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In this article, the author explains how important human stages of mental stages development occur.   Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence.

In the last century, Jean Piaget proposed one of the most famous theories regarding cognitive development in children. Piaget proposed four cognitive developmental stages for children, including sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and the formal operational stage. Although Piaget's theories have had a great impact on developmental psychology, his notions have not been fully accepted without critique. Piaget's theory has some shortcomings, including overestimating the ability of adolescence and underestimating infant's capacity. Piaget also neglected cultural and social interaction factors in the development of children's cognition and thinking ability. Moreover, in terms of the methodological approach, Piaget's theory had some ethical and bias problems as he studied his own children. However, Piaget contributions, particularly in regards to the process of education among children and transferring cognition into psychology, have had a significant effect on the science of child development.

Piaget’s four stages occur at:

Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years

Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7

Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11

Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information. As  a teachers, we need to focus on these stages so we can understand the mental ability of our students who are in different stages and ages. We can apply this in our classes by assisting our students the right way of learning based on their stages of metal development, and at the same time consider their stages as a point of start.

Finally, Children’s mental development stages are needed to be treated correctly whether by the teachers or parents.

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Cognitive Theories

Cognitive theories emphasize the creative process and person: process, in emphasizing the role of cognitive mechanisms as a basis for creative thought; and person, in considering individual differences in such mechanisms. Some cognitive theories focus on universal capacities, like attention or memory; others emphasize individual differences, like those indexed by divergent thinking tasks; some focus on conscious operations; others, on preconscious, implicit, or unintentional processes.

One classic cognitive theory, by Sarnoff A. Mednick, argues that creative insights can result from associative processes in memory. In this view, ideas are chained together, one after another, and more remote associates tend to be more original. This perspective argues that more creative individuals tend to have flatter hierarchies of associations than less creative individuals; in other words, more creative people have many more relatively strong associates for a given concept, rather than only a few. This is thought to provide greater scope for the simultaneous activation of far-flung representations, which many believe to be an important engine of creative thought.

Along similar lines, another cognitive theory focuses on how concepts are combined to generate novelty. Research suggests that conceptual combination - bringing two different sets of information together - is often involved in creative ideation, that original insights are more likely when two disparate features are brought together, and that connections between these concepts might only be seen at a very high level of abstraction. This kind of thinking has been called metaphoric logical, the idea being that something like 'angry weather' is only comprehensible in a nonliteral fashion. Such processes may suggest creative alternatives to well-worn lines of thought.

More generally, research in the 'creative cognition approach' tradition, another important contemporary view of creativity developed mainly by Ronald A. Finke, Steven M. Smith, and Thomas B. Ward, has likewise emphasized ideas drawn from cognitive psychology (e.g., conceptual combination, conceptual expansion, creative imagery, and metaphor) to understand how individuals generate ideas and explore their implications in laboratory-based invention and design tasks. Such processes are thought to play out in two fundamental regimes of thought: generating ideas and exploring their implications. In practice, the two are strongly interleaved and combined in the 'geneplore' model of creative thought (from generate + ex plore).

Finally, metacognitive processes (thinking about one's own thinking) are also frequently tied to creativity. Many tactics for increasing creative problem solving have been proposed and popularized, including 'think backwards,' 'shift your perspective,' 'put the problem aside,' and 'question assumptions.' Tactical thinking is especially useful for programs designed to facilitate creative problem solving since they are a function of conscious decisions and can be employed when necessary.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123750389002235

Emotion

Cognitive theories posit that depressed individuals are more sensitive to negative stimuli and less sensitive to positive stimuli. However, emotion researchers have found that depressed individuals can exhibit reduced sensitivity to both negative and positive stimuli. This phenomenon has been referred to as "emotion context insensitivity" (ECI; Rottenberg, 2017). ECI may explain why depressed individuals often appear less responsive to environmental cues and are thus less motivated to act. Taken together, Nolen-Hoeksema's response styles theory and Rottenberg's ECI model suggest that depression is associated with both dysregulated emotional reactivity and dysfunctional emotion regulation strategies.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978032391497000182X

Panic disorder (PD)

Cognitive theories posit that PD is maintained by catastrophic misinterpretations of arousal-related body sensations, which then produce additional fear-related physiological changes, creating a self-reinforcing cycle and culminating in a panic attack (Clark, 1986). For example, a client might interpret an elevated heart rate as a sign of an impending heart attack. This misinterpretation leads to even greater physiological arousal and subjective fear. Thus, exposure therapy for PD emphasizes interoceptive exposures (see Types of exposures, above) to help clients learn that body sensations are most often not dangerous. A client with PD might engage in exposures by running in place and tolerating the resulting increase in heart rate; breathing through a cocktail straw to simulate shortness of breath; or spinning in a swivel chair to practice experiencing dizziness. Research suggests that exposure therapy effectively treats PD (Barlow et al., 2000), and may lead to lower dropout rates (e.g., see Bakker et al., 1998) and better maintenance of treatment gains (Barlow et al., 2000) relative to pharmacotherapy (imipramine) for PD.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780323914970000655

Cognitive approaches

Cognitive theories of depression are among the most widely studied theories in the etiology of depression. One of the most influential of these theories was proposed by Aaron Beck in 1967. Beck's model argues that depression results from the activation of depressive self-schemas. These schemas refer to organized mental structures that, in the case of depression, are negatively toned representations of self-referent knowledge. Moreover, schemas guide appraisals and interact with information to influence selective attention, memory, and cognition. Although all persons evidence schemas, the schemas of depressed individuals are dysfunctional because they lead to negative perspectives about oneself, the world, and the future, or what Beck has termed, the negative cognitive triad.

An important aspect of Beck's model is that depressive schemas lay dormant until activated by relevant stimuli: "Whether he will ever become depressed depends on whether the necessary conditions are present at a given time to activate the depressive constellation." Thus, stressful life events are necessary to activate negative schemas, and once activated, schemas provide access to a complex system of negative personal themes that give rise to a corresponding pattern of negative information processing that eventuates in depression.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123750006001294

Cognitive risks

Cognitive theories of depression emphasize the contribution of maladaptive mental representations and patterns of thinking to the onset and maintenance of depressive disorders. These theories posit that such cognitive attributes will have a particularly pronounced effect on depressive symptoms in response to negative life experiences. Three primary cognitive styles have been identified as risk factors for depressive disorders. The first depressogenic cognitive style ('negative cognitive triad') was proposed by Aaron Beck during the 1960s; according to Beck's theory, and more recent elaborations, dysfunctional attitudes predispose individuals to process information in a negatively biased manner. These maladaptive interpretations specifically pertain to inferences about the self (i.e., that one is flawed or inadequate), the world (i.e., that stressors will encompass all life domains), and the future (i.e., that negative experiences will persist in the future). A second depressogenic cognitive style ('negative attributional or inferential style') also highlights the role of negative inferences in response to stressful events; specifically, it is believed that individuals who attribute negative events to stable and global causes, who interpret negative events as having widespread detrimental consequences, and who perceive feelings of deficiency and hopelessness about themselves, as a result, are at heightened vulnerability to depression. A third depressogenic cognitive style ('low perceived control') involves the tendency to perceive oneself as incompetent and lacking control over life experiences, thereby priming the anticipation of perpetual life stress and emotional distress. Empirical research generally yields support for the notion that cognitive vulnerability, particularly in combination with stressful life events, predisposes adolescents to experience depressive symptoms.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123739513001083

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Cognitive theories emphasize the creative process and person: process, in emphasizing the role of cognitive mechanisms as a basis for creative thought; and person, in considering individual differences in such mechanisms. Some cognitive theories focus on universal capacities, like attention or memory; others emphasize individual differences, like those indexed by divergent thinking tasks; some focus on conscious operations; others, on preconscious, implicit, or unintentional processes.

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By organizing this article, three basic components of Piaget's cognitive theory were clarified: 1)Schemas(building blocks of knowledge), 2)Adaptation processes (transition from one stage to another), 3)Cognitive development(sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational).

Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development:

1. Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years): Object permanence that requires the ability to form a mental representation of the object.

2. Preoperational stage (2-7 years): Thinking symbolically that the ability to make one thing or a word or an object, but it is still egocentric.

3. Concrete operational stage (7-11): The beginning of logical or operational thought is a major turning point. Meaning that children can solve problems inside their brains rather than actually doing them.

4. Formal operational stage(11+): To develop the ability to think about abstract concepts and logically test hypotheses.

Piaget suggests that teachers should focus more on the process of learning rather than the outcome; rediscover or reconstruct the "truth" approach; interact more with children; provide contextualized instruction and ask useful questions, and properly assess children's developmental levels and develop appropriate tasks.

Because Piaget's theory of cognitive development has certain limitations, four researchers have raised opposing views. Only one-third of adults reach the formal operational stage without considering the influence of social environment and culture leading to cognitive development (Dasen, 1994). Failure to distinguish between the effects of ability and performance underestimates children's cognitive abilities (Hughes, 1975). Behaviorism rejects Piaget's schema theory as an internal process that cannot be directly observed. His sample was not only tiny, questioning the generalizability of the data (Bruner, 1966). In general, Piaget focused more on cognition and thinking and ignored the influence brought by behavior, while Vygotsky believed that language and thinking develop in parallel and are associated with the social environment.

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The Application of Piaget's cognitive development theory to English learning class

YouTube link: https://youtu.be/RzRYA9cFMaQ

Piaget's cognitive development theory tells us that the development of intellectual structure is a process of active adaptation to the environment.  Therefore, children themselves can determine the direction and level of their own development.

In the process of interacting with the world, children of any age have a unique set of methods and principles for representing and interpreting the world.

Therefore, in the process of English learning class, as teachers we should treat students as active recipients of knowledge, we should  respect students' willingness.

Teachers have to also pay attention to teaching methods and teaching modes, create various problem spaces, let students discover and solve problems by themselves, teachers can monitor and adjust their own cognitive structure by solving problems, and improve students' ability and construct their knowledge structure.

We can choose various teaching materials in class.

In addition to textbooks, physical materials, pictures, audio-visual materials, etc. These can also be selected to improve students' interest in learning and promote students' participation in teaching activities.

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Cognitive learning theories focus on the ability of students to guide their own learning using mental strategies. This chapter is cover four aspects which are (a) briefly explore the growth of cognitivism, (b) explain some of the relevant cognitive processes identified within cognitivism, (c) provide an overview of several cognitive learning theories, and (d) describe the relevance of cognitivism to instructional design practices.

Growth of Cognitivism:

The early model of cognitivism is about the two-store or dual memory model, refers to the interactions between working memory and long-term memory. The two-store (dual) model is too simplistic and incomplete but serves as a starting point for understanding cognitive learning theories. Nowsaday, reasearchers  focus on the conceptualization of a student’s learning processes and address issues of how information is received, organized, stored, and retrieved by the mind.

Cognitive Processes

The two-store (dual) memory model including

(a) perception:

The process of receiving information begins with some sort of sensory input. Sensory information stays only a very short time, so the information is transferred to short-term or working memory.

(b) executive processes:

The system controls the processes of information. In other words, a conscious process by which a person manages new information. It is often linked to working memory but has influence in all parts of the two-store model. Executive processes are also used to monitor understanding, select learning strategies, and regulate motivation.

(c) Short-term or working memory:

Short-term memory is "a type of working memory that roughly corresponds to consciousness, or what a person is aware of at a particular moment". Both short-term and working memory are limited in capacity and duration, and information is lost if it is not practiced frequently or transferred to long-term memory. Chunking or dividing information into smaller pieces or groups may help reduce the burden on working memory. For example, instead of a long string of numbers, a phone number is divided into three parts.

(d) encoding:

Encoding is the process of integrating new and known information processed in working memory into long-term memory. Encoding is influenced by organization, refinement, and patterns.

Organizational strategies include creating hierarchies, mnemonic techniques, and mental imagery.

A mnemonic tool can aid in elaboration by giving meaning to things that are easy to remember, such as using the first letter of an order of operations in mathematics.

A pattern or schema is a personalized organizational structure. They contain our general knowledge of specific situations used to plan our actions and interactions. They often prescribe a routine set of actions based on our past experience.

(e) long-term memory:

Defines memory as "the ability to store sensory information for later retrieval as images, thoughts and ideas". What is called memory in ordinary speech usually refers to long-term memory, in which images, thoughts and ideas are stored for longer periods of time.

Cognitive Theories of Learning

Information Processing Theories

Information processing theories are varied but generally deal with how people attend to environmental events, encode information to be learned and relate it to knowledge in memory, store new knowledge in memory, and retrieve it as needed.

Cognitive Load Theory

Cognitive load theory proposes that the brain can process a limited amount of information at a time based on the constraints of perception, attention and working memory.

intrinsic load: relate to the complexity of the information itself compared to the expertise of the learner and can only be changed when the learners have the necessary cognitive processing strategies.

extrinsic load: refers to the way in which “material is presented or the activities required of the learner.

Self-Regulated Learning

Refers to the self-directed process by which learners transform mental abilities into task-relevant academic skills.

Relevance to Instructional Design

The instructional design needs to bridge the gap between learning research and educational practice. A major goal is to transfer knowledge to learners in the most efficient way by allowing them to encode information using the most efficient cognitive strategies. Therefore, instructional designers must consider both the learning task requirements and the learners' current abilities. The cognitive theory supports the active participation of learners, and goal setting, planning, and self-monitoring are strategies that should be encouraged. Presenting information in a way that reduces working memory load will help encode it in long-term memory. Using feedback is also important.

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Piaget put forward that cognitive growth could be characterized in stages. He studied on the development of logical thinking and determined four stages of cognitive growth in learning. That is, 1)The Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to Age 2; 2)The Preoperational Stage: Age 2 to 7; 3)The Concrete Operational Stage: Age 7 to 12; 4)The Formal Operational Stage: Age 11 and Beyond. He took thinking as the result of cognitive processes which are gradually built within the brain as a result of direct exposure to and interaction with the environment.

Cognitivism emphasizes the intentional role of the brain and mind. There is an increase in the intelligence, understanding and cognitive complexity as they grow up. Knowledge and skill learning depend on their capacity. Piaget advocated learning as construction. He also gave priority to the individual learning and focused on fixed developmental stages. Children involve their experiences and observations in the logic of their existing or developing understandings. The brain will respond and develop with the input. Therefore, teaching should be timely and relevant to their age. Educational activities can provide children with useful information by getting them engaged, promoting greater mental achievement. Teaching materials must be in accordance with children’s cognitive level. Otherwise, it will bring negative effect if they are provided with the beyond-the-horizon interpretations. They will experience difficulty in learning.

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CONGNITIVISM(This is the article I read)
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1274368.pdf

Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory：
（0-2years）Sensorimotor stage：Action experience is acquired mainly through exploring the relationship between perception and movement. Children's language and performance have not yet been generated, and at this time, children have developed a low-level behavioral schema to adapt to the external environment and further explore the external environment. Children learn about the external environment by looking, grasping and sucking.
（2-7years）Preoperational stage：In the pre-operational stage, children can already name things with verbal and abstract symbols, but cannot grasp the generality and generality of concepts. Children at this stage believe that everything is alive. Secondly, they are self-centered when they consider problems, thinking that the people they like will also like, and the people they hate will also hate. So the language of children in this period has the following categories: repetition, soliloquy, collective soliloquy; Thirdly, children's thinking in this period is irreversible. Since thinking is irreversible and rigid, they have not yet acquired the concept of conservation of objects. For example, it is impossible to know that two bottles of the same cola will have the same quality when poured into different shaped cups.
(7-12years)Concrete operational stage： children have operational knowledge, which involves a degree of inference. For example, we put a football between some basketballs and then between some volleyballs in front of the children. But children at this stage can reason that it's the same football and that objects don't change size from place to place
(12years)Formal operational stage： children no longer rely on concrete things to perform, but can perform logical operations on abstract and representational materials. Children at this stage are able to solve problems by logical reasoning, induction or deduction, understand symbolic meaning and make generalizations.
How to apply it in teaching：

Piaget said that activity is the bridge and intermediary connecting subject and object, and the formation of cognition is mainly a kind of internalization of activity. That is to say, only students themselves concretely and spontaneously participate in various activities can form their own cognition.

Observing the activities of others, including teachers, does not form new cognitive structures. Therefore, activities should be put in the first place in classroom teaching. 1, teachers should fully mobilize students' various senses, encourage students to use their mouth, hands and brains more. Especially in the education of students, students should learn in activities and solve problems. Teachers should decorate the scene, provide materials, tools and equipment, let students operate freely, fiddle with, experiment, observation and thinking, their own understanding of things, find problems, get the answer. Education and teaching must attach importance to activities, research activities, activities, for students to build a broad space for activities. 3. In the actual teaching process, teachers should adopt more methods such as activity teaching method, cooperative teaching method, heuristic teaching method, constructivist teaching method and research-based teaching method, so as to give play to students' subjectivity, promote students' cognitive development and achieve the goal of quality-oriented education.

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Jean Piaget developed one of the most famous theories about the cognitive development of children. Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development in children, including the sensorimotor stage, the preoperational stage, the concrete operational stage, and the formal operational stage. The theory has three core concepts (Piaget):
Cognitive structure and schema, the schema is sometimes called cognitive schema or schema. Jean Piaget saw it as the basic framework for absorbing knowledge for human beings.
Organization and Adaptation: Organization: refers to a physical and mental process in which an individual can use the various functions of his body and mind in an integrated manner when dealing with his surroundings. Adaptation: In its theory, refers to the mental process of an individual's cognitive structure or genetic memetic environmental constraints that actively change.
Imbalance and Balance: Balance: When an individual can easily assimilate new knowledge and experiences, it is natural to feel balanced psychologically. Imbalance: When an individual cannot assimilate new knowledge and experience, it is natural to feel imbalanced psychologically. When out of balance, there is an internal drive that drives the individual to change the existing schema.
Although Piaget's theory had a great influence on developmental psychology, it had several flaws, including overestimating the abilities of adolescence and underestimating the abilities of infants. Piaget also ignored cultural and social interactions in the development of children's cognitive and thinking abilities. Also, in terms of methodology, Piaget's theory has some ethical and biased issues when studying his own children. However, Piaget's contributions, especially in the process of children's education and the translation of cognition into psychology, had a major impact on the science of child development.

Babakr, Z. H., Mohamedamin, P. , Kakamad, K. (2019). Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory: Critical Review. Journal Articles; Reports - Evaluative. Education Quarterly Reviews, v2 n3 p517-524 2019

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Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory Critical Review

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I mainly provide two ways applying Piget's Theory based on my experience:

1.Provide concrete props and visual Aids, like Google Cardboard to let students learn English in a virtual reality in a simple, fun, and affordable way. Use some videos to help students to assist the language learning materials. When teaching students complex ideas such as the concept of plot, we could use familiar examples (like Cinderella story )to facilitate learning more.(LIKE DR. KARTHIYAINI Taught us the fiction element last semester.)

2.Learn from peers. Not only great for students at Preoperational stage- 2-7 years, but also applies to students of all ages. Take my experience as an example, It’s such great way to learn from my classmates in IUKL, I like discuss with Fish and Mia before we are preparing for some topics or assignments. They always refreshed me with a variety of different viewpoints Since different students excel at different areas of knowledge, learning from the people merely close to your age also provides a thorough education.
The video also adds some ways listed below:
1.Use outlines and hierarchies to facilitate assimilating new information with previous knowledge.
2.Allow students to learn from their mistakes
3.Do not expect the students to consistently see the world from someone else’s point of view.
4.Be sensitive to the possibility that students may have different meanings for the same word or different words for the same meaning.

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Educational Implications Of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development | application of Piget's theory

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Jean piaget’s stages of cognitive development

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Jean piaget’s stages of cognitive development

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Jean Piaget’s theories of development inroduced four stages of development:

1. Sensorimotor stage –  0-2 years: imitation, memory and thought begin to be utilized

2. Preoperational stage- 2-7 years: language development and recognizing symbolic form

3. Concrete operational stage- 7-11 years: able to solve hands-on problems logically

4. Formal operational stage- 11-15 years : able to solve abstract problems in a logical fashion

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The application and implication of Piaget's cognitive theory - Mia

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The application and implication of Piaget's cognitive theory - Mia

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This article aims to explore what characteristics English picture books should have in order to be suitable for Chinese preschool children's second language acquisition. This paper is based on a comparative study and the analysis of Piaget's theory of preoperative children's cognitive characteristics. The results show that Piaget's cognitive development stage theory is suitable for analyzing picture books, and can also predict the characteristics of picture books at different stages according to the characteristics of children's development, and it is also argued that picture books targeted at preschool children should have the following features: transformation from descriptive senses to communicative senses, games with rules, anthropologic animals and objects, as well as exquisite details.

In my opinion, the educational implication of Piaget's theory is the adaptation of instruction to the learner's development level. As discussed in that article, it is important that the content of instruction needs to be consistent with the developmental level of the learner. Moreover, the knowledge of Piaget’s stages can help the teacher understand the cognitive development of the child as the teacher provides stage-appropriate activities to keep students active. Thus, teachers can design and plan teaching activities according to the characteristics and needs, so as to maximize the effect of classroom teaching.

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2020 A Study of Preschool Children's Second Language Acquisition From the Perspective of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development Stages