sweden a decade behind them. Part of what helped those countries adopt the sport was its popularity among the lower classes; while the professional ranks swelled with upper class players, the fans were distinctly made up of the working class. Switzerland's primary donation to the game of football came through its representatives in other countries and its established neutrality. Swiss-born men helped lead the earliest national football teams in Spain, France and Italy, while Switzerland became the home for FIFA and UEFA.
Spanish Early Clubs Football in Spain was initiated by British immigrants, in Spain to work mines and railroads. Over the last two decades or so of the 19th century, the game slowly transitioned from the Brits to the native Spaniards, fostered by the Spanish king, Alphonse XIII, who in 1902 created the Coronation Cup, a tournament held between teams from the Basque region, Catalonia and Madrid, the capital. Initially, however, football's power in Spain was not in its capital, but on the coasts, particularly in Bilbao (in Basque country) and Barcelona, with Athletic Bilbao winning four King's Cups in its first decade. However, national Spanish football did not come together as easily. Spain faced the challenge of establishing a national identity, instead of regional ones. While Spain was a founding member of FIFA in 1904, they did not have a football association until 1913, and did not field a national team until after World War I.
Italian Early Clubs Italian football grew out of British, Swiss and Italian upper class foundations, and while the game today is purely run by Italians, upper class leaders still control the sport. Italy's path towards football followed roughly the same timeline as Spain's; the first football clubs appeared late in the 1800s, and the first "national" tournament, the Italian national championship, was played around the turn of the century, in this case in 1898. Italy's first powerhouse squad was Genoa, which won the first three championships. Between the start of the century and World War I, the game spread throughout the country, though notably not very south - the first teams south of Perugia to play in the national championship did not do so until 1913.
France and Germany Soccer While the timeline for foundation of the sport in France and Germany were roughly similar to Italy and Spain, football faced a different challenge in those two countries: namely, another sport with which to compete. The Spanish and Italians simply lacked large-scale sports; France and Germany had cycling and gymnastics, respectively. In France, the first teams were founded by Scots and Englishmen living in Paris, with some French students founding their own squad around the same time. The first national championship (played only by six teams) was held in 1894. From there, more and more teams sprouted up, primarily in cities with significant English or Swiss influence. However, like Spain, France had no national organization until after World War I. In Germany, the sport, which took almost thirty years to catch on at all, then exploded over a period of only about ten years. The first recorded football matches in Germany took place in 1874, but the Laws of the Game were only finally translated into Germany in 1891, around the time serious German football clubs were created. Between 1891 and 1900, around 200 clubs were created, with over 10,000 regular footballers. Germany's first national championship was held in 1903, with Leipzig winning the title. However, prior to World War I, despite the large number of teams and players, football in Germany was still considered a lesser sport.
South America In South America, as in Spain, Italy, France and Germany, the game was initially picked up not by the indigenous people, but Britons who migrated to those countries for work. Large groups of immigrants from England came over to work on the continent's mineral supply, and the game followed. The first football game played under the FA rules in Central or South America was in 1867 in Buenos Aires by a group of British workers. 26 years later, the Argentine Association Football League was formed, again using primarily British immigrants, which still exists today as the Argentine national championship (though now obviously played by Argentineans). In Brazil, while the first teams (formed in the late 1800s) were British, the city of Sao Paolo, the greatest hotbed of football in the country, saw German, American and native Brazilian teams sprout up by the turn of the century. It was the early 1900s that finally saw the tide turn in South America, as the British teams dwindled and teams played by the indigenous people of the continent rose to prominence. The football associations in Argentina and Uruguay changed from their English names to Spanish by 1905 (though it took until the 1930'sfor football to become futbol). In one area, South American football surpassed its European/English counterparts - international unification. Forty years before the establishment of the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), Europe's organization, the CONMEBOL was founded in 1916 in South America, the Confederacíon Sudamericana de Futbol.
Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) Founded As international football grew, so did the need for an international governing body. The Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) was founded in Paris in 1904 by representatives of the football associations or football clubs from France, Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. Great Britain did not join because the FA dragged its feet, forcing the other countries to move forward without them (though they would join a year later). Its first president was a French journalist and secretary for France's football association, Robert Guerin.

Football in the U.S.:

US Game played by Immigrant Communities In the U.S., the game developed primarily among the immigrant class. While there were attempts to establish a national league (the American League of Professional Football Clubs) in 1894, the league fell apart within 3 months. Universities declined to take up the sport, and it survived mostly in neighborhoods, primarily in New England, though immigrant communities in big cities like New York, Chicago, Pittsburgh and Philadelphia helped the game thrived there, and St. Louis in particular had a strong football presence. In the 1904 Olympics held there, football was a demonstration sport, and St. Louis' players represented the U.S. In 1912, two different organizations petitioned FIFA for recognition as America's football governing authority; FIFA told the American Football Association and the American Amateur Football Association to merge, which they did, becoming the United States Football Association (USFA).
American Soccer League Arguably, football's strongest time in American history (before the present) was post-World War I, when Thomas Cahill, a football executive from St. Louis established the American Soccer League. The league lasted 12 years, enjoying a fair amount of success both financially and from attendance. The ASL began with eight teams and grew over its existence, with teams in big markets like New York, and smaller markets like Bethlehem and Providence. The league even had radio broadcasts, which were popular particularly in the smaller markets. Players from other countries were plied (monetarily) to come to the U.S. to join several ASL teams, and when an Austrian Jewish team that had recently won the Austrian football league championship came to tour the U.S. in 1925, almost the entire team was convinced to sign with various ASL squads. However, internal struggles tore the league apart. The USFA, after its creation in 1912, had established an Open Challenge Cup, a sort of tournament/league that never fared that well. The ASL wanted the USFA to hold the Cup after the ASL season ended; the USFA refused. The league, concerned some of the teams would move to the USFA Challenge Cup, ordered all its teams to refuse to participate in the Cup, threatening fines and expulsion. However, the league owners themselves were split, and when three ASL teams joined the Cup and started their own league (the Eastern Soccer League) in 1928, football's death knell was near. The two watered-down leagues could not sustain the success of the one league, and with the stock market crash in 1929, the league soon died out, folding for good in 1933. Unlike other sports, which had more firmly entrenched leagues and/or a strong college presence, football nearly disappeared from the U.S. sports landscape.

Out of the Ashes of War:

Booming Fan Numbers With Growth Of Radio In Britain The First World War changed the landscape of the world, and football was not immune to its impact. During the war, British football (and therefore almost all football across the world) suspended play, with the FA Cup Final in 1915 the last professional match played before the war ended. When the war started, football in Britain was played and watched by people of all classes, with professional teams the standard and big business intermixing in every way with the sport. Outside of the British Isles, however, professionalism in football barely existed and the game was ruled by, played by and largely watched by only the elites, with a few instances of middle class involvement. What the war did was tear down the walls between the classes within the sport. Countries lost millions of its men, and bullets and bombs did not distinguish between castes. The working class soldiers were exposed to the game on the front lines by their upper class comrades-in-arms, and when the war ended in 1918, football across the world became a sport across the class system. Attendance went up year after year after the war as more and more people joined the game, either as spectators or players. The booming '20s saw radio broadcasts come on the scene, with top football players becoming stars, even appearing in movies. While their salaries were still quite low, and in some places non-existent, players were asked to promote products, and big business finally made its mark on the game across the globe. The rest of the world finally caught up to British football.
Rest Of Europe However, it did not all happen at the same time. Some parts of Europe became primarily professional in the years immediately following World War I; the first professional European league on the continent was in the newly created Austria at the start of the '20s. The rest of central Europe was not far behind. Spain, Italy and France took longer, waiting until the latter half of the 1920's to really legitimize professionalism and create national leagues. Germany and Denmark, however, halted before becoming professionalized. It took Denmark until after World War II to legalize professionalism, while Germany was at the precipice of professionalization when Hitler was named chancellor in 1933. The Nazis took control of every facet of Germany, including football, and professionalism had to wait until the Nazi government was toppled by the Allies in World War II.
Latin America Latin America took longer than some of their European counterparts. While the firm grip the ruling elite had on the game had been loosened by war in Europe, the iron fist by which the elite in Central and South America dominated the sport was not shaken in the same way. Ultimately, it was professionalization in Europe that led to Latin America's change. As the '20s led into the '30s, more and more Latin football stars were lured away to Europe, particularly Italy, by the promise of far more money. As an example, Argentine footballer Raimondo Orsi left for Juventus in 1928 after the Italian side offered a weekly wage of 8,000 lire and a signing bonus of 100,000 lire and a new Fiat (which, in today's figures, would be about $5200 and $66,000). Faced with losing their top players, the Latin American clubs switched from amateur to professional in the first half of the 1930s.

The Manager:

Professionalism / Training and Managers Though professionalism had taken hold of football after the war, the game still lacked the kind of professionalism seen today. Training was almost non-existent; players were largely left to their own devices, both on the pitch and off. This changed with Herbert Chapman. Chapman had coached at Leeds City and Huddersfield Town before he joined Arsenal in 1925, and it was there he helped revolutionize the game. Chapman centralized control of the team; he chose the players, how they trained and how they played. Chapman also first began using actual tactics in the game, instead of just allowing the players to essentially figure things out as they went. He created specific roles for his forwards, creating different programs for developing the physique and skills for wingers, center-forwards and inside-forwards. Chapman also called for changes to the game outside of just coaching; he called for lights in stadiums, white balls, artificial pitches, numbered jerseys and stadium clocks which would count down the time for the public to see. The FA, in its tireless efforts to be immune to change, rebuffed all of Chapman's calls for reform. And despite the success of his Arsenal squad, football in England was slow to come around to Chapman's way of doing things; the first FA book on coaching wasn't published until 1938, and the first English national team coach who managed following Chapman's example was Alf Ramsey in the early '60s. Internationally, Chapman's example was somewhat quicker to catch on. Coaches in Europe and South America began to carve out their own tactical style, styles associated today with the countries themselves. In Central Europe, the style relied on short passing and ball control; Latin America followed this mold, but added flare to the game, with flashy dribbling, and claiming the invention of the bicycle kick and the bending free kick. In Italy, a scheme called "la Sistema," literally, "the system," placed a premium on highly-specialized positions (even more so than Chapman's method) and close marking, giving little space to ball handlers and playmakers.

The World Cup:

First World Cup 1930 Uruguay While under the auspices of FIFA many international matches took place, no single global tournament existed for the sport of football outside of the Olympics. Jules Rimet, a Frenchman who became president of FIFA in 1921, sought to follow the guide of the Olympic tournament, and led the charge in creating the World Cup. The first World Cup was held in Uruguay in 1930, to be played every four years. Its first winner was its home country, Uruguay, which topped Argentina to win the Rimet trophy (named for the FIFA president). It would be played twice more in the 1930s, in Italy in '34 and France in '38 (with Italy winning both), and was then halted for 12 years due to World War II. The first World Cup was played by 13 teams, while the second had 16, the third 15. The intended number of teams after the first World Cup was 16, decided by a 32-team qualifying tournament. However, in the 1938 World Cup, the number fell to 15 after Austria was annexed by Germany.

World War (Again) and Beyond:

World War II While World War II was a severe down period for European football, it propped up the South American game as perhaps the best in the world. With its players no longer leaving for Europe (due to the war), Argentinean and Brazilian football dominated the continent, while a new league sprung up in the newly booming Colombia. Radio swept across the countryside in Argentina and Brazil, which helped bring the game to the rural areas of the country which had previously been shut out of the sport for the most part. It was also during this time that the famous Latin goal call (GOOOOOOOOOOOOOOAL) was first uttered, by Brazilian radio announcer Rebelo Junior. After their third place performance in the 1938 World Cup, Brazil was awarded the 1942 tournament; however, World War II intervened. The lone difference was Uruguay, which largely suffered in the period, primarily due to their struggles with the Depression in the 1930s.
While South American football reigned, football did not completely cease in Europe, as it largely had during the First World War. In the neutral nations of Ireland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and Turkey, football continued throughout the war, and even some countries embroiled in the conflict, like Italy, Britain and the Soviet Union, continued to have matches into the Forties. Germany played international matches as late as 1942 with other national teams from countries allied with Germany, occupied by Germany or neutral, and even had a national championship in 1944, which ended just a few months before Berlin fell. However, the quality was not there - it was impossible for it to be, as the teams were often short players, equipment and quality fields.

FIFA Restarts World Cup 1950 Brazil Despite the fact that once-every-four-year World Cup schedule would have had a tournament played in 1946, after the war, the FIFA congress that met that year decided to hold the next tourney in 1950, awarding it to Brazil (who had been chosen to host the never-to-be-played 1942 Cup). In response to FIFA's decision, Brazil built a new football stadium in Rio de Janeiro, the largest in the world: the Maracana. The huge white ellipse officially sat 160,000 patrons, but for the final of the 1950 World Cup, in which Brazil faced Uruguay, the reports said the attendance was over 200,000 - over 20% of Rio's adult population, the largest crowd ever to watch a football match in person (to this day). However, the massive crowd would leave stunned and disappointed; Uruguay, in a shocking upset, beat Brazil 2-1. Brazil, however, would win the World Cup in the future (more than once). Uruguay has not been to another World Cup final since. The third- and fourth-place teams in the 1950 World Cup were Sweden and Spain, respectively. It was fitting, because they were two neutral countries in World War II; the European countries tore apart by war still needed time to heal.

Resurrection:

Great Britain Attendance Skyrocket And heal they did. In Great Britain, the cradle of football, while their empire was being dismantled after the war, their empire of football was growing stronger. Attendance in the post-bellum period skyrocketed, reaching a peak of 41 million in 1949, and never dipping below 30 million until the 1960s (whereas the attendance high before the war was around 20 million). The British even unveiled the FA Amateur Cup in 1949, drawing 95,000 people. It would never reach that level of popularity again.
England Fail On The World Stage However, while British football in the League was gaining new levels of success, their international game did not measure up. England went to the 1950 World Cup believing they would win, considered heavy favorites at home. After managing to beat Chile, they lost their second game to the United States 1-0, one of the greater upsets in World Cup history (and considered by many to be to the greatest game in American international history). After being eliminated 1-0 by Spain, England went home only to find excuses explaining away their losses. Still, England's excuses did not get them very far, and it would take years for them to finally break through on the World Cup stage.
Germany Wins 1954 World Cup The 1954 World Cup, held in Switzerland, was thought to belong to Hungary. Now belonging to the Communists, the country had built up their football program and, going into the final in '54, were unbeaten in 31 straight matches, having scored 25 goals in their World Cup matches leading up to the final. Eight of those goals had come in a single first round match against West Germany - who Hungary faced in the final. But the script did not play out as written; the final match, forever after referred to as "the Miracle of Berne" saw the Germans topple the mighty Hungarian squad 3-2. Hungary had gotten out to a 2-0 lead in the first eight minutes of the match, and everything seemed over at that point. However, West Germany responded with two goals of its own within ten minutes of the second Hungarian goal. The two sides continued scoreless until Helmut Rahn put one through in the 84th minute, sealing victory for the West Germans. A major contributor to the German victory was an innovation in their shoes (or boots): screw-in studs that helped the Germans deal with muddy field conditions. The boots were designed by a new German company, Adidas.

O Rei do Futebol:

Brazil Dominates World Stage Arguably, the next 16 years of international football belonged to Brazil. Out of the next four World Cups, Brazil won three of them. In 1958, 1962 and 1970, the Brazilians not only won, they conquered. One of the symbols of this Brazilian domination was a player named Edison Arantes do Nascimento, more commonly known as Pele. While Pele was his nickname, he had others, including "O Rei do Futebol," the King of Football. Born in 1940, Pele began playing professional football at age 15, and won his first World Cup with Brazil before turning 18 in 1958. Pele would go on to be known as perhaps the greatest footballer of all time, recording 1,283 goals in 1,363 career games, scoring 77 goals in 92 international matches (and 12 in the World Cup). At the club level in Brazil, he did not merely break records; he shattered them. Playing for Santos F.C., Pele scored 58 goals in 1958, 45 in 1959 and 47 in 1961. Compare those numbers to today's game, in which the entire Santos F.C. squad scored a total of 58 goals in the most recent full season. Pele's career was marked by numerous awards, including named FIFA Player of the Century.

UEFA:

Europe Clubs Rule World Though international football belonged to the Brazilians in the 1950s and 60s, club football belonged to Europe (and still does today). In the early 1950s, Europe saw their majority within FIFA dwindling as more and more football associations were added. South America already had a continental organization, CONMEBOL, for almost 40 years. Europe's answer was UEFA, the Union of European Football Associations, founded in 1954 at a meeting of Europe's football administrators in Berne, Switzerland (during the World Cup). Within one year, UEFA established a continental football tournament, the European Cup (now known as the Champions League). The early success in the tournament belonged to Spain, and specifically Real Madrid. The Spanish capital side won the first five titles, winning its sixth 6 years after that. In fact, the early history of UEFA's tournament is marked by repeat winners; the first 25 years of the tourney featured only 11 different victors, and the defending champions won the Cup 12 times, including three-peats from AFC Ajax (Netherlands) and FC Bayern München (Germany) in the 1970s.
Television Increases Popularity This period is also marked by the introduction of television to the game. Though the game itself on the pitch was relatively unchanged by TV, what the new medium accomplished was catapulting the sport to even higher levels of popularity, and helped changed the historical record. Prior to television, there was scant material available about football and its greatest stars; newspapers accounted for most of them, with magazines and radio chipping in. But television allowed for the visual record to exist, getting to actually see the game's greatest stars and hold on to those images for posterity.

The Game Gets Larger:

140 Countries Belong To FIFA From the end of World War II to Joao Havelange's ascension to the FIFA presidency in 1974, FIFA had more than doubled in membership, from 54 countries to 140. Of those almost 90 new members, all but five came from four confederations: CONCACAF, AFC, OFC and CAF, with the bulk coming from the AFC and CAF. CONCACAF, the Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football, added teams entirely from Central America and the Caribbean in this period. The OFC, Oceania Football Confederation, added three countries. AFC, the Asian Football Confederation, added 26 different countries, while CAF, the Confederation of African Football, added 37. The vast majority of additions came from Asia and Africa because, as the European colonial powers relinquished their territories, independent new nations sprung up across those two continents.
Red and Yellow Cards Introduced However, despite the inclusion of all these groups into FIFA, little changed in the late '40s and '50s regarding their involvement. Up to 1974, only three teams combined from those regions made the World Cup Final, none of them winning. The president of FIFA before Havelange, Sir Stanley Rous, had been a force for change, but focused his efforts on technical aspects of the game. As secretary of the FA (before becoming FIFA president), Rous had rewritten the Laws of the Game in 1938 to update them for the modern game. With FIFA, Rous championed the use of the red and yellow card system (which was first introduced at the Olympic tournament in 1968), set up the system of awarding the World Cup site years in advance as a way to cut down on conflict and created a training program for referees and coaches. However, Rous' tenure was marred by his lack of leadership when it came to the political sphere.

Football and Politics:

Politics In Football Football had (and has) often been closely tied to politics all over the world. Politics and football had gone as far back as the early 1900s in England, where the occasional political candidate would receive public support from football stars. In 1910, the owner of Middlesbrough FC ran for office, using his players to stump for him and even trying to bribe an opposing team to lose a match against Middlesbrough. After his lost the election and his plan was uncovered, he was kicked out of football for life by the FA. However, early in its history both Britain and FIFA sought to keep politics out of football, with FIFA trying to follow the Olympic mold. However, as it often failed in the Olympics, so too did it fail in football. Governments in Europe used football for military training; the people of Europe, along with their governments, often saw victory on the pitch as victory for the country, an indicator of might beyond simply sport. The 1934 World Cup, held in Italy, was used by Benito Mussolini as a grand tool of propaganda: Italy spent the modern equivalent of around $4.8 million dollars (which today seems small, but then was larger) on the tournament, even paying for transportation for fans of other countries and creating a trophy, La Coppa del Duce, to be awarded to the winners (which turned out to be Italy). Hitler saw football in the same way, seeking to dominate Europe in every way, including on the pitch. In South America, football and politics had been intertwined almost since the beginning of the sport in that region. Under Juan Perón, Argentina actually withdrew from the 1949 Copa America tournament and the 1950 World Cup; while Perón was instituting vast social change, he was worried that defeat in international tournaments would weaken him and his government in the eyes of the people. In the '54 World Cup, the Hungarian team was publicly and loudly supported by the new Soviet communist government as a way to lessen unrest among the Hungarian people towards their new leadership. The Hungarian loss at the World Cup helped contribute to revolution in the country.
South Africa and Apartheid In the late '50s, during Rous' administration, perhaps the biggest political battle in football became policy regarding South Africa. The country's apartheid (begun in 1948) caused unrest within the football world, particularly in the rest of Africa. In 1957, when the first African Cup of Nations was played, South Africa was barred from the tournament, and then barred from the CAF. Its FIFA membership was also suspended in 1961. However, after an investigation by Rous, he determined that the all-white Football Association of South Africa (FASA) had to represent South Africa in FIFA. Throughout the remainder of his time as FIFA president, Rous continually rebuffed the efforts of other African nations and anti-apartheid representatives to impose sanctions on South Africa.

Havelange's Business:

Joao Havelange As football organizations around the ground grew increasingly dissatisfied with Rous, he lost the presidency to Joao Havelange, a Brazilian businessman and entrepreneur who had been a part of Brazil's Olympic committee and later the International Olympic Committee (IOC). What helped Havelange's bid for the presidency was Latin America's concern over European domination in the administration of the sport. Backed by CONCACAF and CONMEBOL, Havelange sealed his election by gaining support from Asia and Africa, which now constituted the bulk of FIFA. In Africa, he specifically spoke out against apartheid, pledging to ban South Africa from FIFA were he elected. He campaigned vigorously, spending $21 million, the modern equivalent of over $91 million, to secure his election as FIFA president.
Havelange could not have been more different from Rous; Rous prided himself as a public servant, doing as much as he could with as little as his could. He worked with a shoestring budget and a skeleton staff. FIFA's headquarters in Zurich held just 12 staffers when Havelange took office; under his leadership, it increased to over 100. Perhaps Havelange's greatest impact on the game was on the World Cup. Prior to his tenure as president, the World Cup was an incredibly popular event, and broadcast for the first time in color in 1970, but not a cash cow. Havelange sought to change that, creating a new model for global sporting events of all kinds. Along with Horst Dassler, an executive from Adidas (and son of Adidas' founder), and Patrick Nally, a Brit involved in global sports marketing and sponsorship, Havelange came up with a new paradigm featuring four components. First, the World Cup would only go after the largest sponsors whose reach was global. Second, the sponsors would be divided by type; only one soft drink sponsor, only one beer sponsor, only one financial services corporation, etc. Third, FIFA gained total control over TV rights, advertising and the like. Today, this is commonplace in the world of sports; Havelange, Dassler and Nally were directly responsible for making it so. Finally, FIFA would not negotiate the TV and sponsorship deals themselves, but rather simply give a guaranteed amount of money to a middleman who would mete it out; those middlemen would be Dassler and Nally.
World Cup Expanded To 24 Teams Havelange's first chance to showcase this new formula came in Spain in 1982. The first World Cup he presided over was actually Argentina in '78, but the Junta controlled that tourney, and Havelange (along with the rest of FIFA) had no desire to challenge them. In Spain, Havelange expanded the World Cup from 16 teams to 24; in addition, he wanted to make the games grand (not unlike Mussolini), and put it on Nally and Dassler to find the money from sponsors. Find that money they did, securing over 42 million Swiss francs, which in modern money is roughly $47 million. Additionally, Havelange backed the campaign of Spain's Juan Antonio Samaranch for IOC president, using his influence in Latin America, Asia and Africa to secure Samaranch the post and gain Spain's total cooperation. He even took apart a deal between Real Madrid and Pepsi to have Pepsi logos all over Real's stadium, in order to please World Cup sponsor Coca-Cola. Havelange's idea worked brilliantly; in the next two World Cups, television viewership over the course of the tournament exceeded 10 billion, then 20 billion (in '86 Mexico and '90 Italy, respectively), allowing Nally and Dassler to acquire sponsorships worth over 100 million francs ($118 million modern).
Under Havelange, FIFA grew further, adding 27 new nations, readmitted China and barred South Africa. Havelange proved to be a master at political maneuvering, even relocating Israel to the Oceania Football Confederation for a time while it had dispute with other members of the Asia Football Confederation. He further expanded the World Cup to 32 teams, giving more countries the opportunity for involvement. Still, success in the World Cup belonged (basically to this day) to Europe and South America: during Havelange's reign from 1974 to 1998, the winners were Germany (twice), Argentina (twice), Italy, Brazil and France.

Try, Try Again:

North American Soccer League (NASL) Without professional football since the 1930s, the United States nevertheless tuned in to watch the World Cup on television, particularly in 1966. As a result, a group of American sports owners and investors thought they saw an opportunity for growth of the sport, and set out to create a league. Unfortunately, failing to learn from the mistakes of the past, two leagues came into existence. One was the National Professional Soccer League (NPSL), which despite securing a TV deal did not affiliate itself with either FIFA or the U.S. Soccer Federation. The other league, the United Soccer Association (USA - if it can be believed), was better organizationally connected but less commercially connected. Still, both leagues suffered, primarily from the quality of play (or lack thereof). In 1968, just a year after they were created, they agreed to join, forming the North American Soccer League (NASL). This union did not fare any better except for a brief time, and that was due almost entirely to one person: Pele.
Pele Joins New York Cosmos Having already retired from Santos in Brazil, Pele was encouraged to join the Warner Brothers-owned New York Cosmos of the NASL for a three-year contract paying him over $4 million (which would be worth $16 million today). Attendance pre-Pele was minimal at best: the Cosmos often handed out Burger King coupons just to try to entice attendees. During Pele's time with the squad, they had to often close the doors, filling their stadium to capacity. The Cosmos followed the Pele signing by inking other aging football superstars to contracts, and other teams followed suit. However, despite all the positive press, teams still lost money, and by the time the '70s turned into the '80s, the league was on the verge of extinction. ABC cancelled the TV deal, and Warner Brothers pulled out of the league after Mexico was awarded the 1986 World Cup (instead of the U.S.). The 1984 NASL season was its last; once again, professional football went dark in the United States.

European Shifts:

Britain and German Clubs Rule For a period of over ten years from the mid '70s to the mid '80s, club football in Europe belonged to Germany and England. From 1974 to 1984, not a single club outside of those two countries captured the UEFA European Cup.
Heysel Stadium Disaster However, in 1985, in the final between Juventus and Liverpool at Heysel stadium in Brussels, a group of supporters from both sides clashes, leaving 39 dead and 300 injured. Following the disaster, English clubs were banned for five years and Liverpool indefinitely. The subsequent shift saw La Liga in Spain, Serie A in Italy, France's Ligue 1 and the Dutch Eredivisie surge forward, improving the standing of their leagues across Europe, with clubs from their leagues winning seven UEFA titles in the 10 years following Heysel.
Soccer Hooliganism Football in England particularly declined from the early '80s to the early to mid '90s. Attendance fell across the board, due in large part to the sharp rise in hooliganism. British football fans had been staging football riots in and around their stadiums since the '70s, but in the '80s, those riots began to spread to matches around Europe. This movement heavily involved skinheads, but was not limited to them. This is not to say that the violence was limited to British football fans. Fights at matches took place all across Europe (and Latin America); it was simply magnified in Britain. Things culminated in England with the Hillsborough disaster in 1989. The government had instituted measures to curb violence at the matches, including spiked perimeter fences, security cameras and a heavily increased police presence. Unfortunately, this led directly to the disaster: 400 people were injured and 96 died when they were herded into the Hillsborough stadium for an FA Cup semi-final between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest. The central pens were full, and the perimeter fences were locked, crushing those inside the pens. A lack of order and control from the police failed to relieve the pressure, and English football had reached its low point.
Colorful Fandom Around this culture of hooliganism, however, rose the colorful fandom of football, a tradition which would outlast its vicious counterpart in popularity; its fans had always adhered to the origin of the word (fanatic), but in the latter part of the 20th century, football fans took their nationalistic fervor to new heights, adorning themselves in elaborate and vibrant costumes, travelling the continent and the globe to support their clubs teams and national squads.

African Football:

African Rise In Football Talent As the last vestiges of colonialism disappeared in Africa in the 1970s and with the ascension of Joao Havelange to FIFA's presidency, Africa appeared ready to breakout in the football world. At the World Cup in 1978, Tunisia secured the first African World Cup match victory 3-1 over Mexico. In Spain in '82, Cameroon was unbeaten, playing Peru, Poland and Italy to draws, failing to advance out of their group by only a one-goal differential. Algeria beat West Germany (who would end up winning the Cup) in their first match, but still failing to advance. In 1986, Morocco became the first African nation to advance past the group stage of the World Cup, losing to Germany in the first round of the knockout stage 1-0.
Throughout the '60s and '70s, African football talent had gone to Europe, playing for European squads and joining European national teams. Those who did not could still not play for their African countries; until 1982, foreign clubs were not obligated to allow their African players to play for their African nations, keeping them with the club team. In the '80s, Africa finally begun to secure their own talent, and this directly correlated to African success on the world stage.
Africa's rise was also helped by other factors. Through the sponsorship of Coca-Cola, Joao Havelange established World Cup tournaments for under-20 players and under-17 players. This involvement in youth sport helped Africa foster its talent further. Ghana and Nigeria have both won the U-17 World Cup title twice, and the first U-20 World Cup was held in Tunisia in 1977. Additionally, the '80s saw an influx of foreign coaches into Africa, helping even more the development of the game on the continent.

The Premiership and Champions League:

English Premier League From the ashes of the Hillsborough disaster arose a new edict in English football - stadiums that sat every fan that they could hold. This new cost combined with growing discontent among the owners of the top clubs over revenue from television. Up to the early '90s, football in England was shown on the BBC, with no competition. As a result, football clubs did not receive the kind of revenue they thought they could get by opening up TV rights to other bidders. After a group of the top teams in the FA met, they signed the Founder Members Agreement in 1991, laying the groundwork for the establishment of the Premier League. While the Premier League is still tied to the FA and the Football League on an organizational level (Premiership teams participate in the FA Cup and the Premier League and Football League Championship are involved in a promotion/relegation relationship), the new league disentangled itself from those bodies on a commercial level, selling their rights to Rupert Murdoch's Sky Sports for £304 million over three years (equivalent today to roughly £459 million, or $732 million). This was an unheard of sum at the time, and only went up: in 1996, Sky paid out £670 million (£857 million/$1.36 billion) and in 2003 £1.1 billion (over $2 billion). This explosion in TV revenues did not stay in England; new deals in Germany, France, Spain and Italy all rose significantly in the 1990s and 2000s (though more slowly in Spain and Italy because of a smaller audience and pirated smart cards, respectively).
UEFA Champions League UEFA also sought to grow its brand, renaming the European Cup the UEFA Champions League in 1992 and adding a group stage, making the competition larger. Following the FIFA example, they also took control of the TV rights to the tournament, broadcasting Champions League football to the world, helping the prestige of the tourney reach new heights. No other continent currently boasts the kind of football quality and talent held by the leagues of Europe, and since the founding of the Premier League in 1992, only six leagues have had teams win the Champions League: La Liga, Serie A, Ligue 1, the German Bundesliga, Eredivisie and the Premier League. The top talent from all over the globe plays for teams from these leagues, hoping to showcase their talents on the world stage.
Domination in the Champions League by those six was also helped by the fall of communism. Teams in Eastern Europe and the Soviet bloc fell apart following the collapse of the USSR in the early '90s; without state financial support, they didn't stand a chance. Only in recent years have some of these countries produced teams capable of competing at the highest European levels.

The MLS:

Major League Soccer (MLS) After the dissolution of the NASL in the U.S. in 1984, football disappeared from the country save for the youth level. With American football, baseball, basketball and hockey dominating the sporting landscape, association football couldn't gain a foothold. The game's breakthrough came when the United States was awarded the 1994 World Cup. The tournament boasted the highest attendance in World Cup history, over 3.5 million. With the belief that there existed the possibility that America could make money off football, Major League Soccer (MLS) was formed two years later, in 1996, with ten teams. Still in existence, MLS is arguably the country's most successful football league. It has bested its predecessors both in longevity and popularity, though it has still largely failed to capture the majority of the American sporting audience. Still, it has TV deals in place both on the club levels and as a league with ESPN. In recent years, in a move reminiscent of the old NASL, the league established the designated player rule, commonly called the David Beckham rule. In 2007, the rule was put in place so that teams could establish one player on their roster whose salary would not count against the salary cap: the designated player. David Beckham became tied to the rule because the league had put it in place in anticipation of his signing with the Los Angeles Galaxy. Since then, there have been 20 designated players, primarily aging stars from other countries, most recently (and notably) Thierry Henry, the longtime French star.

Where We Are Today:

Soccer Continues To Grow It can be argued that football today is stronger than it's ever been. Fans go out to see matches in record numbers around the world, and the television audience seems to get larger and larger. The money pouring in (and out) of football around the world seems to have no cap. The most recent World Cup saw a first time winner (Spain) and the first knockout stage victory for an African team in history (Ghana's 2-1 win over the U.S.).
Increased Ticket Prices Make Soccer A Middle Class Sport There are still, however, issues within the sport. As big business continued its virtual takeover of the sport, more and more fans at the top clubs are being priced out. While the sport, particularly in England, was built on making it accessible to the lowest classes, today prices at the top clubs are generally in excess of £30 per game ($47). Additionally, while hooliganism has been significantly reduced, the most pressing social issue the game faces now is racism. Though major pushes have been made by FIFA to curb racism in the sport (particularly through its FIFA against Racism campaign), there still exists significant evidence of racism throughout the sport, especially in Europe.
Where To Next Yet, football moves forward. The history of the game details the rise and fall of teams and countries; Colombia made a push towards international greatness at the '94 World Cup. Their subsequent defeat and the murder of star Andres Escobar forced the sport's collapse in that country. Africa is still considered a continent on the rise; will Asia ever be considered the same way? History tells us the world will be watching.

Back To: Sports History Home Page

Resources:
The Ball is Round: A Global History of Football by David Goldblatt (ISBN: 978-0670914807)
A History of the FA (http://www.thefa.com/TheFA/WhoWeAre/HistoryOfTheFA)
History of FIFA (http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/history/fifa/historyfifa1.html)
UEFA Champions League history (http://en.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/history/index.html)
Premier League History (http://www.premierleague.com/page/History)
Currency converter (http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/currency/results.asp#mid)
Historical Exchange Rates (http://www.measuringworth.org/exchangeglobal/)
Pound-to-Dollar converter (http://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=pound+to+dollar&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8)

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History of Association Football (Soccer) From Early Beginnings To Present

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History of Sports Home Soccer / Football History, Changes and Important Milestones including Players, Teams, Football Association (FA), worldwide appeal, spread and growth Football League League Two Divisions and 20 teams From the formation of the Football League up through World War I (1914), the League was the pinnacle of football in the country.

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Cantonese cuisine, also called Yue cuisine or Guangdong cuisine is one of the eight major cuisines with a long history of about 2,000 years. It is featured with widely use of materials and rich cooking methods. Cantonese dishes taste mild, fresh and natural. The most famous include White Cut Chicken, Cantonese Roasted Goose and Roasted Suckling Pig.

Most of the Chinese restaurants abroad are Cantonese restaurants, making Cantonese cuisine the most popular Chinese cuisine around the world and the representative of Chinese cuisines in the world. It consists of three branches: Guangzhou dishes, Chaozhou dishes and Dongjiang dishes, and each has its own characteristics.

Chinese Name: 粤菜 yuè cài
English Names: Cantonese cuisine, Yue cuisine, Guangdong cuisine
Popular in: Guangdong, Hong Kong, Macau and overseas countries
Time of Origin: Han Dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD)
Flavors: mild, fresh, natural, and sweet
Famous Cantonese Dishes: White Cut Chicken, Cantonese Roasted Goose, Roasted Suckling Pig, Char Siu
Famous Snacks: Steamed Vermicelli Roll, Shrimp Dumpling, Water Chestnut Cake, Steamed Bun Stuffed with Char Siu, Siu Mai

History of Cantonese Cuisine since 2,000 Years Ago

Cantonese cuisine has a long history and its origin can be traced back to 2,000 years ago in early Han Dynasty. Chefs at that time have been already good at cooking different materials by particular cooking methods. After the capital was moved from north to the south in Southern Song Dynasty (1127 - 1279 AD), many skillful chefs gathered in Guangzhou, contributing to the development of Cantonese cuisine and Cantonese cooking skills became mature and forms some of its own characteristics. In Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644 AD) and Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1911 AD), Cantonese cuisine had become systematic and Guangzhou was full of tea houses, hotels, restaurants and snack shops. In early 19 century, a number of Guangdong people went to North America, they ran many Cantonese cuisine restaurants and gradually Cantonese food became the most popular Chinese food around the world. Now, it is also the most popular Chinese cuisine overseas.

Flavors of Cantonese Cuisine - Mild, Fresh, Natural

Cantonese chefs pay attention to the quality and natural taste of food materials. Most Cantonese food tastes fresh, natural, and mild. In order to show the original flavor of the main ingredient, Cantonese chefs are very cautious about seasonings. The seasonings are to bring out or highlight the original taste of the ingredient, not to make it. Less spicy ingredients such as peppers, chili, ginger and garlic are used. With the seasonal changes, dishes in summer and autumn are light, in winter and spring are a little bit heavier.

Rich Materials from Sky to Water

There is a stereotype in Chinese that Guangdong people eat everything and that is not groundless. Cantonese cuisine is famous for the rich food materials which include poultries, birds, sea food, woodland delicacies, various vegetables and fruits and often the best part of them are selected for cooking. Cantonese people prefer seasonal food. For instance, they eat perches in middle winter and shrimps in April when they are fattest and tasty. The rich seasonings are mild and mellow which contain aniseed, coriander leaves, rice vinegar, oyster sauce, hoisin sauce, honey and sugar.

Special Cooking Techniques

Cantonese chefs prefer cooking techniques like stir-frying, boiling, steaming, baking, braising, sautéing, shallow frying, deep frying and roasting. Most of them can preserve the natural and original flavor of food materials. Cantonese chefs are especially good at controlling heat of fire and dish decorating, and dishes they cooked is not only tasty but appealing in both appearance and smell.

Notable Dishes in Cantonese Cuisine

Read More: 15 Best Cantonese Foods You Must Try

Best Cantonese Cuisine Restaurants in China

Bingsheng Restaurant
Chinese name: 炳胜品味 bǐng shèng pǐn wèi
Address: No. 33, Dongxiao Road, Haizhu District, Guangzhou

Guangzhou Restaurant
Chinese name: 广州酒家 guǎng zhōu jiǔ jiā
Address: No. 47, Gongyi Road, Huadu District, Guangzhou

Fanlou Restaurant
Chinese name: 蘩楼 fán lóu
Address: No. 2078, Baoan South Road, Luohu District, Shenzhen

Cuiyuan Restaurant
Chinese name: 翠园 Cuì yuán
Address: Wangfujing, Dongcheng District, Beijing
See more Cantonese Restaurants in Beijing

Huishijia Restaurant
Chinese name: 惠食佳 Huì shí jiā
Address: No. 396, Yanan West Road, Jingan District, Shanghai
See more Cantonese Restaurants in Shanghai

Major Styles of Cantonese Cuisine

Yue cuisine contains three styles: Guangzhou style, Chaoshan style and Dongjiang style. Guangzhou cuisine tastes particularly fresh, tender and smooth; the chefs are good at stir-frying, controlling fire heat and some cooking methods from western countries. Chaoshan cuisine, or Teochew Cuisine dishes originate in Chaoshan, Guangdong and specialize in cooking sea food, soup, desert and vegetables. Dongjiang dishes actually belong to the Hakka cuisine and originate in Dongjiang, Guangdong; the chefs are especially skilled in cooking meat and casserole dishes.

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Cantonese Cuisine - Most Popular Chinese Cuisine around the World

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Cantonese cuisine, also called Yue cuisine or Guangdong cuisine is one of the eight major cuisines with a long history of about 2,000 years. It is featured with widely use of materials and rich cooking methods. Cantonese dishes taste mild, fresh and natural. The most famous include White Cut Chicken, Cantonese Roasted Goose and Roasted Suckling Pig.

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A republic of Africa, Kenya is located on the Equator on the continent's east coast. It is bordered on the north by Ethiopia and South Sudan, on the west by Uganda and Lake Victoria, on the south by Tanzania, and on the east by the Indian Ocean and Somalia. The capital of Kenya is Nairobi. Area 228,561 square miles (591,971 square kilometers). Population (2020 est.) 48,417,000.

Although less than one-tenth of the land is suitable for cultivation, agriculture is one of the largest sectors of the economy. Coffee and tea, grown for export on large plantations and on small farms, are among Kenya's most important sources of income. Another major source of income is tourism. The country is well known for its scenic beauty and diverse wildlife. Its great savannas and highlands, immortalized in literature and film, include some of the world's most important natural areas and attract hundreds of thousands of annual visitors.

Kenya is divided into three main geographic regions: the highlands, the semiarid lowlands, and the deserts. A fourth region, the coastal plain, occupies a narrow strip along the Indian Ocean. The distribution of rainfall is uneven throughout these regions, and the country is prone to extended periods of drought.

The Highlands
In the western part of Kenya the land rises to more than 5,000 feet (1,500 meters) above sea level. These highlands, which represent less than 25 percent of Kenya's land area, are divided by the Great Rift Valley. In the eastern part of this region, Kenya reaches its highest point at the peak of Mount Kenya, 17,058 feet (5,199 meters) high. The highlands are the only part of the country where rainfall is sufficient-over 50 inches (127 centimeters) a year-and reliable enough to support farming. Because many Kenyans depend on agriculture for a living, it is in these highlands that the majority of the population lives. Most of the forest that once covered the land has been cleared for crop production. Some of Kenya's forest does remain. The government has created national parks to protect the local vegetation and the wildlife.

The Semiarid Lowlands
Much of Kenya is semiarid, receiving between 15 and 30 inches (38 and 76 centimeters) of rainfall a year. This amount of rainfall is insufficient for production of crops, so cultivation is limited to the borders of rivers and swamps where irrigation is possible. In the past there was little farming in the lowlands, which dominate the eastern half of Kenya. Most of the inhabitants were nomadic or seminomadic herders. The number of lowland farmers has increased, however, as people have moved from the overcrowded highlands in search of land.

The main economic activities in this region are livestock raising by Kenyans and wildlife viewing by foreign tourists. Both the wildlife and the livestock are able to graze on the vegetation that grows under the dry conditions. Trees, such as the acacia, are scattered throughout the bushy grasslands. The herders, such as the Maasai (Masai), raise cattle, goats, and sheep and move them seasonally from place to place to give them access to water and pasture. National parks and game reserves have also been created in this region. Unfortunately, water is scarce, and there is increasing competition for it among the animals.

The Deserts
The deserts of Kenya are not so extensive as other deserts in Africa. They are located in the north of the country. The vegetation is sparse, consisting of hardy grasses and occasional bushes. Desert peoples are few, but the area includes some nomadic people, such as the Somali and the Gabbra, who raise herds of camels and goats. On the edge of the desert region is Lake Rudolf (Turkana), which stretches down from the border with Ethiopia. Archaeologists working on the shores of the lake have found evidence of some of Earth's earliest people, dating the ancestors of humans back some 4 to 5 million years.

Stretching along the shores of the Indian Ocean is a narrow strip of land 10 to 15 miles (16 to 24 kilometers) wide. This land separates the dry interior from the sea. It has relatively heavy rainfall, 40 inches (100 centimeters) a year, and is an important crop-producing area. Cash crops such as coconuts and cashews are produced.

For centuries the coast has been important in trade across the Indian Ocean. Ancient ports, such as Lamu, remain as evidence of the early coastal trade cities. Today, Mombasa is the largest coastal city and Kenya's largest and busiest port. It has modern facilities, an oil refinery, and a variety of light industries. The port also serves the landlocked countries of Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi. The long and beautiful white coral sand beaches are the basis of Kenya's coastal tourist industry. Hotels serve tourists along the entire length of the coast.

Kenya has two wet seasons and two dry seasons. The rainy seasons extend from March to May and from November to December. The amount of rainfall is greatest in the highlands of Kenya. The lowland deserts of the north receive the least amount of rain. Occasionally the rains fail or are below normal for consecutive seasons, leading to drought. Some extended droughts have been particularly severe. Notable droughts occurred in the early 1960s and mid-1970s. The drought of 1992-94 preceded another that began in 1997 and lasted into the early 21st century. The droughts often create food shortages that affect millions of people.

Temperatures in the highlands generally range between 56 and 65 °F (13 and 18 °C). The semiarid and arid regions of the country are considerably warmer. Those areas experience average temperatures of 85 °F (29 °C) or more. In most parts of the coastal plain, average temperatures exceed 80 °F (27 °C) and relative humidity is high year-round.

The landscape in much of the highlands consists of patches of evergreen forest separated by wide expanses of short grass. Forested areas include economically valuable trees such as cedar and varieties of podo, or yellowwood. Semidesert regions below 3,000 feet (900 meters) give rise to baobab trees. In still drier areas of the north, desert scrub occurs, exposing the bare ground. The vegetation of the coastal region consists largely of savanna grasses. While the northern coast still bears remnants of forests, centuries of human occupation have virtually destroyed them in the south. Efforts have been made to promote the planting of trees and to prevent deforestation in Kenya. The Green Belt Movement, an organization founded in 1977 by environmentalist Wangari Maathai (winner of the 2004 Nobel Peace Prize), had planted some 30 million trees across Kenya by the early 21st century.

Kenya has an abundant wildlife population. The wildlife includes large numbers of gazelles, zebras, and wildebeests. Predators such as the lion and cheetah are prevalent. Also common are the predatory leopard, spotted hyena, and wild dog and other grazing animals such as the antelope, elephant, buffalo, and rhinoceros. Hippopotamuses, crocodiles, and many varieties of fish are found in the large rivers. Coastal waters contain butterfly fish, angelfish, rock cod, barracuda, and spiny lobsters. A vast number of lesser flamingos -among the world's largest populations-can be found in Kenya's Great Rift Valley at Lake Bogoria.

Kenya is an exceedingly diverse country-the population comprises more than 100 different ethnic groups. The largest groups are the Kikuyu, the Luhya, the Luo, the Kalenjin, and the Kamba. There are over one million herders such as the Maasai and the Somali living in the semiarid and desert areas. Urban populations are steadily increasing. Roughly one-quarter of the population now lives in cities such as Nairobi and Mombasa. Swahili and English are the national languages. Most people speak at least one of these as well as their own local language.

The people are also divided among many religious groups. African traditional religions are widespread, as is Christianity, which was spread by missionary groups in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Islam is particularly well established along the coast. Many Kenyans of Asian origin are Hindus.

In the early 1990s it was estimated that Kenya's population was increasing at the rate of 3.6 percent a year, one of the world's highest growth rates. The rate slowed by the early 21st century, though it remained higher than the world average. The decreased growth rate was due partly to lower fertility and birth rates but was also attributed to a large number of AIDS-related deaths.

Kenya's artistic heritage is represented by a variety of crafts. Among them are mat weaving on the coast, wood carving by the Kamba people, and beadwork jewelry made by groups such as the Maasai and the Samburu.

The literature of Kenya includes a large body of oral and written folklore, much of the latter collected by British anthropologists. One of the outstanding Swahili-language poets was Muyaka bin Haji al-Ghassaniy, who was active in the early 19th century. Among the leading Kenyan writers of the 20th and early 21st centuries were Ngugi wa Thiong'o, whose popular Weep Not, Child (1964) was the first major novel in English by an East African, and Meja Mwangi, who wrote prolifically on the social conditions and history of Kenya.

Kenya has several institutions devoted to the performing arts. The Kenya National Theatre, located in Nairobi, is the country's premier venue for drama. The affiliated National Theatre School was founded in 1968. The school provides professional training for Kenyan playwrights and performers of traditional music and dance. Independent art facilities, such as the GoDown Arts Centre in Nairobi, offer alternative spaces for artists to express themselves. Kenya's film industry is small but growing. Several of the country's stage and screen performers have attracted international attention. Most notably, Kenyan actress Lupita Nyong'o won the Academy Award for best supporting actress for her film debut in 12 Years a Slave (2013).

Darren McCollester-Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Sports have an enthusiastic following in Kenya. Soccer (association football) is the most popular sport. Basketball, volleyball, and netball are also popular. Internationally, Kenyan athletes are known for their dominance of distance running. Kenyan distance runners continually win Olympic medals and major races throughout the world.

Education and Social Welfare
Education has been strongly supported by the government. Nearly all children go to primary school, which is free. Free secondary schooling was introduced in 2008. After primary school the educational system becomes competitive. Students must pass a national exam in order to advance to secondary school. Relatively few of those who go on to secondary school gain admittance to the University of Nairobi or any of the country's smaller colleges. In the early 21st century Kenya's literacy rate was estimated to be about 80 percent, up from 20 percent in 1960.

Improved housing, sanitation, nutrition, and health care programs contributed to decreased mortality in Kenya in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. However, high rates of infectious disease continue to challenge public health. Especially problematic are malaria, trachoma, dysentery, and schistosomiasis. Efforts at controlling mosquito populations and providing clean water in rural areas have proved difficult.

Like many countries in sub-Saharan Africa, Kenya is faced with a high incidence of HIV infection. By the early 21st century, AIDS was the leading disease in the country. An aggressive government campaign aimed at educating the public about high-risk behavior helped to keep the infection rate lower than in some neighboring countries. However, an inadequate drug supply was a large problem in battling the epidemic.

One reason that Kenya has remained heavily dependent on agriculture is its limited amount of fuel resources, such as petroleum. Largely reliant on foreign countries for oil, Kenya's manufacturing industries have developed slowly. Nevertheless, manufacturing is one of the country's economic mainstays. Service activities are also highly important. Both tourism and trade contribute significantly to Kenya's gross domestic product (GDP)-the total market value of goods and services produced during the year.

Agriculture, Fishing, and Forestry
Although it contributes less to the GDP now than in earlier times, agriculture continues to play an important role in Kenya's economy. The sector provides a means of living for many. It also furnishes raw materials for industry. However, a lack of water and arable land has limited the expansion of agriculture.

The vast majority of Kenya's farmers own less than 5 acres (2 hectares) of land. On these small farms most of what they produce is to meet their family's needs. Some crops are grown for sale to raise money to buy consumer items. Corn (maize), cassava, sugarcane, sweet potatoes, and wheat are among the most important crops grown for consumption and local trade, though a large share is exported. Tea and coffee are important export crops. They are among Kenya's major sources of income. Some farmers also keep animals such as cattle and goats, and many raise poultry.

As the human population grows, so have the number of animals. There is concern that the animals may be overgrazing the land. In many parts of the country the government is promoting better use and management of the grazing land.

Kenya has a small fishing industry, mostly centered on freshwater catches from Lakes Victoria and Rudolf. Forestry is important, though forests occupy only a small portion of the land. Softwood plantations supply material for the domestic paper industry. Many forests are threatened by the increasing population, which uses wood for cooking and heating fuel.

Kenya's mining industry accounts for only a very small portion of the country's income and jobs. Soda ash (used in glassmaking) is Kenya's most valuable mineral export. It is quarried at Lake Magadi in the Great Rift Valley. Limestone deposits at the coast and in the interior are exploited for cement manufacture. Fluorite, used in metallurgy, is mined along the Kerio River in the north. Rubies and other gemstones are also mined.

Exploration for petroleum has so far met with limited success. Some energy comes from modest hydroelectric projects, though much of this is consumed by Nairobi and Mombasa. The government has accelerated development of alternative sources of energy. Kenya now produces geothermal power (using natural heat from Earth's interior). Geothermal power plants supply much of Nairobi's needs.

Having limited fuel resources has slowed the development of Kenya's manufacturing industries. However, the manufacturing sector contributes substantially to the GDP. Most manufacturing consists of processing imported goods. Key products include food and beverages, cement, textiles and clothing, and chemicals and chemical products. Assembly plants, which utilize imported parts, produce various kinds of vehicles and machinery. Steel processing for reexport and for the construction industry is a growing activity.

Contunico © ZDF Enterprises GmbH, Mainz

Tourism is a major source of foreign revenue. Tourists visit Kenya for a number of reasons. Its beaches are beautiful and uncrowded, and its hotels are of high quality and serve good food. Kenya has one of the world's largest wildlife populations. A wide variety of animals can be seen in the country's national parks and game reserves. At some national parks, hotels with special facilities for wildlife viewing have been built for tourists. The parks protect the wildlife, but some species, such as the rhinoceros and elephant, are still hunted by poachers. Nairobi also attracts many tourists. The city has become a site for international conferences.

Trade is also very important to Kenya's economy, contributing a large share of the GDP. Agricultural products, especially coffee, tea, produce, and cut flowers, are key exports. Imports include machinery and transport equipment, chemical products, petroleum and petroleum products, and food and beverages. Among Kenya's chief trading partners are India, China, Uganda, and Tanzania.

Transportation and Communications
The Kenyan economy is supported by one of the best transportation systems in Africa. Railways link the main cities. Paved roads reach all but the most inaccessible towns. Paved highways lead to Tanzania, Ethiopia, and Uganda. International airports are at Nairobi, Mombasa, and Eldoret. There are domestic airports at Kisumu, Eldoret, Malindi, and many smaller airfields throughout the country. Mombasa, the country's largest port, handles most of Kenya's shipping traffic. The ports of Lamu and Malindi serve mainly the coastal trade and fisheries.

Telephone service has greatly expanded in the country. Although relatively few people in Kenya have access to local telephone lines, many inhabitants now have cellular phones. Internet access has also grown rapidly. In the early 21st century, Kenya had one of the highest numbers of Internet users in sub-Saharan Africa. In addition to state-run radio and television stations, there are numerous privately owned radio and TV stations in the country.

Kenya is a multiparty republic with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The parliament is a bicameral, or two-chambered, legislature. It is composed of a 68-member Senate and a 350-member National Assembly. Under the 2010 constitution, the executive branch is headed by the president. The president is the head of state and government and is assisted by the deputy president and the cabinet. The president is elected by direct popular vote. The president's term of office is five years, and there is a limit of two terms. The Supreme Court is the highest court in Kenya. It hears appeals from lower courts. It also has jurisdiction over all electoral disputes as well as disputes relating to the presidency.

As recently as the 1880s there was no country known as Kenya. At the beginning of the 20th century the British colonized East Africa and drew boundaries around the country they named Kenya. Prior to the arrival of the British each of Kenya's peoples had its own form of government, culture, and economy. The British imposed their own administration. Through their economic, religious, and educational activities they transformed the Africans' way of life.

The colonial administration encouraged British and South African white people to move from their homelands to settle in Kenya. To promote this settlement they reserved a large area exclusively for whites and made generous offers of land. Eventually this area totaled about 16,000 square miles (41,400 square kilometers) and contained about one half of the country's land suitable for crops. In the highlands the settlers grew tea and coffee for export. In the lowlands they raised livestock.

The loss of land to the British brought resentment against the colonial administration. In 1952 a war of liberation began. A guerrilla group called the Mau Mau, made up of members of several ethnic groups (primarily Kikuyu), led the struggle. The Mau Mau rebellion, as it was called, took place mainly in the highlands, where the Kikuyu people claimed that much land had been stolen from them. In 1963 independence for Kenya was won. More than 1 million acres (400,000 hectares) were redistributed to 45,000 Kenyans. However, many large farms were left intact and taken over by powerful Kenyans.

Jomo Kenyatta was elected the first president of the new country. He was the leader of the Kenya African National Union (KANU), which soon became the country's dominant political party. Kenyatta held the office of president until his death in 1978, when he was succeeded by the vice president, Daniel arap Moi. Moi was supported by all of Kenya's leading politicians. He faced a major threat to his government in 1982, however, when air force personnel attempted a coup. The army proved loyal to Moi and suppressed the coup attempt. That same year KANU was officially designated as the only legal political party in Kenya.

Violent unrest marked the beginning of the 1990s as opponents charged the government with corruption, especially in land dealings. Protests and riots broke out across Kenya in 1991. An opposition party, the Forum for the Restoration of Democracy, was founded despite Kenya's political system of one-party rule. Governments sending financial aid to Kenya demanded reforms, and in December, Moi announced permission for multiparty politics. A second opposition group, the Democratic Party, was formed in January 1992. Despite these challenges, however, Moi was reelected to a fourth term in December 1992.

Social unrest in Kenya continued to challenge Moi's authority. In 1997 a pro-democracy coalition staged a large protest to demand that the government repeal several controversial laws established during the period of British colonial rule. Nine protesters were killed and dozens more were wounded during clashes between the demonstrators and Kenyan riot police. When the International Monetary Fund took economic action against Kenya for continued evidence of government corruption, the Kenyan parliament passed three constitutional reform bills. Moi promised equal access to the state media for opposition parties and greater freedom of political association.

Kenya's second multiparty general elections were held in December 1997. Moi was reelected amid allegations of widespread vote fraud and ballot rigging. Barred by the constitution from seeking reelection, he was replaced in 2002 by Mwai Kibaki, a member of the National Rainbow Coalition. His landslide victory ended nearly 40 years of KANU domination of Kenya's government. Although Kibaki pledged to fight the corruption that had plagued Kenya under KANU's rule, it continued to affect the country's economic and political credibility. In 2005 Kibaki's administration was embroiled in a corruption scandal.

The December 2007 elections were among the closest in Kenya's history. Kibaki ran as the candidate of a new coalition, the Party of National Unity (PNU), which also included KANU. The provisional results indicated that Raila Odinga of the Orange Democratic Movement (ODM) would win the presidency. The final results, however, returned a victory for Kibaki. Odinga disputed the outcome, and international observers questioned the validity of the final results. Massive protests broke out across the country. They soon degenerated into horrific acts of violence involving some of Kenya's many ethnic groups, especially the Kikuyu (Kibaki's group) and the Luo (Odinga's group). More than 1,000 people were killed and more than 600,000 were displaced in the election's violent aftermath. Finally, in February, Kibaki and Odinga agreed to an internationally brokered power-sharing plan. The PNU and the ODM ultimately formed a coalition government, with Kibaki remaining president and Odinga becoming prime minister, a newly created post.

In an attempt to end Kenya's long-standing problems with political tension and corruption, a new constitution was adopted in 2010. In addition to limiting the power of the presidency, it provided for a bill of rights and land reform. It also included a provision that eliminated the prime minister's post after the 2013 elections.

Odinga ran for the presidency in 2013 but lost to Uhuru Kenyatta, son of Jomo Kenyatta. Although Odinga made allegations of voting irregularities, he conceded defeat after the Supreme Court unanimously upheld the election results. Uhuru Kenyatta was inaugurated as president on April 9, 2013. Security issues were a major concern for his administration. The Islamic militant group al-Shabaab posed an ongoing threat. The group, angered over Kenya's military actions against it in southern Somalia, launched a number of deadly attacks on Kenyan soil. Kenyatta nevertheless continued military operations against the group. His administration also took measures aimed at preventing the radicalization of Kenyans who could be recruited by al-Shabaab.

In the August 8, 2017, presidential election, Kenyatta was reelected with more than 54 percent of the vote. His nearest challenger was again Odinga, who trailed him with about 45 percent. However, Kenyatta's reelection was overturned on September 1 when the Supreme Court nullified the election results. The court concluded that voting irregularities had marred the presidential poll and ordered a new election to be held within 60 days. The election date was later pushed back from October 17 to October 26. Claiming that a credible election could not be guaranteed, Odinga withdrew from the race before the new election could be held. He also encouraged his supporters to boycott the poll. Kenyatta went on to win the October 26 election handily, claiming about 98 percent of the vote. His victory, however, was clouded by Odinga's withdrawal and by a low turnout figure that was about half of that of the August election.

Bankston, John. We Visit Kenya (Mitchell Lane, 2013).Bartell, Jim. Kenya (Bellwether Media, 2011).Brownlie Bojang, Ali. Kenya in Our World (Smart Apple Media, 2012).Burgan, Michael. Kenya (Children's Press, 2015).Burns, Kylie. Cultural Traditions in Kenya (Crabtree, 2015).Kalman, Bobbie. Spotlight on Kenya (Crabtree, 2013).Ward, Chris. Kenya (Wayland, 2012).

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A republic of Africa, Kenya is located on the Equator on the continent's east coast. It is bordered on the north by Ethiopia and South Sudan, on the west by Uganda and Lake Victoria, on the south by Tanzania, and on the east by the Indian Ocean and Somalia.

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Cantonese cuisine, also called Yue cuisine or Guangdong cuisine is one of the eight major cuisines with a long history of about 2,000 years. It is featured with widely use of materials and rich cooking methods. Cantonese dishes taste mild, fresh and natural. The most famous include White Cut Chicken, Cantonese Roasted Goose and Roasted Suckling Pig.

Most of the Chinese restaurants abroad are Cantonese restaurants, making Cantonese cuisine the most popular Chinese cuisine around the world and the representative of Chinese cuisines in the world. It consists of three branches: Guangzhou dishes, Chaozhou dishes and Dongjiang dishes, and each has its own characteristics.

Chinese Name: 粤菜 yuè cài
English Names: Cantonese cuisine, Yue cuisine, Guangdong cuisine
Popular in: Guangdong, Hong Kong, Macau and overseas countries
Time of Origin: Han Dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD)
Flavors: mild, fresh, natural, and sweet
Famous Cantonese Dishes: White Cut Chicken, Cantonese Roasted Goose, Roasted Suckling Pig, Char Siu
Famous Snacks: Steamed Vermicelli Roll, Shrimp Dumpling, Water Chestnut Cake, Steamed Bun Stuffed with Char Siu, Siu Mai

History of Cantonese Cuisine since 2,000 Years Ago

Cantonese cuisine has a long history and its origin can be traced back to 2,000 years ago in early Han Dynasty. Chefs at that time have been already good at cooking different materials by particular cooking methods. After the capital was moved from north to the south in Southern Song Dynasty (1127 - 1279 AD), many skillful chefs gathered in Guangzhou, contributing to the development of Cantonese cuisine and Cantonese cooking skills became mature and forms some of its own characteristics. In Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644 AD) and Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1911 AD), Cantonese cuisine had become systematic and Guangzhou was full of tea houses, hotels, restaurants and snack shops. In early 19 century, a number of Guangdong people went to North America, they ran many Cantonese cuisine restaurants and gradually Cantonese food became the most popular Chinese food around the world. Now, it is also the most popular Chinese cuisine overseas.

Flavors of Cantonese Cuisine - Mild, Fresh, Natural

Cantonese chefs pay attention to the quality and natural taste of food materials. Most Cantonese food tastes fresh, natural, and mild. In order to show the original flavor of the main ingredient, Cantonese chefs are very cautious about seasonings. The seasonings are to bring out or highlight the original taste of the ingredient, not to make it. Less spicy ingredients such as peppers, chili, ginger and garlic are used. With the seasonal changes, dishes in summer and autumn are light, in winter and spring are a little bit heavier.

Rich Materials from Sky to Water

There is a stereotype in Chinese that Guangdong people eat everything and that is not groundless. Cantonese cuisine is famous for the rich food materials which include poultries, birds, sea food, woodland delicacies, various vegetables and fruits and often the best part of them are selected for cooking. Cantonese people prefer seasonal food. For instance, they eat perches in middle winter and shrimps in April when they are fattest and tasty. The rich seasonings are mild and mellow which contain aniseed, coriander leaves, rice vinegar, oyster sauce, hoisin sauce, honey and sugar.

Special Cooking Techniques

Cantonese chefs prefer cooking techniques like stir-frying, boiling, steaming, baking, braising, sautéing, shallow frying, deep frying and roasting. Most of them can preserve the natural and original flavor of food materials. Cantonese chefs are especially good at controlling heat of fire and dish decorating, and dishes they cooked is not only tasty but appealing in both appearance and smell.

Notable Dishes in Cantonese Cuisine

Read More: 15 Best Cantonese Foods You Must Try

Best Cantonese Cuisine Restaurants in China

Bingsheng Restaurant
Chinese name: 炳胜品味 bǐng shèng pǐn wèi
Address: No. 33, Dongxiao Road, Haizhu District, Guangzhou

Guangzhou Restaurant
Chinese name: 广州酒家 guǎng zhōu jiǔ jiā
Address: No. 47, Gongyi Road, Huadu District, Guangzhou

Fanlou Restaurant
Chinese name: 蘩楼 fán lóu
Address: No. 2078, Baoan South Road, Luohu District, Shenzhen

Cuiyuan Restaurant
Chinese name: 翠园 Cuì yuán
Address: Wangfujing, Dongcheng District, Beijing
See more Cantonese Restaurants in Beijing

Huishijia Restaurant
Chinese name: 惠食佳 Huì shí jiā
Address: No. 396, Yanan West Road, Jingan District, Shanghai
See more Cantonese Restaurants in Shanghai

Major Styles of Cantonese Cuisine

Yue cuisine contains three styles: Guangzhou style, Chaoshan style and Dongjiang style. Guangzhou cuisine tastes particularly fresh, tender and smooth; the chefs are good at stir-frying, controlling fire heat and some cooking methods from western countries. Chaoshan cuisine, or Teochew Cuisine dishes originate in Chaoshan, Guangdong and specialize in cooking sea food, soup, desert and vegetables. Dongjiang dishes actually belong to the Hakka cuisine and originate in Dongjiang, Guangdong; the chefs are especially skilled in cooking meat and casserole dishes.

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Cantonese Cuisine - Most Popular Chinese Cuisine around the World

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Cantonese cuisine, also called Yue cuisine or Guangdong cuisine is one of the eight major cuisines with a long history of about 2,000 years. It is featured with widely use of materials and rich cooking methods. Cantonese dishes taste mild, fresh and natural. The most famous include White Cut Chicken, Cantonese Roasted Goose and Roasted Suckling Pig.

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Credit: Armed Forces History, Division of History of Technology, National Museum of American History

Dimensions / Weight

Dimensions: 46" H x 72" W

Physical Description

Green, white and red strips.

Specific History

Mexican flag is full of national symbolism. The green strip represents the Independence Movement. The white stripe represents the purity of the Catholic faith. The red stripe represents the Spaniards that joined in the quest for Independence and the blood of the national heroes. The emblem-shield symbolizes the Aztec heritage. According to legend, the gods had advised the Aztecs that the place where they should establish their city was to be identified when they saw an eagle, perched on a prickly pear tree, devouring a serpent. They saw this mythical eagle on a marshy lake that is now the main plaza in Mexico City. This flag was created in 1821, when the Independence movement had ended victoriously.

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Credit: Armed Forces History, Division of History of Technology, National Museum of American History Dimensions: 46" H x 72" W Green, white and red strips. Mexican flag is full of national symbolism. The green strip represents the Independence Movement. The white stripe represents the purity of the Catholic faith.

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Benito Juarez: Biography & Accomplishments

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Benito Juarez: Biography & Accomplishments

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Benito Juarez

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Benito Juarez: Biography & Accomplishments | Study.com

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Benito Juarez was a pretty important figure in Mexican history. In this lesson we’ll talk about Juarez, and see what he meant to Mexico in a time...

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Even if you’ve never been to Kenya, chances are you know what it looks like.

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Industrial growth

Discover how Ronaldo Piaggio's Vespa turned into a groundbreaking mode of transportation not only in Italy but all around the world

Contunico © ZDF Enterprises GmbH, Mainz See all videos for this article

The republic enjoyed economic success for many years. Initial U.S. support, especially food, oil, and Marshall Plan aid, helped to rebuild basic industries, including steel. The government abandoned the controls that had existed under the Fascists and the attempts at autarky, and all parties and trade unions approved the "reconstruction" program of 1945-47. Prewar industrial production levels were regained by 1948, and production for the Korean War (1950-53) provided further stimulus to growth. Italy became fully integrated into European trade and took an increasingly active part in Middle Eastern oil exploration and engineering development. Until 1964 (and in particular in the boom years of 1958-63) the country enjoyed an "economic miracle," with industrial growth rates of more than 8 percent per year. Its most prominent industries, still in the northwestern industrial triangle, produced fashionable clothing (especially shoes), typewriters, refrigerators, washing machines, furniture, plastics, artificial fibres, sewing machines, inexpensive motor scooters (the Vespa and the Lambretta), and cars (from economical Fiats to luxury makes such as Maserati, Lamborghini, and Alfa Romeo). Italian firms became famous for their combination of elegant design and inexpensive production techniques. An extraordinary network of superhighways was constructed across Italy. The country was transformed in less than two decades from a largely agricultural backwater into one of the world's most dynamic industrial nations. Economic success gave politicians additional resources to maintain their political support.

The postwar recovery and subsequent expansion benefited from a stable currency from 1948 onward and from Italy's cheap access to raw materials, especially Middle Eastern oil. The dynamic policies of Enrico Mattei, president of ENI (Ente Nazionale Idrocarburi, the state-owned energy group), were central to this development. The petroleum company AGIP ( Azienda Generale Italiana Petroli), which became a division of ENI in 1953, discovered natural gas in the Po valley and sold it at low prices to industry. Labour was inexpensive, as rural migrants flooded into the cities, trade unions were weak and politically divided until the late 1960s, regulatory agencies were even weaker, and taxes were low and easily avoidable. All this encouraged investment, especially as businessmen could borrow cheaply from state-owned banks and credit institutes. The IRI, founded under Mussolini in 1933, continued to dominate much of the economy, including not only heavy industry but also telephone service, air transport, and highway construction. The "economic miracle," therefore, did not rest on market principles alone; government agencies played a vital role in it.

In agriculture the major postwar change was the land reform laws of 1950, which made it possible for land reform agencies to expropriate large, badly cultivated estates, mostly in southern or central Italy, improve them, and sell them off to new peasant owners. The aim was to create a settled society of peasant cultivators, but this was achieved only in a few areas, because normally there was not enough land to go around: only 117,000 families actually acquired farms. Landless peasants moved abroad or to the cities instead. A major consequence of land reform, however, was that the reform agencies-run by central politicians in Rome-became economically dominant in many rural areas, controlling, among other things, land allocation, loans, and improvement grants. They thus undermined the traditional power of local landowners and became transmission belts for the political patronage of the Christian Democrats, especially in the south. Mechanization and modernization gradually replaced many of the traditional jobs in the Italian countryside. Seasonal women rice workers disappeared from the north, as did most day labourers and sharecroppers. Smaller, well-managed farms prospered, in part through EEC subsidies, and rural towns grew.

The south

The major economic problem was still the relatively underdeveloped south, where there was little industry and where per capita income in 1950 was half that of northern Italy. Initial policy stressed land reform and irrigation. For a while it seemed as if southerners were taking control of their own destiny for the first time since the Risorgimento. The huge, organized land occupation movements that swept across the south in 1949 and 1950 involved hundreds of thousands of landless peasants and politicized a whole generation. But the state intervened, sometimes lethally, to end the occupations on behalf of the powerful landowners. Because the land reforms that followed the occupations actually transferred little land to the peasantry and left many of the south's inequities intact, millions of young men and women decided to migrate to the north.

The special Southern Development Fund (Cassa per il Mezzogiorno), established in 1950, financed roads, schools, electrification, water provision, and land reclamation. After 1957 it began to invest in industrial development as well, helped by a government policy that directed the expansion of state firms southward and by credit and tax breaks for private investors. Other agencies were founded to develop specific sectors. Promising areas of the south were selected for industrial development, and key plants were built there, together with the necessary infrastructure. The result was the establishment of a number of large, capital-intensive plants-for example, steelworks and heavy engineering at Taranto and oil refineries at Porto Torres-that were hugely expensive, often produced nonmarketable goods, and employed little local labour. These factories quickly became known as "cathedrals in the desert." Although a few areas did take off (notably the Puglian coast north of Bari), the industrialization policy soon faced widespread criticism. Northerners resented having to pay for it, and southerners could see little benefit, especially as small firms received few incentives. The environmental costs were also enormous. Funding was gradually shifted, therefore, to subsidizing labour costs-especially social security contributions-and training and, by the 1980s, to making selective grants available for small and medium projects. The fund spent $20 billion between 1950 and 1980, but it did not industrialize southern Italy. Southern unemployment remained at three times the northern rate, and wages were still 40 percent below the national average.

The south did benefit, however, from some of the fund's original activities, such as providing decent roads, clean water, much improved health services, and secondary schools, as well as eradicating malaria. It also received many state welfare benefits-often derived from friendly politicians in need of votes-and subsidies to agriculture. The social impact of automobiles, television, and processed foods was as great in southern Italy as elsewhere. The south also benefited from emigrants' remittances as large-scale migration to western Europe and the northern cities resumed from 1950 onward. More than three million people, mostly able-bodied young men, left the south between 1955 and 1970. Some rural areas became seriously depopulated, whereas Rome and many of the northern cities virtually doubled in size, with the immigrants being crowded into bleak housing estates on the outskirts or into improvised shantytowns.

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Italy - Italy - The economic miracle: The republic enjoyed economic success for many years. Initial U.S. support, especially food, oil, and Marshall Plan aid, helped to rebuild basic industries, including steel. The government abandoned the controls that had existed under the Fascists and the attempts at autarky, and all parties and trade unions approved the "reconstruction" program of 1945-47.

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http://www.choctaw.org/aboutmbci/history/index.html

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The Choctaw Indian Reservation consists of 35,000 acres of trust land scattered over 10 counties in east central Mississippi. The nearly 10,000 members of the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians live in the eight reservation communities of Bogue Chitto, Bogue Homa, Conehatta, Crystal Ridge, Pearl River (the site of tribal headquarters, the industrial park, Pearl River Resort, the Choctaw Health Department/Center, and other main tribal services), Red Water, Standing Pine, and Tucker.

When Europeans began settling America in the 16th century the Choctaw were living in the south-eastern United States, largely in the area that was to become Mississippi. The Choctaw lived off both agriculture and hunter gathering. Their principal source of food was corn, beans and pumpkins, nuts, fruit, fish, bear and deer. In the wars between the French and the British during the 18th century the Choctaw allied themselves with the French. Consequently, following the defeat of the French in the French and Indian war (1754-63), some of the Choctaw land was taken from them by the British, forcing some to move westwards in search of new land.

Mississippi Choctaws have a strong tradition of doing business. As early as 1700, the tribe had developed a strong economy based on farming and selling goods and livestock to the Europeans who were beginning to venture into Choctaw territory. Trade between the Choctaws and other Southeastern tribes had long been established. Throughout the 18th century, the Choctaws were a prosperous people with large land holdings. Their lands spread over what is now central Mississippi.

As the United States of America came into being, however, the expansion of the new nation brought pressures for more land and the federal government turned its attention to land held by American Indians. Like other Southeastern tribes, the Choctaws were placed in the position of negotiating over their lands. In fact, after the formation of the Mississippi Territory in 1798 and the election in 1800 of Thomas Jefferson to the U. S. presidency, the federal government had an increasing hunger for Choctaw land. President Jefferson issued his military strategy that the federal government acquire all the lands bordering the east side of the Mississippi River for purpose of defense against France, Spain, and England.

Shortly thereafter, in 1801, the Treaty of Fort Adams was signed in which the Choctaws ceded to the United States 2,641,920 acres of land from the Yazoo River to the thirty-first parallel. That was the first in a series of treaties between the Choctaws and the United States. More and more Choctaw land was ceded to the federal government with each successive treaty - between 1801 and 1830, the Choctaw ceded more than 23 million acres to the United States. The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek in 1830 marked the final cession of lands and outlined the terms of Choctaw removal to the west. Indeed, the Choctaw Nation was the first American Indian tribe to be removed by the federal government from its ancestral home to land set aside for them in what is now Oklahoma.

When the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek was signed, there were over 19,000 Choctaws in Mississippi. From 1831 to 1833, approximately 13,000 Choctaws were removed to the west. More followed over the years. Members of the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians are descendants of the proud Choctaw individuals who refused to be removed to Oklahoma in the 1830s.

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The Choctaw Indian Reservation consists of 35,000 acres of trust land scattered over 10 counties in east central Mississippi. The nearly 10,000 members of the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians live in the eight reservation communities of Bogue Chitto, Bogue Homa, Conehatta, Crystal Ridge, Pearl River (the site of tribal headquarters, the industrial park, Pearl River Resort, the Choctaw Health Department/Center, and other main tribal services), Red Water, Standing Pine, and Tucker.

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Aztec rituals and religious symbolism imbued the civilization's life with religious meaning throughout the year. Every month had at least one major religious ceremony honoring a god or gods. Most of these ceremonies were related to the agricultural season, the sowing of corn or the harvest of fruits. In almost all major ceremonies an individual was chosen to impersonate the god, dressing as him or her. This person would be coddled as if he was the god until the time of sacrifice.

Whether the ceremonies celebrated or invoked fertility, sacred mountains, planting, renewal, trade or hunting, people fasted and feasted, dressed in their finest and danced to music in the great public plazas of Aztec cities. The priesthood organized and guided all the religious ceremonies, arranging for every necessary component and making sure they ran smoothly.

Human sacrifice was important, even vital, to the Aztecs. They embraced human sacrifice because their gods, all the gods, had sacrificed their blood and lives in creating the world and everything in it, including humans. To honor the sacrifice of the gods, man, too, had to sacrifice his blood and life. To this end, most Mesoamerican cultures featured human sacrifice, and most Aztecs went to the sacrifice willingly. We will discuss this in greater detail in another article.

Not every great ceremony or ritual required human sacrifice. In some Aztec rituals, priests and laymen would cut themselves and offer their blood to the gods. In others, small birds or other creatures were sacrificed. Nevertheless, many Aztec ceremonies required human victims.

One representative ceremony happened in spring, Tlacaxipehualiztli, which honored the god of vegetation, Xipe Totec. This fertility ritual required the sacrifice of captured warriors. Their skin was flayed from them after death, and the priests of Xipe Totec wore these human skins for the 20 days of the ceremony, which also featured gladiatorial battles and military ceremonies. In a May ceremony called Toxcatl, an individual was chosen to represent Tezcatlipoca, the god of fate or destiny. The victim was treated as and portrayed the god until the time of his sacrifice. During this 17 day-long festival, people indulged in feasting and dancing and small birds were sacrificed along with "Tezcatlipoca."

At the end of every 360 day year was the time of Nemontemi, a period of five days to even out the 365 days of a solar year. This was a time of bad luck, and all stayed in their houses, eating little or fasting, waiting for the five days to pass. No religious ceremonies took place and no business was done.

Every 52 years, the two Aztec calendars would align and the New Fire Rites or Toxiuhmolpilia, took place. Again, all activities would cease and house and temple fires were doused. On Uixachtlan Hill, priests sacrificed a man and removed his heart. They started a fire in his chest, and from that fire, priests lit their torches and took them down the hill to the cities and the temples. In the dark of the night, Aztecs would watch the world's fires lit again from the one sacrifice. New temple and house fires were lit by the priests. People bought new clothes, and replaced their day-to-day tools and utensils. A new cycle would begin.

Aztec rituals appear alien today to a Western observer, but the symbolism faithfully depicted their cosmological understanding of the universe.
This article is part of our larger resource on Aztec civilization. For a comprehensive overview of the Aztec Empire, including its military, religion, and agriculture, click here.

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Aztec Rituals and Religious Ceremonies - History

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Aztec rituals and religious symbolism imbued the civilization's life with religious meaning throughout the year. Every month had at least one major religious ceremony honoring a god or gods. Most of these ceremonies were related to the agricultural season, the sowing of corn or the harvest of fruits.

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Santa Rosa de Lima in Peru in 2021 | Office Holidays

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Santa Rosa de Lima in Peru in 2021 | Office Holidays

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When is St. Rose of Lima day?

This national holiday in Peru is always celebrated on August 30th.

It commemorates Saint Rose of Lima who died on August 24th 1617. Rose of Lima is the patron saint of Peru and the indigenous natives of Latin America.

History of St. Rose of Lima day

Saint Rose of Lima was born on April 20th 1586 in Lima, Peru. Her father was Spanish, her mother was of indian descent and Rose was one of 13 children. Her real name was Isabel, but she was such a beautiful baby with rosy cheeks, that she soon came to be called 'Rose'.

From an early age, she showed great devotion to god. Her parents had hoped that her good looks would enable her to marry well and help the family escape poverty but Rose decided to follow a religious life dedicating herself to god. Rose was too poor to join a monastery, so she lived in a small cottage making money to support her family and her charity work by selling needlework and flowers. She looked after the sick and needy people in Lima, bringing them to her cottage to feed and care for them.

Her efforts were soon noticed by the Dominican Order who allowed her to join without any payment.

While continuing her service to the people of Lima, Rose practiced some extreme forms of devotion; eating only bread and water and wearing a spiked crown around her waist under her clothes. Rose died at the age of 31. When she died, her funeral had to be be delayed by two days due to the amount of people who wanted to pay their respects.

Rose was beatified in 1667, making her the first person born in the Americas to become a saint.

Her feast day was added to the Roman Catholic calendar in 1729 as August 30th. The date of her death, August 24th was already snaffled by Saint Bartholomew the Apostle and 30 August was the closest available date. In 1969, revisions to the calendar meant August 23rd could be allocated as her feast day; however Peru and some other Latin American countries use the old date.

How is St Rose of Lima day celebrated?

On this day a religious procession takes place from the Church and Convent of Santo Domingo, where the remains of the saint are kept, to Lima's Cathedral. Visiting the Church and Sanctuary of Saint Rose of Lima is also a popular activity on this day.

The image of Saint Rose of Lima is found on the Peruvian Nuevo Sol 200 banknote.

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Santa Rosa de Lima in Peru in 2021 | Office Holidays

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This national holiday in Peru is always celebrated on August 30th. It commemorates Saint Rose of Lima who died on August 24th 1617. Rose of Lima is the patron saint of Peru and the indigenous natives of Latin America. Saint Rose of Lima was born on April 20th 1586 in Lima, Peru.

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The Great Military Parade of Peru, held every July 29 on Brasil Avenue in Lima, is the largest festivity in the weeklong Fiestas Patrias celebrating Peruvian independence.

Peru's independence day is July 28, but on that day the Plaza de Armas is the center of action when the president attends an annual mass at the Cathedral of Lima led by the Lima archbishop which concludes in singing the Te Deum hymn. The president then delivers a legally mandated Message to the Nation speech before Congress.

The Great Military Parade, the largest event of the weeklong independence celebrations, is held on July 29. Peru's military shows off all its guns, bazookas, tanks, uniforms ranging from jungle warfare to urban riots, cavalry and all other rank of soldier in a daylong march down Brasil Avenue.

The parade starts at 10 a.m., but you have to get there early if you want a seat or view. We arrived after 11 a.m. with my two-year-old in tow, so no chance of a seat. Fortunately I was tall enough to reach over this crowd with the camera to get the pictures in this article, but the boy's patience didn't allow me to stay for more than an hour.

Helicopters flying overhead in formation.

An all-female combat unit.

I imagine this is a special-operations unit battling drug trafficking and the Shining Path in the jungle.

Another hardcore unit, I imagine for night operations.

Marching band.

Dress uniforms from the 19 th century, probably what Peru's soldiers wore during the War of the Pacific.

Color guard.

Fusiliers.

A World War II tank bought from the United States which probably saw action during the Peru-Ecuador War. The elderly gentleman perched in the cockpit looks like he could be a veteran.

Cavalry. Many more uniforms and presentations of horseback soldiers in the pictures below.

I was only there for a short time, so these pics cover only a few of the total number of units across military branches and law enforcement that march. See this photo essay from La Republica for more pictures.

Far from my spot, President Pedro Pablo Kuczysnki caused a little controversy when he stood up to dance "valicha" during the military performance.

Location and info

The Great Military Parade of Peru is held every July 29 starting at 10 a.m. The route starts at the southern end of Brasil Avenue in Magdalena del Mar and proceeds north into Breña and downtown.

Approaching the parade route is restricted to specific access points, which may vary year to year. Below is an example. They're never more than a couple blocks apart, so you can either search online or just show up and follow the crowds. If you don't like crowds, the parade is broadcast on all of Peru's network channels.

Pictures

For high-res slideshow viewing, see the Great Military Parade of Peru album on the Lima City of Kings Facebook page.

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The Great Military Parade of Peru, held every July 29 on Brasil Avenue in Lima, is the largest festivity in the weeklong Fiestas Patrias celebrating Peruvian independence. Peru's independence day is July 28, but on that day the Plaza de Armas is the center of action when the president attends an annual mass at the Cathedral of Lima led by the Lima archbishop which concludes in singing the Te Deum hymn.