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nursyafiqa arisya binti jamaludin (A21SC0294)

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nursyafiqa arisya binti jamaludin (A21SC0294)

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CARBON (C)

EXISTENCE

-0.03% IN AIR (THROUGH CO2), 100% IN IGNEOUS ROCK AND ANTHRACITE, 85% IN BITUMINOUS COAL, 60% IN IGNITE.

-ALLOTROPY OF CARBON:

*DIAMOND

~IT CAN BE SYNTHESIZED FROM GRAPHITE

~EACH CARBON ARE BONDED TOGETHER BY COVALENT BOND AND EACH OF THE CARBON CAN BONDED TO MAXIMUM OF 4 CARBON BECAUSE THEY ARE SP3.

~VERY HIGH MELTING POINT

~DOES NOT CONDUCT ELECTRICITY

~CAN BE USE AS CUTTING TOOLS AND PRECIOUS JEWELLERY

*GRAPHITE

~it can be prepared by acheson process

~it made up of stacked of 2-d carbon sheets

~each of the atom are bonded covalently with 3 carbon with sp2 hybrid by arranged of layer

~it is soft, can conduct electricity and use in pencils

~it can act as oxidizing agent or reducing agent

*fullerene

~it consist of large c framework and a very stable framework due to the symmetrical structure

~superconductor

~it shows similar reaction as alkene due to the double bond

carbon compounds:
#oxides
#carbonates
#halides
#carbides

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MUHAMMAD AIMAN AQIL BIN MUHAMAD ERI (A21SC0147)

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MUHAMMAD AIMAN AQIL BIN MUHAMAD ERI (A21SC0147)

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Silicon (Si)

2nd most abundance element in the earth

exist silicon dioxide, SiO2

Extraction of silicon

1. Reducing SiO2 by coke

2. Reducing SiCl4 by Na

Characteristic of silicon

Has metallic lustre and greyish colour

Having diamond lattice

High melting point

Inert element but attack by hydrogen

Do not dissolve in any acid (except HF)

Dissolve in base

Inert at low temperature but reactive at elevated temperature

Become acidic at elevated temperature

Compound of silicon

Exist as polymeric tetrahedral

The whole molecule is covalent macromolecule with the formation of the polymorph

Preparation of silicon

Hydrolysis of SiCl4

Acidification of water glass

Silicate (SiO4)4-

Structure: polymorph that contain tetrahedral SiO4

Join through Si-O-Si bond

Aluminosilicate

Has 3D silicate

Occur when aluminium atoms substituted Si in the silicate framework

Framework become negatively charge

Excess charge are balance by cation from group 1 or 2 or transition metal

Example: feldspar, zeolite (hydrated aluminosilicate)

Zeolite

Has regular size of pores and chanel

Molecular sieve to separate molecule of different size

Silicate glasses

Not a true solid

It's supercool liquid that having very high viscosity

Has no melting point

Inert by most chemicals but attack by F2, HF and alkali

Production: soda is a mixture of calcium silicate and sodium silicate

Type: soft glass (ordinary sodaline), hard glass (potash lime glass), flint glass (lit-potash-lime glass with high refractivity), gina glass (zinc-barium-borosilicate glass), corning glass (sodium-aluminium-borosilicate)

Compound (Silicon Halide)

All halide except SiF4 are unstable and undergo hydrolysis in water

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STANNUM,SN/TIN

how to obtain?
Extraction of Sn/tin :

-roasting cassitserite to remove impurities S,As(SnO2,cassitserite--->SnO2,pure tin )

-the process continue with reduction with C as a catalyst.
SnO + 2C --> Sn + 2CO

- purification  Sn using electrolysis and melting method
pure Sn will be obtained at cathode (electrode)

TYPES OF TIN ALLOTROPE ;
- α-Sn

to   (at 13.2 C)

- β-Sn
to    (at 161 C)
- γ-Sn to liquid Sn at 232 C

as shown above, there are transformation temperature between allotropes

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
-  soft metal, malleable, but not very ductile, becomes brittle on heating, crackles when bent.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
- Sn can react with oxygen,water, molten alkali , diluted and concentrated acids.

COMPOUND OF TIN

1.OXIDE :

-SnO2
can be prepared upon direct heating of Sn in oxygen or air
Sn(s) + O2(g) ---> SnO2 (s)

It is a pure ionic oxide and does not dissolve in HNO3,HCl.
Amphoteric oxide

-SnO
A Black tin which can be prepared by heating tin oxalate.
Amphoteric oxide but more basic than SnO2.

SnC2O4-->SnO + CO + CO2

2. HALIDES :

-SnCl4
Preparation - direct heating with the elements
Sn + Cl2 --> SnCl4

colourless liquid with covalent compound (shape:tetrahedral)

-SnCl2 (anhydrous salt)
Predominantly covalent and can be prepared through equation below
Sn (s),hot + 2HCL -->SnCl2 +H2

It is a strong reducing agent.

3.SULFIDE :

- SnS
Obtained by passing through the gas in Sn(II) solution
Sn2+(aq) + H2S(g) → SnS(s) + H+ (aq)

Dark brown solid and easily oxidise to SnS2.

-SnS2
Obtained by oxidation of using ammonium polysulfides (NH4 )2Sx (mixture of (NH4 )2S and S)
SnS(s) + S(s) → SnS2 (s)

It is a yellow solid

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HARRIS NAQIUDDIN BIN ZAKARIA (A21SC0088)

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HARRIS NAQIUDDIN BIN ZAKARIA (A21SC0088)

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Tin,Sn

Preparation :

-can be obtained from the extraction of cassitserite
-can be obtained from the reduction of Tin ore (pure) with antgracite (c)

Tin Allotrope :

- Transformation temperature between Allotropes
- Alpha tin (grey)
- Beta tin (white)
- Gamma tin
- Tin plague or Tin pest ( The change from white Beta tin to grey Alpha tin below 13.2 degree celcius causes an increase in volume and the tin metallic appearance becomes pork- marked and eventually powdered

Physiochemical properties

- soft metal, malleable but not very ductile, becomes brittle on heating, crackles when bent
- react with oxygen to form SnO2
- react with water or steam to form a little H2 at high temperature
- react with chlorine to form SnCl4 on heating
- react with sulphur to form SnS or SnS2 depending on the temperature
- react with concentrated HCl or molten alkalis to forms H2 and Sn(OH)4^2- or Sn(OH)6^2- if air is present
- reaction with diluted acids is very slow on any reaction
- react with concentrated H2SO4 to form Sn(SO4)2
- react with concentrated HCl to forms hydrated SnCl2
- react with concentrated HNO3 to forms hydrated SnO2

Oxides

- SnO and SnO2
- SnO2 is produced by the direct heating of the metal in air or oxygen
- pure ionic oxide
- cannot dissolve in HCI,HNO3 or even aqua regia
- SnO2 react with H2SO4 to form Sn(SO4)2 (S)
- SnO2 react with 2OH- to form SnO3 2- (aq) (dehydrated)
- SnO also referred as black tin
- SnO can be prepared by heating tin oxalate

Halides

- can be prepared by direct heating of the elements
- Sn(s) +Cl2(g) --> SnCl4(l)
- colourless liquid
- covalent compound with tetrahedral structure
- in moist air rapidly hydrolyzed and fuming

Sulfide

- SnS exist as mono
- SnS obtained by passing through the H2S gas in Sn(ii) solution
- Sn^2+ (aq) + H2S (g) --> SnS(aq) +H+ (aq)
- SnS colour is dark brown
- Sns easily oxidize to SnS2
- SnS2 is yellow solid
- SnS2 dissolved in excess of (NH4)2Sx
- SnS2 obtained by oxidation of SnS using aluminium polysulfides

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Mohamad Salman Bin Mohamad Sabri (A21SC0136)

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Mohamad Salman Bin Mohamad Sabri (A21SC0136)

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Sn ( Tin )

Extraction of tin

-roasting cassitserite to remove impurities S,As to get pure SnO, continue with reduction  with the catalyst C ( anthracite) to remove Slag and produce Sn.
-Sn will undergo purification ny electrolysis of H2SiF6, H2SO4and SnSO4 act as electrolytes to get Sn ( produce at cathode) and SnO ( produce at cathode) and SnO2 9 produce at anode).

Tin Allotrope
- α-Sn
- ß-Sn
- Gamma-Sn

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Soft metal, malleable, but not very ductile &crackles when bent, become brittle on heating .

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
React with Oxygen form tin oxide.
React with water, dilute & concentrated acids, Sulphur, Chlorine.

COMPOUND OF SN

(A) OXIDES
SnO2
-Oxidation state is +4
-Direct heating of metal in air or oxygen
Sn + O2 → SnO2
-pure ionic oxide
-not dissolve in HCl, HNO or even regia
-Amphoteric Oxide
with acid
SnO2 + H2SO4 → Sn(SO4)2 + 2H2O
with alkali
SnO2 + 2OH- → SnO32-+ H2O
SnO
-SnO (oxidation No. Sn= +2)
-refer as black tin
-Preparation
-Heating tin oxalate
SnC2O4 → SnO + CO + CO2
-Amphoteric Acid (more base than SnO2 )
In Acid
SnO + 2H- → Sn2- + H2O
In Alkali
SnO + 2OH- → SnO22- + H2O

(B)HALIDES
SnCl4
- Prepared by direct heating of the elements
Sn(s) + (g) → SnCl4 (l)
-Colorless liquid
- Compound with tetrahedral structure
- In moist air, rapidly hydrolyzed and fuming
SnCl4 (l) + 2H2O(l) → SnO2 (s) + 4HCl(g)
- With conc. HCl/NH4Cl, form complex SnCl6 2-
SnCl4 (l) + 2HCl(aq) → H2SnCl6 (aq)
SnCl2
-Predominantly covalent compound
- Soluble in both water and organic solvents
-Preparation Anhydrous SnCl2
- Sn(s) hot + 2HCl(g) → SnCl2 + H2
-Anhydrous salt is a transparent crystalline solid.
- Hydrated SnCl2 .2H2O
Sn(s) + HCl conc. → SnCl2 + H2
SnO(s) + HCl(aq) → SnCl2 + H2O
- Dissolved in water to give cloudy solution due to formation by hydrolysis of basic chlorides
- Heating SnCl2 .2H2O also form basic chlorides
- Strong reducing agent

(C)SULFIDE
SnS
- obtained by passing through the gas in Sn(II) solution.
Sn2+(aq) + H2S(g) → SnS(s) + H+ (aq)
- Dark brown unstable solid,
- Easily oxidize to SnS2
SnS2
- preparation : SnS + S → SnS2
- yellow solid
- dissolve in excess of

(NH4 )2Sx
SnS2 (s) + (NH4 )2S → (NH4 )2SnS3

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Silicon
- 2nd most abundant element in the earth .

Extraction :

- reduction of sand , Sio2
SiO2 + C -> Si +2CO
- to obtain pure Si
SiCL4 +4NA -> Si+ 4NaCL
-zone refining process
(obtain 99.999 pure Si)

Characteristic :

- high melting point
- dissolve in base
- having diamond lattice
- does not dissolve in any acid except HF

Properties :
- Thermally stable ( 500-600 K)
- Has low viscocity which change with temperature
- Silicone rubber remain elastic
- Ther presence of alkyl group makes the silicones water repellent (Hydrophobic)
- Inert towards chemical attack or oxidation

Uses:
-As lubricant
- low temperature hydraulic fluids
- in cosmetics (primer)
- Breast implant shell
-Silicone wax put on the surface of the car for water

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Stannum,Sn (Tin)

Extraction

-By roasting SnO2 to remove impurities : S,As

(Cassitserite) SnO2 → (pure Tin Ore) SnO2

-By reduction of pure Tin Ore with C (anthracite)

SnO2 + 2C → Sn + 2CO

-Purification Sn using melting and electrolysis

electrolyte : H2SiF6, H2SO4, SnSO4

SnO2 (impure Sn) at Anode

Sn (pure) at Cathode

Tin Allotrope

- α-Sn
- ß-Sn
- Gamma-Sn

1. α-Sn (Grey Tin)

-Diamond lattice
- Density: 5.75 g/cm³
-powder

2. ß-Sn (White Tin)

-Tetragonal / distorted octahedral lattice

- Density: 7.31 g/cm³

-metallic solid

Tin-plague/Tin-pest

-The change from white ( α-Sn) to grey tin (ß -Sn) below 13.2 °C, causes an increase in volume and the tin metallic appearance becomes pock-marked and eventually

Physicochemical Properties

-soft metal, malleable, but not very ductile,

becomes brittle on heating, crackles when bent
-Chemical reaction

- oxygen : Sn + O₂ → SnO₂

- water : Sn + H₂O → SnO + 2H₂

- Chlorine : Sn + 2Cl2 → SnCl₄

- sulphur : Sn + S → SnS or SnS₂ (depend on temperature)

-Hot, conc., molten alkalis : form H₂ , Sn(OH)₄ ²⁻ , or Sn(OH)₆ ²⁻

if air is present

-diluted acids : very slow, if any reaction

-conc. H SO : Sn + H₂SO₄ → Sn(SO₄)₂

-conc. HCl : Sn + HCl → hydrated SnCl₂

-conc. HNO₃ : Sn + HNO₃ → hydrated SnO2

Tin(IV) Oxides, SnO ₂

-SnO (oxidation No. Sn= +4)
-direct heating in air

Sn + O₂ → SnO₂
-pure ionic oxide
-not dissolve in HCl, HNO or even regia
-Amphoteric Oxide

with acid

SnO₂ + H₂SO₄ → Sn(SO₄)₂ + 2H₂O

with alkali

SnO₂ + 2OH⁻ → SnO₃ ²⁻+ H₂O

Tin(II) Oxides, SnO

-SnO (oxidation No. Sn= +2)
-refer as black tin
-Preparation

-Heating tin oxalate

SnC₂O4 → SnO + CO + CO₂
-Amphoteric Acid (more base than SnO₂ )

In Acid

SnO + 2H⁻ → Sn²⁻ + H₂O

In Alkali

SnO + 2OH- → SnO₂ ²⁻ + H₂O

Tin(IV) Chloride

-SnX is more stable than SnX
-Preparation SnCl₄ :

Sn + Cl₂ → SnCl₄
-Colorless liquid
-Covalent compound with tetrahedral structure
-Rapidly hydrolyzed and fuming in moist air

SnCl₄ + 2H₂O → SnO₂ + 4HCl
-Conc. HCl/NH₄Cl form comlpex SnCl₆ ²⁻

SnCl₄ + 2HCl → H₂SnCl₆

Tin(II) Chloride

-SnCl predomently covalent compound
-Preparation:

Sn (hot) + 2HCl → SnCl₂ + H₂ (anhydrous SnCl₂)

(continued) Sn + HCl conc. → SnCl₂ + H₂
-Dissolve in water give cloudy solution

2SnCl₂ + 2H₂O → Sn(OH)₂.SnCl₂ + HCl
-SnCl₂.2H₂O → Sn(OH)₂.SnCl₂+ HCl + 2H₂O

Tin(II) Sulphide

-Exist as mono (SnS) and disulphide (SnS )
-SnS obtained by passing through the H₂S gas in Sn(II) solution

Sn²⁻ + H₂S → SnS + H⁺
-Dark brown ustable solid, easily to oxidize to SnS2

Tin Sulphide

-SnS obtained by oxidation of SnS using ammonium polysulfides (NH₄)₂Sx(mixture of (NH₄)₂S and S)

SnS + S → SnS₂
-yellow solid
-SnS₂+ (NH₄)₂S → (NH₄)₂SnS₃

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NURHASYIMAH BINTI MOHD HARIS (A21SC0278)

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NURHASYIMAH BINTI MOHD HARIS (A21SC0278)

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Silicon, Si
- element in group IVA
- exist as SiO2,  silica, silicon dioxide
- 2nd most abundant element in earth
- silicate substance
- Silicon is the eight most common element

Extraction
- reduction of sand , SiO2 by coke
SiO2(s) + C(s) -> Si(s) + 2CO
- To obtain pure Si
• Reducing SiCl4 by Na
SiCl4 (l) + 4Na(s) -> Si(s) + 4NaCl
• zone refining process (obtain 99.999% pure Si)
- The reduction is carried out in an electric arc furnace, with an excess of SiO2

Characteristics
- diamond cubic lattice
- dissolve in base
- high melting point
- inner element but can react with halogens
- metallic luster and grayish colour
- semiconductor
- elastic

Compounds
- Silicide (metal silicate)
- Silica (most common compound)

Types of silicones
- Disilicone
- Chain silicone
- Branched silicone

Uses
- low temperature hydraulic fluids
- breast implant shell
- silicone wax for water repellent
- as lubricants
- in cosmetic (primer)
- making a circuit boards
- ingredient cast iron

Properties
- low viscosity
- silicone rubbers remains elastic even at low temperatures
- thermally stable
- inert towards chemical attack or oxidation
- water repellent cause by presence of alkyl groups

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HAYUWAYUNI BINTI UDIN A21SC0090

CARBON
There's 8 allotropes of carbon:
1)Diamond
-crystallization of molten magna
-synthesized from graphite
2)Graphite
-prepared by Acheson Process
-soft,conducts electricity
3)Lonsdaleite
4)C60
-consist of big framework,very stable framework
-most symmetrical fullerence
5)C540
6)C70
7)Amorphous
8)Single-walled

Compounds of Carbon
1.Oxides (CO2 & CO)
CO2
-reaction of acid with calcium carbonate
-heating limestone
Properties:-                    Uses:-
Colourless gass             Fire retardant
Solid called dry ice.       Producing Na2CO3
Dissolve in H20.             Producing carbonated
CO
-dehydration of formic acid
-reducing of CO2 by hot-red C
Properties:-                         Uses:-
Colourless gas.                      Producing pure Ni
Burned with blue flame.        Hydroformylation
Strong reducing agent.        Produce phosgene

2.Halides of Carbon,CX4
-does not undergoes hydrolysis
-CCl4: CS2 + 3Cl2-->CCl4+ S2Cl2
-CF4: H being replaced F
Properties:-
Inert,non-toxic
Volatile
Thermally stable liquid
3.Carbides
a)ionic carbide(saline carbide)
-C + metal (grp IA,IIA,IIIA)
b)covalent carbide
-giant molecules having covalent bonding
c)interstitial carbides
-carbons are absorbed into metallic lattices
Properties:-
Lustrous solids with metallic
Have high melting points
4.Carbonate( CO3^2- )
and Hydrogen Carbonate
-do not dissolve in water (except carbonate grp IA)

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NUR IZZATI FARHANAH BINTI ABD KADIR A21SC0243

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NUR IZZATI FARHANAH BINTI ABD KADIR A21SC0243

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Lead, Pb
2PbS + 2O2 ---> 2PbO + 2SO2
PbO + C ---> Pb(l) + CO(g)
- high density / soft with boiling point
- high luster, ductile & highly malleable
- resist corrosive

Oxides (PbO, PbO4, & Pb3O4)
a) PbO
-direct reaction between element
-thermal decomposition o Pb(NO3)2 or PbCO3
b) PbO2
-heating Pb(II) solution with sodium chlorate
-red lead with nitric acids
c) Pb3O4
3Pb + O2 ---> Pb3O4
PbO2 ----> Pb3O4 + O2
(heat)

Properties
a) Pbo
-yellow solid
-amphoteric acid
b) PbO2
-dark brownish solid
-ionic compound
-strong oxidizing agent
-decompose when heating
-dissolves in acid
-amphoteric oxide
c) Pb3O4
-red lead
-mixture of 2PbO.PbO2
-show properties like PbO & PbO2

Lead Halides (PbX4, PbX2)
1. PbX4
-PbF4 & PbCl4 exist
-PbBr4 & PbI4 do not exist
*Br3 and I2 are not strong oxidizing agents
*unable to oxidize
2. PbX2
-all halide exist in ionic form
(PbF2, PbCl2, PbBr2) White solid
PbI2- Yellow solid

Lead Sulphide (PbS)
-only form PbS
-black precipitate forms when H2S is passed through Lead(II) solution
- Pb2+ + H2S ---> PbS(s) + 2H+

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Lead, Pb
- exist as mineral-galena
- can be extract
2PbS + 2O2 ---> 2PbO + 2SO2
*roast
PbO + C ---> Pb(l) + CO(g)
*Pb undergoes reduction

PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES
- high density but soft with low boiling point
- high luster, ductile & highly malleable
- resists corrosion

OXIDE
- exists as PbO, PbO2 & Pb3O4
PbO
-oxidation state = +2
Preparation
- direct reaction between elements
Pb + O2 ---> PbO
- thermal decomposition of Pb(NO3)2    or PbCO3
2Pb(NO3)2 ---> 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2
PbCO3 ---> PbO + CO2
Properties
- yellow solid in colour
- an amphoteric oxide

PbO2
- oxidation state = +4
Preparation
- heating Pb(II) solution with sodium chlorate
Pb2+(aq) + H2O + ClO-(aq) ---> PbO2(s) + Cl-(aq) + 2H+
- red lead with nitric acids
Pb3O4(s) + 4HNO3(aq) ---> PbO2(s) + 2Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Properties
- dark brownish solid, or black powder
- PbO2 is an ionic compound
- strong oxidising agent
- decompose when heated
PbO2 ---> Pb3O4 + O2
- dissolves in acids
- an amphoteric oxide

Uses
-  mainly as cathode in lead acid battery

Pb3O4 ( Trilead tetraoxide )
- a red lead
- a mixture of 2PbO.PbO2

Preparation
3Pb(s) + O2 ---> Pb3O4
PbO2(s) ---> Pb3O4 + O2

- show properties like PbO and PbO2

Uses
- use as paint made with red lead ( red pigment ) is commonly used to protect  iron and steel from corrode

Halide of lead
- Pb2+ halide is more stable than Pb4+
- lead sulphide

-

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FARHAH NAJIHAH BINTI MAT AZAHAR (A21SC0075)

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FARHAH NAJIHAH BINTI MAT AZAHAR (A21SC0075)

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Summary Group IVA

Tin, Sn

Extraction:
1. Roasting the cassitserite to remove impurities, Sn
2. Reduction of the pure Tin ore with anthracite(C)
3. Purification of the ore by electrolysis

Tin Allotrope (increase in temperature to produce from alpha to gamma tin)

i)α-Sn (Grey Tin)

Diamond lattice, 5.75 g/cm³,in powder

ii)β-Sn (White Tin)

Tetragonal, 7.31 g/cm³, metallic solid

iii) γ-Sn

Physicochemical properties

Soft metal, malleable, but not very ductile &crackles when bent, become brittle on heating

Chemical Properties

Oxygen: From SnO₂ on heating

Water: Form a little H₂ at high temperature

Chlorine: Form SnCl₄ on heating

Compounds of Sn
a) Oxides
i) SnO₂ - oxidation state is +4

Direct heating of metal in air or oxygen

Pure ionic oxide

Does not dissolve in HCl, HNO₃ or even aqua regia

Amphoteric oxide

With H₂SO₄(acid)
SnO₂ (s) + H₂SO₄ → Sn(SO₄)₂(s) +2H₂0

With OH- (alkali)
SnO₂(s) + 2OH- → SnO₃ ²⁻ (aq) + H₂O (l)

ii) SnO - Oxidation state is +2

Also referred as black tin

Preparation by heating tin oxalate

Amphoteric oxide (more base than SnO₂) *more Lewis basic because it has more electrons than tin (IV)

In acid:
SnO(s) + 2H⁺ (aq) → Sn²⁺ (aq) + H₂O

In alkali:
SnO(s) +2OH- (aq) → SnO2²⁻ (aq) +H₂O

b) Halides
SnX₂-more stable (oxidation +4)

1) SnCl4

Colorless liquid

prepare by direct heating Sn and Cl₂

covalent compound with tetrahedral structure

in moist air rapidly hydrolyzed and fuming

2)SnCl₂

Covalent compound

soluble in both water and organic solvent

prepare by anhydrous SnCl₂ and continued y hydrated tin

dissolve in water and give cloudy solution due to formation by hydrolysis of basic chlorides

heating hydrated tin compound also form basic chlorides

a strong educing agent

C) Sulfide *exist as mono and disulphide*

1)SnS

Dark brown

easily oxidize to SnS₂

obtained by pass through H₂S gas in Sn(II) solution

2)SnS₂

yellow solid

obtained by oxidation of SnS

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Silicon ,Si
-one of the most abundant element in the earths crust.
- exist as silica (silicon dioxide) and silicate (silica salt or silica acid)
- Silicon is the eighth most common element in the universe by mass
Extraction
SiO₂ + 2 C → Si + 2 CO

2 SiC + SiO₂ → 3 Si + 2 CO

Silicon of 96–99% purity is made by reducing quartzite or sand with highly pure coke. The reduction is carried out in an electric arc
furnace, with an excess of SiO2

Characteristics
-high melting point
-semiconductor
-diamond cubic lattice
-elastic

Uses
-ingredient cast iron (alloy)
-making of circuit boards (electronics)
-breast implants
-cosmetics

Compounds
-Silicide (metal silicate)
-silica (most common compound)

Questions
Tutorial 5 question 5 ,7

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Carbon, C

Existance:
- In air (0.03% of CO2), lgneous rock, anthracite (100% C) , bituminous coal (85% C) lignite (60%)

Allotropies:
1. Diamond
- can be synthesized from graphite
- structure ; carbon bonded together by covalent bond, very high melting point, each C bonded to 4 C and having sp3 hybridization, not conduct electricity
- application ; precious jewelry, cutting tool

2. Graphite:
- prepared by Acheson Process
- Structure ; made up of stacked of two-dimensional carbon sheets, each atom bonded cvalently with 3 C with sp2 hybrid, arranged in layer
- Properties ; soft, conduct electricity, use in pencils, act as either as oxidizing agent or reducing agent

3. Fullerene:
- consists of big C framework
- very stable framework due to the symmetry structure, superconductor, show similar reaction as alkene due to the double bond.

Carbon Compounds
1.Oxides
- exist as CO
- Carbon monoxide, CO prepared by dehydration of formic acid, reduction of CO2
- strong reducing agent
- properties; carbonyl complexes as ligand
- Uses; production of pure Ni, gas in synthesis gas, hydroformylation, reagent to produce phosgene
- exist as CO2
- linear molecule, non polar
- preparation of CO2; reaction with acid and calcium carbonate, heating limestone
- properties; colourless gas, called dry ice, dissolve in water, react with base to form carbonate, act as ligand
- uses; fire retardant, in solvay process, baking soda, carbon cycle biofuel

2. Carbonates
- do not dissolve in water except for group IA
- preparation; CO2 + OH- --- > HCO3-
- carbonate solution mix with salt get precipitate
- structure; sp2 hybrid, exist as resonance

3. Halides
- does not undergo hydrolysis
- preparation ; CS2 + 3Cl2 --> CCl4 + S2Cl2
- as organic solvent
- properties; inert, non toxic, thermally stable liquid, insoluble in water but dissolves in chlorocarbons

4. Carbides
- Compound of C and metal
- ionic carbide; easily hydrolize
- covalent carbide; giant molecule having a covalent bond, extremely inert and hard substance
- inerstitial carbide; non stoichiometric composition. lustrous solid, high melting point, hard solids, chemically inert and hydrolyzed by steam above 870K

# data[].attributes.headline
Nurul Amira Najwa Binti Mohamad Azman (A21SC0303)

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Nurul Amira Najwa Binti Mohamad Azman (A21SC0303)

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Silicon, Si

2nd most abundant element in Earth.

exist as silica and silicate substances.

Extraction
1. Reduction of SiO₂ by Coke

2. To obtain pure Si
a) reducing SiCl₄ by Na.

b) Zone refining process

C haracteristic
1. diamond lattice

2. high melting point

Compounds of Si
(i) Oxides

Silica,SiO₂ exist as polymeric tetrahedral.

Preparation of SiO ₂
1. Hydrolysis of SiCl₄.

2. Acidification of water glass

Properties of silicone

inert at low temperature but becomes reactive at elevated temperature.

become strong acidic oxide at elevated temperature.

dissolve in alkali and form water glass,Na₂SiO₃ and water.

(ii) Silicate (SiO ₄)⁴⁻

formed when SiO₂ react with metal oxides or metal sulphate or metal carbonate.

Structure: polymorph (SiO4 ) 4− - contains tetrahedral SiO4 join through Si-O-Si bonds

Example minerals: Emerald,Diopside,Asbestos,Mica.

(iii) Aluminosilicate

3-dimensional silicate.

occurs when Al atom substitutes Si in the silicate framework.

excess charge balanced by cations from Group IA,IIA or transition metals.

Example:
1. Feldspar,KAlSi₃O8
2. Orthoclase,NaAlSi₃O8
3. Zeolite

(iv) Silicate Glass

formed when sand + with metal silicate or aluminosilicate or borosilicate.

Characteristics of Silicate glass:

not true solid.

supercooled liquid(high viscosity,cannot free flow)

no melting point(amorphous)

Production of Silicate glass:

Mixture of the calcium silicate (CaSiO₃) and sodium silicate (Na₂SiO₃) .

Type of Glasses:

1. Soft glass

2. Hard glass

3. Flint glass

4. Jena glass

5. Pyrex/Corning glass

6. Crooke's glass

7. Quartz glass

8. Ground glass

9. Reinforced glass

(v) Silicones

organosilicon compounds having heterocatenated Si-O-Si-O bonds.

Preparation of silicones:

Hydrolysis of alkyl/aryl silicon halides followed by condensation.

Types of silicones:

1. Disilicone

2. Chain silicone

3. Branched silicone

Properties:

thermally stable

low viscosity which changes with temperature

silicone rubbers remain elastic even at low temperatures

Uses

as lubricants

low temperature hydraulic fluids

in comestic (primer)

breast implant shell

silicone wax for water repellent.

(vi) Silicon halides,SiX ₄

All SiX4 exist.

All halides except SiF4 are unstable and undergo hydrolysis in water.

SiF₄ undergo partial hydrolysis.

Hydrolysis occurs through the formation of dative bonding from O atom of water to Si of SiX₄.

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LEAD,Pb ( [Xe] 6s² 4f¹⁴ 5d¹⁰ 6p² )

High density but soft with low boiling points.
2) High luster, ductile (means that we can shape it) & highly malleable.
3) Resist corrosive

Pb react with O2 ------>  PbO then PbO + O2 ----->  PbO3

Pb react with moisture air ----->  Oxy CARBONBATE Pb

Pb react with H2SO4 ------>  PbSO4

Pb react with HNO3------->  Pb(NO3)2

COMPOUNDS OF LEAD

·         Oxide

·         Halide

·         Sulphate

OXIDE

Exist as

1.    PbO,(Lead Oxide)

Pb + O2 —> PbO2

PbO + 2HCl —> PbCl2 + H2O (with acid)

PbO + 2OH– + H2O —> Pb(OH)4 2- (with alkali)

2.     PbO2 (Lead Dioxide)

Heating Pb (II) solution with sodium chlorate (preparation)

Ionic compound

Strong oxidizing agent

Decompose when heating

3.     Pb3O4( Trilead tetraoxide)

- Preparation

3Pb + O₂ → Pb₃O₄

PbO₂ → Pb₃O₄ + O₂ (△)

- Show properties as PbO & PbO₂

- Uses : paint

Halide
1. PbX₄
- PbF₄ & PbCl₄ exist
- PbBr₄ & PbI₄ doesn't exist (because ) theay are not strong oxidizing agent So,can't oxidize Pb(II) to Pb(IV)
2. PbX₂
ionic form

Sulfide
- Only form PbS
- As black ppt form when H₂S is passed through lead (II) solution

# data[].attributes.headline
NORIZATUL FILZA BINTI MUHAMAD PUZI (A21SC0205)

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NORIZATUL FILZA BINTI MUHAMAD PUZI (A21SC0205)

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LEAD, Pb

Existence : mineral -gelena, Pbs

Extraction

2PbS + 2O2 —> 2PbO + 2SO2

PbO + C —> Pb(I) + CO (g)

Properties:

High density (heaviest common element) but soft with low boiling point

High luster, ductile & highly malleable

Resists corrosive

COMPOUNDS OF LEAD

Exist as PbO, PbO2 & Pb3O4

PbO (Lead Oxide)

Preparation:

1. Direct reaction between elements

Pb + O2 —> PbO2

1. Thermal decomposition Pb(NO3)2 or PbCO3

2Pb(NO3)2 —> (heat) 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2

PbCO3 —> (heat) PbO + CO2

PbO (Yellow Solid)

Amphoteric oxide

PbO + 2HCl —> PbCl2 + H2O

PbO + 2OH– + H2O —> Pb(OH)4 2-

PbO2 (Lead Dioxide)

Preparation:

1. Heat Pb(II) solution with sodium chlorate

Pb2+ + H2O + CIO3– —> PbO2 + Cl- + 2H+

2. Red lead with nitric acids

Pb3O4 + 4HNO3 —> PbO2 + 2Pb(NO3)2

Properties:

Dark brownish solid / black powder

PbO2 is an ionic compound (Pb4+ & O2-)

Strong oxidizing agent (+4 —> +2)

Decompose when heating

Dissolves in acids

amphoteric oxide

mainly use as cathode in lead acid battery

Pb3O4 (trilead tertraoxide)

Red lead

mixture of 2PbO.PbO2

Preparation:

3Pb + O2 —> Pb3O4

PbO2 —> (heat) Pb3O4 + O2

Shows properties like PbO and PbO2

HALIDE OF LEAD

Lead Halides (PbX4 & PbX2)

Pb(II) halide is more stable than Pb(IV) halide

Lead(IV) halide, PbX4

PbF4 & PbCl4 exists

PbBr4 & PbI4 do not exist

bcs Br2 & I2 are not strong oxidizing agents thus unable to oxidize Pb(II) —> Pb(IV)

Lead (II) halide, PbX2

All halides exist in ionic form

PbF2, PbCl2, PbBr2 = white solid

PbI2 = yellow solid

LEAD SULPHIDE (PbS)

Only forms PbS

As black precipitate forms when H2S is passed through Lead(II) solution

Pb2+(aq) + H2S(g) —> PbS(s) + 2H+ (aq)

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Lead(Pb)
Existence : as mineral galena (PbS)
Extraction :
(roast)
1) 2PbS + 2O2     -->      2PbO + 2SO2
2) PbO + C    -->    Pb(l) + CO(g)

Physicochemical properties :
1) High density but soft with low boiling points.
2) High luster, ductile & highly malleable.
3) Resist corrosive

Compounds of Pb :
OXIDE
#Exist as PbO, PbO2 & Pb3O4

A)Lead oxide (PbO) :
• Preparation:
1) Direct reaction between elements
Pb + O2 --> PbO
2) Thermal decomposition of Pb(NO3 )2 or PbCO3.

Properties :
1)Yellow solid
2)Amphoteric oxide

B)Lead dioxide (PbO2) :
• Preparation:
1) Heating Pb(II) solution with sodium chlorate.
2) Red lead with nitric acids.

Properties :
1) Dark brownish solid, or powder.
2) PbO2 is an ionic compound.
3) Strong oxidizing agent.
4) Decompose when heating.
5) Dissolve in acids
6) Amphoteric oxide.
7) Uses -->  mainly as cathode in lead acid battery

C)Trilead tetraoxide(Pb3O4) :
Preparation :
3Pb(s) + O2 --> Pb3O4
PbO2 (s)   -->   Pb3O4 + O2
🔼

Properties :
1) Red lead.
2) A mixture of 2PbO.PbO2
3) Shows properties like PbO and PbO2

Halide
PbX4 & PbX2
Pb(II) halide is more stable than Pb(IV)  halide

1)Lead(IV) halide(PbX4)
a)PbF4 & PbCl4 exists
b)PbBr4 & PbI4 do not exist ( because Br2 and I2 are not strong oxidizing agents thus unable to oxidize Pb(II) --> Pb(IV) )

2) Lead(II) halide (PbX2)
All halides exist in ionic form

Lead sulphide :
1) Only form PbS
2) As black precipitate forms when H2S is passed through lead(II) solution.

# data[].attributes.body
summary of group IVA

Lead,Pb

*Existence:mineral-galena,PbS
*Extraction:
2PbS + 2O2 --->2PbO +2SO2
PbO + C ---> Pb(l) +CO(l)

>properties
-high density
-soft with low boiling point
-high luster,ductile&highly malleable
-resists corrosive

>Oxide
exist as PbO,PbO2 & Pb3O4

*PbO(yellow solid)
preparation:
-direct reaction
Pb + O2 --->PbO
-thermal decomposition of Pb(NO3)2 or PbCO3
2Pb(NO3)2 --->2PbO +4NO2 +O2
PbCO3 --->PbO +CO2

*amphoteric oxide
PbO(s) +2HCl ---> PbCl2(aq) + H2O
PbO(s) +2OH-(aq) +H2O --->Pb(OH)4 (aq)

*PbO2(black powder)
preparation:
-heating Pb(ll) solution with sodium chlorate
Pb(aq) + H2O +CIO(aq) --->PbO2(s) +Cl-(aq) + 2H+(aq)
-red lead with nitric acid
Pb3O4 +4HNO3(aq) ---> PbO2(s) +2Pb(NO3)2(aq) +2H2O(l)

>properties
-dark brownish solid or black powder
-ionic compound
-strong oxidizing agent
-decompose when heating
-dissolve in acid

*amphoteric oxide
PbO2 +4HCl --->PbCl2 +Cl2 +2H2O
PbO2 + 2OH- --->PbO3(aq) +H2O

>uses
-cathode in lead acid battery

*Pb3O4(red lead)
preparation:
3Pb(s) +O2--->Pb3O4
PbO2(s)----->Pb3O4 +O2
-show properties like PbO and PbO2

>uses
-as pigment for paint

>Halide
-Pb(II) is more stable than Pb(IV)
-only PbF4 & PbCl4 exists
-all halides exist in ionic form
*PbF2(white solid)
*PbCl2(white solid)
*PbBr2(white solid)
*PbI2(yellow solid)

>Lead Sulphide(PbS)
-only form PbS
-black precipitate form when H2S is passed through lead(ll)solution
Pb2+(aq) +H2S(g) --->PbS(s) +2H+(aq)

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SUMMARY OF GROUP IV A(CARBON FAMILY)
CARBON
Existence
in air,ignerous rock,anthracite,bituminous coal and lignite
Allotropy
1.diamond
-found in kimberly,South Africa
-produce from crystallization of molten magna
-can be synthesis from graphite
- structure
>bonding of carbon atom by covalent bonds
>high melting point
-application
>use of jewelry
>cuttting tool
2.graphite
-prepared by acheson process
-structure
>made up of stacked of two dimensional carbon sheet
>each carbon bonded with other 3 carbon
-properties
>soft than diamond
>conduct electricity in a layer
>use as cathode
3.lonsdaleite
4.C60
5.C540
6.C70
7.armophou carbon
8.buckytube

COMPOUNDS
1.Oxide

carbon monoxide
-preparation
1.dehydration of formic acid or oxalic acid by conc. h2so4.
2.reduction of co2
-properties
1.colourless and does not smell
2.burn with blue flame
3.toxic gas because its bonded strongly than o2
4.strong reducing agent
5.act as ligand in the formation carbonyl complexes
-uses
1.production of pure nickel
2.gas in synthesis gas
3.hydroformylation_higher alcohol

carbon dioxide
-preparation
1.reaction of acid with calcium carbonate
2.heating limestone
-properties
1.colourless
2. solid co2 is called dry ice
3.dissolve in water=carbonic acid
4.react with base=carbonate
5.act as ligand-molecule donating electron
-uses
1.fire retardant
2.reactant in producing Na2CO3
3.carbon cycle-biofuel

2.Carbonates
-preparation
1.using co2 with alkali
2.carbonate solution mix with salt
-structure
1.planar(sp3)
2.exist as resonance

3.Halide
-does not go hydrolisis
-preparation
1. carbon sulphide react with tetrachlorine
-properties
1.inert,non toxic and non corrosive
2.volatile and thermally stable liquid
3.insoluble in water and alcohol
4.dissolve in chlorocarbon

4.Carbide
-combination carbon with metal(ionic carbide)
>easily hydrolyze
-covalent carbide
>giant molecule by covalent bond
>inert substances
-interstitial carbide
>have non-stoichiometric composition
>properties
1.lustrous solid
2.high melting point
3.inert

# data[].attributes.body
LEAD, Pb

Extraction of Pb:
•2PbS + 2O₂ → 2PbO + 2SO₂
•PbO + → Pb(l) + CO(g)

Physicochemical properties:
• High density (heaviest common element) but soft with low
boiling point
• High luster, ductile & highly malleable
• Resists corrosive

OXIDE
Exist as;
PbO (yellow solid),
PbO₂ (brownish solid/black  powder)
Pb₃O4 (red lead)

PbO
Preparation:
1. Direct reaction between elements

•Pb + O₂ → PbO

2. Thermal decomposition of Pb(NO ₃ )₂ or
PbCO ₃

•2Pb(NO₃ )₂ → 2PbO + 4NO₂ + O₂
•PbCO3 → PbO+ CO₂

Amphoteric oxide:
•PbO(s) + 2HCl → PbCl2 (aq) + H₂O
•PbO(s) + 2OH− (aq) + H₂O → Pb(OH)₄ 2− (aq)

PbO ₂
Preparation:
1) Heating Pb(II) solution with sodium chlorate

•Pb²⁺ (aq) + H₂O + ClO− (aq) → PbO₂ (s) + Cl− (aq) + 2H⁺        (aq)

2) Red lead with nitric acids

•Pb²⁺(s) + 4HNO₃ (aq) → PbO₂ (s) +
2Pb(NO₃ )₂ (aq) + 2H₂O(l)

Properties of PbO₂
• Dark brownish solid, or powder
• PbO₂ is an ionic compound
• Strong oxidizing agent
• Decompose when heating
• Dissolves in acids

Amphoteric oxide :
• PbO₂ + 4HCl → PbCl₂ + Cl₂ + 2H₂O

Uses :
Mainly as cathode in lead acid battery ;
Anode (-): Pb(s) + HSO₄- (aq) →PbSO₄(s) + H⁺(aq) + 2e⁻
Cathode (+): PbO₂ (s) + HSO₄ − (aq) + 3H⁺ (aq) + 2e⁻ → PbSO₄ (s) + 2H₂O(l)

Pb ₃ O ₄
Preparation :
•3Pb(s) + O₂ → Pb₃O₄
•PbO₂ (s) →Pb₃O₄ + O₂

Shows properties like PbO and  PbO₂

HALIDE
Lead Halides (PbX₄ & PbX₂ )
Pb(II) halide is more stable than Pb(IV) halide

Lead(IV) halide, PbX₄
• PbF₄ & PbCl₄ exists
• PBr₄ & PbI4 do not exist because Br₂
and  I₂ are not strong oxidizing agents
thus unable to oxidize Pb(II) → Pb(IV)

Lead(II) halide, PbX₂
• All halides exist in ionic form

SULPHIDE
• Only forms PbS (Lead Sulphide)
• As black precipitate forms when H₂S is
passed through lead (ll) solution:

Pb²⁺ (aq) + H₂S(g) → PbS(s) + 2H⁺ (aq)

# data[].attributes.body
Summary of group IVA

Tin (Sn)

- Extraction of cassiserite (SnO2) roasted to remove S. To get pure SnO2 and pure tin ore, it will continue with reduction with catalysts C (anthracite) to remove slag to produce Sn. Sn will undergoes purification under electrolysis with H2SiF6, H2SO4, SnSO4 electrolytes to obtain SnO2 which is impure Sn (as anode) and Sn which is pure (as cathode)

Tin Allotrope

i) α-Sn ( Grey tin)

Diamond lattice, 5.75 g/cm3, in powder

ii) β-Sn (White tin)

Tetragonal, 7.31 g/cm3, metallic solid

iii) γ-Sn

Physicochemical Properties

Soft metal, malleable, but nit very ductile, becomes brittle on heating, crackles when bent

Chemical properties

Oxygen : Form SnO2 on heating

Water : Form a little H2 at high temperature

Chlorine : Form SnCl4 on heating

Compounds of Sn

(a) Oxides

i) SnO2 - oxidation state is +4

Direct heating of metal in air or oxygen

Sn (s) + O2 (g) → SnO2 (s)

Pure ionic oxide

Does not dissolve in HCl, HNO3 or even aqua regia

Amphoteric oxide

With H2SO4(acid)

SnO2(s) + H2SO4→Sn(SO4)2(s) + 2H2O

With OH− (alkali)

SnO2(s) + 2OH−→SnO32−(aq) + H2O(l)

SnO - oxidation state is +2

Also referred as black tin

Preparation by heating tin oxalate

Amphoteric oxide (more base than SnO2 ) (more Lewis basic because it has more electrons than tin (IV) )

In acid:

SnO(s) + 2H+(aq)→ Sn2+(aq) + H2O

In alkali:

SnO(s) + 2OH− (aq) → SnO22− (aq) + H2O

(b) Halides

i) SnCl4

Preparation direct heating of the element

Sn(s) + Cl2(g)→SnCl4(l)

Colorless liquid

Covalent compound with tetrahedral structure

In moist air, rapidly hydrolyzed and fuming as a result

SnCl4(l) + 2H2O(l)→SnO2(s) + 4HCl(g)

With conc. HCl/NH4Cl, form complex SnCl6 2-

SnCl4(l) + 2HCl(aq)→H2SnCl6(aq)

ii) SnCl2

Predominantly covalent compound

Soluble in both water and organic solvents

Preparation : Anhydrous SnCl2

Sn(s) hot + 2HCl(g) → SnCl2 + H2 continued with hydrated SnCl2.2H2O

Dissolved in water to give cloudy solution due to formation of basic chlorides

2SnCl2(s) + 2H2O(l) → Sn(OH)2.SnCl2(s) + HCl(aq)

Heating SnCl2.2H2O also form basic chlorides

SnCl2.2H2O→Sn(OH)2.SnCl2(s) + HCl(aq) + 2H2O

Strong reducing agent

(c) Sulfide

Exist as mono (SnS) and disulphide (SnS2)

SnS

Obtained by passing through the H2S gas in Sn(II) soln

Sn2+(aq) + H2S(g)→SnS(s) + H+(aq)

Dark brown unstable solid,

Easily oxidize to SnS2

SnS2

Obtained by oxidation of SnS using ammonium polysulfides (NH4)2Sx (mixture of (NH4)2S and S)

SnS(s) + S(s) → SnS2(s)

Yellow solid

Dissolves in excess of (NH4)2Sx SnS2(s) + (NH4)2S→(NH4)2SnS3

# data[].attributes.headline
NUR AIDA SYAMIMI BINTI AZHAR (A20SC0210)

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NUR AIDA SYAMIMI BINTI AZHAR (A20SC0210)

# data[].attributes.body
Summary Group 1VA

TIN, Sn

Extraction :
1) Roasting the cassitserite to remove impurities, Sn
2) Reduction of the pure Tin ore with anthracite(C)
3) Purification of the ore by electrolysis

TIN ALLOTROPE ( increase in temperature to produce from alpha to gamma tin)
1) alpha-Sn
- Grey,  in powder

2) Beta-Sn
-White, metallic solid

3) Gamma-Sn

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
- Soft metal, malleable, become brittle on heating, not very ductile & crackles when bent

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
-React with Oxygen form tin oxide
- React with water, dilute & concentrated acids, Sulphur, Chlorine

COMPOUND OF SN
(A) OXIDES
1) SnO2
- pure ionic oxide
- it is amphoteric oxide react with acid and base
- does not dissolve in HCI, HNO3 and aqua regia
How to prepare SnO2 ?
- Direct heating of metal Sn + O2 (air)

2) SnO (black tin)
- amphoteric oxide but more base than SnO2
How to prepare? By heating tin oxalate

(B) HALIDES
- SnX2 more stable (oxidation +4)

1) SnCl4
- colorless liquid
- prepare by direct heating Sn and Cl2
- covalent compound with tetrahedral structure
- in moist air rapidly hydrolyzed and fuming

2) SnCl2
- covalent compound
- soluble in both water and organic solvent
- prepare by anhydrous SnCl2 and continued by Hydrated tin
- dissolve in water give cloudy solution due to formation by hydrolysis of basic chlorides
- heating hydrated tin compound also form basic chlorides
- a strong reducing agent

(C) SULFIDE - exist as mono & disulphide

1) SnS
- dark brown
- easily oxidize to SnS2
- obtained by pass through H2S gas in Sn(II) solution

2) SnS2
- yellow solid
- obtained by oxidation if SnS

# data[].attributes.body
LEAD (Pb) - [Xe]6s²4f¹⁴5d¹⁰6p²

Physiochemical properties:
- High density (heaviest) but soft with low B.P
- High luster, ductile & highly malleable
- Resist corrosive

Extraction:
2PbS + 2O₂ → 2PbO + 2SO₂
PbO + C → Pb + CO

General Reactions:
1. with air/moisture → oxy carbonate Pb
2. with O₂ → PbO
PbO + O₂ → Pb₃O₄
3. with HNO₃ → Pb(NO₃)₂
4. with H₂SO₄ → PbSO₄ (insoluble)

Compounds of Pb
Oxide
1. PbO
- Preparation:

i) Direct Reaction
Pb + O₂ → PbO
ii) Thermal decomposition of Pb(NO₃)₂ / PbCO₃

- Yellow Solid
- Amphoteric Oxide
2. PbO₂
- Preparation

i) Heating Pb (II) solution with sodium chlorate.
ii) Red lead with nitric acids

- Properties

i) Dark brownish solid / black powder
ii) Ionic compound
iii) Strong oxidizing agent

- Decompose when heating
- Dissolves in acids (H₂SO₄, HCl, HF)
- Amphoteric oxide
- Uses : as cathode in lead acid battery
3. Pb₃O₄
- Red lead
- Mixture of 2PbO•PbO₂
- Preparation

3Pb + O₂ → Pb₃O₄
PbO₂ → Pb₃O₄ + O₂ (△)

- Show properties as PbO & PbO₂
- Uses: as paint

Halide
1. PbX₄
- PbF₄ & PbCl₄ exist
- PbBr₄ & PbI₄ doesn't exist as they are not strong oxidizing agent can't oxidize Pb(II) to Pb(IV)
2. PbX₂
- All exist in ionic form

Sulfide
- Only form PbS
- As black ppt form when H₂S is passed through lead (II) solution

# data[].attributes.body
LEAD(Pb)
Electronic configuration: [Xe]6s ² 4f ¹⁴ 5d ¹⁰ 6p 2

Existence: mineral-galena,PbS

Physicochemical properties:

high density but soft with low boiling point

high luster,ductile,highly malleable

Resists corrosive

General reactions:

Pb + O₂ --->PbO + O₂  ---> Pb₃O₄

Pb + HNO3 ---> Pb(NO3)2

Pb + H2SO4 ---> PbSO4(insoluble)

Pb + air/moisture ---> Oxy carbonate Pb

~COMPOUNDS~
1. Oxide
-exist as PbO(+2), PbO2 (+4) & Pb₃O4
PbO: yellow solid
Preparation:
1. Direct reaction between elements
Pb + O₂ ---> PbO

2. Thermal decomposition of Pb(NO₃)₂ or PbCO3
2Pb(NO₃)₂ ---> 2PbO + 4NO₂ + O2
PbCO3 ---> PbO + CO2

3. Amphoteric oxide
PbO + 2HCl ---> PbCl₂ + H₂O
PbO + 2OH- +H₂O --->Pb(OH)₄ 2-                                                                      (hydrated plumbate)

Pb(OH)₄ 2-  ---> PbO₂ ²⁻ + 2H₂O
(Anhydrous plumbate)

PbO ² : Lead dioxide
Preparation:
1) Heating Pb(II) solution with sodium chlorate
Pb²⁺ + H₂O + ClO⁻ ---> PbO2 + Cl⁻ +2H⁺

2) Read lead with nitric acids
Pb₃O₄ + 4HNO₃ ---> PbO2 + 2Pb(NO₃)2 + 2H₂O

Properties:

# dark brownish solid/black powder
# PbO2 is an ionic compound
# strong oxidizing agent
# decompose when heating
PbO2 ---> Pb₃O4 + O₂
# dissolves in acids
# amphoteric oxide

Uses: mainly as cathode in lead acid battery

Pb ₃ O ₄: Trilead tetraoxide

# red lead
# mixture of 2PbO.PbO₂

Preparation:
3Pb + O2 ---> Pb₃O₄

PbO2 ---> Pb₃O4 + O2
-show properties like PbO & PbO2

Lead halides(PbX ₄ & PbX ₂)
Stability: Pb(II) > Pb(IV)

PbX4:
*PbX₄ ( X = F, Cl)
*X ≠ Br, I  ---> due to Br2 & I2 are not strong oxidizing agent so unable to oxidized Pb(II) to Pb(IV)

PbX2:
all halides exist in ionic form & white solid except PbI2(yellow solid)

PbS:Lead sulphide

~ only form PbS
~as black precipitate forms when H2S is passed through Pb(II) solution
Pb²⁺+ H₂S--- PbS + 2H⁺

# data[].attributes.body
Group IVA (SUMMARY- CARBON)

[He]2s²2p²

Non-metal

Has the ability to catenate

Form allotropes (Diamond, Graphite, fullerenes)

Diamond

insoluble in water

has giant covalent structure

extremely hard

has a high melting point

each carbon bonded to its neighbours by four strong covalent bonds having sp ³ hybridisation

no delocalised electrons

does not conduct electricity

Uses of Diamond

very useful in cutting tools

used in Jewelry

Graphite

insoluble in water

layered giant covalent

soft compared to diamond

has a high melting point

Each carbon atom is bonded covalently into its layer with 3 other C atom having sp ² hybridisation

leaves each atom with a spare electron

these delocalised electrons can all move along together – making graphite a good electrical conductor

Uses of Graphite

Writing materials- making the lead in pencils

main ingredients in lubricants like grease because layers can slide over each other

Fullerene/Buckyball / Buckminsterfullerene

insoluble in water

truncated icosahedrons (curled up into ball)

high melting point

C has sp ² containing 30 C double bond C

delocalized electrons- good electrical conductor

Uses of Fullerene

used as conductors (superconductor wire)

used as lubricants

Carbon Compounds

Oxides

Carbonate

Halide

Carbides

OXIDES

Exist as CO and CO₂

Carbon Monoxide, CO

simple molecular structure

colourless, odourless and poisonous gas

slightly soluble in water

burned with blue flame

strong reducing agent (used to reduce metallic oxide to metal)

Neutral oxides (react with neither acids nor alkalis)

Preparation of CO (Carbon Monoxide)

Carbon monoxide gas can be prepared in lab by heating formic acid or oxalic acid with conc. H₂SO₄.

Reduction of CO₂ by hot-red C

Carbon Dioxide, CO ₂

simple molecular structure

colorless and odorless gas

non-flammable gas

slightly toxic

soluble in water, solubility decreases as temperature increases

solid CO2 is called dry ice

acidic oxide (react with aq alkalis giving XO₃ ²⁻

Preparation of CO 2

Reaction of acid with calcium carbonate

Heating limestone

CARBONATES

All carbonate do not dissolve in water except for carbonate from GroupIA, GroupIIA (very sparingly soluble)

HALIDES

Covalent compounds existing as simple molecules with a tetrahedral structure

Volatile liquid at room temp

Low bp due to weak intermolecular forces between the CX₄

CX4 is stable to heat even at high temp

CARBIDES

1. Ionic Carbide (Saline Carbide)

C+ metal (Group IA, Group IIA, Group IIIA)

2. Covalent Carbide (Metalloid Carbide)

found in carbides of silicon and boron

3. Interstitial Carbides

C+ Group IVA, Group VA, and Gruop VIA

have very high melting points

low electrical resistance

# data[].attributes.headline
NABILAH SYAIDA BINTI MOHD ZURAINI (A21SC0174)

# data[].attributes.subject
NABILAH SYAIDA BINTI MOHD ZURAINI (A21SC0174)

# data[].attributes.body
TIN, Sn
Extraction of Sn.
1. Roasting of cassitserite (SnO2)to remove S and As to get pure Tin Ore.
2. Pure Tin Ore will undergo reduction by adding anthracite to get Sn.
3. Sn will undergo purification ny electrolysis of H2SiF6, H2SO4and SnSO4 act as electrolytes to get Sn ( produce at cathode) and SnO2 9 produce at anode).

Tin Allotrope
i) α - Sn ( grey and appear in powder)
ii) β - Sn ( white and appear in metallic solid)
iii) γ - Sn

Physicochemical Properties
Physical properties
- Soft metal
- Malleable nut not very ductile
- Brittle on heating
- Crackles when bent

Chemical properties
- Form SnO2 on heating with oxygen (Do not form Sn304)
- Forms a little H2 at high temperature.
- Forms SnCl4 on heating with chlorine
- Forms SnS OR SnS2 depending on temperature when react with sulphur
- Very slow when react with diluted acid
- Forms Sn(SO4)2 when react with conc. H2SO4.
- Forms hydrated SnCl2 when react with conc .HCl.
- Forms hydrated SnO2 with conc. HNO3

OXIDES
SnO2 with oxidation no +4

Sn + O2  → SnO2

Pure ionic oxide

Does not dissolve in HCl, HNO3 or even aqua regia.

Amphoteric oxide

- SnO2 + H2SO4 → Sn(SO4)2 + 2H2O
- SnO2 + 2OH-  → SnO3 2- + H20

SnO with oxidation number of Sn

Also refer as black tin

Preparation by heating tin oxalate

Amphoteric oxide ( more base than SnO2) ( more Lewis basic because it has more electrons than tin (IV) )

HALIDES
SnX2 is more stable than SnX4
SnCl4

Sn + Cl2 → SnCl4

Colourless liquid

Covalent compund with tetrahedral struture.

In moist air, rapidly hydrolyzed anf fuming as a result

- SnCl4 + 2H2O → SnO2 +  4HCl

With conc. HCl / NH4Cl form complex SnCl6 2-

- SnCl4 + 2HCl → H2SnCl6

SnCl2

Predominantly covalent compund

Soluble in both water and organic solvents

Preparations

- Sn ( hot) + 2HCl → SnCl2 + H2   continued with hydrated SnCl2.2H2O

Dissolved in water to give cloudy solution due formation by hydrolysis of basic chlorides

Heating SnCl2.2H2O also form basic chlorides.

Strong reducing agents

SULFIDE
Exist as mono ( SnS ) and disulphide (SnS2)

SnS

Obtained by passing through the H2S gas in Sn(II) solution

-  Sn2+ + H2S → SnS + H+

Dark brown unstable solid.

Easily oxidize to SnS2

SnS2

Obtained by oxidation of SnS using ammonium polysulphides

Yellow solid.

Dissolves in excess of (NH4)2Sx

# data[].attributes.body
Tin (Sn)
Electron configuration: [Kr] 4d10 5s2

Extraction
-roasting the cassitserite in order to remove the impurities(S, Ar) to obtain pure tin ore (SnO2).
-SnO2 undergo reduction by adding C(anthracite) to produce Sn, then undergo electrolysis process to get SnO2 at anode and Sn at cathode.

Tin Allotrope
α-Sn(grey)
β-Sn(white)
γ-Sn
Liquid Sn

Tin-Plague or tin-pest is the change from white(β-Sn) to grey(α-Sn) below 13.2 degree celcius, causes an increase in volume and the tin metallic appearance becomes pock-marked and eventually powdered.

Physiochemical Properties
Physical Properties
soft metal, malleable, not very ductile, become brittle on heating, crackle when bent.

Chemical Properties
- Oxygen-form SnO2  on heating
- Water or steam -   Forms a little H₂ at high temperature
-  Chlorine - Form SnCl₄ on heating
- Sulphur - Form SnS and Sn₂ depending on temperature
-  Hot, conc., or molten alkalis -  Forms H₂ and Sn(OH)₄ 2− or Sn(OH)₆ 2− if air is present
-  Diluted acids -Very slow, if any reaction
-  Conc. H²SO₄₋ Forms Sn(SO₄ )₂
- Conc. HCI -Forms hydrated - form SnCl₂
-  Conc. HNO3 - Forms hydrated SnO2

COMPOUND
Oxide
1.SnO 2 (+4)
-Direct heating metal in air or oxygen
Sn(s) + O₂ (g) → SnO₂ (s)
-Pure ionic oxide
-Does not disslove in HCl, HNO₃ and aqua regia
-Amphoteric oxide

(acid) SnO2 (s) + H2SO4 → Sn(SO4 )2 (s) + 2H2O

(alkali) SnO2 (s) + 2OH− → SnO3 2− (aq) + H2O (dehydrated)

2.SnO (+2)
-  Also referred to as black tin
• Preparation
Heating tin oxalate
[COO− -COO− ]Sn → SnO(s) + CO + CO₂
• Amphoteric oxide (more base than SnO₂ ) (more Lewis basic because it has more electron than tin(IV))
(acid) SnO(s) + 2H⁺ (aq) → Sn²⁺(aq) + H₂O
(alkali) SnO(s) + 2OH− (aq) → SnO₂ 2− (aq) + H₂O

Halides
(SnX2 more stable than SnX₄)

SnCl₄
Preparation
-direct heating of the elements
Sn(s) + Cl₂(g) → SnCl₄ (l)
-Colorless liquid
- Compound with tetrahedral structure
- In moist air, rapidly hydrolyzed and fuming
SnCl₄ (l) + 2H₂O(l) → SnO₂ (s) + 4HCl(g)
- With conc. HCl/NH4Cl, form complex SnCl₆ ²⁻
SnCl⁴ (l) + 2HCl(aq) → H₂SnCl₆ (aq)

SnCl2
- Predominantly covalent  compound
- Soluble in both water and organic solvents

- Preparation
Anhydrous SnCl₂
1. Sn(s) hot + 2HCl(g) → SnCl2 + H₂ (Anhydrous salt is a transparent crystalline solid)

2. Hydrated SnCl₂ .2H₂O
Sn(s) + HCl conc. → SnCl2 + H₂
SnO(s) + HCl(aq) dil → SnCl₂ + H₂O

-  Dissolved in water to give due to formation by hydrolysis of basic chlorides
-  Heating SnCl₂ .2H₂O also form basic chlorides
- Strong reducing agent (reduce mercury(i)chloride to mercury

Sulphide (Exist as SnS and SnS ₂)

SnS
- obtained by passing through the  H₂S gas in Sn(II) solution.
Sn₂+(aq) + H₂S(g) → SnS(s) + H+ (aq)
- Dark brown unstable solid,
- Easily oxidize to SnS2

SnS ₂
-  Obtained by oxidation of SnS using
ammonium polysulfides (NH₄ )2Sx (mixture of (NH₄ )₂S and S)
- Yellow solid
- Dissolove in excess of  (NH₄ )₂Sx
SnS₂ (s) + (NH₄ )₂S → (NH₄ )₂SnS₃

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Silicon,Si=Element of Group IVA.

2nd most abundant element in Earth.

exist as silica,SiO2 and silicate substances.

Extraction
1. Reduction of sand,SiO₂ by Coke using electrical furnace.

Silica need to be in excess to avoid formation of silicon carbide,SiC.

SiO₂(s) + C(s) -> Si(s) + 2CO

2. To obtain pure Si
a) reducing SiCl₄ by Na.

SiCl₄(l) + 4Na(s) -> Si(s) + 4NaCl

Metal halides formed can be removed by washing with HCl.

b) Zone refining process (obtain 99.999% pure Si)

Si from a) refined by heating the rod from one end and slowly moved to other end.The impurities will move with heating and be cut off at the end.

Characteristics of Si

metallic luster and grayish color.(crystalline Si)

diamond lattice.

high melting point.

inert element but can react with halogens.

Does not dissolve in any acids except HF.

Dissolve in base.(form silicate anion and hydrogen gas)

Compounds of Si
(i) Oxides

Silica,SiO ₂ exist as polymeric tetrahedral.

Bond between Si-O is 50% ionic because of the difference in the electronegativity.

The whole SiO₂ molecule is a covalent macromolecule with the formation of polymorph.

Preparation of SiO ₂
1. Hydrolysis of SiCl₄

SiCl₄ + 4H₂O -> 4HCl + H₄SiO₄

H₄SiO₄ undergo heating process at 1270K to get SiO₂.

2. Acidification of water glass

Na₂SiO₃ + 2HCl -> 2NaCl + H₂SiO3 (metasilicic acid)

H₂SiO₃ undergo heating process at 1270K to get SiO₂.

Properties of silica

inert at low temperature but reactive at elevated temperature.

At elevated temperature,silica=strong acidic oxide.

dissolve in HF only. [ SiO₂(s) + 6HF(aq) -> H₂SiF₆(aq) + 2H₂0(l) ]

dissolve in alkali and form water glass,Na₂SiO₃ and water.

(ii) Silicate (SiO ₄)⁴⁻

formed when SiO₂ react with metal oxides or metal sulphate or metal carbonate.

polymorph (SiO₄)⁴⁻ contains tetrahedral SiO₄,which join through Si-O-Si bonds.

Example minerals: Emerald,Diopside,Asbestos,Mica.

(iii) Aluminosilicate

3D silicate.

formed when Al atom substitutes Si in the silicate framework(negatively charge), [(SiO₄)n(AlO₄)m]m-

excess charge balanced by cations from Group IA,IIA or transition metals.

Example:
1. Feldspar,KAlSi₃O8
2. Orthoclase,NaAlSi₃O8
3. Albite

4. Zeolite

hydrated aluminosilicate crystals(open structure framework) contains cages,channels and pores of regular dimensions.

Mn/y[(SiO₂)x(AlO₂)y].zH₂O where [] is the aluminosilicate framework,M=cations balancing the framework,z=number of H₂0 molecule occupying the pores,channels and cages.

Characteristics of Zeolite:

regular size of pores and channels.

molecular sieves to seperate molecules of different sizes.

ion exchanger used in water softening.

Zeolite = strong acidic solid catalyst when cation exchanged with H⁺.

Types of Zeolite:

1. A,X,Y,Clinoptilolite--function as ion exchanger.

2. A,X,Carbazite--function as molecular sieves and absorbent.

3. Y,ZSM-5,Beta--function as Heterogeneous catalysts.

(iv) Silicate Glass

formed when sand react with metal silicate or aluminosilicate or borosilicate.

Characteristics of Silicate glass:

not true solid.

supercooled liquid(high viscosity,cannot free flow)

no melting point(amorphous)

can turns to clear liquid eventually when heating.

inert but can react with F₂,HF and alkali.

Production of Silicate glass:

Mixed the calcium silicate (CaSiO₃) and sodium silicate (Na₂SiO₃) to produce soda glass.

Type of Glasses:

1. Soft glass ~ ordinary soda-lime for making bottles and window glasses.

2. Hard glass ~ potash-lime glass for glass apparatus(resistant to chemicals and hard to melt)

3. Flint glass ~ lead-potash-lime glass for making prisms,lenses and optical devices.

4. Jena glass ~ zinc-barium-borosilicate glass for heat shock resistant apparatus.

5. Pyrex/Corning glass ~ sodium-aluminium-borosilicates.(similar to Jena glass)

6. Crooke's glass ~ cuts off UV rays.

7. Quartz glass ~ pure silica(does not crack)

8. Ground glass ~ soft glass,ground by emery and turpentine

9. Reinforced glass ~ Does not shatter easily due to the network of wires embedded in it.

(v) Silicones

organosilicon compounds having heterocatenated Si-O-Si-O bonds.

alkyl/aryl(R) group bonded to Si atom.

Preparation of silicones:

Hydrolysis of alkyl/aryl silicon halides followed by condensation.

Types of silicones:

1. Disilicone - can be prepared by hydrolysis or condensation.

2. Chain silicone - can be prepared by hydrolysis or condensation.

3. Branched silicone - can be prepared by hydrolysis.

Properties:

thermally stable

low viscosity

silicone rubbers remain elastic even at low temperatures

water repellent(hydrophobic) caused by the presence of alkyl groups.

inert towards chemical attack or oxidation.

Uses:

as lubricants

low temperature hydraulic fluids

in comestic (primer)

breast implant shell

silicone wax for water repellent.

(vi) Silicon halides,SiX₄

All halides exist.

[SinCl(n+2)] can up to Si₆Cl₁₄

All halides except SiF4 are unstable and undergo hydrolysis in water.(form silica and acid)

SiF₄ undergo partial hydrolysis. [ 2SiF₄ +2H₂O -> SiO₂ + H₂SiF6 + 2HF]

Hydrolysis occurs through the formation of dative bonding from O atom of water to Si of SiX₄.

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SUMMARY FOR GROUP IVA (LEAD)

EXTRACTION :

2PbS + 2O2 → 2PbO + 2SO2

PbO + C → Pb(l) + CO(g)

PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES:

• High density but soft  with low boiling point

• High luster, ductile and highly malleable

• Resists  corrosion

OXIDE:

PbO (Lead oxide)

-Yellow solid

-Amphoteric oxide

Preparation:

1. Direct reaction between elements

Pb + O2 → PbO

2. Thermal decomposition of Pb(NO3)2 or PbCO3

2Pb(NO3)2 → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2

PbCO3 → PbO + CO2

PbO2  (Lead dioxide)

-Dark brownish solid or black powder

-An ionic compound

-Strong oxidizing agent

-Decompose when heating

-Dissolve in acids

-Amphoteric oxide

-Used mainly as cathode in lead acid battery

Preparation:

1) Heating Pb(II) solution with sodium chlorate

Pb2+ (aq) + H2O + ClO−(aq) → PbO2(s) + Cl−(aq)  + 2H+(aq)

2) Red lead with nitric acid

Pb3O4(s) + 4HNO3(aq) → PbO2(s) + 2Pb(NO3)2(aq)  + 2H2O(l)

Pb3O4(Trilead tetraoxide)

-Red lead (pigment for paint, prevent rusting)

-A mixture of 2PbO.PbO2

-Shows properties like PbO and PbO2

Preparation:

3Pb(s) + O2 → Pb3O4

PbO2(s) → Pb3O4 + O2

HALIDES

-Stability: Pb(II) halide > Pb(IV) halide

Lead(IV) halide, PbX4

- PbF4 and PbCl4 exists

- PbBr4 and PbI4 do not exist (Br2 and I2 are not strong oxidizing agents, unable to oxidize Pb(II) to Pb(IV) )

Lead(II) halide, PbX2

- All halides exist in ionic form

-white solid: PbF2 , PbCl2 , PbBr2

-yellow solid: PbI2

SULPHIDES

PbS (Lead sulphide)

-ONLY forms PbS

-Forms as black precipitate when H2S is  passed through Pb(II) solution

-Pb2+ (aq) + H2S(g) → PbS(s) + 2H+(aq)

# data[].attributes.body
Silicon(Si)
- 2nd abunant element
- Exist as SiO2

Characteristic
- Metallic luster and grayish
- High MP
- Don't dissolve in acid(HF can)
- Disslove in baswe

Extraction
- Reducing sand (SiO2) by coke
- Reduce SiCl4 by Na

Compounds
1. Oxides
- Silicon diocide(SiO2) polymeric tetrahedral

2. Silicate (SiO4)4-
-  SiO2 + metal oxides / carbonate

3. Aluminosilicate
- Al + Si in silicate framework (- charge)

4. Silicones
- Organosilicon compounds Si-O-Si-O bonds in chains, rings, branches.

Preparation
1. Oxides
- Hydrolysis SiCl4
- Acidification of water glass

2. Silicones
- Hydrolysis of alkyl/aryl silicon halides followed by condensation

Silicone
Type
1. Disilicone -  R3SiX
2. Chain silicone - R2SiX2
3. Branched silicone -  RSiX3

Properties
1. Thermal stable
2. Low viscosity
3. Hydrophobic
4. Inert to chemical attack or oxidation

Uses
1. Lubricants
2. Cosmsetic
3. Breast implant

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Carbon

Allotropy (Diamond)

Carbon atoms bonded together by covalent bonds

Very high m.p (~4000◦C)

sp3 hybridization

Does not conduct electricity (no free electron)

Aplication:

-precious jewelry

-making cutting tool and abrasive due to its hardness

Allotropy (graphite)

-Prepared by Acheson Process

SiO₂ + C → SiC + CO

SiC → Si + C(graphite)

sp2 hybridization

Arranged in layer

Softer than diamond ( weak bonds between layers)

Conduct electricity (only in plane) (use as electrode)

As lubricant

As oxidizing agent or reducing agent

Allotropy (fullerene C₆₀)

-Truncated icosahedrons (Soccer ball)

-Sp2 hybridization

-Very stable framework (symmetry structure)

1.Oxides (CO₂ and CO)

CO

-sp hybridization

-Colourless gas, no smell

-burned with blue flame

-Toxic gas (strongly bonded to hemoglobin than O₂) can lead to death

-Strong reducing agent

-Act as ligand (formation of carbonyl complexes)

Preparation:

Dehydration of formic acid or oxalic acid by conc. H2SO4

Reduction of CO₂ by hot-red C

Uses:

-Production of pure Ni metal using Mond process

-Gas in synthesis gas (CO + H2) in steam reforming process to produce fuel

-Hydroformylation (produce higher alcohol)

-Reagent to produce phosgene

CO₂

-sp hybridization, linear

-Colourless gas, does not smell

-Solid (dry ice)

-React with base formed carbonate

-Act as ligand

Preparation:

Reaction of acid with calcium carbonate(marble)

Heating limestone

Uses:

-Fine retardant

-Producing carbonated drink and baking soda

-Carbon cycle-biofuel

2. Halides (CX₄)

-Does not undergo hydrolysis bcs C has no d orbital

•CCl₄ carbon tetrachloride (as organic solvent)

CS₂ + 3Cl₂ → CCl₄ + S₂Cl₂

•CF₄

Inert and high stability (high bond energy of C-F)

non-toxic, non-corrosive

Volatile and thermally stable liquids

Insoluble in water, alcohols and HF

Dissolve in chlorocarbon

Uses:

-Freon – refrigerating gas

-perfluorovinylchloride – monomer for making plastic

-Polytetrafluoroethene – a type of Teflon

3. Carbides

(compound of C + metal)

•Ionic carbide (saline carbide)

C + M (GROUP IA, IIA, IIIA)

•Covalent carbide

SiC (insulator) , B₄C (metallic)

Giant molecules with covalent bonding

Extremely inert and hard substances

Used for making cutting tool, discs, drillers

•Instertitial carbides (transition metal + C(coke) )

Non-stoichiometric composition

Lustrous solids with metallic properties

High m.p

Chemically inert

# data[].attributes.headline
Nurul Ida Khairunnisa Binti Mohd Usman (A21SC0314)

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Nurul Ida Khairunnisa Binti Mohd Usman (A21SC0314)

# data[].attributes.body
Element : Pb (Lead)
- Exist as mineral-galena, PbS

Physicochemical properties :
- High density
- High luster, ductile and highly malleable
- Resists corrosive

Oxide
- Exist as PbO, PbO2 and Pb3O4

PbO (Lead oxide)

- yellow oxide
- amphoteric oxide

Preparation
1) Direct oxygen react with elements
2) Thermal decomposition of Pb(NO3)2 or PbCO3

PbO2 (Lead dioxide)

- dark brownish solid or black powder
- ionic compound
- strong oxidizing agent
- decompose when heating
- dissolves in acids
-amphoteric oxide
-mainly as cathode in Lead acid battery

Preparation
1) Heating Pb(II) solution with sodium chlorate
2) Red lead with nitric acids

Pb3O4 (Trilead tetraoxide)

- red lead ~ used to protect iron and steel from rusting.
-A mixture of 2PbO.PbO2

Preparation
3Pb +O2 -> Pb3O4
PbO2 -> Pb3O4 + O2

Halide
- Pb(II) is more stable than Pb(IV)

Lead(IV) Halide, PbX4

- PbF4 & PbCl4 exists
- PbBr4 &PbI4 do not exist
* Br2 and I2 are not strong oxidizing agents ~ unable to oxidize

Lead(II) halide, PbX2

- exist in ionic form
*white solid - PbF2,PbCl2,PbBr2
*yellow solid - PbI2

Lead Sulphide ( PbS)

- only form PbS
-As black precipitate forms
Pb²⁺ + H2S -> PbS + 2H⁺

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Tin (Sc)
Extraction of Sn
1. SnO₂ is roasted so that impurities (S, Sr) can be remove to get Pure SnO₂.
2. C(anthracite) is  added to reduce SnO2 to get Sn
3. Sn is undergo purification by electrolysis the H₂SiF₆ , H₂SO₄ and SnSO₄ as electrolytes.
4. The pure Sn is produced at cathode while SnO₂ is produced at anode.

Tin Allotrope
α-Sn(grey)
↑↓  13.2 °C
β-Sn(white)
↑↓  161 °C
γ-Sn
↑↓  232 °C
Liquid Sn

Physicochemical Properties
Physical properties
- Soft metal
- Malleable but not very ductile
-becomes brittle on heating
- crackles when bent
Chemical properties
- Oxygen-form SnO₂
- Water or steam -   Forms a little H₂ at high temperature
-  Chlorine - Form SnCl₄ on heating
- Sulphur - Form SnS and Sn₂ depending on temperature
-  Hot, conc., or molten alkalis -  Forms H₂ and Sn(OH)₄ 2− or Sn(OH)₆ 2− if air is present
-  Diluted acids Very slow, if any reaction
-  Conc. H²SO₄ Forms Sn(SO₄ )₂
- Conc. HCI Forms hydrated - form SnCl₂
-  Conc. HNO₃ Forms hydrated SnO2

Compound of Sn
Oxide
1.SnO 2 (oxidation no. = +4)
-Direct heating metal in oxygen
Sn(s) + O₂ (g) → SnO₂ (s)
-Pure ionic oxide
-Does not disslove in HCl, HNO₃ and aqua regia
-Amphoteric oxide

SnO2 (s) + H2SO4 → Sn(SO4 )2 (s) + 2H2O

SnO2 (s) + 2OH− → SnO3 2− (aq) + H2O (dehydrated)

2.SnO (oxidation number = +2)
-  Also referred to as tin
• Preparation
Heating tin oxalate
[COO− -COO− ]Sn → SnO(s) + CO + CO₂
• Amphoteric oxide (more base than SnO₂ ) (more Lewis basic because it has than tin(IV))
SnO(s) + 2H⁺ (aq) → Sn²⁺(aq) + H₂O
SnO(s) + 2OH− (aq) → SnO₂ 2− (aq) + H₂O

Halides  (SnX 2 more stable than SnX ₄)

SnCl ₄
- Prepared by direct heating of the elements
Sn(s) + (g) → SnCl₄ (l)
-Colorless liquid
- Compound with tetrahedral structure
- In moist air, rapidly hydrolyzed and fuming
SnCl₄ (l) + 2H₂O(l) → SnO₂ (s) + 4HCl(g)
- With conc. HCl/NH4Cl, form complex SnCl₆ 2-
SnCl⁴ (l) + 2HCl(aq) → H₂SnCl₆ (aq)
SnCl2
- Preparation SnCl₂
1. Sn(s) hot + 2HCl(g) → SnCl2 + H₂ (Anhydrous salt is a transparent crystalline solid)

2. Hydrated SnCl₂ .2H₂O
Sn(s) + HCl conc. → SnCl2 + H₂
SnO(s) + HCl(aq) dil → SnCl₂ + H₂O

- Predominantly covalent  compound
- Soluble in both water and organic solvents
-  Dissolved in water to give due to formation by hydrolysis of basic chlorides
-  Heating SnCl₂ .2H₂O also form basic chlorides
- Strong reducing agent

Sulphide (Exist as SnS and SnS ₂)
SnS
- obtained by passing through the gas in Sn(II) solution.
Sn₂+(aq) + H₂S(g) → SnS(s) + H+ (aq)
- Dark brown unstable solid,
- Easily oxidize to SnS₂
SnS ₂
-  Obtained by oxidation of SnS using
ammonium polysulfides (NH₄ )2Sx (mixture of (NH₄ )₂S and S)
- Yellow solid
- Dissolove in excess of  (NH₄ )₂Sx
SnS₂ (s) + (NH₄ )₂S → (NH₄ )₂SnS₃

# data[].attributes.body
Silicon (Si)

Characteristics
- has metallic luster and grayish color
- having diamond lattice
- high melting point
- inert element but attack by hydrogen
- does not dissolve in any acids except HF
- dissolve in base

Extraction
1. Reducing SiO2 by Coke
2. To obtain pure Si
i. Reducing SiCl4 by Na
ii. Zone refining process

Preparation of SiO2
i. Hydrolysis of SiCl4
ii. Acidification of water glass

Properties
- inert at low temperature but become reactive at elevated temperature
- becomes strong acidic oxide at elevated temperature
- dissolve in HF only
- dissolve in alkali

Aluminosilicate
- occurs when Al atom substitute SI in the silicate framework
- framework becomes negatively charged
- examples : Feldspar, zeolite

Silicate glass
- not a true solid
- has no melting point
- inert by most chemicals but attacked by F2, HF and alkali

Types of glasses
- soft glass
- hard glass
- flint glass
- jena glass
- pyrex or corning glass
- Crooke's glass
- quartz glass
- ground glass
- reinforced glass

Silicones
- Preparation
~ hydrolysis of alkyl/aryl silicon halides followed by condensation
- Type
~ disilicone
~ chain silicone
~ branched silicone
- Properties
~ thermally stable
~ has low viscosity
~ inert towards chemical attack or oxidation
- Uses
~ as lubricants
~ in cosmetics
~ breast implant shell

# data[].attributes.body
TIN : [Kr] 5s²4d¹⁰5p²

reduction on tin ore with anthracite
SnO2 + 2C  → Sn + 2CO

Tin Allotrope
i) α-Sn (grey)
ii) β-Sn (white)
iii) γ-Sn

physicochemical properties :
- soft metal
- melleable but not very ductile
- become brittle on heat and cacked when bent

chemical propeties :
- form SnO2 on heating ( no Sn3O4)
- form SnCl4 on heating with chlorine
- react with conc HCl to form hydrated SnCl2

OXIDE : SnO2
Sn + O2  → SnO2
- pure ionic oxide
- does not dissolve in HCl or HNO3
- amphoteric oxide

SnO
- black tin
- preparation : heating tin oxalate

Halide
- Sn + 2 Cl2 → SnCl4
- colourless liquid
- covalent compound

SnCl2 :
- covalent compound
- soluble in both water and organic solvent
- Sn + 2Hcl → SnCl2 + H2
- anhydrous salt is transparent crystalline solid
- SnO + Hcl → SnCl2 + H2O
- Dissolved in water to form cloudy solution ( basic chloride )
- strong reducing agent

Sulphide : SnS
- prepartion : Sn2+ + H2S → SnS + H+
- dark brown
easily hyrolyse to SnS2

SnS2
- preparation : SnS + S → SnS2
- yellow solid
- dissolve in excess (NH4)2Sx

# data[].attributes.body
Silicon(Si)

- Second most abundant element on the earth

-   Exist as

• SiO2, silica, or silicon dioxide (sand, quartz, flint, and agate)

•  silicate substances

-   Extraction

1. Reducing SiO2 (sand) by Coke (need to do in Electrical furnace)

2. To obtain pure Si

(i) Reducing SiCl4 by Na

(ii) Zone refining process; (99.999% pure)

-   Characteristics

• Crystalline Si has a metallic luster

• Grayish color.

• Having diamond lattice

• High melting and boiling point (1414 °C)

• Inert element but an attack by halogen

• Does not dissolve in any acids but dissolve in HF

• Dissolve in base

-  Compound: Oxide, Silicate, Silicone, Halide

1.    Oxides

• Silicon dioxide, SiO2 (also known as silica)

- Exists as polymeric tetrahedral SiO2

•  Preparation

i.     Hydrolysis of SiCl4

ii.    Acidification of water glass  (Na2SiO3)

•   Properties
- Inert at low temperature but becomes reactive at elevated temperature
- Becomes strong acidic oxide at elevated temperature

- Dissolve in HF only

- Dissolve in alkali

2.   Silicate

• Silicate = SiO2 + metal oxides/ metal sulphate / metal c arbonate

•  Structure: polymorph (SiO4)4−

•  Aluminosilicate: 3-dimensional silicate

-  Occurs when atom substitutes in the silicate framework
-  Framework becomes negatively charge

-  Excess charges are balanced by cations from Group IA and IIA or from

-  Example: Zeolite (Hydrated aluminosilicate crystals)

•      Silicate Glass

-     Characteristics:

a.    Not a true solid

b.   Is a supercooled liquid having very high viscosity

c.    Amorphous (no melting point)

d.   On heating → soften → turn semisolid → clear liquid.

e.   Inert by most chemicals but attacked by F2, HF, and alkali

-     Types of Glasses:

i.      Soft glass

ii.     Hard glass

iii.     Flint glass

iv.     Jena glass

v.     Pyrex or Corning glass

vi.     Crooke’s glass

vii.     Quartz glass

viii.     Ground glass

ix.     Reinforced glass

3.   Silicone

• Organosilicon compounds having heterocatenated bonds in Si-O-Si-O chains, rings, and branches.

•   Preparation:

-     Hydrolysis of alkyl/aryl silicon halides

-     Followed by condensation

•   Types of Silicones:

1)   Disilicone - initial R3SiX

2)  Chain silicone – initial R2SiX2

3)  Branched silicone – initial RSiX3

•    Properties:
- thermally stable up to 500 – 600 K

- low viscosity which changes with temperature.

- Silicone rubbers remain elastic even at low temperatures.

- the presence of alkyl groups makes the silicones water repellent ( hydrophobic).

- Inert towards chemical attack or oxidation

ü

•      Uses

- As lubricants

- Low temperature hydraulic fluids

- In cosmetics (primer)
- Breast implant shell

- Silicone wax (water repellent)

4.   Silicon Halides, SiX4

•      All SiX4 (X= F, Cl, Br, I) exist

•      With Cl, a series of chloride SinCl(n+2) up to Si6Cl14 are known

•      All halides are unstable and undergo hydrolysis in water except SiF4

# data[].attributes.body
Pb,Lead
-e-. configuration:[Xe]6s^2 4f^14 5d^10
-exist as PbS
-undergo reduction to obtain the extraction of Pb

Physicochemical properties:
-High density but soft with low boiling point
-high luster, ductile, and highly malleable
-resists CORROSIVE

Compounds of Pb= oxides, halides, & sulphide
1.OXIDE
*exist as PbO(+2),PbO2(+4),Pb3O4(PbO.PbO2)
*PbO, Lead Oxide
#preparation:direct rection between elements(eg: O2) or Heat Pb(NO3)2 / PbCO3
#yellow solid
#It is an amphoteric oxide
*PbO2, Lead Dioxide
#preparation: heating Pb(II) solution with sodium chlorate or react red lead* with nitric acids
*red lead= trilead tetraoxide
-it's the mixture of 2PbO.PbO2 &it shows the properties of PbO and PbO2
-used in paint industry(red pigment)-- to protect iron and steel from rusting
#Properties:
~dark brownish solid / black powder
~ionic compound
~strong oxidizing agent(+4 to +2)
~decompose when heating and obtain Pb3O4
~dissolve n acids
~it's also an amphoteric oxide
#Uses: mainly as cathode in lead acid battery

2.HALIDE
*exist as PbX4 & PbX2 [stability: Pb(II)halide > Pb(IV)]
*PbX4: only for PbF4 & PbCl4
#Br2 and I2 is not existing as they are the weak oxidizing agents so unable to oxidize Pb(II) to Pb(IV)
*PbX2: alll halides exists in IONIC form
#Other Lead(II) halides are white solid, except PbI2 is yellow solid

3.SULPHIDE
*Only forms PbS (NO PbS2!!)
When H2S passes through Lead(II) solution, PbS presents as black precipitate

# data[].attributes.headline
Nur Syafiqah Binti Kamaruddin (A21SC0260)

# data[].attributes.subject
Nur Syafiqah Binti Kamaruddin (A21SC0260)

# data[].attributes.body
Tin(Sn)
- extraction of cassitserite (SnO2) roasted to remove S and As to get pure SnO2 nd pure tin ore, its continue with reduction with catalysts C (anthracite) to remove slag to produce Sn.
- Sn will udergoes purification under electrolysis with H2SiF6, H2SO4, SnSO4 electrolytes to obtain SnO2(impure Sn) as anode and Sn(pure Sn) as cathode.

Tin Allotrope
i) α-Sn (grey)
-diamond lattice
-density, d 5.75 g/cm³
-powder
ii) β-Sn (white)
-tetragonal / distorted octahedral lattice
-7.31 g/cm³
iii) γ-Sn
iv) liquid Sn

• Tin plauque or tin-pest is the change of white (β-Sn) to grey tin (α-Sn) below 13.2°C causes the increse in volume and the tin metallic apprearance become pock-marked and powdered.

Physiochemical Properties
soft metal, malleable, not very ductile, become a brittle on heating, crackles when bent

Compound of Sn
Oxides (SnO2, SnO)
SnO2
Preparation
-direct heating of metal in air or oxygen
Sn + O2 → SnO2
-pure ionic oxide
-does not dissolve in HCl, HNO3
-amphoteric oxide
With H2SO4(acid) forms Sn(SO4)2
With OH-(alkali) forms dehydrates SnO32-

SnO(black tin)
- Preparation - Heating tin oxalate
- Amphoteric oxide (more base than SnO2 ) (more Lewis basic because it has more electrons than tin(IV))
In acid: SnO(s) + 2H+ (aq) → Sn2+(aq) + H2O
In alkali:
SnO(s) + 2OH− (aq) → SnO2 2− (aq) + H2O

Halides
(SnX2 is more stable than SnX4)
SnCl4
• Preparation - Direct heating of the elements
Sn(s) + (g) → SnCl4 (l)
• Colorless liquid
• compound with tetrahedral structure

SnCl2
• Predominantly covalent compound
• Soluble in both water and organic solvents
•Preparation Anhydrous SnCl2
- Sn(s) hot + 2HCl(g) → SnCl2 + H2
Anhydrous salt is a transparent crystalline solid.
- Hydrated SnCl2 .2H2O
Sn(s) + HCl conc. → SnCl2 + H2
SnO(s) + HCl(aq) → SnCl2 + H2O
- Dissolved in water to give cloudy solution due to formation by hydrolysis of basic chlorides
- Heating SnCl2 .2H2O also form basic chlorides
- Strong reducing agent

Sulfide
SnS
obtained by passing through the gas in Sn(II) solution.
Sn2+(aq) + H2S(g) → SnS(s) + H+ (aq)
• Dark brown unstable solid
• Easily oxidize to SnS2

SnS2
Obtained by oxidation of SnS using ammonium polysulfides
SnS(s) + S(s) → SnS2 (s)
• Yellow solid
• Dissolves in excess of (NH4 )2Sx
SnS2 (s) + (NH4 )2S → (NH4 )2SnS3

# data[].attributes.body
SILICON (Si)
-The 2nd most abundant element
- Existence as SiO2 and as silicate substances.

EXTRACTION
1. REDUCING SiO2 (sand) by coke
2. To obtain pure Si
- REDUCING SiCl4 by Na
- ZONE REFINING PROCESS ,(99.9% pure)

CHARACTERISTICS
1. Crystalline Si has metallic luster abd grayish colour.
2. Having diamond lattice
3. High melting point (1414' C)
4. Does not dissolve in any acid (except HF)
5.Dissolve in base

Silicon Compounds
• Oxides
-silicon dioxide , SiO2 exists as polymeric tetrahedral SiO2.
-Si-O , 50% ionic due to difference in the electronegativity Si(1.8) and O(3.5)
- A covalent macromolecule with the formation of polymorph.

PREPARATION
1. Hydrolysis of SiCl4
SiCl4 +4H2O -> 4HCl + H4SiO4
H4SiO4-> SiO2 ( 1270K )
2. Acidification of water glass
Na2SiO3 +2HCl -> 2NaCl +H2SiO3

PROPERTIES
-inert at low temperature but becomes reactive at elevated temperature.
-becomes strong acidic oxide at elevated temperature
-Dissolve in HF only
-Dissolve in alkali

SILICATE (SiO4)⁴-
- SiO2 + metal oxides / metal carbonate

ALUMINOSILICATE
-Occurs when Al atom substitutes Si in the silicate framework
-Framework becomes negatively charge
-Excess charges are balanced by cations from Group IA and IIA or from transition metals.
Examples -:
1. Feldspar
2. Zeolite

SILICONES
- Organosilicon compounds having heterocatenated Si-O-Si-O bonds in chains , rings and branches.

PREPARATION
1.Hydrolysis of alkyl/aryl silicon halides followed by condensation

TYPES OF SILICONES
1. Disilicone - initial R3SiX
2.Chain silicone-initial R2SiX2
3.Branched silicone - initial RSiX3

PROPERTIES OF SILICONE
1. Thermally stable up to 500-600K
2. Has low viscosity which change the temperature
3.Silicone rubbers remain elastic even at liw temperature.
4.The presence of alky groups makes the silicones water repellent (hydrophobic)
5.Inert towards chemical attack or oxidation

USES
1. As lubricants
2. Low temperature hydraulic fluids
3. In cosmetics
4. Breast implant shell
5.Silicone wax for water repellent

# data[].attributes.body
Lead, Pb
-exist as PbS
-high density
-soft
-low boiling point
-high luster, ductile & highly malleable
-resists corrosive

Extraction
roast
2PbS + 2O₂ → 2PbO + 2SO₂

PbO + C → Pb + CO

Oxides- PbO, PbO₂ & Pb₃O₄

For  PbO (yellow solid)
Preparation
1. Pb + O2 → PbO
2. Thermal decomposition
Pb(NO₃)2 → 2PbO + 4NO₂ + O2
PbCO3 → PbO + CO₂
-amphoteric oxide
PbO + 2HCl → PbCl2 + H₂O

PbO + OH- + H₂O → Pb(OH)₄ 2-

For PbO₂
- dark brownish solid
-ionic compound
-strong oxidising agent
-decomposes when heating
PbO2 → Pb₃O4 + O₂

-dissolves in acid (H₂SO₄, HF & HCl)

PbO2 + H+ → Pb2+ + H₂O
-amphoteric oxide(mainly as cathode in Lead acid baterry)
PbO₂ + 4HCl → PbCl2 + Cl2 +H₂O

PbO₂ + OH⁻→ PbO₃ ²⁻ + H₂O

Preparation
1. Pb²⁺+ H₂O + ClO- → PbO2 + Cl- + 2H⁺

2. Pb₃O4 + 4HNO3 → PbO2 + 2Pb(NO₃)₂ + 2H₂O

For Pb₃O₄  (mixture of 2PbO.PbO₂)
-used as pigment for paint
Preparation
3Pb + O2 → Pb₃O₄

PbO2 → Pb₃O4 + O2
(heat)

Halide of Lead
Stability: PbX2 > PbX₄

PbX₄ ( X = F, Cl)
X ≠ Br, I
Br2 and  I₂ are not strong oxidising agent
PbX₂
-ionic form
-all white solid except PbI2 (yellow)

Lead Sulphide, PbS (black)
Pb²⁺+ H₂S→ PbS + 2H⁺

# data[].attributes.body
Element of Group IVA
(Lead, Pb)

• It existence as mineral-galena, PbS
Extraction
-2PbS + 2O2 → 2PbO + 2SO2
-PbO + C → Pb(l) + CO(g)
Properties

high density but soft with low BP

high luster, ductile, highly malleable

resists corrosive

Compound of lead
•Lead oxide, PbO
-yellow in colour
-amphoteric oxide
Preparation
1.Direct reaction between elements
-Pb + O2→ PbO
2.Thermal decomposition of Pb(NO3)2 or PbCO3
-2Pb(NO3)2 → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2
-PbCO3→ PbO + CO2

•Lead Dioxide, PbO2
-dark brownish solid or black powder
-ionic compound
-strong oxidizing agent
-decompose when heating
-dissolves in acid
-amphoteric oxide
Preparation
1.Heating Pb(II) solution with NaClO3
-Pb2+ + H2O + CIO- → PbO2 + Cl- + 2H+
2.Red lead with HNO3
-Pb3O4 + 4HNO3 → PbO2 + 2Pb(NO3)2 + 2H2O
-mainly use as cathode in lead acid battery

•Trilead tetraoxide, Pb3O4
-red lead (used to protect iron and steel from rusting)
-mixture of 2PbO.PbO2
Preparation
-3Pb + O2 → Pb3O4
-PbO2→ Pb3O4 + O2
#show properties same as PbO and PbO2

Halides of lead
Lead halides (PbX4 & PbX2)
-Pb(II) halide more stable than Pb(IV)

Lead(IV) halide, PbX4

-PbF4, PbCl4 exist
-PbBr4, Pbl4 do no exist (due to Br2 and l2 are not strong oxidizing agent)

Lead(II) halide, PbX2

-exist in ionic form
-PbF2 (white), PbCl2 (white), PbBr2 (white), Pbl2 (yellow)

Lead Sulphide
-only form PbS
-black ppt forms when H2S is passed through lead(II) solution
-Pb2+ H2S→ PbS + 2H+

# data[].attributes.body
Lead (Pb)
- Group 4, Period 6 = [Xe] 6s² 4f¹⁴ 5d¹⁰ 6p²
- pure Pb extract from PbS

Physicochemical properties
- high density but soft
- low boiling point
- high luster, ductile, malleable
-resists corrosive

Oxide (PbO, Pbo2, Pb3O4)
1. PbO (Pb=+2)
- lead oxide
- yellow solid
- amphoteric oxide

Preparation
a) direct reaction between elements
Pb + O₂ → PbO
b) Thermal decomposition of Pb(NO3)2 or 2Pb(NO₃)₂ → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O₂
PbCO₃ → PbO + CO₂

2. PbO ₂
- lead dioxide
- dark brownish solid / black powder
- ionic compound (Pb4+ & O2-)
- strong oxidizing agent (+4 → +3)
- amphoteric oxide
- decompose when heating
- dissolves in acids

Preparation
a) heating Pb(II) solution with sodium chloride
Pb²⁺ + H₂O + ClO⁻  →  PbO₂ + Cl- + 2H+
b) red lead with nitric acids
Pb₃O₄ + 4HNO₃  → PbO2 + 2Pb(NO₃)2 + 2H₂O

Uses
- use as a cathode in lead acid battery

3. Pb ₃ O ₄
- trilead tetraoxide
- red lead
- a mixture of 2PbO.PbO2
- shows properties like PbO & PbO2

Preparation
- 3Pb + O2  →  Pb₃O4
- PbO₂  →  Pb₃O₄ +O₂ (by heating)

Uses
- use as pigment for paint

Halide
* Pb(II) halides is more stable than Pb(IV) halides

1. PbX ₄ (lead (IV) halide)
- only PbF₄ & PbCl₄ exist
- PbBr₄ & PbI4 not exist (Br₂ and I2 not strong oxidising agent)

2. PbX ₂ (lead (II) halide)
- All halides exist in ionic form
- PbF₂,PbCl2, PbBr2 ( white solid)
- PbI2 (yellow solid)

Sulphide
1. PbS (lead Sulphide)
- only form PbS (Pb = +2)
- form a black precipitate when H₂S is passed through lead (II) solution
Pb²⁺ + H₂S  →   PbS + 2H⁺

# data[].attributes.headline
NUR NABILA NATASYA BINTI MOHAMAD NAZRI (A21SC0247)

# data[].attributes.subject
NUR NABILA NATASYA BINTI MOHAMAD NAZRI (A21SC0247)

# data[].attributes.body
Tin (Sn)
[Kr]4d¹⁰5s²5p²

Tin Allotrope
i) α-Sn (grey)
ii) β-Sn (white)
iii) γ-Sn

-Tin-Plague or tin-pest

Physicochemical Properties

soft metal

malleable but not very ductile

brittle when heat

Chemical Properties

Oxygen : form SnO₂ when heating

Water : form a little H₂ at high temperature

Chlorine : form SnCl⁴ on heating

Compound of Sn
i) Oxides (SnO₂, SnO)

SnO ₂ - oxidation state is +4

form by direct heating in air or oxygen

pure ionic oxide

amphoteric oxide, with H₂SO₄ (acid), with OH- (alkali)

SnO - oxidation state is +2

know as black tin

prepared by heating tin oxalate

amphoteric acid

ii) Halides
SnCl ₄

prepared by direct heating of element

colourless liquid

covalent compound with tetrahedral structures

SnCl ₂

covalent compund

soluble in water and organic solvent

strong reducing agent

ii) Sulfides
SnS

obtained by passing through the H₂S gas in Sn(II) solution

dark brown

SnS ₂

oxidation of SnS

yellow solid

# data[].attributes.body
Sn ( Tin )
Extration of tin
-roasting cassitserite to remove impurities S,As to get pure SnO, continue with reduction  with the catalyst C ( anthracite) to remove Slag and produce Sn.
-Electrolysis with H2SiF6, H2SO4, SnSO4 electrolytes to obtain SnO2 ( impure Sn ) at anode and Sn at cathode.

Tin Allotrope
1) α- Sn ( Grey)
2) β- Sn (White)
3) γ-Sn
4) Liquid Sn

-Tin Plague or tin-plest is the change form white to grey tin in below 13.2 °C cause increase in volume and tin metallic appearance becomes pock-marked and eventually powdered.

Physicochemical Properties
soft metal, malleable, not very ductile, become brittle on heating, crackle when bent.

Compound of Sn
Oxides ( SnO2, SnO)
SnO2 ( oxidation number=+4)
Preparation
>>directly heating metal with oxygen
-pure ionic oxide, does not dissolve in HCl, HNO3 or even aqua regia
-amphoteric oxide
SnO ( oxidation number=+2)
-black tin
Preparation
>>heating tin oxalate
-amphoteric oxide
-more base than Sn02 because has more electrons than tin(IV)

Halides
SnX2 more stable than SnX4
SnCl4
Preparation
>>directly heating Sn with Cl2
-colourless liquid
-covalent compound with tetrahedral structure
-rapidly hydrolyzed and fuming in moist air
-form complex SnCl6 2- with conc. HCl/NH4Cl
SnCl2
-covalent compound
-soluble in water and organic solvents
Preparation
-anhydrous SnCl2
Sn (s) + 2 HCl (aq) → SnCl₂ (aq) + H₂ (g)
-hydrated SnCl2.2H2O
Sn+ HCl conc.→ SnCl₂ + H₂
SnO+ HCl (aq)dil → SnCl₂+ H₂O
-Dissolved in water to give cloudy solution due to formation of basic chloride
-heating SnCl2.2H2O form basic chloride
-strong reducing agent

Sulfide
exist mono (SnS) and disulphide (SnS2)
SnS
-obtained by passing through the H2S gas in Sn(II) solution
-Dark brown unstable solid
-easily oxidize to SnS2
SnS2
-obtained by oxidation of SnS using ammonium polysulfides
-yellow solid
-disslove in excess of (NH4)2Sx

# data[].attributes.body
Lead (Pb)
- extracted from PbS (mineral-galena)

Properties
- high density but soft with low boiling point
- high luster, ductile, highly malleable
- resist corrosion

Lead Oxides
1) PbO (Pb= +2)
- yellow solid
- amphoteric oxide
PbO + 2HCl → PbCl2 + H₂O
PbO + 2OH⁻ + H₂O→ Pb(OH)₄ ²⁻+ H₂O

Preparation
1)Pb + O₂  → PbO  (not PbO₂)
2) thermal decomposition of Pb(NO₃)2  or PbCO3
-Pb(NO₃)2   → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2
-PbCO3  →  PbO + CO2
2)  PbO₂ (Pb = +4)
- dark brownish solid / black powder
- ionic compound
- strong oxidising agent
- decompose when heating
PbO₂  → Pb₃O₄ + O₂
- dissolve in acids
- amphoteric oxide
PbO2 + 4HCl → PbCl2 + Cl2 + H₂O
PbO + 2OH⁻ → PbO₃ ²⁻  + H₂O

Preparation
1) Heating Pb(II) solution with sodium chlorate
Pb²⁺ + H₂O + ClO⁻  →  PbO₂ + Cl- + 2H+
2) Red lead with nitric acids
Pb₃O₄ + 4HNO₃  → PbO2 + 2Pb(NO₃)2 + 2H₂O
Uses of PbO₂
- at cathode in lead acid battery

3) Pb₃O₄
- red lead
- mixture of 2PbO.PbO2
- has properties like PbO and PbO2

Preparation
1) 3Pb + O2  →  Pb₃O₄
2) PbO₂  →  Pb₃O₄ +O₂ (by heating)
Uses of red lead
- used as paint to give red pigment and to protect iron and steel from rusting

Lead Halides
- Pb(II) halide more stable than Pb(IV) halide

1) Pb(IV) halide
- PbF₄ & PbCl₄ exist
- PbBr₄ & PbI4 not exist ( Br₂ and I2 not strong oxidising agent, unable oxide Pb²⁺ to Pb⁴⁺)

2) Pb(II) halide
- ionic form
- PbF₂,PbCl2, PbBr2 ( white solid)
- PbI2 (yellow solid)

Lead sulphide (PbS)
- only form PbS (not PbS₂ !!!)
- form black precipitate
Pb²⁺ + H₂S  →   PbS + 2H⁺

# data[].attributes.body
Lead(Pb)
-[Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p2
-exists as PbS
🌟Properties 🌟
-high density but soft and low bp
-high lister
-ductile
-high malleable
-resists corrosive

🌸OXIDE(ionic)🌸
❤️PbO
-Yellow
-amphoteric oxide
Preparation:
1)Pb+O2=PbO
2)2Pb(NO3)2= 2PbO+4NO2+O2
3)PbCO3=PbO+CO2

❤️PbO2
-black powder / dark brownish solid
-ionic compound
-strong oxidizing agent
-amphoteric
-decomposes when heating ( decomposes to Pb3O4 and O2)
-dissolves in acid
-uses :cathode in lead acid battery

Preparation;
1)Pb2+ (in solution)+ H2O + ClO- (from NaClO)= PbO2+Cl- + 2H+
2)Pb3O4+ 4HNO3 = PbO2 + 2Pb(NO3)2 + 2H2O

❤️Pb3O4
-red
-mixture of 2PbO.PbO2
-same properties as PbO and PbO2
-uses:red pigment , protect iron and steel from rusting
Preparation:
1)(Excess)3Pb+O2=Pb3O4
2)PbO2= Pb3O4+O2

🌸HALIDE (ionic)🌸
-Pb 2+ more stable than Pb 4+
-PbX4
👉PbBr4 and PbI4 don’t exist because weak    oxidizing agent‼️‼️
-PbX2
👉PbF2,PbCl2,PbBr2 WHITE
👉PbI2 YELLOW

🌸SULPHIDE (ionic)🌸
-only forms PbS ( no PbS2‼️)
-black solid
-preparation: H2S + Pb2+ (from solution) =PbS+2H+